OspREY Fortress Hadrian’s Wall AD 122-410 4s - Illustrated by D Spedaliere & S Sulemsohn Spedalieretpi Ga ty apy ie a vgn Ones OR oon Ate ret gem yr bg a pp Duna ce Sra rym Ca pt ng at ‘Potsendaonaay dehy Coy a ‘in a ca Rain |. ‘rey De 9 ee rem etic senate Editor's note sand form orefrnc as bean adopted The oul ze “store oh suthor wrote more than oe wr fle by eter sos or ren ire erence, es Pone “Shp ne para Thr Pour (63-7) rr to ‘apr 330 37 of he Sth book of te nl sari wrk by ‘Pay, wh Tac fae 335 rer oe 350 Oper ofthe eh book of he Ama y Tc. Artist's note (Gur sere arta oa who fave helped the propraion of ‘Seagal en Couper als gave Teva te bok and Br Re Fl wo end oo dep irs the jc wih gran knowing This back ead {our dear per Aad eo ov pret aE, Deron me Mar Renders may ae to note hat te orig png fam which the clr lcs ns bok were prepare ae sale oe frvaze le Al reproduction copra wow rece By ‘aration com aircon con “The abies repre th hey cn ener to no comerpandance pon is mater Abbreviations ‘hoe Ero Pr, 188— ae ‘ra canoepea Rapre Ontos BMC ang af he Ramon Emp ine Stok Mazer Lenco. 936 a Gap rcpt Lara, Be 186 a ap Papo ean Wasa, 1956-8 us Inept Late Seize, 2rd ein, Bein, i350 Pech Pai tenet f Mig Cole An ‘aon 13 Oy The Orch ep Landon, 1698 ne amor Ieciptns of 8002 won, Se, 1995 MR Rac Mary Raced on Pp New Hae, 2 Sonic rchacer Unanden au en. sua Serpe Hoe Aguce : * Sect Pop: ener Par Carrie, Mas Taint Th inland Wn Tes, London, 1994 m Contents Introduction Roman fortifications Forrsis = Fors Fort Wheeowers Merchrecanps Pacice-camos The origins of Hadrian’s Wall rng The anatomy of Hadrian's Wall ‘Te Wl «Dich « ary Wy alum lees «Ture Fore ridges = Northern oupat West oat dencs = Pass of contrton The construction of Hadrian's Wall The function of Had: n’s Wall The garrison of Hadrian's Wall Life on Hadrian's Wall ise «Diet Ae» aig» Garing Spars "Ween Lem Sor Sd olan The sites today Further reading and research Glossary Index 26 35 40 48 60 61 62 64The Wal sWalhown Cag, Iason sos rom re 452 (Haltom) Sowing Oe ‘Sengatanes and rate cre Sed nr eorvetion Th 8 ‘ection of the New (dcehors Caecum) Introduction As theft century AD matured, the boundaries ofthe Roman Empire become increasingly fixed, and what were once temporary stp lines Become fm ‘toners, Signicanly, fom the Latin fr frontier, Toes (pl iit, we cur word ‘Imi. Consequently, the amy’ role predominately Became one of policing the fonler tbe preventing ivestock rating and tax eason, ‘mounting punitive raids, and’ showing the Bag ¥0 fiendly ties outside the he rontens ofthe empl tok many forms Some of them wee complete open with searcly any boundary defation, while «miltry ron! muted thes. Some of them followed the Ines of ves, while others were closed off with ‘manmade aries Theater were no of uniform desig, except that mest were Sccompanied by one or more che, Hadrian's Wall wat extemal abort, Compored of three separate defense fettur, a ditch to the north then the ‘ride sone catan.val with frets meas ard forts sting oat long, and fala ager earthwork to the south, Ranting some 73 ales rom ext 3, it has oun jstiably described as over the top. Other fone were Tes comple. In Germania, Hasan bul a palsade fronted by 4 eit, replaced at later date by 9 bank ft carn Britannia Hadrans Wl wat replaced for short tne by the Antonine ‘Wal 45 miles tothe north, bul notin tone, but tr bloks In Rats, approximately the area of modern Stand and Aust 8 Sone cran-wall was constucte Di nt ‘dea Hada’ Wal nA setches of Arystone walling have been found marking Sections of thi very long fronte, other Sections of which were lt open, but nat eceanly unguarded as i event fom numberof bickhowses, In most frontier provinces egionay forrses wer situated in the intro, ome distance behind the borders On pars of the Rhine and Danube, particu, whe the frontics were marked by the vers themselves, the legions were stationed at Static points close to the river banks, dometinet so lose tat the forteses were trashed sway and had to be rebuilt fuer Seek fom te vers. ally toops were seneraly stationed in forts on the ine ofthe frontier Wet, actualy atached to them 2 on Haan Wallan the Antonine Wal, ot some short distance (1 mile) behind them, i'n Germania and Racta, Most fonts ‘rere eulppe ith smaller frets lke the milecane tached to Hain’ Wall, othe freeanding Kitna slong the Rhine In between these wore usualy watchtower. Roman fortifications Most of our knowledge concerning the layout and terminology of Roman riltary installations derives from two literary sources, The earliest surviving description of a marching-amp {s that given by Polybius (633-7), who as wating in the middle of the second century. BC. In the reign of Trajan (AD 98-117) a Surveyor commonly known ax Hyginus Gromaticus wrote a {oretcal surveying manual (De muntioneus castor), which was intended to provide the appropriate accommodation for every type of army unit the student was key to emeounte, Despite beng walle sealy tee hue years apart both accounts are stil broadly comparable, with divergences de rsinly to the differing needs of an army in permanent garrison as opposed toa temporary rest camp. Archaeology and geval reconnaissance, especialy in Britain, have demonstrated that the basic principles lad’ down by these two waters were incorporated into the planning of fortifications from the late Republic until well nto the third century AD. ‘When the army was on campaiga it constrcted marching-camps to provide security at night, and once an area was conguvered, a network of turf an timber forts roughly a day's march apart. In Britannia this phase lasted until the ‘ml-805 AD. Additionally, before the legions had established thei permanent bassin Britannia, they constructed fortresses either to provide par of legion twit a summer eampalgn base (casa asi) or winter quarters (asta hier). Orce the army was no longer poised to continue the expansion ofthe empire these fortresses and forts became permanent, their plan and design preserving te main defensive features of the marching-camp fom which they had valved. The shallow ditch and palisade ofthe Inter were, however, replaced by more substantial earthworks i permanent fortfeation, eften with {0 OF more Vshaped ditches and an earth or turf rampart surmounted by a timber Parapet. The four gateways were retained, but towers now defended them, and futher towers were added a the four angles andl at intervals between, It should be emphasised that thee is no such thing as a typical Roman foxes, fort or marching-amp. The basc layout ofa fortress, fr instance, was ‘Acar aster for dope coTaans Corn Gea Oy ‘towng da ofthe tos {ered pcway 2a snitoners “The wo bulge te (ertappar ote ara (Ropesiced rom Lappe and Frere SS Prt Carr A ew Eston of be Cher ater Suton ‘rove 1966)supposed to be standardised, but closer examination shows that there ‘were considerable diferences in detall between individual fortress plans, and benveen the same types of building at diferent sites, What follows, therefor, I an outline iustrating the diferent eategories of Roman military installations. Fortresses Prior to Domitian (& AD 81-96), fortresses were permanent bases accommodating two legions. During Domitian’s reign, however, frtresses were redlued in size (€. 20-25ha) and housed only one legion, or were smaller sil (6 10-15ha) and housed either ful legion or several fits cohorts, sometimes With auxiliary troops, fora campaign. The term ‘vexllaton fortes was coined by archaeologists forthe latter type of site Forts “The famework of Romsan occupation and control yas emily based on the fort (c.1-Sha, a permanent base accommodating an auxiliary unt. The layout of the auxiliary fort was essentially a miniature ofthe legionary fortress plan. 'M oof the period AD 80-125 was protected by an earth rampart encased with either timber of turf and founded upon a bed of logs oa stone base — Surmounted by a spltimber breastwork or watle hurdles and fronted by one ‘or more V-shaped ditches. The rampat was pleted by four gateway, each with 8 timber tower above the gate passage itself or towers to elther side. Further tomes, set within the body ofthe rampart, stood atthe angles as well a being spaced at regular intervals around the perimetee. The forts along Hadsian’s ‘Wall, however, were built with curtain-wals, towers and gateways af stone Tacitus tb. AD 55) rightly calls the fort the ‘soles’ heath and home” trie 2.80), the objective being to provide a permanent and toleably comfortable quarter fr its garrison. As such, it compared well with the fortress lof the legions, Italo had tobe secre against the possibilty of surprise attack However, fort was not designed as an impregnable stronghold. On the contrary le was a fumping-of point, a base for sede-ranging activities, In wartime the fenemy vas engaged at close-quarter in the eld, while at other times the sgarrson would have patrolled well beyond the frontier, either to support allied Uubes oF to conduct punitive campaigns. Fortlets Avery much smaller installation was the forte (c Ih). Placed at intermediate points along a frontier system, along aoad, or ata river crossing, these usually ccommodated a century oF more ofan auxiliary cohort. A forlet, unlike a fr, ‘only had a single gate through the rampart, with a timber tower above, and one fr two ditches beyond. With their towered gateways forlets would have fulfilled a sce and be seen oe Watchtowers. (Commodus (, AD 180-192), s0 as to safeguard the provincial of Mauretania CCacsriensis, modern Algeria, built new watchtowers and repaired the old ones, by the work of his soldi (LS 396). Invariably only three or four metres square at the base and at least two storeys high, the term is often used {ndiscriminately, but is wsvally taken to cover small sites without significant barrack accommodation. Probably manned by a contubemum of eight men, these installations were usually made of timber, st within alow rampart and single or double ditch, and spaced out along a road or river to observe trafic find population movement. Marching-camps Josephus (AD 37) says that whenever the Romans entered hose testo they would is consti cmp’ Bellu ludacum 3.76). Marching, tovhich Josephus is refering, were overnight halts for fnmles or units on campaign Each hada sallow ditch fant low earth rampart constructed of material thrown "upftom the ditch, some 1.5 metres high, topped with 4 palsade made up of the two wooden stakes (pla naa) carcied by each sodiee Rather than having one en driven into the ground, its now believed that the pile muralia were ted together in groups of three £0 form 3 kind of large ‘cltop’ ‘There were no gates in the gateways of a ‘marching-camp as senries guarded them. The oper {guevray would normally receive additional protection fem a mound with a ditch (ius), which was built several metres to it front, or through an extension of the ampar (Clavcula that curve either outwards ot Invards. These camps provided a simple measure of Security for troops camped under canvas. Practice-camps 3 Ils Fontinus, govemor of Bitannis (AD 7314-718 and engine of noe wrote several techni tres, one he quotes wth approval the sani of Grae DomitusCobulo, a commander renowned fot Heat taming methods: "Domiis Closed $5) tha the pick ab) es the nespon thei best the enemy” Sratgonata 47.2, Tats Ales 1339) Thiscan only bea reference tothe roven ay ote Roman army to bull camps for feat. Obey, recut would have to be insaced in these miltary tecnguey, whereas fly tained okies would ave to beexeted a aly equent intervals 02 fo manta Sandan. spats fae eerie ene eso =o turtlockn a eps on Tras alr (ene atough be ‘FomberA tore or sling ‘now (Reprogce rom Lepper New Eon of Chea Pe ‘Shon Sod, 198)‘Asean tom Ta Cohan (Scene 0 showre 2 reign Armbar of ‘eran conte) eh Ien.are cary wale wie, (Repradins om Lepper ard Frere 8 8, Fj Gre New tte of he Ces Pate Saton Sere, 1986 Britain easily provides the largest number of practicecamps in the empire, the most common size being around 30.5 metres square. Often a mile or two away from the site of a fort and close toa Roman road, these sites are where troops trained in constructing marching-amps and in particular the most ficult sections of the camps, the comers and gateways. The origins of Hadrian’s Wall Chronology SSBC and $4 OC Gaus ulus Caesar eads oo pritve expeditions to southern ran. ‘AD-4\ Invasion and conquest ofthe southern part of Britain bythe Enperor Cid |AD 119 Quintus Pompeu ac, governor of Brana pats down 3 revo in [AD 122 Vise to Brana ty the Emperor Haan and soon servarés work begins onthe bing of Hears Wa Bang of he Arznine Wal rom he Forth othe Che Hadrian's Wal ‘is sbandoned url AD 1634 |AD 208-11 The emperor Lis Sepomiv Severs campaigns against the Masse nd Caledon, riety reoczuping ee Anon Wl [AD.367 The sole Bararin Compracy’~ the Pls maya thee hve ‘overran Hadras Wak “The Node Ogu cxlogus the unis commanded by the du rks and incides a eubtecon ered also ong he bine of he ‘all (nportéus Occ XL) [A 407-11 Gradual withdrawal fee bul of the reaing gern of Brain and according to St Gis (De Ex tonic 18). eer was sen by ‘he emperor Honorus urging the people tose to thir own defence. “The RovenaCesmopapis (107) wbsch records the tons and ers cf the Roman werk ats the Wal forts rom et to wet [AD TSI TheVenerable Bede at raw Monastery dscies the Wil 5h fet in brea andl weve fat neigh sai ne om east west, 2 lear to behoders tots dy’ Hier Eee 12), AD 400 AD 700 According to Tacitus, Brain's reduction to a province was only achieved ‘gadualy’ (Agricola 14.1). Indeed, some 80 yeas after the Claudlan invasion, Roman Britain had no elective northern frontier that could be compared 10 the Rhine, Danube or Euphrates. Although the Staneyat, the Roman road connecting Cotbrdge with Cats, marked the northern limit of military ‘ecupation in Britain by the reign of Trajan, it was ot a frontier system Since the reign of Claudius (AD 41-84), the security ofthe north had been | founded on a teaty between Rome and the Brgantian queen, Cartimandua. In AD 6, however, her consort Vertis ousted Carimandha an friendly relations bere Rome and the Brgantes came toa abrupt end. In the cutting words of “Tarts, 'the Kingdom wa let to Vertis, the wart us storie 3-45). Ata time of civil war inthe empire, the goremor, Marcus Vets Bolanus (AD 69-71), was able to dole more than rescue the client queen. There are hints of rather more military activity daring his period of office than Tacitus reveals, but it scems highly Improbable that Bolanus operated in Caledonia as the contemporary poet Status implies (Sthae 142-9). The anival of the new governor, Quintus Peis Cerials (AD 71-73/3), cae renewed activity in Briganti, Tacitus (Apicota 17:1) feetingly refers to Cerlalls winning Dod bates agunet the tne after campaigning widely Intel tertory. Although he built upon the successes fof his energete predecesors, credit for the eventual “hese ac of he Sept aero mmesaay south fhe ‘moter ron ng Chesarsin fr (indoondo lating ee othe ene ‘ringn dacs te (Guthors Coleco)“he pep lary ae ian taro nrdam Roman Gr thand on sn arial apy Gy de In Beoyere (© Cop Osprey ting te) subjugation of northern Britain is rightly given fo Gnaeus luis Agricola, the fatherin-aw of ‘Tactusand governor of Britannia for seven Years (AD 77/8-83/4), The new governor was nether a stranger to the province nor unaware of its problems, having served there as military frbune during the Boudica revolt (AD 60-61) nd later as legate of lego KX Valeria Vic. However although the northem border may have appeared to be secure Hadrian’ Wall did not standin isolation. It was built in reaction to Something or someone. Hadrian (AD 117-138) hha a general polly of defining fixed limits for ‘the empire, but a fresh outbreak of conflict in northern Bian at the ostact of he rign might have been the immediate reason why the Wall ‘was ult A tombstone fom Feentinum in aly ames Titus Pontius Sabinus, erstwhile ims pls of lego Il) Augusta, who commanded vellationes of lgones VII Gemina, VT Augusta and XX Primigena on the ‘expedite Betis” (LS 2726, cf. 2735) ~ see the glossary on pages 162-63 for a full explanation of terms. A reference in the text to his decoration by the deified. Tesjan-makes s probable that this expedition to Bsitannia occured in the latter art of Trajan’ eign or under Hadrian For further evidence of a conflict in Britannia under Hadrian we can cite the tombstone insription of Gaius Talus Karus, prefect ofthe auxiliary unit coors I Asturun, decorated bello Britunico before his transfer to Egypt to serve as a tribune in leo If Cyrensica (AE 1951.88). This revolt i aso registred, albeit briefly, in a Tate fourth-century| source as being one of the numerous troubles to aflct the new emperor, ‘whereby ‘the Britons could not be kept under Roman control” (SHA Hadrian '3.2). Further evidence i found in letter weitten some 40 years alter the event bby Marcus ComeliusFronto. Addressed to Marcus Aurelius (c AD 161-180), his former pupil. Fronto consoles the emperor fr the heavy losses his army had sustained in Parthia by recalling “what a large number of soldiers were killed lunder your grandiather Haran by the Jews, what a number by the Brito! (222). A fragmentary tombstone from Chesterholm suggests that iting took place precisely in the area where Hadsan was to have the Tyne-Solway system ‘tablished ‘T. ANNINS..] CENTVR{IO..J TVNGR(ORVM..|. INBELL[O. INTERIFECTYS. Tits Annis centurion ofa legion serving as ating commander ofthe ausilary unit coos 1 Tingoram at Chestetholm, may have been one of the casualties of ‘this revolt info. iterfets that fared up at Hadrian's succession As for reasons for the upasing in Britannia, a Chesterholm-Vindolanda ssritng-tablt offers stark evidence for what could have caused local resentment. ‘The derisive attitude tothe Britto, a previously unatested word that means something ike nasty itl Bits’, andthe derogatory comments on the fighting Aualtes ofthe ‘naked Britons’ ri Britones) contained in the letter, suggests ‘no great sympathy for the subject population (Tab. Vind 1116). From the turn ofthe second century, this memorandum presumably refers to Britons who hhad been recruited into the Roman army to form: regular units (ramet. The {inscription of Ttus Haterus Nepos, a prefect of cavalry shows him holding a census of Britons in Annandale, just actoss the Solway Fit, not far from {Chester ens Britonun Anavionensuon) 1.5 1338) may’ be that he ‘win conscripting them into mumer for service on the frontier In Germania Swaeror, where ten nuner of Brtunes were present at about the same time that the finttancul piece was writen (CIL 13.8498, 16.49) The same Nepos was a corespondent ofthe Chesterholm prefect Pavius Genial, the commander of “hrs Tngoram, an asked him to come to Corbridge where he was probably Staioned dm. 93/1379). According to Tacitus Agricola 29.1, cf, 32.1) Bttons had lady been serving in the Roman army since the reign of Domitian Indeed, Taatus (Agricola 31-1) has Calgacus, the leader of the Caledonii at Mons Gaupius, complaining ofthe forced levy (fet) sehereby wits were beng ‘ae in Bltania fr service overseas ‘The personification of Britannia appears for the first time on coins in the ‘eign of Hadean. One in particular an ws of AD 119 (IMC I Hadrian no. 1723), shows her In mitay gar, and in what appears to bea ‘dejected pose This often taken to imply the cushing ofthe rebels in Britannia by Quintus ompeius Falco, Trajan’s governor who had been let inthe province Hadrian himself came to the province in AD 122 and, according t0 his biographer, he put many things to rights and was the fst to build a wall, 'Omiles long, to divide the Romans from the barbarians’ (SHA, Hadrian 11.2). The fine chosen for the Wall lay lite tothe noeth of an existing line of forts eng the Stanegate, This road had been constructed during the governorship ‘oF Agricola to link Corbridge on Dere street, the arterial route up the eastern Side ofthe province from the legionary fortress at York, with Caste on the ‘water route north ftom the legionary fortress at Chester Forts are known ‘wet of Carlisle and one east of Corbridge, but we cannot point to a frontier system across the Tyne Solway isthmus prior tothe construction of Hadrian's wal “Two fragments from an inscription, reused ina church jn Jarrow just south ofthe Tyne, nicely encapsulate the whole business of the ofigins of the Wall and Hadrian's personal involvement: Son of al deitied emperors, the Emperor Caesar Trajan Hadrian Augustus, after the necessity of Keeping the empire within its imits had been laid on him by divine command... ance the barbarians had been satered and the PNovince of Britannia recovered, added a frontier between either shore ‘of Ocean for 80 miles. The army of the province built the wall under the direction of Aulus Platoeius Nepos,Pro-ractorlan Legate of Augustus (RUE 1081) Asa military tune, Hasan had seen service on the Danube and Rhine frontiers, and had fsthand expesence of the Euphrates frontier as governor of ‘yi, Thus he was to some extent an expert on fontier defence. He also exited a deen interest in architecture, His reign opened with a cris in Btn and it ‘ns surly the Brgantes, with suppoet from people across the Solway, who caused the trouble. This revolt was suppressed by Fako, but ool alter heavy Roman Jones, Hadrian’ suibssqent vist t0 Britannia ws part of a grand tour of the ‘mpi to supersise his policy of consolidating is frontiers a6 well 35 to reform traning methods, ensure cscpline ad remove abuses in the arm. Nevertheless, Roman attitudes othe Britons, the freed conscription and ensuing revolt, was at Jet part ofthe reason why Hadrian ordered the Tyne-Solway sytem to be bul,Toe alee of re 48 (tonne Es) showrg te ‘il ar bon bon» Bond Wat leunden (autor Colesen) The anatomy of Hadrian’s Wall Hadrian's Wall consisted of four linear elements ~ the curtain-vall, the ditch, the Military Wa, andthe earthwork now known as the Valu, Organic to this frontier system were the milecastls, tutes and forts that accommodated its {urrson, Associated with this frontier system were the outpost forts to the north and the forts, frtets and watchtowers that continued down the ‘Cumbrian coast The Wall ‘The orginal length of Hadelan’s Wall was toe 76 Roman males (. 70 miles) running along the northern edge ofthe Tyne Gap, From Newcastle upon Tyne, ‘where a bridge was bullt and the site named Pons Aelius in honour of the emperor, to the crossing of the Ithing, the frst 45 Roman miles (1 miles) were tobe built of stone toa width of 296 metres and perhaps 4.4 metes high to the walkway. The remaining 31 Roman miles (c. 29 miles) to the terminal polnt, just west of Bosenesson-Solway, was ta he constructed of tutblocks with a width atthe base of 5.9 metres. Turf was a building material that was tied and tested, and its use in the Wester Secor might Indicate a need for speed of construction. From a study ofthe Wall's structure there i evidence ‘of a'major revision in what ks generally taken as the second full season of work ~ that is AD 124. This evidence consists of sections (eg, turret 39a to turret 39) where construction commenced for a stone curain-wal of ull width, but where the actual stracture Js only around 21 metres in thickness ~ known respectively a5 the Broad and Narrow Walls, Likewise, rnllecastes (48 a Potoss Burn) and trets (eg 82 2a Willowfoz East) canbe identified where preparations were made fora stone curtsin-sll of greater breadth than was actually built. Before the project was ‘completed the decision was taken to add forts tothe line ff the Wall and to speed up the constraction process ough the narowing of the tone curtainsval from 2.96 metres (10 Roman fet) 102.38 or 1.83 metres (8 oF {6 Roman fet) When this onde was given ll milecases between the North Tyne and the Inhing had been erected as had most of the turrets, but work on the ‘curtains was not so well advance. Shorty after the decision to add the forts, and while they were still being bullt, another decision was taken, namely to add an eartnwork behind the Wall Further ‘modifications to the orginal scheme were to follow. Fist an extension was constructed dow the Tyne from Neweastle to the fort at Wallsend in narrow gauge, but no Vallum, thereby increasing the length of the Wall te 80 Roman miles (. 74 males). Second the new fore ‘of Carawourgh plugged the long gap between the forts fof Chesters and Housestead a dd that of Dumburgh between the forts of Burgh-b-Sands and Bowes ‘onSolwa: Tied there was a eplacement of part ofthe Turf Wall in nactow gauge stone curtain-wall, from sikcastes 49 (Hlarrow’s Sexe) to 54 (Randylands Finally after the reocupation of Hadrian Wall under Marcas Aureivs, the remainder ofthe Turf Wall ws rebuilt in stone and the Military Way constructed, The Broad Narrow Wal was erected ona foundation of ough slabs stn pucled cay. The stone used in its orstraction was mainly limestone, The stones were ‘utwith roughly squared faces to allow them tobe laid tn regular straight courses, what stonemasons would reovgnise as coursed rubble’. These facingstones had a tapered “al, which was embedded Into the core tis ‘was necesary fo prevent the wallace falling aay from the core. At intervals it was deemed necessary to la a flat couse of slabs, which ‘vould ie the walhface more femly into the core and level up for the next {oures Clay provided the main body ofthe core, wth rubble serving as filer ‘Mertar was usually employed ony to point the facig'stones, and then very sparingly It seems one or to couse of facing-stones were lai, then the rubble Sind clay core added, then a couple more courses, more coe, and So on. Its ‘known thar atleast in some places the curtan-wall was rendered with plaster and geen a lime-wash finish, The Turf Wall yas constructed of tur-blacks lad on a foundation of coursed tur three of four layers thick, although in certain sections this foundation consisted of rounded cobbles. Vegetius (38) species the optimum size of such tur-blocks, 1.8 by 10 by 0.5 Roman feet (444 x 296 x 148mm), but its not ‘known Hf the builders of the Turt Wall observed this rule. What litle that survives of the Tur Wall suggests that its forward face had a steep incline, while {ts earward face, a fist vertical, continued upward ata steep incline. ns height st vas similar tothe BroadNarrow Wall although a wattle parapet would have serrened its walkway. ‘though iti accepted that there was a protected walkway for patroling slong the Wall top, a8 the Rudge cup appears to sugges, we should not view the Wall 4$ an elevated Rightng platform duc to its narrow width. Is height ‘woald have only provided « good, all-round visibility, Including the ality to ‘Sceto the bottom ofthe ditch toi front Ditch Beyond the Wall there was a ditch, dug close to its north face excepe where i ‘an along the top of precipitous natural features, as it i from turret 338 (Sevingshelds) 10 turret 48b (Walton). The flat space between the two, the bem, was seldom les than 5.9 metres (20 Roman fee) wide for the Broad/Narrow Wall, whilst that Jn front of the Turf Wall was only 1.83 metres (5 Roman fet) wide. Tis served as a precaution both against the Wall sipping into the ditch and is being undermined by any excessive erosion of the ditch sides. The ditch was, lke most Roman miltarydltces, ‘esnaped in profile, the scarp and counterscarp sloping up at an angle of 30 degres tothe vertical. plas along ts length there are indications of Square-cut Claning-channel (or ‘anklebreaker) at the bottom. The dimensions of dhe dite vary from polnt to point, but the average f about 9-12 metes wide at the top and 266-296 metres deep. The ‘material from the ditch was thrown tothe north to forn a broad mound or gla, which considerably ‘heal bol spear ta nc2 ised epeneracon of thea ferein he ween tector (Conbogare Casta Thi Sued onan orga arming by Soy “The wet wing wal of ere 4 (Word Es looking ea ‘Showing he verte oat where tet the Rao Wn (peters Coen)adrian Wl and th ors long ‘gral ap by Guy ea Beoyre. (© Copris Orprey olahng Unmet) ‘ourheseroarde re 398 (Ghee) wh be berm Beween ‘he wa (Authors Clectin). Jhelghtened the counterscarp and tailed away gently northwards so as to aford ‘no cover to an enemy. The subsequent building of those forts that st astride t ‘Wall eto the sling of stretches ofthe ditch (eg, Birdosal Military Way Although clety not par ofthe Hadslani pln, for in places it verso rns Along the top ofthe north mound ofthe Valu, another linear element inthe “ymessoway system was the Miltary Way, the rod that an roughly pall 0 the Wall othe south, With the esablshiment of permanent gartsonson the ‘Wall communation requirements had to be adresse A numberof pu toads Unking the Miltary Way to forts caste and tures have ben rtf ts Tole was cll toast with communications along the font, Nevertheless, it does apeat that thls addon to Hadrian's Wall was not made unl Il reeceupaton, perhaps esuling fom experience galned on the Antonine Wall Sundin sections indicate that las of standard construction, some Sa-S9 meter (18-20 Roman fee) wide with a pronounced camber and ranage ditches on ether side. AS a rule, it was reall with small stones, chiely dack igneous rock sich as bsslt, nd surfaced with fine gravel, reting upon a heavy bottoming of large cobbles ‘wih an underlayer of gravel bedding and edged with curs of large stones. In areas with ‘val-drained and firm subsoil ite effort as made to provide boulder bottoming — only enough to fete the correct cambered. profil. On softer ‘ound, the road builders ether excavated down the bedrock or floated! the rad mound on a raft of saad or gravel Vallum "he Vallum was not part of the original plan but wae added to the south ‘of the Wall whilst construction work was sll in progres. The decision t0 construct the Vallum was contemporary with, of postdated, the decision t0 bull the forts, though its actual construction may have preceded some or all of the forts. Ie civerges round Benwell, Haltoncheste, Birdoswald and Catlesteads, crosses the ste of Cazrawburgh, misses Carvoran altogether, and teminaes at Neweaste not Wallsend, “This linear obstacle was designed as a broad fa-bottomed ditch, 54-59 metres wide at the top, 2.66-2.96 metres deep and 2.1 metres wide at the bottom with sides standing at 60 degrees. A betm of some 9-12 metres was clered on each side of the ditch, bounded by mounds of earth, 2.66-2.96 metres in height, which were deliberately encased with stacked tur-blockst0 retin the mounds’ compactness, The surveyors on the spot modified this eign to sult local conditions. Thus from north to south, the ditch and mounds of the Vallum presented a feature with an overall measurement of approximately 37 metres across. When the Vall was completed, accesso the Wal ftom the south was restricted to cobbled causeways opposite fs “The purpose of the Vallum has been much debated, but it sconceivable that is primary function was to protect the rear ofthe frontier system from any invernal hostilities. In some places the Valluma rans very close tothe line ‘of the Wall, while elsewhere it les almost a mile away. Nevertheles, the sich presented a formidable obstacle, while the mounds would have forced Intruders into sithouette against the skyline, thereby making them more easly eectable before the Wal itself could be reached, The area between the Wall fn the Vallam, therefore, provided amulitary zone to which access could be ‘tocty controlled, Hovever, towards the end ofthe second century tis policy was relaxed as is evident from the settlement (vic) that began to spring up bsde the forts. Milecastles Thuse fotlet (. 18m) were built so that the Wall aligned with thelr north face. The mileastles provided a way through the Wall by means of thei arched gateways with double-portal gates front and rear, the north gateway’ being topped by a tower. Built in Stone ~ although those on the Turf Wall had forginally had tut ramparts ~ they were routinely placed at intervals of one oman mile (0.9 miles) regardless ofthe tera, ‘Constructed toa standard plan, with one oF two long buildings of timber or stene inside, they provided accommodation, ifthe space allocated per man in fom barrack-blocs is any indication, for eght to 32 men. The milecatles also contained a bread-oven, usually in the northwest corner, and in the opposite rorth-east comer a stairase to allow access to the rampartawalkway and the tower over the north gateway. Nélecasties are numbered westward from Wallsend to Bowness-on-Soiay irom lease 42 Caw) ‘enue he owing rn {tou Thevalum was ot {Bceors Coleco)Turrets Berween each milecastle were two evenly’ space turrets (6m), recessed into the Wall, These were \watchtowers constructed at the same time a8 the foundations of the curtan-wsall They were built in stone, including those along the Tust Wall, and Intended for temporary occupation by no more than eight men, Presumably higher than the curtain-wall, 9.5 metres high s not unreasonable, they served as observation posts and were also used for signalling back fom the Wall “A door i the south wal allowed aces into the ‘ure In the centre ofthe ground Moor was a heath used for warmth and cooking. Access to the upper ‘oor and wallway wae by means ofa ladder. Lite TheVatum casensy ut south of evidence remins to show what the superstructure of the tuts would have Benet fore(Condercum).looting ooked ike, but each tumet or mileastle was insight of its neighbout, thereby sac Ths crosing wat wma WN afording_ mutual protection whilst ensuring total suvellance along. the SRST SY conti As for milecases, turets are numbered westward from Wallsend to ‘ater Cason Bownesvon Solvay pay nwo yBojoeyps ap 4 pays 5 ypu Ba9pu3) PORE wae ‘uo yo an oy aoa ete 09 21 Bue not pm uiow amp soe pe, Won ORNS pongo eo) Asma aia wos} sues vou aso4, soueRne 91 Tyas e ane 7 Suewas paxosaidam ‘a Uo patg 3 woraneu0201 ‘0 jo sear 8 pozedr degra aan mpecee ‘wera sueupes jo ued se ng Ervenaraeunn (speassasnoy) Ze 2nseon4 pooas 7 wosue un spseopl 04 30s pion pj anno sin pu eons "e sepsis ‘nt pes ai 284 unos STIRMA=IA BON sPEDOSNOH, ‘uaa re Base you 210 (eprasosno})1¢ ons Forts 1 was inital Intended that the soldiers manning Hadrian's Wall would be hase atthe Stanegate forts, some as far as two miles tothe south, While the Tyne-Solway system was under constriction, however, the plan twas changed and new forts built, where practicable, astride the Wall. We can See evidence of milecastes (45 at Greatehesters) and turrets (27a at Chester, 3b at Housesteads, and 49a TW at Birdoswald) that have been started in thelr designated place, only’ to be overbui by forts ‘With South shields, Neweastle and Carvoran, there wete a toal of 17 forts ‘on oF close tothe line ofthe Wall. On the line itself 12 had been planned and built initial thee spacing based onthe distance that could be marehed in half day (. 7 miles), buta further two were added (Carrawburgh and Drumbuegh) ‘Theremins ofthe brad-own ind Carvoran rebuilt in stone towards the end of Hadrian’s reign (RIB 1778, skated he norte ange $70), Carvoran was one ofthe Stanegte forts, which had been retained along, enmon mieca ih Cale, Chest and Cobre orien Fort defences of the period were devised for the use of hand-throven Sewwredce te rx ctfre. weapons, namely throwingspears or fvelis (pun). The effective range for (fatrors Caters) javelns fs ertimated to have been 25-30 metres. At South Shields an untrained Individual, throwing from the reconstructed west gateway and adjacent stretches of curtain-all, has achieved distances of 15-20 metres, At last one V.shaped ditch, usually .4-8.9 metres wide atthe top and 2.66-2.96 metres deep, surrounded 3 for. Te second line of defence was a moderately high Stone curtan-wall, 12-18 metres in width and ‘36-44 metres in height to the rampart-walay with a narrower crendlated wall on top of that to protect the senries, The circuit incorporated a series of tomers a regular intervals and was backed vwith & bank of earth and rubble, or turf and Jay. ‘The bank added substantially to the reuit's strength and allowed access 0 the rampartwalkway at any point in an emergency. Inserted into these ramparts would be the bread-ovens (fib), deliberately isolated from the Internal buildings so as to reduce the risk of ir.Tere (own) cei ‘cesta the Wl ooking ‘ora wre wy Irewstndrg lokeout tomer belo ‘he al wa rou pro esa ‘ed wes des (tir Coleen) “Tener tomar bao the sues gitover ae south {Bee at Chess re (Cur). ‘Thetner sb peng | ‘onmon ut off nd ‘erexsore (tor Coleco) Immediately inside the rampart was the latine block (datsna). Most excavated examples consist of a rectangular stone building situated at the lowest comer of the site where seveal drains converge and could be channelled to ish the laine before discharging from the fort. The latin block at Housesteads, which could pethaps scat Some 16 men in como, reveals a good deal about the stnitary system ofa fort. Although none ofits seats survive, examples of stone or wood ones are known from other ste. AS no fragments of the more durable stone seats exist, wooden ones are ‘more lik. These mould ave taken the form of 8 «continuous bench broken by key-holeshaped shots. ‘the fotal area ofthe HoutesteadsIntrine may appeat rather small fora garrison of at least 800 men. ‘Also in the intervalum would be a perimeter road. Access t0 2 fort was through four fortified gateways with double-portal gates, Thee of thes, ifthe fort lay astride the Wall, gave acces othe north, while those forts that utilised ‘the Wall as their own northern rampart had only one gateway open to the rnorth. Roads leading to a fort and those inside it were aligned with the gateways and the principle buildings. Internally, a fort was divided into three areas, the central range (ate praetor), and the forward (pactentura) and ‘eaward retetur) canes Fos, ke fortresses, hada centrally placed headquarters bulking (prinipn, whlch face the principle road (sa pial). This bulking, always In stone, served asthe administrative and religious fous of the fr. It consisted of a paved ‘courtyard surrounded on thre sides bya portico of timber or stone columns, ith mbulatores beyond. On the fourth side, that facing the entrance, stood an alle rosshall sia), where the dais (rua) rom which the commanding offer presided over mater of routine and discipline stood. Behind this there vas a range of five rooms, The cental room housed the shrine (salon, which contained the imperial images, altars and standards of the garnson, blow which ‘was small vaulted cellar in which was kept the ironbound chest that contained the soldiers’ savings. Series were always posted outside t0 protect both the standards and the cash. The room an the tabunal sie (ft) were for the unit standard-bearer. Here they and thelr clerks kept the accounts and issued. the troops’ pay. The sghtshand pair of rooms belonged tothe camiarvs and is clerks. This was the home of army paperwork. The thre central rooms, inching, the sect, had ow stone sreens with meta les Ried in them, s0 the objects ‘of worship inthe ental shrine could be sen from outside and the leks could ‘deal with the men without them eosing the Hresbold oftheir fics. ‘On one side of the princpia was the residence (practoriam) of the arson “commander It ormally took the form of a courtyard house with its own bathsuite and hypocaust heating, not unlike a small Mediteranean ‘ila, where the commander, his family and household saves ‘would be accommodated with eat, ‘Ao stated within the central range, but ited near one of the two side gateways, Aight (porta principals deta) and et (pra principals inst to provide convenient access, were the granaries (ora), commonly paired, where the garcison’s foodstuffs fumentao) were stored. According to Tacitus (Agricola 22.2) every fort in Britannia held ample supplies to lst one year, andl examination of granaries has proved this to be comect. The visible characterstis of the stonesbullt granary were its raed flor, on longitudinal dwar-wals or pillars ventilation channels below the floor, which maintained the best conditions for storing grain; buttressed wall and loading platforms. ‘A number of forts had hospitals (altutinaria in their central ranges. The normal arangement was a numberof small wards around a cental comrido, with a ception area and operating theatre. The forward and rearward ranges were taken up with barack blocks (cour), stbledblocs (abu for draught and baggage animals, and workshops fbriae) fos the unit smith or armourer.Barrackblocks, each holding a cemtura oF a tum, ‘were usualy halfsimbered with low walls of sandstone rubble bonded with clay Supporting timber upeghts and frame. These were fled with watle and daw ‘Te roof were of timber slatting (shingles), or thatch Taking the form of @ long and relatively narrow L-shaped building, approximately 10 metres wie ant 40-80 metres long, each bartack was stall divide! into ten two-oomed Accommodation units (conubnia) with larger apartment, forming the base of theL, for the centurion (coro facet o he decran euro of tm A yeanda ran the length ofthe bailing often facing another building’ veranda ‘wih a drain running between the two. “The officers’ quarters were spacious and equipped wih earths, washing ‘acltes and latrines, with imberined drainage channels leading to a pit led ‘wih rubie,clled a Soak away, outside the building Smal pits were ote dag Beneath the floors, and they may have orginally contained wooden chess in lwHeh personal dacuments or valuables were kept. It isnot clear, howeves, how chia Hexdgarars big Centuroe = Baradbloks Febrce -Werthope Saba Sabie oc‘Aroupobrndovne cto te Sek eh arena he Sout gavay x Brdovwld ore (Bonne) Tae suring srctres (eu of araed save Ragged for an iow sane wa pom sn ale and cy domes would Terese (Authors Clacton), (Sonne). sen rom ouside the ton the Wa Ot pro meres Bethe doubleporals and ore of the springs (pat ofan arch were the cove begs) fran arch (RieorsCaleeson) many people were actually housed within the colic” quarters. They may have been designed 0 accommodate not only the cnurio or decrio and his saves, but ato thei subordinate ofcers, Ina barrack-biock designed to house an infantry centaria each contuberiam accommodated eight men and their equipment. The outer room (arma) was for storing. the soldiers’ equipment and personal possessions while the inner room (pai) twas where they slept, usually on pallsses. In a barack designed t0 house a cavalry fm each contubemiion accommodated three toopers, thet fqulpment and thelr mounts. The outer oom Served a stables for the horse, the inner room Sccommodated the toopere- Hearne had been found inthe inner rooms of some barack blocks, consisting ether of stone ot tle setting with a semicircular stone or teu, wile portable braves may have ‘been used in others. These were used fr heating and cooking. The Noors of these rooms were often of rammed earth oF of pounded clay mike with tl fragment Small pits were often cig beneath the Noor in both outer and inner rooms, and housed small wooden boxes, ike the pits found in the offices’ rooms, in which personal possessions were kept Bridges Init course Hadians Wall had to negotiate three major vers, the Noth Tyme 23 Chester, the Ithing at Wilowfor, andthe Eden near Carls, aswel as Several minoe teams The litter would have presented no paticslar problems, tring deat wth the provision of lage culverts inthe Wall ase of sufcient Sisto cary afl winters spate rchaclogeal evidence ndcaes that ridges Carle the Wall across the Ithing andthe North Tyne, but ite is koown about the re that spanned the Eden. ‘Asa result of changes in coutses of the rvers at Chesters and Willowfor, stable remains ofthe abutments can sl be made ou at both hese locations. Inthe erly thd century the bridge at Chesters, a small-scale afi cared on Cight hexagonal stoner, was feu, The replacement was 4 vastly more substantial stone bridge carried on thre huge pies with pointed cutwaters. In like manner, the bridge at Willoword was also rebuilt ga z iy i i 3 am 4 gman says wonanasuose: aThe cosa of he prngpe at ont fore ierconcm) At ‘atop cate phoroaph te fave nerssea he asad troop ators Coleco) “Te ear rang i the princi at ‘len for (Seem) eh pars of th roma he rab fore the sunken ston oom ‘oom of he rear ange nich Satis of be enperor tgs th alars upper and pera Decne (Autors Calecton) Northern outposts Some dstances to the north of Hadean’ Wall were the outpost forts at Rewcastle, Netherby and Birrens, a, vel a those ater established at Risingham and High Rochester close to the line of Dere Stet. The frst {hee uit in tut and timber, probably fall into the ‘orginal scheme, for a road was bul fom migrate SO'TW diigh House) north o Beast. On the return to Hadrian’ Wall after the abandonment of the Antonine. Wall, these fist Utes outposts were reoccupied and were joined by the two to the eat ‘Although solirs stationed here could monitor the loca situation an feed tuck inteligence to the gation fon the Wal, thir main role was to guard terior. prsumabyy Bagundan,sunvered from te Rs of Me province by the contruction of Hadrian's Wal Said by Tacitus (Agila 171) to have been the most populous of all he ebes of Britannia, the Brgantes occupied much of what i now nonhem England, and ther politcal centre af gravity lay inthe Valeo York West coast defences Although Hadsian’s Wall terminated at Bowness-on-Solway, military contol Continued down the Cumbrian coast for atleast a further 26 Roman mls {c.24 miles) to Maryport by means of a series of frets and watchtower, 35, Well as five turFand-timber forts (Beckfoot, Maryport, Burrow Wall, Moresby, Ravenglass). There was neither a curtain-wall nora Vallum, the sea acted as the frontier and barr, ‘Similar in design to those along the Wall, the fortlets and watehtowers wer aso spaced at intervals of one Roman mile and a third of a Roman mile respectively. The towers were built of stone from the outset and the fortes ‘of tut and timber Unlike the Wall milecastles these milefortlts were never rebuilt in tone The frontier works continued beyond Maryport and may’ have nun a fae west 4st Bees Head to control the moverent of people across the Solway Ft. This ‘owsal system, however, was not reoccupied after the withdrawal from the Antonine Wall ts abandonment resulted from the reason that Haran had been somewhat over-anxious with regard to the problems of security in the wes. Phases of construction Fadlan’s Wall bears all the hallmarks ofa textbook {alled for modifications. The evidence from extant strictures and archaeological exploration suggest the following phases of constuction: ae Broad gauge stone curtain-wall with stone iilecastles and turrets from the Tyne tothe lething Turf wall with turtand.timber milecastles and stone turrets fom the Ithing to the Solway coast, Turf and timber milefotlets and stone towers, plus five turf and timber forts, along the Cumbrian 2, Decision toad forts tothe tine ofthe Wall ‘The remaining stone curtain-wall and structures built in & nareower gauge 3, Vallum constructed 1: Forts at Carawousgh and Drumburgh added 5. Wall extended dovn to the for at Wallsend Decision to replace the Tut Wall from the Inting to jst west of milecastle $4 (Randylands In stone 6 Beweasle, Netherby and Birens constructed ‘Move north to the Antonine Wall (AD 142) ‘5 Abandonment of the Antonine Wal (c. AD 164) 9, Rebuilding ofthe remaining Tur Wallin stone Military Way construction Risingham and High Rochester constructed He the important point isthe clear evkdence for alterations ‘inthe fl’ Despite being a unique project, Hadrian's Wall demonstates the Hexibility and adiptablity Roman military engineering, I procter a Homann re (ronan) whch nudes 2 sneresered paces (Groene hesngiseredio de {Garey cenary.The fen command prefect was 2 man fis house reflec vs poston. (Ghent Cotacton econo of he nero (pop) ots taracslon se Wile fore (eg) Pass tare bos pact on lowing bc (Authors Cleon)Fa “The cavalry fort at ChestersThe construction of Hadrian’s Wall Chronology Some ofthe cus for working ot the sequence and timing ofthe building of Hadrian’ all have been mentioned. They are the filingin of stretches of the dich, dsmanting of aeady but pat ofthe curain-wal leases and trees in order to accommodate forts, the narrowing of the stone Curtaln-vall fom broad gage onatow gage, he extension to Wallsend, and {he behaviour ofthe Vall in cveging around forts-This ivesa sequence of building but oo ecto dates or ning “The vital clues supplied by the govemor who was Hadrian’ friend and chosen by him to bud his Wal, Aus Platorts Nepos He came to tan ot long before 17 July AD 122, as an auliarysoller discharged by the Previous governor of Batis, Quins Pompeivs Fao, received diploma tit that ate and on it Nepos names governor (CL 16.69), He came rom 2 governorship of Germania fron, adit was from here tha Hadlan came {olButannia in AD 122 Nepos was sl in Baitannia in AD 124 (IL 16.70), but hs governorship unlikely to have extended later than the mide of AD 127 LclusTetus Gerais is named as governor of itannaonadpioma sued 6 20 August AD 127 (private colecton, Munich), and this establishes the st possible date for the departure of Nepo. Tor the inital phase the name of Nepos i found on bling Inscriptions ‘nom micas 373 Housstends (RR T4), 38 at Hotbank (UB 167, 1638) and 42 a Cac (RIB 1666) In the cent sector, and ona wooden plague found at meat STW at High House (tt 1938), Fr the mined scheme, his name spears on bulling insrgions rom te fos ot Benwel (RIB 1340) and Haltonchesters (RIB 1427), a8 wal 36 one ftom Chesterolm (8 1702). Uneguivca, Nepos i the ‘only govemor to be named on inception’ from the Wall Tha, Hadrian came oBetanniain AD 122 and, after pesenally surveying the situation, decid to bulld the Tyne Solway system. Nepos Caled over fom Germania Inferior and commisionedby te cnperr fo tke ‘hare of the projec. The thee lgons were summoned fom ther respective bases in Betannia and organise nto work partes, Nepos began Hadas Wal the same year, bur while the project wan under way he was compelled to alter the plans, bulling forts on the Wall and constructing te Valu. For ea ofthese fie year the effective working senson woud have been ‘pil t October as nether tut nor stone wall could have been constructed rng the winter months The tir was foo weak ten, and severe fos ule cut mortar work rontins (De as ws Rae 2123) sommes esting the consructon of aqueduets tothe period Api 0 October because of the affects of fost on setng oar the modern Unit fc 3"), Beste, gang ditches and foundation trenches would have been sow in tozn ground. A ot asses the likely worksates forthe prec we lack evidence reading the Inbourforce andi capable, We donot kaon ts precise, or how i may have varied over the consracton peo, othe lance betwen led and ss Sled, military or non-military. Other extra factors to consider here include the eeive working day, epetiods and vests), ‘an aking ofthe cola amount of psa ibour involved canbe detved from experinenta archarology. At Baginton fort n the Midands in 19662 team ‘of Royal Engines reconstructed a turGrevettd rampart with a ase of tetes ‘wide and eight of 2.6 metes othe malay I was calculated that to bud {he otal eng ofthe rampart with one eh la eat measuring some 285 metres, would requite the cutting of 138,000 standard-size tur blocks. With 1 ubour fore of 210 40 300 men, working ten houss per day under goed weather ions, the rampart could be completed, along witha doublealtch system, In ine to 12 days, Purther experimental work done by the Royal School of Miltary Enginecring suggests assuming lgionares worked at 95 per cent of the efficieney of moder soldier) that it would take 40 man-hours to build 10D metres of military road over grassland, 480 man-hours over heathland, and 600 man-hours ove forest Materials ‘Work on a replica of Hadrian's Wall at Chestetholm, based upon the dimensions of the Broad Wall, has emphasised the amount of labour and ‘aterial needed to build such a structure, This labour inchude the quattying offacingstones, tone cuting and dressing, the collection of stone rubble for ths curtain-all core, the procuring of vast quantities of lime mortar and the vwster for mixing it, obtaining timber for scaffolding, together with the {tansport of al these materials tothe site. All old, the I4-metrelong replica ‘need some 400 tonnes of stone, a did the turret added to one end based on the dimensions ofturtet26b at Brunton}. It also required 3,637 ites of water er day to mix the mortar. ‘Abullng nscpton (81638) ‘rom mice 38 (Hota) se Up by lp Agata recoing Ue rames ft evperorFacran Naps now ts cron (ase of Aquties Uversiy ff Newent pon Tre) ‘Aaa Tat Cote (een Xi encng rae Soran wigan bey eur Crmnig et ough re ‘Rowe hve woodare congo tera common sad eertand are 5 (Cinch Nev Eon fe cn ‘nS oud 9) a‘Most ofthe building material for the Tyne-Solway system were avallable locally, although some, for example the Ion and lead needed for clamps, alls and fittings, were brought from elsewhere in Britannia The stone curtainwall was faced with limestone, and needed around 37 million tonnes. In the cental section this was easly obtained from local outcrops of limestone. Basalt, which forms the Whin Sill here, was ‘ot generally used as facing-stone Because it was too hard for stonemasons to work easly into regular shapes. It was, however, sometimes used for lange stones at the base of the Wall, In the west, when the Turf Wall was rebuilt in stone, local limestone was used for the fist 7 Roman miles (6 7 miles, and then the softer local red sandstone for the remainder. In the east some of the limestone would have been obtained locally, while the rest would have been feried along the Tyne ftom quaries further afield. The facing-stone was probably roughly dressed at the quarry, to reduce the “The rubble core ofthe stone cur {in pulled cay 75 per cent stone, 25 per cent clay), the latter material being secured from the ditch that was dug on the north side. Only forthe mlecastles was limebased mortar used in the core. Despite being produced with a technique that was effective and quick, the use of a rubble core was liable to cause internal collapse, as Vitruvius (2887-8) wams. This undoubtedly happened, for when sections of the curtan-wall ere rebut they were se almost entirely in mora. Lime, the active ingredient of mortar, was produced from limestone, ‘lumps of which were burnt with charcoal at very high temperatures in lime kins. The process took some two to three weeks, the resultant lime being ‘mixed with sand and water to produce mortar. Vitruvius (2.51) states that the proportion of sand to lime in a good mortar mix was 2:1 for riversand and 3:1 for pitsand. This morta set very hard and yas resistant to water and frost. The remains of ime kins an be seen at numerous points on either side of the Miltary Way, and lime-burning is documented at Chestecholm (ab. Vind. 1156), ‘Water forsaking lime, mixing mortar and pudding clay would have come from one of the three major rivers in the Tyne-Solway ‘isthmus and thelt associated tributaries. If moved in bares, the provision of water for building alone would not only have been a labour-intensive operation, but i would hhave required a consierable amount of transport. Timber ~ especially for lime-burning. and scaffolding ~ would have ben readily available since the area was then Heavily forested, particularly fon the loweriying land and inthe rer valleys, When it came to constuction the amy always preferred to use long-lasting timber such as oak. I this was unavailable, alder, birch, elm and hazel were all used. For walls that ‘were of wattle and daub, such a those of barrack-blocks, willow. was an ‘eal timber for the wattle, although alder and birch were both: good substitutes 28 ‘uci Early development of Hadrian's Wall A reconstructed scene showing the buling of Hadrian’ Will at Limestone Corner ampassing te various take performed by legonary workpartie, These were ‘oud a century level under centurion and allotted ‘to specie secon ofthe Wall Inia some work-partes ‘would involve chomscves in clearing and yng-out while ‘other parties gathered buldng materiale (Omber and sone) from the immediate loesiy Pack animal wagons and ets, both legonary and local would bringin teria (especialy water) rom further afl Nex work would ‘commence on digging the forward deh (A) and ayn te foundations ofthe curcain-wall (C) and hore of ‘nsaladons. inthis example curet 296 (B) Further ‘work partis from de same entry would follow behing, faving been decal vo sare werk onthe cortainwal (D) and curet 29a (E).Note the abeence ofthe Valu, forts ‘or Mary Way These features were ot part of the ‘gal plan, which simply ele for forts every Roman rile and wo turrets Berween each one »Fr sow scene hom Tras Catia {Scene LX) showing water ale bring vasperted bya mule (Reproduns From linpes snd Freres jo Gre New heen of be Chea Pe Son, Strout 19) (Scene CV) nhs logoary srkpary clr and pers eer Thecte ober beng sacle ey reat fr warsporaon. (Reproduced rom Leper Fn Frere gars Cauravh Nor deo of Cher Pt, Sten, Str 198) Builders “The construction work was undertaken by detachments ‘of all thee legions in Britannia, namely wexiatones from legines IT Augusta (from Caerleon), VF Vc pla {iets rom York) and XX Valeria Vice (from Chest, togeter lth help fom the Beet (lass Brana), The complement of each legion inched 9 velde range of slilled men such as Surveyors, dtehdlagers, architec sales, rooftile makers, plumbers, stonecutters, Lime-burnes, and woodcotter’ (Paternus Diet $0.6.) Vegetius 2.11) also ists legionary specialists. The most onerous tasks, however, appear to be not the actual ‘construction work bu i organisation and supervision. ‘Within the legion it was the responsibilty of the eft catronum to organise all consruction work (Wegetius 2.10), As the Tegion’s third in command ~ customarily an ex-prinus ps ~ this senior officer was tHe archetypal professional soldier. The building work of the Wall, its installations apart from the forts), and the ‘works along the Cuban coast were planned together and handled by the leglonary workparties On’ both Stone and turf sections. the consiniction work as divided into lengths of $6 Reman miles (S~6 mils), ‘lowanée, te leveling, and asembly and preparation of building materia {Seach work-party completed ity allotted section of work a centural tone ‘vas set int the Wal, or another structure, to record the fat. The extant building “nsciplons for tis inal phrase ofthe project provide a valuable record of tive bulling of the turrets, milecates and lengths ofthe curtainwall Take, foe ‘xample the folowing centurial stone {IBG{ONIS) 1 AVG(USTAE) COM/ORS) VI SVR) CVIRA) rom the Second Legon Augusta the Seventh Cohort under the range of "as insription (RIB 1982) fs Incomplete, but was foun at mileeastle 30 TW (vigh House). There is some lndiation of involvement on the part of the awilia too: ((OHORS) mT LIN{GONVMY) FECT) The Fourth Cohort of Lingonians bail this "hs Inscription (UB 2014) was found some 150 metres south of mllecasle 59 (Oldwall, near the Vallum. It appears, therfore, that simpler operations pcb employed usiiares forthe actual excavation work, This uit clbrs I nsomon, had originally been raised in Germania Superior (around. Langres «aslern France) and was in Britannia by AD 103 ts only known place of garrison ‘was Wallsend, where inscriptions (RIB 1299-1301) atest it for much of the third ertary and where the Nota Digntaton in paribus Ccidents XL) locates it at the turn ofthe fifth century ‘though there are visible structural differences inthe curtainavall,milecastles and turrets, there is no dieet evidence, despite the building Inscriptions, for alscatng @ particular varant toa legion. To date, the eplgaphical evidence that hasbeen found all belongs to that part of Hadnan's Wall where work was isupted bythe decison to build frs. The evidence for this dsruption can sil bbeseen at mileaste 37 (Housestead), Here the north gateway had not reached thc height of the impos caps the element a the top of apie that supports the arch) when the work was disrupted. Also, mileastle 42 (Cavfiels) where the ‘orth wall was nazrowed immediatly beyond the sde-walls of the mulecaste, ‘vii, ‘unusually, are not bond in with the nox wall AS the building ‘ncripions were erected over the gates, itis possible that in both cases one legion stated building the milcastle and another completed the work. Ie thus not possible tobe certain that, for instance, go Auge startet uiing milecasthes| 57,38 nd 42 even though the building inscriptions from these structures be its name (RIB 1634, 1637, 1638, 1666). In fact, itis much more likely that the ‘lecatles were started by another legion only to be completed by leo If Aug mated stone requirements in tonnes for the cach the responsibilty of a single legion, These ee eee Icgonary blocks were further subdivided and then Feature | Shaping-stone | Foundation-stone | Facing-stone | Coresstone lected to individual centuries under the supervision ora aay ica ay me of thee respective centurions. Vege, in a passage siding what he calls a sationary camp’ (casa See 1650 500 00 00 Sta), says that during the construction of te ditch Estimated bonding material requirements in tonnes for the Broad Wall ond rampart the “centurion measure the work with terfoot ods eenpedi), ocheck tht no one TOUR Feature | Lime ‘Sand Water Core-clay lacnes fas dug les than is share of gone ff line’ Corin ase “ae 200 ion (3. Nileastes and eres were generaly bul ist, = oe in wih work probably proceding on the foundation of oe a co {hnecuainsvall and thedaging ofthe ditch athe same ‘Nets Lrg of he xan wall Ron is Sire Hong 8 RCHGE Eure (Cheer) Se ale Habba ot Bt aigotia od pees sctual construction-ork the frst tasks woukd have been setting-out, ste A cen tone (UB 1356) 1 pes fi of be apart fCortrgh for (Brac) by ‘centary under the comoand of ‘Trap (Aitors Caledon) a2 “The north gon of leat 37 (oveenaes) a seen fom inde hae bee eral resored (Aursore Cotes) ‘Asean om Tas Cur (Beane 3) whch agora. ‘rong eBoy armour bo Br ches ad ut Fope sng 9 ery ers oF ther bead Oe use of aes te meve sl eprodce! om Uappant na Fave. Fort (a A New Eaton ofthe Ghar er Son, Sod ise) ‘The major problem facing the Romans, according to the organises of the CChesterholm replica project, was not the actual building of Hadrian’s Wall ut the logistics asociated with its construction, It has been estimated that for every ten men actually Involved i the constraction work another 90 were reeded to obtain and supply the raw materials. Local people may have been used for heavy labouring and carting. Indeed, if the work took Ave years tO ‘complete it has been estimated that the delivery of materials would have needed staggering 30,000 vehicles and drivers, 5,800 oxen and 14,200 mules ‘or horses, Onsite, however, the inherent flexibility of man-arrying makes it the most likely method of moving most materials, and ths 1s certainly the ‘onstruction method as depicted on Tajans Column. The builders of the Wall replica at Chesterholm also dug a ditch on its forward ‘ide. Digging through boulder clay, the team soon discovered that ditch digging ‘was the toughest par of thelr projec. In dry weather te boulder clay ws found to be almost ar hard as zoek in wet conditions lke pty. Once the ditch wae afew metres deep they had to cope not only with water from rainstorms but also with natural Seepage through the sides, and ifthe water was not removed from the bottom ofthe trench it ‘was impossible to work. By the same token, digging a ditch some 3 metres deep and 12 metres tide required triple shoveling This technique had a man atthe bottom that shovelled allway Ei upthebank where asecond man tansfrred the spoil onto the top lip and a thi spread i out foto the glads. Every so often the unfortunate diggers came across glacial boulders, weighing anything up to a tonne, and these had to be split before removal, This was 2 rclatvely ‘easy tsk ifthe boulders where sandstone, a difficult one if they ‘were basalt. td aes Ce a cy ‘ousnoa nox Anatomy of the Wall ‘reconstructed sera vw of Hadras Wall at Brcoswal showing the fore a may have appeared aor ‘the Turf Wall was bulk in stone after AD 16314 The ‘artworls f he Vill are vil inthe fregroune, fndon the eaters end ofthe spur sts mleetate 49 (Fsrowi Sear) South ofthe for, 3¢ the foot of» bold Scat arales the iver Irthing wth she Reman bridge \Wilwioe immedately die ear ofthe miseat, Pllen ‘idence show tat when the buldere ofthe Wall arrived oe The dich nc at fd loca The rock heresy Proved too hard neh burs forward deh (tors Caecton) racial ln ees Sposa Sa toes aasenie Soreet oi sot cackcreaten hore they found dense woodland wth ily deep ‘morat inthe mide. Birch and alder grew on the ‘wetland, wth oak on the drier slopes towards the Ithing Harel trved in both arear and would have baen 2 futable materia a were birch nd ide forthe ‘warclwork parapet that probably adored th top of the cxigal Trt Wall Nori is impasse o be cern how the sone Wall was frshed atte top, but a amare ‘walleway with a ereneltd bresswerk on ke narthern ‘ge maybe considered the mos ey. a= rrrti‘—OTN. Ctrl 2 Dich Hadrian’s Wall Roman Bits should not be looks tin oto fom the et ofthe empl, ant the Tyne Solway system symbolises the imperatives of Hadras overall iar policy. Hs predecessor, Tien, wished to secure contons of peace tnt tabity in the empire and sar terol acqlston, andthe consequent Sty to polc old enemis asthe means to this end. Uimately, haat was iad witha worstene scenario That I, the toopsseqled to achieve ths foul were suficient if war was not conducted simultaneously on more than Sr ont By the nd hl ig, hewrever, jan wa aed wth completing Sd sectng hls new easter conquest sablsing his tecent succes Da ant ‘holding the line’ elsewhere In AD 117, these needs could not all be inne th afte supply of troops: Hada, too, wanted saityon the frente, but he was no warsoremperor like Trajan, Haan’ policy, a his bhrapher In the SHA clay sates, us to separate the Romans fom the Uabarans by means of wise boundaries Trjn's deat brought Impeia xpanson to an end an the resis of Haan’ is to Banna show hat thenew emperors vew of imperial ecu, whilst no less dynamic han that ois predecessor, was very diferent in is expresion Madan Wall was conceived an enhancement of, rather than a teal 2 (Covi ore selacement for the Stancgte, where inthe fist contraction plan, the main Totreat wich wa ey ak boes of toops for griuon duties and police work were retained in the Qehelowe aumdraned Hole exiting forts The mieeastes were in eal frife gateways and the nature Seumseernen mm of the fst plan suggests the principal purposes were observation ad the fenan ofthe Soh vay supersion of crossing in ether decion, Such dues were wo De cated out (aor Caco% (Potvse Sur} weich ge cess tb te ramparelony te he {Sr above the north ewe Tht Saw exceptional ad ha not ten ound i ter mice. (Ashore Cale) boy small groups of solders housed nthe mllecastis and tures. Yer there i 4 major problem in any interpretation of the function of the milecastes, namely the absence of causeways in ffont of thelr north gateways. Certainly the lack of causeways across the ditch, unless timber bridges were employed, clashes strongly with the provision of so many gateways through the Wall. The Tater suggests that this was to be an open frontier, the former a close bare. “This roe of surveillance and, perhaps, supervising movement, could obviously ‘be more effectively discharged if the frontier had a trong visual command ofthe territory in which it oeas st. The Stanegate lacked this advantage because of Its lose relationship with the valleys ofthe Tyne, thing and Eden rivers. The line selected for Hadrian's Wall, therefore, advanced northwards £0 occupy the northern cress of those valleys, and thus acquire a command of tetitory. The ‘Wall would thus utilise the Whin Si, a basaltic outerop forming a line of north-facing crag, int ental sector. Simian the eastern sector it would an long the north rim of Tynedale, while in the west Sector t would follow the hort side ofthe valley of the Itung. Thus the inal plan was to build tneat ure fom Newcastle to Bownessan-Sotay, which was equipped with a fortlet «every Roman mile and a pai of watchtowers between each par of frets. However, Hadean’s Wall turned out rather diferent from the original plan. Inthe fist Hedrianic scheme the two functions of frontier defence and frontier contol had been Separated, with the roe of defence resting upon the {arrsons in the Stanegate forts and the role of contol beng undertaken by the soldiers in the mileastles and tures. In the second Hadrianic scheme, both funetions were foeused on the Wal self. This Is how the Tyne-Solway system developed whilst under constuction, 1 must be stressed thatthe Wall was a barrier and not a ighting- platform, “The walkway, allowing for a parapet some 60 centimetres (2 Roman feet) in width, vets only some L83-2.35 metres (6-8 Roman fect) wide on the Broad Wall alone, There was scarcely room to pass behind a man and the only access points to bring up reinforcements were the milecastles and tutes, some S00 metres apart, va their narrow stairways. Moreover there was no provision fo the Wall for enflding fire from projecting towers, nor positions from Which to mount artillery. The Roman army only fought ftom behind the shlterof walls 8 last esr, its guiding philosophy being one of dealing with anenemy in the open. The addition of the forts tothe line of the Wall allowed forthe maintenance of tighter supervision and closer observation, and gave the farson the ability to patol more effectively tothe north Renewed warfare Inthe mid-120s AD may have led to the decision to emplace fors in the wall, and fundamental to any consideration of how Halsan’s Wall functioned is the perception of theeat to Rome’ contol of the fronts As we have seen, the northern tebes were not necessarily a peace 2s has usualy been presumed. The latter part of the second and the early years of he third century AD saw a series of disturbances in Britannia, fn AD 16, a Uc beginning of the reign of Marcus Auli, "wat as thicaletig i Brianna. and Calpueniss Aico was Sent to el sith the Britons’ (SH, Mavs Aureus 8.7-8) Agun, in AD 169/70, ‘the Britons were on the verge of wa" (SHA, Marcus Auris 22.1), It was some three yeas later, towards the end ‘Of Sextus Calpurnius Agricola’ governorship, that the Antonine Wall was sandoned and Hadeian’s Wal was fully reoceupid (RIB 1137, 1149, cf. 1389), Cassius Dio, seriting a few decades Inter, called it ‘the cross wall that spits the island in two (77121). The reign of Commodus opened with a major Inausion when “the tribes in the island crossed the wall ( techos) that separated them from the Roman legions, dd a great deal of damage, and cut down a general (stmagos) and his oops’ (Dio 758.2) Although Dio does rot specify which wall was crossed," the destruction deposits found at Hatonchesters dating from around AD 180, its neighbout Rudcheste, and also at Corbridge wo miles tothe south, suggest t was Hadtian’s Wall If this was Unc ease, then the invaders moved south down Dete street, sacking the ses ln ther path. How far south they reached 1s unknown, but the Roman ‘omnmander killed as of senior rank and may have been the legate fom York. ‘Of interest here i the late second-centuy inseription (RIB 735.4) that records ‘Azan fom Ta Cour (Scere 004m hich ere, posoned on ampere waaay Frei ac Oncan wares who earnest re tha various ‘device one ilo lanes (Reproduced fom Uppeck and rere, Ton Gch Mer Eton fe Ohare Phen Soan Sou 985) ”= A nocturnal atack on the wall [Anatzck on the Vil aged onthe major Incrson by ne Caledon tthe beginning of Commodus’ reign {AD I81), which rested n che detrocon (oy fre) ‘cf -aitonchestere, Rudehester and Corbridge. Th Cosectral reconstruction shows the noch gateway ofthe fore at Rudcheer under aes wl ‘ivralonary stack delivered aginst torre 136 to ne forts mmedate west Although Rudehester was bul for a coors quingenariaequtta (name unkown). complement dve to other commitments suchas ‘manning the nearby mlecastles and turrets or support uve further afield Moreover. tis importane to nace ‘at Roman miltary instalations of the fst and second centuries were not primary intended a defensive ses, id ot possess especial strong foriiations, and were not bull oo formidable postions. Normal he sry expected to defeat enemies nthe open Bld tnd even heavily outnumbered garvzons exhibited 3 wilingnes to come out and fight more numerous the gizon would hive been Below its ofl Bader, ural at Ambleside of to mien, attire centurion and an accounts clerk curt), probably father and son, the latter having been kil inthe fort by Other lste second-century inscriptions demonstrate that punitive mpgs wee conducted north of Hadrian's Wal, An altar found at Kirksteads, neat Stanwix fort, was erected by a legate of lio VT Vcr to give thanks for ‘the sueessfal outcome of action conducted beyond the Wall” (UB 2034) prefect of Cavalry dedicated an altar at Covbridge ater his unit ‘Saughtered 2 band of Coronototae’ (U8 1142), a people otherwise unrecorded but probably a branch of he Brigantes. Nevertheless, lt AD 197 the governor of Britannia, Visus Lupus, tid not have enough strength, presumably a a result ofthe ll war between Stimius Severus and his vals to mount an offensive agains the Maeatae and Caledon and thus brought peace fora considerable sum of money’ (Dio 758) fen years ltr, his successor was ‘winning the wars in Betannia’ (Dio 77.10.) ‘etdespte Septimus Severs” subsequent campaigns against the northern bes, ‘west hear of the Maeatae and Caledonit rising in ‘ebelion’ (Dio 77.15.1-2), Ad so the fortunes of Rome an her northern frontier were inextricably inked ith imperial events elsewhere andthe attitude of the northern ties either side ofthe Wal oy nS se Scocnnieaeee” | Feet ate cee »A tard sonbar for 6 apie fn Trajan Cana (cane 2, ‘Pong deal of ten Ind cranled wal Reproduced Trans Cou-A New Eton of te Oras ates Soon, So, 1988) The garrison of Hadrian’s Wall 1k was the aula, and not the legions, eho actully garasoned the frontier By the time the Tyne-Solway system was completed, as much asa thi ofall the auxin Btannia were stationed inthe Wall one (ec 9,000 men). The fundamental distinction between legionary and ausilay, especially during the early empie, isan important one. The egionary was a Roman citizen, The auxiliary, on the other band, sas a non-citizen (peregrins), Roman citizenship and conubiun (that i, egulaisation of existing or future marriages, so that any children would be cticens also) was a peivilege granted to hm afer 25 yeas Service. The promise of cizenship was powerful inducement to jin, and Is ‘rant was recorded in the auxillay’s diploma, the small bronze flding-tablet, that was conferred on him upon his honourable discharge from the army. The volunteer had to prove he was frecborn, and had to pass 4 medical. The ‘optimum age was between 18 and 25 ~ in Britannia the oldest knovn auxiliary recruit is soldier of coors IH Galloram at 30 (RIB 1249). Despite thet lack of Citizenship, however, we should not view the members of the auxin as Seconderate troops. As well as being used as the primary frontier gartisons, they ‘were aso placed fst in the font line on the battlefields, Tacitus Cima 4.47) once remarked of cohors Sugambrorum under Claudius, that it was still “Germanic” although fighting far fom home in Thrace. Additional information comes from Tacitus’ account ofthe civil wa. In AD 69, when Vitellvs entered Rome, his army also included 34 auxiliary cohorts ‘grouped according to nationality and type of equipment” (Historie 9), Auriliary units were recruited from warlike peoples within or on the periphery of Roman control, notably” Gallia Belgica and. Lugdunenss, (Germania Inferior and Pannonia. The members of coors II Tansorum, for listance, had been originally raised from among the Tung tribe who inhabited the north-western fringes of the Arduonne Sit in Gallia Belgica ((vdennes Forest, Germano-Belgc border). Under the Jullo-Claudian emperors it nas quite common for such units to be stationed in or near the province ‘vhete they were fist raised, However, the events of AD 69-70, with the mutiny ‘fa large proportion ofthe auxiliaries serving on the Rhine, led to a change in hs policy. Although the Romans did not abandon local recruiting, they dd Step the practice of keping units with avery strong ethnic identity close to he homelands. Naturally, by the late frst century, units were being Kept up strength by supplements fm the province where they were now serving oF areas adjacent tit Such units retained tele ethnic kdetities and names, even (hey enlisted ew tops fiom where they were stationed. The epitaph of Seats Valerius Genais tells us that ne was a Woopet in ala Tluacum, ad hs ee-part name reveals that he was a Roman citizen. Buti adds that he was & sian tibesman’ (R108), So, Genialis came from the Lover Rhine, served {Thracian cavalry unit stationed in Britannia and styled himself Roman ‘uaillary unit ere of three types alae consisting Solely of cavalry, cohortes Jitatae consisting solely of infantry, and mixed unit ofboth foot and horse (led cofrtes ett, All hese nits were based on the cur, the infantry Ccotury commanded by a centuri, and the 32-trong tuna, the cavalry troop ‘onmanded by a decuro. The cohospeitata was ether SO0-stong (guingenaria) ‘or 1000strong (nillaria). The former was ceatly based on the legionary ‘onorts IPX as it consisted of six centrae each 80 men strong, but unlike & icsonary cofior a prefect (rafts courts) commanded it.The later, unlike he “double centuries’ of the fst cohort (prima cohas) of a legion, was of ' centurlae each elghty men strong, total of 800 men under the command {a tibune (uns). Likewise, the cohors gultata was either qungenaria ‘re miliaria. The formes consisted of sbecenuriae and four tunmue, 2 total of 49) men and 128 troopers under a prctas cohorts. Te latter consisted of - cntiae and eight turmae, a tral of 800 men and 286 troopers under a ras, The ala wou be either of $12 twoopes in 16 tunmae(qubyenara), oF (1 768 troopers in 24 turmae(nlarta. A pete of cavalry (praefctus alae, Xs withthe legions, auxiliary units had numbers and names, and could also «cumulate an impressive st of ies fr bravery and loyalty. Those unit rased n the western provinces generally took their names ftom a tribe oF region, ose in the east from a city. There were, for example, five cohorts rased in Gal, cofers FV Galforum, possibly just before the invasion of Britain in AD 3, Naan like the names of legions their names become embroidered with the m’s history. For example, ala Galforam et Thracim Classana invicta bis ‘omit cv Roranorun was raised in Gat during the reign of Tiberi (AD 1127), Ietaok the ttle Classana frm the name of its frst commander, the Gale nobleman lulls Claslanus, The addition of a contingent of Tracks juve It Thracin. It gained the ttle hnica, invincible, and the honour of frgue twice, hence hs frquata, anda block grant of citizenship as reward for metrious conduct on the field of battle to all fits serving men, hence cin ananoram. Henceforth the unit ise employed the designation clvin) Riomanorun), but all future rectuts remained non-citizens until thelr henourable discharge as the citizenship went only to those serving at the "moment ofthe reward. The fst torque was gained possibly during the avian peiod and the second during the reign of Tiajan or that of Hadrian, on both fecasions in Bsitannia, As miltary decorations were not avallable for the nonvctizen the torgues were awarded tothe uni asa whole and hence catied fon ts standards “‘The probable garrisons of forts on the Tyne-Solway system ewewme [27505 Meck Gakee gneres ‘| Gocton ingonm ma ee a meas a iesaena | OE ‘ine my fia. Acres (hectares) | Second century AD Third century AD ero a sot orga Groen (Hg Wall | Seah oee— HTTA Cecio Nove Gemeente (boo) Sa come Rear hnaee aaa | RO Sn ome Samoa 3 =a amy ia Som eae ‘Tekin akoope 8204) Sear nm ene Seg [20H le ae iors (cone Wied ao Tier Rew anges A | ton ge ps Snes Bly | HERD (gen (ao 08 (iw iavetton ta os ere ot Neves | SO ‘APesiewero apeesTGaH | Caches Ue rer Geer Coastal oes amas ee Reka SF _ Terwal ror ‘AE ese of ep Arte SE | Hap Asan GT 7 OR Hist een (Condercor) (908 1330) 2 8 1337) i = engunt ERA. I ct gn miro re waa ese Sian eee (oo in Prac ‘ioe (5 255 ah 2) Sree Dceanan year ere Teas | omnes Serene 80 na Ae Then sgt Farce | ET alone coe aon 0 8 82.) = 2 er od wes Per gon ere aos ‘Chess a Ti pas sangria ob wen | Sl er ane Fr team ere ad (chiar ect ope ei cia ee ners reesei Sat Lite oro eae RT he ae Sa eae lars daa ooo ec ge ae =, Soe Denton gine Stanegate Se cotAtnmn aire Gan fre ane ge Careborth 350 (142) ‘Hi cehors PAquonerum qurgenario "Ca:cators | Batororum qangenanc eq co : we icc ome nen Geisas cals Fence feta Nevin | Sha Banenm gig Saber ea quingenara (RIB 1538), UB 1553) : a Ean Uneaten Seana w [AOR ‘Rohr ingens Cees Ganon eng Sener en rasa) Fea tenn een t | a Tomnaacs | Sa ay Seger ioe Scion agen ls TT Scien remenenm gigwore | teeing (ccm) ine ena Srnec en okay Sone Colon eng “Alerondrons & umerus Hhaudtid as (i es te as a ator Tania giiaon | ee Cover Saletan ra ‘pomoore i a Geaeaas | ET Tepes Renan gages | Shae as ga re To ope engee@ Copan ipo ges tse ga ge gnc pe) Ten ss) Sorhtiran ana ton pra relialecatay ‘Carvoran 370 (150), "MA: coho: | Haiorum sagetaronm “cahor 1 Debratorum qungenarc bela itr Seow en eros ingen [aoa Tins Gatos engnen | aoa Neen aa a AT Seas a = tat ‘Sin 0) ES hoe Ecos he coer re 8, Eatieet AELEE Escenas ikaw — [SOF Tras eran eae | Caceres a eR ‘ictoe a bemcmoe = a) fem (eo ae veer wa am | Eco asa arse k eter ea Deswn rac Sint ose kara) | Seer fhm moo ck 8 1882-3, 1886) (R8 1281) - Soe nom na 8 5 Son ate te “a ‘oven ovens 8 9 1295) weiner onm aComm Ce) (asss0 mee Nery ‘AP har Rae Go ‘Cesar Vila Hepwon ta | (Gost exper | ‘ere (98966) gue 976,980) Fee et epanoum Sets ate Hepneun mon irs 8 8 tere, = a7, ie | Nenana Goma adore (Som) alr (810933097 21168) ‘ant angen ire (207 98210 HOA 210-0) Abbreviations = under Hea (AD 117-138) AP = der Aoi Ps (CAD 138-61) = de Mes Auris (AD 16-60) Co under Comme (AD 80-92) 5 under Seems Sort (-AD 199-211) (C= adr Case fAD 211-217) = under Epa (AD 216-22) ‘A= tner Ser Aland (FAD 22-35) T= der Mas Tra (AD 235-28), (Ga eer Gar (AD 250-268) eds Rrlian ((AD 270275) Pe une bit (AD 276-28) Wp te fourie core of Honnsten for (ronda) wva ina ado ae Banner mshng Thar roman Bouse (uthrs Caeceon) In theory a for’ plan should provide clues tothe type and sizeof auxiliary lunit providing the gatison. Counting the number of bartack-blocks should allow the garrison size to be measured and possibly the type of auxllary ln identified Surprisingly, archaeology has shown thatthe neat one unit one fow astangement was not necessarily adhered to, The Klenity of many of the orginal gursons ofthe Wallfonts i therefore unknown, but most ofthe Uec-century”gatisons are Known from Inscriptions and these probably rejresent a halance of forces similar to tat in the second century The evidence from inseriptions and other sources presented for the poitioning of the various auxiliary units coves those along the Wal itself, ‘hose on the Cumbrian coat in the Stanegate forts and the northern outpost fos. References are selective, with preference being given to those inscriptions Ut are dated, unless these are not available. Thus in some cases the ssdgnment ofa units perio of garrison to the time of 3 particular emperar is on the grounds of inherent probability rather than on the basis of a dated Inscription, For instance, unit may build or repr a fort, members of may rnake a dedication, but the unit may not be inthe gartson, Lead sels bearing tint names found at forts only apply to goods shipped by the unit, perhaps from elsewhere, and are not evidence for those units being stationed there and ne therefore not treated a5 such. On the other hand, dplomata give Usts of tints and are dated, so they atleast demonstrate the presence ofthe unit in Tntalnat given date. Likewise the Nota Digtatun, ast of all known forces In she western half of the Koman Empire dated tothe turn of the fifth century, Shows units then in garrison at named forts, some of which can be identified Many units fst attested in the easy third century were sll inthe same foes the time of the Noi Digitaton Cavalry were present instength, with an ala mila (the only unit ofthat siz in Britannia) at Stans, and two alae quingenarae in forts along the ‘aster sector ofthe Wall, namely Benwell and Chestes. In addition there were (epee ~ oe eyed (Gators Cotecion lasake at Old Carlile and Chester-leStreet, all within easy reach of Haden’ |Wall These units, which represented five of te 18 alae now to bein Britain, were placed as near 35 possible to the two main roads running north of Hodran’s Wal, namely Dere treet passing through the Wall atthe Portgate neat Corbridge, and the road up Annandale crossing the Wall t Stanwis, The three chutes poate, on the other hand, were placed in the central sector futhest from these two roads, at Housesteads, Greatcesters and Binloswald, The remaining garrisons were ohare eitate, The temptation to speak of the horse element ofa cours oyltata 3b mounted infantry mst be {voided On the march and in battle they were grouped with the alae, AS they did ret fight with their cohort they were classed as cavalry, though secondine “aval in comparison to the al, and for units stationed on the frontier they provided extended range for police and pstol work. ‘As there are only seven attested coir milariae i Britain i important to note that they tend €0 be all stationed in the Wall zone, pechape Compensating for the absence ofthe distant legions, Moreover five Of these Seven were egutate. The quingeariae units, on the other hand, soem rarely 10 hve been in the Wallzone in both the second and third centuries, Thus around half ofthe 49 cohorts quingenariae attested in Britaln found themselves ‘onthe Wall atone time or another, in contrast with only one.quarter ofthe ae. Nevertheless, 18 of the 49 were equltatae, and about half of these aw Service In the Wall-zone “A punitive rai agunst a Caledonil settlement auxilres ravaging and rorching Macromannstements [Alough aspecacular imperial mrumeneHadians Wall ‘wa not an impregable obstacle Besides, che Roman ary was essecaly an ofensive, not 2 defensive army. “The reconsructed scene shows a punitive rald agaist 2 ‘Cleon setdement mounted by ches Il Gale qngerarioequtta, This paremouned avllary unit {aritoned the norehern outpost forts ofRsngham and igh Rochester during the reign of Marcus Aureus (AD 161-180) Scenes (OX. XLML XC Cl) from the Column of Mrcut Aurelius in Rome, vivdly depict uring the wars-Danubian campaigns of Marcus Aureus (AD 171-173) Males capable of bearing arms are butchered. and women and children dragged ff into “apeviy We hve perhaps. too favourable view of the Roman army and the nature of the Reman peace ie ‘erfored na pre-bate harangue, Clgacs one of the ‘Caledon leaders who fced the Romans at Mons ‘Graupus (AD 82).ss plunder, butcher apne these ‘things dey mirame empire: hey make 3 dsolon snd call peace’ (actus Ariat 305). ”The was away a Chester fore (Giuran Gwar proces Ghee ror ne of he cra, hls runing wast hee (regain (chor Calecton) Life on Hadrian’s Wall Military documents, especially those from Egypt, Libya and Doura-uropos (a frontier fort on the Euphrates) tellus thatthe Roman army produced no end ‘of paperwork. Thor value fr ilistating the minutlae ofthe internal workings fof the army is immense. However, there ae also unofficial documents that allow usa Solders-ve view’ of ife on the frontiers ti difficult to generalise about what life was ike for the ordinary soldier, as conditions would certainly hhave varied between units and locations. Nevertheless, soldiers maintained contact with home and wrote and received leter tha kuminate the mote temporal side of army’ | have sent you .. par of socks. rom Sattus two pairs of sandals and {wo pairs of underpants, two pals of sandals. Greet ~.ndes, Eps, he, ‘ens, Tetricus and all your messmates(ontubemals) with whotn | hope that you live inthe greatest of good fortune, (Tab. Vind L346) ‘Written in colloquia Latin, this eter was evidently sent toa solder serving at CChestethotm as the author refers to his messmates, one of whom, Elis bears Greek name (it. Hope). The recipient was probably a member of one of three auxiliary cohorts known to have been stationed herein at the end ofthe fst century, tha either coors 1 Batvorum,cohars VII Batavrin, or chrs T Tinygoram. The writer also mentions various items of clothing and it seems Probable that he or she isa close relative or frlend whose concern for the recipient’ material comfort led im or her to send a packet fom home. Even ifsocks and underpants were not standard isue, provision of goods of thls kind 's abundantly paralleled in the papyri from Egypt, which ths indicates that they were worn as additional clothing Fnaly is fnteresting to note that the CCesternoim texts shows us how swifly auxiliary soldiers acqulred literate habits and how proficient they became i Latin, a language that was not the ‘own, but one that their miltary service forced them to acquire The extant private letters of Roman soldiers reveals love-hate relationship With the army. They not only ecoed their particular assignments or avoidance ‘of duties, but also promotions, hopes, eas, and illnesses. In addition, they’ also ‘record concerns fo family, generosity with money orimpecunious requests for ash, food and equipment, personal business and financial transactions. These ltrs give the distinct impression, that once a soldier had finished his daly utes, he had considerable personal freedom. The thoughts of auxiliary ‘oleiets in an isolated outpost on the road from Koptos in Egypt to the Red Sea ‘ver almost exclusively of food (CPL 303-7, SB 9017), although a few had ‘canp wives’ to relieve the boredom (P Mich. 8,9. Duties A soe’ duties were recorded on a daily basis. In the daily eport ofthe unit, ‘whlch gave the unit’ muster strength, the soldier would be marked a present and correct. Besides training, parades and inspections, there were routine {utes Including mounting guard at the priipla, at the granary, and atthe faateways, cleaning centurions’ kit, latine and bathhouse fatigues, and Siweping the camp. The duty rosters of cohors XX Pulmyrenorum mula ‘qucat, stationed at Doura-Eutopos during the fst half ofthe thiré century, ‘Show that upto 25 pee cent ofthe unit was detailed daly to guard- description of the Roman sole, and Suetonius (Galla 6.) imparts that alba, as governor of Germania Superior, came down hard on those who requested Teave. However, it was granted as papyrus documents and (Caesterholm-Vindolanda writing tablets beat witnes to the formal applications ‘ocommanding officers for leave (commeats). “Amt going to get 3 fuelough?” was 78th in alist of standard questions put to an oracle ia Egypt (P. Oxy. 1447.78). A duty roster of lego Il Cyenaica, covering the fist ten days of ‘October AD 87, shows two leionaries enjoying thet leave (RMR 9). On the ‘thee hand, a duty roster of cfiors XX Palmrenornt, dated to AD 219, shows to soldiers failing to return from leave (RMR 1). How long soldiers were fgrinted isnot knowen, nor where most of them went, but perhaps the nearest sige town might offer most scope fr the bearer of a leave-pas asi suggested bythe request for lave from a soldier serving at Chesterholm to visit nearby Corbridge (Tab. Vindol. 11175), Soldier and civilian In their ideal role the troops, in the words of Dio of Prusa (1.28), were lke shepherds who, with the emperor, guarded the Nock of the emplre. Of course, some communities did benefit fom the proximity of gamsons. But the 7‘Acar baradbiok at Cheers (ret wth oe ace (garter for he deine ‘Srorovnd A eranage cao! rane ‘eracetlocs (tors Calecon) ‘dominating theme inthe sources isthe brutal oppression of civiians by soles Juvenal (1624-5), the satirist who once comamanded cols { Delmar in Britannia, vivily depicts how the unfortunate pedestrian might hive his foot ‘rushed by a soldiers hobnaled boot in the crash of the strets He also spoke of| beatings and intimidation for whieh redress was hard to find. An encourster with an off-duty soldier could be a frightening experience. In Petron’ bawdy novel Sapricon,waiten probably during the reign of Neo (AD 54-68}, the hero uses into the sce with his hand on his sword hilt ‘Then a soldier spotted me; he was probably a deserter of a nocturnal cutthroat. Hey comrade’, he sad, “what legion or whose century do you bblong to? lied boldly about my legion and century, but he sid: Well ‘thea, in Your army do soldiers walk about wearing white slippers? Since my expression and my trembling gave away that | had been lying, he frdered me to hand over my sword and to watch out formyl. 80,1 as robbed. Satyricon 82) Oficial documents fom Egypt containing the complaints of civilians preserve an authentic record of widespread abuse, not only through robbery but also ‘extortion ($8 9207, SP 221, P Oxy. 240). The attraction for the cians, however, was the regular pay ofthe sole (basic auxiliary pay was neaey ive sixths that of a legionary, who received 300 dena pet nur). Because they needed the profit derived from filling the soldier’ belly, slaking bis thirst and satisfying his lusts, they were expose to his unruly behaviour Of course there were aays the delights of the i that clustered around the forts. A shor step away, these had much to offer the bored soldier with 3 Ute :money in his pouch, 0 much so that Hadrian, who was imposing 2 Ughter discipline on the army, had to limit the number of inns and eating houses outside miliary establishments. He also reined in aehat appears t0 be the practice amongst to0ps to be absent without leave (SL, Hadrian 10.3). Pronto (Principia Historie 12) says that the army in Syria spent more time inthe nearby beer gardens and theatres than in camp, ands a consequence the soldiers were ffequently drunk and wont to gamble. Indeed, the garrison of Syia had a tong, Initory of nat being disciplined. In AD 57 Gnaeus Domitius Combulo had gone there to condact a wat against the Parthians only to find his new command was made up, in the cutting words of Tacitus, of Mashy money-makers who had Selere! in towns’ (Annales 13.38). He quickly remedied the situation by taking the badly under-exercsed srmy wp int the inhospitable highlands of Armenia Aapund Lake Van, where they built camps and went on manoeuvres. Nie years Ise, however, Vespasan was tobe met with exactly the same problem and his Syrlan command had to be licked into shape through old-school diipline (Suetonius Dis Vspasians 4.6) Excavations in the Hadrian Wall ic shos plenty of evidence for shops inns ard gambling establishments where the soldiers could, in Severus Alexander’ Words, ‘make love, drink wash” (SHA, SeyerusAfevnder 53}. Pethaps not quite the roaring, noting cock-fighting, wol-balting, horse-riding town’ as colourully painted by Centurion Pamesus in Kiplings Puck of Pook’ Fil, vice di, ‘ar thus satis thelr basic needs and urges. Here they could gamble and drink. “More importantly, here they could meet vith local women, whether they were Cae ves, mistresses, oF prostitutes, who having formed lasons with soldiers ‘fen bore their children. An inseption UIL$ 2308 from near Alexandra and ‘ited to AD 194, ecords the names of 46 soles who had just eceved ther honourable discharge from lo I! Tralana forts. Of the 41 whose origins were mentioned, 32 vere from fgypt, and. 24 stated the military camp as thelr bthplace (org cas) tis likely that most of thee were legitimate sons born tosolers from local women, 0jr sess mute ‘long he gh of rans (Seamer rine The sites today “Today there is no more potent symbol of the Roman army than the remains of Hacan’s Wall. Numerous stretches ofthe Wall and its related fortifications ate Sil vsbie along its original ine from Bownes+-on-Sobwsy, Cumbria, in the west to Wallsend, Tyneside, in the east. OF particular interest are the WalLfors of CChesters and Housestads, and the nearby site of Corbridge, all of wich are under the guardianship of English Heritage. Other forts ean be visited at South Shlds, Wallsend, Chesterholm and Birdoswald. Museum collections can be seen atthe Museum of Antiguiis,Univty of Neveastle upon Tyne, Tallie Howe Museum, Carlisi, Senhouse Roman Museum, Maryport, ax well as the on-site museums at South Shields, Wallsend, Chester, Corbridge, Housesteads and CChesterholm. There is also the Roman Amy Museum at Carvoran and the reconstructed bathhouse at Wallsend. The bestpreserved stretches of the ‘urtain-wall le between Chesters and Birdoswald, although some turrets are Wsble west ofthe ate fort and fragments ofthe Wall can be seen inthe fst 1 miles of course through urban Tyneside. Sites long Hadsian’s Wall ae well signposted and easly accessible from the |A6® Carlisle to Newcastle road, and the “Miltary Road! (B6318), which runs close tthe Wall sel Useful contact information Hadrian's Wall Information Line Taveline "National Rail Enguites Haaiian’s Wall Tourism Partnership Northumberland National ask Authority Journey Planner Traveline English Heritage 01434 322002 (0870 608 2608 (08457 48 49 50 wwe hadrian wall. ong vwwennpaorg.uk ‘vee jplannerorg.uk ‘te traveline one wowtwenglishshertage.orgk Further reading and research Biel. Roman Fors Bian, RatsordEnglish Heritage, London, 1997 Bitwel, P(e), Hadrian’ Wall 1989-1999: 4 ‘Sway of Recent Excavation an Research, ‘Cumberland and Westmodand Antiquarian Socety and Society of Antiquates of Neweasle Upon Tyne Carle, 1999 Bley A, ‘A new tombstone from Vindolanda’, Britannia 29, 299-306, Landon: Society forthe Promotion of Roman Studies, 1998 Bley, AR, Hadrian: the Restless Emperor, Rowtedge, Tondon, 1998 Biley RE, Vindolanda: A Roman Frontier Poston Hadrian's Wal, Thames & Hudson, London, 1977 Biley, RE, Ganson Life am dh Roman Front, Roman Army Museum, Carvoran, 1991 Bowman, AK, The Roman Whiting Tables fom Vindolanda, British Museum, Londen, 1983 Bowman, AK, Life and Leters onthe Roman Front, British Museum, London, 199% Bowman, A.K, and Thomas, J.D, The Vndolanda ‘Writing Tablets: Tabula Vindoandnses 1, British Museum, London, 1994 Ieeze,D. J, The Nother Frontiers of Roman Britain, Batsford, London, 1993 Ueeze,D. J, Roman Fortin Britain, Shire, Princes Risborough, 1994 Beeze,D. J, Hadrian’ Wel Souvenir Guide, English Heritage, London, 1996 ‘Breze, DJ, "Regiments and frontier: Paterns of idistibution on rivers and artificial frontiers, W. Groenman-van Wasteringe eal. eds), Roman Frontier Stuies 1995: Proceedings of the XVith Intentional Congress of Roman Frnt Sues, 73-74, Oxbow, Oxtord, 1997, Breeze, D. J, and Dobson, 8, Hadrian’s Wall, th edition, Penguin, London, 2000 CCheesman, G. Ly The Aula ofthe Roman Anny, ‘Georg Olms, New York, 1971 Collingwood Bruce, Handbook tothe Roman Wal, 13th edition, Harold Hill, Newcastle, 1978 iow, Housesteads, BatsfordEnglish Heritage, London, 1995, Davies, RW, Service tn the Roman Army, Edinburgh Univesity Press, Edinburgh, 1989 Dela Redoyere,G., Hadrian s Wall: History amd Guide, 2nd edition, Tempus, Stroud, 2001 De la Reve, G., Eales oer Britannia: The Roman ‘Army in Britain, Tempus, Stroud, 2001 Dobson, B. and Mann J.C, ‘Roman army in Britain Britons in Roman army’, Britannia 4, 191-205, Society forthe Promotion of Raman Studies, London, 1973, Goldsworthy, AK, The Roman Army at War, 100 BC-AD 200, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1998 Heywood, B., “The Vallum ~ its problems restate Jarzett, M.G. and Dobson, B. (eds), Britain and ‘Rome: says Preset to Eric Brey om his Stet Birthday, 85-04, Titus Kendal, Wilson, 1965 Holder, PA. Studies in the Ata ofthe Roman Army {fom August to Trajan, BAR International Series 70, Oxford, 1980 Holder, A. The Roman Army in Britain, Batsford, London, 1982" Jarret, MG, Non-legionary troops in Roman Britain: part one, the units, Britnnia 25, 35-77, Society forthe Promotion of Roman Studies, london, 1994 Johnson, A. Roman Fors, Black, London, 1983 Johnson, 5. Hadrian’ Wall, Batsord/English Heritage, ‘Tandon, 2000 Kendal, “Transport logistics associated with the ‘ullding of Hadrian’s Wall Britannia 27, 129-182, Society forthe Promotion of Roman Studies, London, 1996 Keppe, J. The Making ofthe Roman Army, Routledge, London, 1998 Le Boh; Ys The lmpeial Roman Army, Routledge, ‘vondon, 2000 Lepper, F and Frere, .S. Trajan’ Colamn: A New Edition of the Chcoius Plates, Suton, Stroud, 1988 Saddington, D.B, "The politics’ ofthe aula and the forging of auriliary regimental identity’ Groenman-van Waateringe, W, et al. (eds), Roma Frontier tutes 1995: Proceetings ofthe XV Intermatonal Congress of Roman Frontier ‘Stulies, 393-496, Oxbow, Oxford, 1997 Shisey, EAM, Bullding Roman Lepinary Fortes, Stroud, Tempus, 2001 Sotter, D.C. A. The Roman Frontier In Britain: ‘Haran’ Wal the Antonine Wall and Roman Poly In the North, Carnegie, Preston, 1996 ‘Webster, The Roman Imperial Army of he Fist and Second Centres AD, 3rd edition, Black, London, 1985, ‘Wilmott, Bidoswald Roman Fort: 1880 Years on “Hadrian's Wal, Temps, Stroud, 2001 6a Glossary The following provides much of the terminology associated with Roman fortifications ofthe fist and Second centuries and their garsons. In mest eases both singular and plural forms are given (ie singular poral cetum Sour wine ‘ete dumo Daly orders sarees Roop aquifer Bearer of legion exgle-sandar aque) ‘rmlllermilae Arles ~ rary decoration (naser Copper cin egal to sexes) ‘eens Scirwey tureut Gols com (ea t0 25 dene) Uta) or boketrower (emputo) balneumibalnee Bacio benefclorubenefiiarti Serio offers ad bipennisbipenne Doube-dged axe buceallta Horstack bucinatorbucinatores Muscan who blew the bucha a hom used wo regulate watches burgusiburg iaschrower campus Parace ground ‘conaboe Esra serene (fortress) ‘copitur Fodder ‘apsoruseapsori Paramedic cena Evening mel ‘ennwiocentriones Cetra or egorary ‘cerusleers! Chenuxeseee Cavelelovee Wooten practre-r0ord ‘oviculalcloviculae Curved excenion of rampart protecting» greway ‘ibonullbon!Bresdoven ‘cohors peditatacohortespeltatee Te Alay cohort ohare qungenore pect 480 arty (6 centurion der 8 prowectus cohorts ‘hor mila pedat: 800 infarry 0 cen) under bie 2. Legionary coho ten per leon ohos pie 80 leionaris (5 ‘oublesreng cntuae) ender a peep cohatesI-X: each 480 lejnare (6 cenrie under pis per ohorsequitotlcohortes equitatoe ied asia {hor of oot an horse contuberiunicantabernio Mesni of eit intrytan Comicenicomicines Mucn who blew th cami. horn ‘sodas wih the sande ‘omiculauscomlelorl! usr offer responsible for clerks in prince ‘omiculumicomicull Horn-shpes mlitary decoration — warded for bravery corenelcoronee Crown — mary decoration generally ‘eerved for centurion and sbowe ‘roa abana crown of grass ~amarded for escuing bese army roa urea ld crown warded for varius expos ero ch: crown fcuk lees ~ award for sing Ue of ‘ero marae: mral eran in gld— awarded to at man cover wal of esas ow ‘oro vari apart eof god ~ awarded to first man cratilerates Wickerwork praciceshild cuneuslunel "Woogie regan cary unt ‘uretoricuretrer Tuma econdnconmind urtor armorum Armourer decuroldecrtoner Tuma coriander denertnidenart Siva coin 4 sete) eposite Soe bank ‘iplomoldiplomata Mary decharge cercete Aolebraldelbroe Pekin ona milter Mary decorations ‘dupicarse Doublesay ‘dupondisldupondt Beas con (= 2 ese) ‘evertunlemert) Veter ‘equeslequtes Trosper ‘xeubierioncubtorer Seria ‘xploretoresplratores Scout {abrialfabricae Workshop fessafossce Dich Irumentarsifrumenteritnlignceoficer {ramentum Wheat hhonerta miso. Honourable dchrgs hrordeum Baty hrreumiborea. Grivary Imaginifer Bearer ofthe emperors age (nae) Immuniimmunes Solder exer rom ues Intervallum "Open space beeween rear of apart snd bu area later proctor! Ceral par fort between so rnapele nd aurtone lavatring Latrine-hock legotus August leiont_ eyo commander (arson nk) legiolegones Laion (20 men al rasa) Ib Reman pound (eqs to «323 grams) "rr hereon ape pany record "rar depntorm:coleced soles sings Iie Pes corening sharpened shes (ps) fucus. Arphithears Imediusordnarusimede erdinart Doctor Imentorimenrorer.Sursyor ‘lester Soir ‘ile poms postuum “Oneshousand paces (Gorman mle egal to 1618 yard) ‘mileraimilionee “One-tovrind song ‘mia causeria Medi decharge ‘mist ignominiose Dishonourabe dschurge ‘medislmdiUni-measure equal © 862 lee) ‘mura egespiticae Tart wall Cpioloptones Cems scondmcommand poolpoloe Spe Pusat Por for practising swordplsy pesieipepliones Tene ovis milters Army bread pssusipossus ‘One-ac’(§ Roman fee eu to {e105 ne 48) pereralpeteroe tess-in Delesipedites laneryman Deveginnlpeegini Now Roman ctzan Dedpedes. Roman foot = 1 inces299em) Dhalerapholeree Dise~ mitary decoration pile mura, Palisade sakes ~ doublepited with central handgrip ofits shir proefects cron lginie Lap thiin-command espe for legates preetentura Forward prt of for em vs perp to fron pe pore prtria) preetorum Commanders qinrars prendlum Linen Pritelpale Thee subordinate ofcers of cent (ot Sets) prmeiple Hexcquarcers promecuto.Excore diy ‘qungeneralquingenerie “Fve-hunérod strong etantura Rear pare offre rom vi quo oer ge (pea deamon) erombast Shovel ocromentum Ox of ayy sopitarvsogitarl Archer esquipiearae 1. Turn thrdincommand 2 Papandashat sesteruslestertll Bras coin (equ oi dena) {exteruzertonl nemesis (nil t0 Yo mo) Signaculumisignocua\senory dsc og) sigifer Bearer of sandard ofa con & tame — ‘esponable for unt france Signumsign! |. Standard 2 Watehword abulumitabuit Sable tock ‘tipendi Pay tebulrumitabulari Recor-fice ‘esponable or srr and work pares ‘teal! Shore mound wen dech forward of tenay torqultorquer Neckband = miary decorone trermiltoe Equetran earerstractre (ones cohar = bus egos ~ profes ee) ‘mbunusteibuni- One of sh senor ofcers afer he got, ofa ep {rum situ eon eon: saconde-comaand (erator ak) ‘rou mitten orgs ven wot (equstran rank) {ublcentubienee Musictn who blew the uo. wumpet ed signal commander orders turmafeurmoe Ne unit ellen Plead ‘letudinerumlvaletinaie Hospital ‘esiltioleriladoner Descent, vie paetore. Road leading rom proce t prs patone ‘io principals Principe road excending rose width of fore trom port princpals dere co porte prncpels nse ia quntana Soconory rox paral tw Pincpals, ia sogulers Primer rod around ieanalum ican! Extramural element (oe) itis Centurions este sick| Index aro Curae 37 ‘areca Grass Mat 10 ‘Net and Ronan sldere 51-2 ‘outer 10 ‘rnin Wal 49.23 acing 18,44, 45,523.52 erwin 645 Bena fort 12.23 Brood re 14 16520.24,47, 55, Bronte 2.2 Backer rec 14 Reta Mare Ve 9 breatovere 1616.20 ger 20. Brguees 91.22.39 Brit, Roman 10 (Geurbices 17-40.28,46 Roman congas 9-1 ton Roman sey 10-1 Coldoné 38.38.47 higeur 17 canes 6-77-88 Carewburg for 16.23.31 Cremanain 9 Cele mca 15,31,35, Crate, Quis eos 9°10 Greeoim ore 48,9,51 ‘Cheer regia procs 27.22 (Cher for 16 18, 24-545, 48.52.58 (Gauts Enperoe 9.55 Corie fre 37.39,49.49 50,5455, ‘Corte aes Domi 7.58 Decaunue 3799 ‘eh fonard 314, 1432,33 Drang or 1623, Fea, Quins Pomps 9.1126 forefstions Roman 5-8 foresee 5-6 fore 56. 1629,18,19.2439 Cheraclocks 19-20 2.58 ethene 18, 44, 4,523, By ‘pevuoe 42 (peownye 5.56.7, 18.20,39,48 (povores 18°19, 49,50,51,54 Foi 19.56 Frocura 18.23 Frey 18,22 Cohad tnt 5,40 Fron Sena 7.26 Fronea Parr Comaos 10 Eker orm ac tes 36 Sts nan ter feta 1.56 Semone or te Soran a 5 Hadi Enperor 9 10,11 26.35.56 58 Fears wa 12,13, 1438 ‘stony 2-25.34 ‘onsrucion 23,26-5229,31,33 feson 359 ‘prion 407 Paced extn 2412.28 ges 11 upon 22 ec cnet defects 7. Hatonceters fore 37 igh Howe mec 31.55 Hip Rochester ore 22.23, Hetbancmisese 27 ousaena fre 16, 1822,28. 444750 Sis6 Hounds lace 1617.31.32 Ile 1637 Jove 651 Joel 53.54.58 Limestone Corner 29,33 pene 39| rarcingecanps 5.6.7.8 Mims, ¢ Tsu verre 56 alee 1 16,17.32 35-6 35,36 ary ey a-18 Nepor A Ptr 1.26 Od 53.5455 erst Bun micale 16,36 onpurs 16.20.3740 ang ore 22.23, ruts 27 ry Way 145 Seep 9.901136 Foran amy Siar 31,37,40-7 Pachng 84448, 52-9,52 rxonin 10-11 binge 30-1 ‘atone eta $1.47 Coto paseo 4 ‘hye 1859 food and don 2,49-52 Ieporaes 27, 30-1,30,32.40 Ienire 53-6 53,567 tnd women $7 putthoer foe 37.38 Raseecp 1 Sear Emperor Lc Sepia 8 sists 37 Sout Shi fore 4.39 Say 38 Svante 99.1136 Sten $5.57 Teme 9.11 ICIS AO 88 ‘sce, Roman 3839 ‘pn Empec 35. ‘Tans Cahors §7,8,27,20,32.27 7° eens 13,30 31,51, 57 Wathoues ee 21 ‘Wiond ore 32.2345, 52 55 Wiener ture 4.18 vseeteowers 7 wiloword Ere 12.13,Design, technology and history of key fortresses, strategic positions and defensive systems ustrations OspREY PUBLISHING ‘www. ospreypublishing.com Cutaway artwork Hadrian’s Wall AD 122-410 Hadrian's Wallis the most important monument built by the Romans in Britain. It is the best known frontier in the entire Roman Empire and stands as a reminder of the pas glories ‘of one of the world’s greatest ‘civilisations Its origins lie in 4 Visit by the Emperor Hadsian to Britain in AD 122, when he ‘ordered the wal tobe built to ‘mark the northern boundary ‘of his Empire and ‘to separate the Romans from the Barbarians. ‘This tite detail the design, development and construction of the wall and covers the everyday lives of those who manned it as, ‘well asthe assaults i withstood, SON 1-84175~430-2 NON