METEOROLOGY, WEATHER AND CLIMATE

METEOROLOGY- is the study of phenomena of the atmosphere, which includes the

dynamics, physics, and chemistry of the atmosphere.
WEATHER- short-term variability of the atmosphere (time scales of minutes to
months. Popularly thought in terms of air temperature, air pressure, humidity,
precipitation, clouds, brightness, wind and visibility.
CLIMATE- long-term statistical description of the atmospheric conditions,
accumulation of daily and seasonal weather over a specified period of time- usually
decades.
WHY STUDY METEO ROLOGY:
1. Warning of severe weather
2. Agriculture: timing of planting, harvesting, to avoid bad weather, hazards to
livestock
3. Transport and service- aviation, aviation, road gritting, flood warning
4. Commerce
CLIMATE SYSTEM ELEMENTS:
1. Atmosphere
Composition: 78% N, 21% O, CO2 and H2O minor but potent GHG
Cooling effect during the day, warming effect at night
2. Oceans
Reservoir of water and dissolved gas; contributes most of the water vapor in
the atmosphere; absorb CO2
3. Land surface
This includes, vegetation, exposed soil and rocks, human structures, snow and
ice.
The reflective properties of the land surface affect how the Earth warms.
(Reflectance -- albedo)
Dark surfaces- absorb solar energy and re-radiate it as heat that may be
trapped by GHG (warming effect) -- low albedo eg. Soil, forest
Light surfaces- reflect sunlight back into space in wavelengths not trapped by
GHG (cooling effect) high albedo eg. Snow and ice
Positive feedback on warming when snow and ice melt.
4. Dynamic Elements: Hydrology and air movements
Movement of water within and between elements of the climate system
(evaporating, condensing, raining over land)
Water vapor: warming effects (GHG) and cooling effects (daytime clouds)
5. External: Sun, earths orbit. Shape and position of continents and oceans.
Solar cycles
Orbital variations (Milankovitch cycles): Eccentricity, Obliquity (tilt) and
Precession (direction of tilt)
Atmospheric circulation is driven by the energy from the sun. Warm air is less
dense than cool air. Thus, warm air rises, cool air descends.

Ocean circulation, on the other hand, is driven by both temperature and

salinity (thermohaline circulation). The warm and saltier water sinks.

Other external forcings may be due to volcanic eruptions and anthropogenic

factors. Living organism also play an important element of the climate system.
Biological systems have thermal properties and emit gases that in turn
change climate.
GLOBAL PATTERNS OF CLIMATE: Global circulations affecting
temperature, precipitation and climate in general.

Global Air Circulation persistent global-scale wind systems

George Hadley (1685-1768) an English mathematician first person to explain
the persistent easterly and westerly winds reported by mariners.
Hadley pointed out that the underlying cause of the global winds is that more of
the solar energy reaches the surface at the equator than at the poles. The reason
for this disparity of heat reaching the surface is that the Earth is round. The solar
heat imbalance means that warm equatorial air must flow toward the pole and
cold air must flow toward the equator, creating huge convection cells.
Convection cells would transfer heat from equatorial regions, where the solar
energy is highest, to the poles, where solar input is least. The equatorial region
would be a convergence zone of low pressure (intertropical convergence
zone, ITCZ), while the poles would be high pressure zones.
If the Earth were a non-rotating sphere, one convection cell would carry heat from
the equator all the way to the poles. But since the Earth is not stationary, the
poleward airflow and the equatorward return flow are deflected as a result of the
Coriolis effect
Hadley Cell high-level winds are westerlies (air flowing to the east from the
west) while low-level winds are almost easterlies (air flowing to the west from the
east), which are the northeast trades in the northern hemisphere and the
southeast trades in the southern hemisphere
Ferrel Cell mid-latitude air circulation cell; high-level winds are polar easterlies
while low-level winds are westerlies; named after the American meteorologist
William Ferrel (1817-1891)
Polar Cell lies over the polar regions; cold, dry upper air descends near the
pole, creating a high pressure area of divergence; then the air from this area
moves equatorward in a surface wind system called the polar easterlies. As this
air moves slowly equatorward, it encounters the middle-latitude belt of surface
westerlies in the Ferrel cells. The two wind systems meet along a zone called the

polar front and create a low-pressure zone of convergence that is analogous to

the intertropical convergence zone. The polar front is a region of unstable air
along which severe atmospheric disturbances occur. High-level winds in the polar
cells are westerly.
ITCZ (surface convergence areas), Subtropical high pressure belts (surface
divergence areas)
Prevailing high-level winds poleward of 30N and 30S are all westerlies.

Jet stream high-speed westerly geostrophic wind that occurs at the top of
the troposphere over the polar front where a steep pressure gradient exists
between cold polar air and warm subtropical air
Rosby waves undulations in the flow of jet streams resembling meanders of
streams and rivers
Monsoonal circulation characteristic of regions where local conditions
bring about a seasonal reversal of the direction of surface winds; most distinct
in Asia and Africa; caused mainly by the seasonal movement of the ITCZ

Global Precipitation
There are 3 global belts of high rainfall and 4 of low rainfall.
The high rainfall belts are the 3 regions of convergence the ITCZ and the 2
polar fronts
The 4 belts of low rainfall are the regions of divergence the 2 belts of
subtropical high on latitudes 30S and 30N, and the 2 polar regions.
The effect of the global air-circulation system is most clearly demonstrated by
the distribution of deserts
The Classification of Climates
Kppen and Trewartha Climate Classification
Capital
Designation
Lowercase
Letters
Letters
A
Tropical climates
a
B
Dry Climates
b
C
Low middle-latitude climates
c

Designation
Long, hot summers
Short, warm summers
Short, cool summers

D
E
S
W
T
F
H

High middle-latitude climates

Polar climates
Semiarid
Arid
Tundra
Ice cap
Highland

d
f
w
s
m

Cold summers, cold winters

Precipitation in every month
Dry winter/low sun period
Dry summer
Monsoonal precipitation

Tropical (A) Climates

Year-round high temperatures and abundant rainfall
Af (tropical rainforest, no drought period), Am (tropical monsoon, brief drought
then significant rainfall throughout the remainder of the year), Aw (tropical
savanna, definite drought during one season and rainfall during another)
Dry (B) Climates
Arid areas; evaporation exceeds precipitation
Concentrated in the vicinity of the subtropical high pressure belts centered on
30N and 30S
BS (Steppe/Semiarid), BW(Desert)
Humid Mesothermal (C) Climates
Subtropical latitudes and some middle-latitude areas under the influence of
prevailing westerlies
Cfa (humid subtropical climates), Cs (Mediterranean climate), Cfb (Marine
West Coast climate)
Humid Microthermal (D) Climates
Located in the continental interiors and along east coasts poleward of the C
climates in the Northern Hemisphere
Colder, longer winters and greater seasonal temperature ranges
D climates result from extensive interior areas and from coasts without strong
maritime air influences between 40 and 65N, they do not occur in the
Southern Hemisphere
Dfa (humid, continental long-summer climate), Dfb (humid, continental shortsummer climate), Dfc and Dfd (subarctic climates)
Polar (E) Climates
Continuously cold and dry weather; bitter winter temperatures and the lowest
mean annual temperatures
ET (Tundra climate), EF (Ice cap climate)
Highland (H) Climates
Highly varying temperature and moisture characteristics
Influenced by latitude, land-water distribution, orographic lifting and adiabatic
changes, and, of course, altitude

El Nino/Southern Oscillation

Changing atmospheric pressure anomalies (southern oscillation) over the

equator cause a shift in warm water circulation (El Nino event) of the
equatorial Pacific.
During ENSO events, tradewinds slacken and ocean water upwelling is
markedly reduced. Changes in both the atmosphere and hydrosphere cause
changes in weather patterns.
A La Nina event is accompanied by unusually strong tradewinds shifting warm
water farther west.
In the Philippines, El Nino brings unusually dry weather while La Nina brings
wet weather.
El Nino/La Nina events may occur every 3-7 years.

Climatic Indicators of El Nio in the Philippines

Abnormalities such as:
- delayed onset of the rainy season- early termination of the rainy season- weak
monsoon activity *isolated heavy downpours with short duration- weak tropical
cyclone activity *far tropical cyclone track *less no. of tropical cyclones
entering the PAR *less intense tropical cyclones
Effects of El Nio in the Philippines
In the Philippines, drought events are associated with the occurrence of El Nio
episodes. Second and third order impacts of El Nio related drought events in the
Philippines include:
(a) environmental (degradation of soil which could lead to desert-like conditions if
persistent, effect on water quality like salt water intrusion, high forest/grass/bus
fire risk, domestic water supply shortages, etc.);
(b) social (disruption of normal human activities, migration to urban communities,
human and health problems, etc.); and
(c) economic (unemployment, food shortages, significant reduction in the
productivity and subsequent revenue of various industries, hydro-electric power
generation, etc.).