Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Procrastination is a self-regulatory failure, whose costs are debated. Here, we establish its
impact in the workplace. Using an Internet sample, we assessed 22,053 individuals in terms
of their sex, employment status, employment duration, income, occupational attainment
and level of procrastination. High levels of procrastination is associated with lower salaries,
shorter durations of employment, and a greater likelihood of being unemployed or under
employed rather than working full-time. Also, procrastination partially mediates sexs relationship with these work variables. Women tend to procrastinate less than men, evidently
giving women an employment advantage. If women procrastinated the same as men, there
should be 1.5 million fewer women in full-time employment in the US. alone. Determining
the causes of procrastination in the workplace, we also examined it at an occupational level.
The results strongly support the gravitational hypothesis: jobs that require higher levels of
motivational skills are less likely to retain procrastinators. However, there was some support that jobs can foster procrastination. Procrastinators tend to have jobs that are lower
in intrinsically rewarding qualities.
1. Introduction
bs_bs_banner
can be in our best interests (Fischer, 2001). For example, Berg and Gigerenzer (2010) argue that irrational
behavior, which would include procrastination, has no
established impact, stating that Notably missing is investigation of whether people who deviate from axiomatic
rationality face economically significant losses (p. 133)
and the normative interpretation of deviations as mistakes does not follow from an empirical investigation
linking deviations to negative outcomes (p. 150).
To resolve this issue, we need to better assess its
personal impact in the working world. Also, we address
the role job characteristics play in its prevalence. In particular, we ask Do specific jobs attract procrastinators
or create them?
Procrastinations Impact
procrastination has in the workplace on the individual,
rather than the employer. We investigate the precise
relationship procrastination has with income, employment status and employment duration.
389
(2013) found that ADHD, which typically has procrastination as key symptom, results in a 10% reduction
in employment. As meta-analytically summarized by
Kanfer, Wanberg, and Kantrowitz (2001), conscientiousness is significantly related to job search behaviors
and employment outcomes, including shorter search
duration. Directly examining the relationship between
procrastination and job search is Lay and Brokenshire
(1997), who found that procrastination has a more
consistent relationship with dilatory job search behaviors than conscientiousness. Senecal and Guay (2000)
confirmed that procrastination leads to delay in the job
search while Turban, Lee, da Motta Veiga, Haggard,
and Wu (2013) found that procrastination was related
to fewer number of job interviews. Finally, in award
winning research, Wanberg, Zhu, and van Hooft (2010)
connect unemployment to action-state, essentially the
ability to follow through and not procrastinate on
intentions. Consequently, we put forth these two
hypotheses:
Hypothesis 2a: Procrastination will be associated with a
reduced period of employment.
Hypothesis 2b: Procrastination will be associated with
employment status.
In addition, we also expect procrastination to mediate
the relationship between employment status and sex, as
well as salary and sex. Specifically, we expect procrastination to partially account for the rise of women in the
workplace. As per Statistics Canadas (2011) Labour
Force Survey, women have consistently increased their
percentage of total employment for decades, comprising
approximately 48% of the Canadian workforce in 2009.
Similarly, the U.S. Department of Labor (2009) reports
women comprise approximately 47% of the US workforce in 2009 and are expected to represent the majority of the labor force increase through to 2018. Salaries
have also risen. Although not approaching parity, US
womens wages have increased from approximately 60%
of what men typical make during the 1960s, to approximately 77% today (National Committee on Pay Equity,
2011). This rise is due to a variety of reasons, including
historically greater access to capital and education.
However, basic personality differences between the
sexes might be assisting this process too.
To begin with, women tend to have more selfdiscipline than men (Higgins & Tewksbury, 2006), with
two large-scale investigations specifically showing that
women procrastinate less than men (Grpel & Steel,
2008; Steel, 2007). Second, jobs have increasingly less
supervision, requiring more self-discipline and selfregulation to ensure high performance (Cascio, 1995;
Davis & Blass, 2007). In his review, Cascio (1995)
indicated that continual learning and education for
higher-order thinking is needed in workers as the 21st
century workplace is shifting toward a more virtual,
390
boundary-less, and flexible environment. Thus, this unstructured environment indicates an increasing importance of personality, specifically for procrastination as a
selection tool. Those who are less able to self-regulate
should perform more poorly with research already establishing that procrastination is important for performance, being negatively associated with academic grades,
health, financial well-being and subjective well-being
(Steel, 2007). Combining these two points suggests that
market forces are partially responsible for womens increasing participation and success in todays workplace.
Of note, this self-discipline hypothesis is similar to
what has already been put forth to explain womens
present dominance in education, where they now earn
approximately 55% to 60% of university degrees and
are far more likely to graduate (Goldin, Katz, &
Kuziemko, 2006; Heckman & LaFontaine, 2010; Janosz,
Archambault, Morizot, & Pagani, 2008). Consequently,
procrastination may be the reason for the discrepancy
in educational attainment between women and men. As
Goldin et al. (2006) conclude: One source of the persistent female advantage in K-12 school performance and
the new female lead in college attainment is the higher
incidence of behavioral problems (or lower level of
noncognitive skills) among boys (p. 153). Indeed, Steel
and Ferrari (2012) found that procrastination accounted
for approximately one-third of the variance between
sex and education. Extending this from an educational
realm, where lower average levels of procrastination
help women achieve higher levels of education, we expect that women benefit from lower levels of procrastination in terms of employment status and salary.
Hypothesis 2c: Procrastination will mediate the relationship between employment and sex as well as salary and
sex.
Procrastinations Impact
variety of terminologies, but as used by O*NET, these
ORPs are grouped into the following six categories.
1. Achievement: The job allows accomplishment and the
utilization of ones abilities.
2. Independence: The job permits creativity and personal
initiative.
3. Recognition: The job provides status and prestige.
4. Relationship: The job fosters collegial relationships
and social service.
5. Support: The job is predictable and stable, with supervisors who manage well and provide appropriate
training.
6. Working Conditions: The job is comfortable, and provides a variety of work with little stress.
Jobs where procrastination occurs should have lower
ORP scores, in that the work is not as likely to satisfy
peoples basic needs. As Steel (2007) finds, Consistently
and strongly, the more people dislike a task, the more
they consider it effortful or anxiety producing, the more
they procrastinate (p. 75).
Hypothesis 3a: Procrastination should be negatively correlated with work values.
391
According to Holland (1973) the choice of a vocation is
an expression of personality (p. 6), where we choose or
are chosen for jobs that are compatible with our interests. Of note, whether it is more of the former, where
we choose, or the latter, where we are chosen, is a
matter of contention.
Conscientiousness, the broad trait under which the
personality facet procrastination is subsumed, has been
investigated with RIASEC at both the occupational and
the individual level. At the occupational level, which we
focus upon, Judge, Higgins, Thoresen, and Barrick (1999)
found that those high in conscientiousness tend to be in
investigative jobs. At the individual level however,
Larson, Rottinghaus, and Borgens (2002) meta-analysis
found that openness to experience was the trait most
strongly associated with interest in investigative jobs,
although not necessarily employment. This highlights
Lubinski and Benbows (2000) contention that vocational counseling, which primarily matches people to
occupational preferences, is quite different from
determining whether they will also succeed in that occupation. In any case, since our own investigation is also
at an occupational level, we expect to replicate Judge
et al.s (1999) finding. Notably, procrastination is negatively associated with a task-oriented coping style
(Berzonsky, 1992), which matches the task-oriented disposition seen in investigative jobs.
Hypothesis 3b: Procrastination should be negatively correlated with investigative occupations.
In addition to occupational interests, O*NET provides
information on work styles (Borman, Kubisiak, &
Schneider, 1999). Work styles are key areas of fit between the personality or values of the individual and
that of the occupation or organization. For example, the
job of computer programming requires more analytical
thinking than the job of police officer, which in turn requires considerably more self-control than that of computer programming. O*NET considers six work styles:
1. Achievement/Effort: Requiring goal setting and striving
for work competence.
2. Social Influence: Requiring energy and taking charge.
3. Interpersonal Orientation: Requiring working with others and being cooperative.
4. Adjustment: Requiring maturity and self-control in
emotionally challenging situations.
5. Conscientiousness: Requiring dependability and commitment to the job.
6. Practical Intelligence: Requiring logical thinking and
finding creative, innovative solutions.
Given the nature of procrastination, we expect negative
correlations with all work styles except two: interpersonal orientation and practical intelligence. As Steels
(2007) meta-analytic review indicates, procrastination
is associated with reduced planning and need for
392
achievement (i.e., Achievement/Effort), reduced energy
(i.e., Social Influence), less self-control (i.e., Adjustment),
and lower levels of conscientiousness (see also Grpel
& Steel, 2008). On the other hand, procrastinations
correlation with extraversion (i.e., Interpersonal Orientation) was weak (.13) and nonexistent with intelligence (i.e., Practical Intelligence). Conscientiousness
according to the O*NET work styles involves commitment to the job and is influenced by affective commitment, one of three components of the job commitment
model (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Those with high affective
commitment are more motivated on the job and consequently these individuals procrastinate less.
Hypothesis 3c: Procrastination should be negatively correlated with achievement/effort, social influence, adjustment and conscientiousness.
2. Method
2.1. Procedure
Data collection was conducted similar to Rentfrow,
Gosling, and Potter (2008). That is, self-reported procrastination and demographic information was obtained
over the World Wide Web using a noncommercial,
advertisement free website. In return for their involvement, respondents received feedback about their comparative level of procrastination and some suggestions
regarding ways to reduce it. Respondents were attracted to the website through a variety of ways:
50.8% referring sites, 27.3% search engines, and 21.9%
direct traffic. This methodology permits gathering a
large and diverse sample needed to detect small mediation effects. Also, Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava, and
John (2004) found that web-based surveys like this
usually provide results consistent with traditional
methodologies.
Data collection occurred over 3 years, between
March 2007 and March 2010, imbedded in a series of
other data collection efforts regarding procrastination.
The procrastination scale used was the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS; Steel, 2010), containing nine items
such as When I should be doing one thing, I will do another. The scale has been previously validated in a scale
development study and shows good discriminant and
convergent validity when administered either via Internet or paper and pencil, including correlating well with
observed procrastination behavior (Steel, 2002, 2010).
Specifically, the IPS has demonstrated good convergent
validity, correlating at .87 with the Pure Procrastination
Scale, which is itself composed of the first factor extracted from the three other widely used procrastination scales. It has shown divergent validity with
conscientiousness (.45) and self-discipline (.61), as well
as adequate test-retest reliability after 4 months (.67). It
is also correlated at .41 with observed academic delay.
In addition, we assessed a variety of work and demographic variables. Respondents indicated their sex, age,
work status (i.e., unemployed, part-time, full-time), job
duration, annual income, and occupational description.
Participants who filled out the survey received feedback
on their procrastination along with some advice on how
to improve their behavior. See Table 1 for response
categories.
Procrastinations Impact
393
Table 2. Mean procrastination levels and percentile rank associated with jobs from a sample of occupations
Characteristic
Occupation
Sex
Male
Female
Employment status
Unemployed
Working part-time
Working full-time
Annual income
Less than $10,000
$10,000 to $20,000
$20,000 to $30,000
$30,000 to $40,000
$40,000 to $50,000
$50,000 to $60,000
$60,000 to $75,000
$75,000 to $100,000
$100,000 to $200,000
$200,000+
Procrastination
9,885
12,115
44.9
55.1
3.69
3.54
1,253
2,420
12,297
7.8
15.1
77.0
3.92
3.71
3.50
3,511
1,848
1,749
1,682
1,697
1,581
1,764
2,069
2,426
794
18.4
9.7
9.1
8.8
8.9
8.3
9.2
10.8
12.7
4.2
3.85
3.83
3.70
3.59
3.55
3.52
3.50
3.47
3.36
3.28
3. Results
Consistent with the results of Steel (2010), the IPS
proved to be high reliable ( = .91; SD = .85). Descript-
Rank
Mean (SD)
22
20
18
14
37
100.0
98.7
98.3
97.4
96.5
4.39 (.64)
4.04 (.20)
3.91 (.18)
3.89 (.22)
3.87 (.13)
25
274
416
63
569
74.8
75.7
65.2
45.3
27.0
3.64 (.17)
3.66 (.05)
3.59 (.04)
3.53 (.73)
3.46 (.76)
162
111
28
20
26
9.4
7.5
4.4
1.9
2.5
3.32 (.79)
3.25 (.72)
3.20 (.81)
3.14 (.73)
3.16 (.85)
394
that procrastination has with income is stronger for
men than women.
Procrastinations Impact
395
M (SD)
SE B
Sig.
Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional
2.63 (1.65)
3.62 (2.01)
2.98 (1.77)
3.84 (1.97)
4.35 (1.96)
4.31 (1.58)
.018
.028
.012
.018
.031
.022
.012
.010
.012
.009
.012
.015
.152
.283
.111
.178
.290
.169
.119
.007
.328
.06
.011
.133
Note: R2 = .13.
Conditions (R2 = .12, F(1, 149) = 20.71, p < .001). Hypothesis 3a is supported; procrastinators tend to occupy jobs lacking value altogether.
To investigate the gravitational hypothesis, we duplicated Judge et al.s (1999) methodology and conducted a
WLS multiple regression analysis using all six of Hollands RIASEC occupational interest typology: realistic,
investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. The results are reported in Table 3, R2 = .13
(F(6,144) = 3.72, p = .002). As can be seen, procrastinators do not tend to be in investigative jobs. Hypothesis
3b is supported.
Finally, to investigate work styles, we used WLS regression. Examining each work style separately, we obtained these results, all statistically significant and again
all negative in direction: Achievement/Effort (R2 = .13,
F(1,146) = 20.86, p < .001); Social Influence (R2 = .18,
F(1, 146) = 32.48, p < .001); Interpersonal Orientation
(R2 = .06, F(1, 146) = 9.15, p = .003); Adjustment (R2 =
.10, F(1, 146) = 16.52, p < .001); Conscientiousness
(R2 = .13, F(1, 146) = 21.66, p < .001); and Practical
Intelligence (R2 = .09, F(1, 146) = 15.16, p < .001).
Hypothesis 3c is supported. Although interpersonal
orientation and practical intelligence were not predicted as being influential, they were the two work
styles with the lowest association with procrastination.
It appears that procrastination is significantly more
common in jobs that require a substantial degree of
motivational characteristics.
4. Discussion
As George Ainslie, one of the research pioneers in the
area of motivation, puts it, In a prosperous society
most misery is self-inflicted. We smoke, eat and drink
to excess, and become addicted to drugs, gambling,
credit card abuse, destructive emotional relationships,
and simple procrastination, usually while attempting
not to do so (Ainslie, 2005, p. 635). Indeed, the findings here confirm that the last of these, procrastination, is indeed associated with unhappiness. We
provide here the first detailed estimates of its potential
impact on employment.
To begin with, procrastination is significantly associated with lower income. A single point increase in
procrastination on a 5-point scale is associated with approximately a $15,000 drop in salary, with the relationship being slightly stronger for men than women. This
suggests that procrastination could be the most important personality trait associated with income that we
have yet identified, perhaps second to agreeableness.
Furthermore, procrastination is associated with reduced
employment. This time, a single point increase in procrastination on a 5-point scale is associated with, on average, 322 fewer days of employment. If we split our
procrastination distribution into two groups, procrastinators and nonprocrastinators, we would find that
procrastinators comprise 57% of the unemployed. Similarly, of those working part-time rather than full-time,
procrastinators would comprise only 44% of full-time
workers compared to 56% of full-time workers who
would be nonprocrastinators. Although these results
are based on correlational data, previous research on
constructs related to procrastination strongly indicates
these relationships are likely causal (e.g., Clarke &
Robertson, 2005; Wanberg et al., 2010).
Of particular interest is that procrastination mediated
the relationship between sex and employment and sex
and salary. Potentially, procrastination partially accounts
for women gaining ground in the workforce. Women
procrastinate less than men and appear to reap a competitive advantage because of it. If women were to procrastinate at the same level as men and the apparent
competitive advantage was removed, we would expect
over 1.5 million fewer women in full-time employment
in the US alone and the ones that remain would likely
be paid several thousands of dollars less.
Consistent with the Theory of Purposeful Work Behavior
(Barrick et al., 2013), we considered whether job characteristics might contribute to the degree of procrastination. Jobs do differ in the degree of observed
396
procrastination and there was some support that jobs
create procrastination; that is, the jobs procrastinators
tend to hold seem uniquely suited to promote procrastination. The relationship between procrastination
and work values was consistently negative, supporting
Ainslies observation that procrastination can be instilled
or inflicted. In short, procrastinators tend to be in jobs
that are lower in characteristics that would provide
motivation. On the other hand, there was consistent
support for the gravitational hypothesis, that procrastinators seek jobs that are commensurate with their
self-disciplinary skills. Procrastinators tend to be in jobs
that do not require definite work styles, with the
top four in order of strength being: Social Influence (i.e.,
requiring energy), Conscientiousness (i.e., requiring
dependability), Achievement/Effort (i.e., requiring planning), and Adjustment (i.e., requiring self-control). Similarly, they do not tend to be in jobs requiring
investigative work, which requires organizational skills
that they do not tend to possess. Also, in support of
Meyer et al.s (2009) work, procrastinators tend to be
in jobs with high constraint, which is plausible from a
labor market perspective. A performance enhancing
trait like conscientiousness or low procrastination concentrates in jobs where it is most valuable: ones with
high levels of autonomy.
Procrastinations Impact
some mitigation of this trend is possible. As Carr (2010)
argues, we have actually created a workplace that makes
it exceedingly hard to maintain focused attention. Instead, we can design jobs that are inherently motivating
instead of over-relying on the self-motivation of employees. This would benefit both the employer and employee, regardless of their sex. On the other hand, since
procrastination affects almost every stage in career development, from school performance to the job search,
womens slight advantage in self-control repeatedly
comes into play, increasing its overall importance in life
achievements. Under these conditions, womens rise in
the workforce will continue.
References
Ainslie, G. (2005). Prcis of breakdown of will. Behavioral and
Brain Sciences, 28, 635650.
Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K., & Li, N. (2013). The theory of
purposeful work behavior: The role of personality, higherorder goals, and job characteristics. Academy of Management
Review, 38, 132153.
Behling, O. (1998). Employee selection: Will intelligence and
conscientiousness do the job? Academy of Management Executive, 12, 7786.
Berg, N., & Gigerenzer, G. (2010). As-if behavioral economics:
Neoclassical economics in disguise? History of Economic Ideas,
18, 133165.
Berzonsky, M. D. (1992). Identity style and coping strategies.
Journal of Personality, 60, 771788.
Borman, W. C., Kubisiak, U. C., & Schneider, R. J. (1999).
Work styles. In N. G. Peterson, M. D. Mumford, W. C.
Borman, P. R. Jeanneret, & E. A. Fleishman (Eds.), An occupational information system for the 21st century: The development
of O*NET (pp. 213226). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Byrne, A., Blake, D., Cairns, A., & Dowd, K. (2006). Theres no
time like the present: The cost of delaying retirement saving. Financial Services Review, 15, 213231.
Campion, M., Mumford, T., Morgeson, F., & Nahrgang, J.
(2005). Work redesign: Eight obstacles and opportunities.
Human Resource Management, 44, 367390.
Carr, N. (2010). The shallows: What the Internet is dong to our
brains. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Cascio, W. F. (1995). Whither industrial and organizational
psychology in a changing world of work? American Psychologist, 50, 928939.
Christiansen, C. (1999). Defining lives: Occupation as identity:
An essay on competence, coherence, and the creation of
meaning. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 53,
547558.
Clarke, S., & Robertson, I. T. (2005). A meta-analytic review of
the Big Five personality factors and accident involvement in
occupational and non-occupational settings. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78, 355376.
Connelly, B., & Ones, D. (2007). Combining conscientiousness
scales: Cant get enough of the trait, baby. Paper presented
at the 22nd Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial
and Organizational Psychology, New York City.
397
DAbate, C., & Eddy, E. (2007). Engaging in personal business
on the job: Extending the presenteeism construct. Human
Resource Development Quarterly, 18, 361383.
Davis, A., & Blass, E. (2007). The future workplace: Views
from the floor. Futures, 39, 3852.
Dawis, R., & Lofquist, L. (1984). A psychological theory of work
adjustment. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press
Minneapolis.
Dudley, N., Orvis, K., Lebiecki, J., & Cortina, J. (2006). A metaanalytic investigation of conscientiousness in the prediction
of job performance: Examining the intercorrelations and the
incremental validity of narrow traits. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 4057.
Ferrari, J. R., Diaz-Morales, J. F., OCallaghan, J., Diaz, K., &
Argumedo, D. (2007). Frequent behavioral delay tendencies
by adults: International prevalence rates of chronic procrastination. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 458464.
Ferrari, J. R., Doroszko, E., & Joseph, N. (2005). Exploring procrastination in corporate settings: Sex, status, and settings
for arousal and avoidance types. Individual Differences Research, 3, 140149.
Fischer, C. (2001). Read this paper later: Procrastination with
time-consistent preferences. Journal of Economic Behavior &
Organization, 46, 249269.
Fletcher, J. (2013). The effects of childhood ADHD on adult
labor market outcomes (Working Paper 18689). Available
National Bureau of Economic Research at: http://www
.nber.org/papers/w18689 (accessed 15 January 2013).
Goldin, C., Katz, L. F., & Kuziemko, I. (2006). The homecoming of American college women: The reversal of the college
gender gap. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20, 133
156.
Gosling, S., Vazire, S., Srivastava, S., & John, O. (2004). Should
we trust web-based studies? A comparative analysis of six
preconceptions about internet questionnaires. American Psychologist, 59, 93104.
Grpel, P., & Steel, P. (2008). A mega-trial investigation of goal
setting, interest enhancement, and energy on procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 406411.
Hammer, C. A., & Ferrari, J. R. (2002). Differential incidence of
procrastination between blue- and white-collar workers.
Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social,
21, 333338.
Heckman, J. J., & LaFontaine, P. A. (2010). The American high
school graduation rate: Trends and levels. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 92, 244262.
Higgins, G. E., & Tewksbury, R. (2006). Sex and Self-Control
Theory: The measures and causal model may be different.
Youth Society, 37, 479503.
Holland, J. (1973). Making vocational choices: A theory of careers.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Janosz, M., Archambault, I., Morizot, J., & Pagani, L. S. (2008).
School engagement trajectories and their differential
predictive relations to dropout. Journal of Social Issues, 64,
2140.
Judge, T., Higgins, C., Thoresen, C., & Barrick, M. (1999). The
big five personality traits, general mental ability, and career
success across the life span. Personnel Psychology, 52, 621
652.
Judge, T., Livingston, B., & Hurst, C. (2012). Do nice guys
and gals really finish last? The joint effects of sex and
398
agreeableness on income. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 390407.
Judge, T. A., & Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D. (2012). General
and specific measures in organizational behavior research:
Considerations, examples, and recommendations for
researchers. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33, 161
174.
Kanfer, R., Wanberg, C. R., & Kantrowitz, T. M. (2001). Job
search and employment: A personality motivational analysis
and meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86,
837855.
Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C.
(2006). Perceived applicant fit: Distinguishing between
recruiters perceptions of personjob and person
organization fit. Personnel Psychology, 53, 643671.
Laliberte-Rudman, D. (2002). Linking occupation and identity:
Lessons learned through qualitative exploration. Journal of
Occupational Science, 9, 1219.
Larson, L. M., Rottinghaus, P. J., & Borgen, F. H. (2002). Metaanalysis of Big Six interests and Big Five personality factors.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61, 217239.
Lay, C. H., & Brokenshire, R. (1997). Conscientiousness, procrastination, and persontask characteristics in job searching
by unemployed adults. Current Psychology: Developmental,
Learning, Personality, Social, 16, 8396.
Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2000). States of excellence.
American Psychologist, 55, 137150.
Mehrabian, A. (2000). Beyond IQ: Broad-based measurement
of individual success potential or emotional intelligence.
Genetic, Social, & General Psychology Monographs, 126, 133
239.
Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1991). A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Resource
Management Review, 1, 6189.
Meyer, R. D., Dalal, R. S., & Bonaccio, S. (2009). A metaanalytic investigation into the moderating effects of situational strength on the conscientiousnessperformance
relationship. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30, 1077
1102.
National Committee on Pay Equity. (2011). The wage gap over
time. Available at http://www.pay-equity.org/info-time.html
(accessed 15 January 2012).
ODonoghue, T., & Rabin, M. (1999). Procrastination in preparing for retirement. In H. J. Aaron (Ed.), Behavioral dimensions of retirement economics (pp. 125156). New York:
Brookings Institution Press.
ONeill, T. A., & Paunonen, S. V. (2013). Breadth in personality
assessment: Implications for the understanding and prediction of work behavior. In N. Christiansen & R. Tett (Eds.),
Handbook of personality at work (pp. 299332). New York:
Routledge Academic.
Ones, D., & Viswesvaran, C. (2003). Job-specific applicant
pools and national norms for personality scales: Implications
for range-restriction corrections in validation research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 570577.
Partnoy, F. (2012). Wait: The art and science of delay. New
York: Public Affairs.
Peterson, N. G., Mumford, M. D., Borman, W. C., Jeanneret,
P. R., Fleishman, E. A., Levin, K. Y., Campion, M. A.,
Mayfield, M. S., Morgeson, F. P., & Pearlman, K. (2001). Understanding work using the Occupational Information Net-
Procrastinations Impact
istics from a global sample. European Journal of Personality, 27,
5158.
Steel, P., Johnson, J. W., Jeanneret, P. R., Scherbaum, C. A.,
Hoffman, C. C., & Foster, J. (2010). At sea with synthetic
validity. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 3, 371383.
Steel, P., & Kammeyer-Mueller, J. (2009). Using a meta-analytic
perspective to enhance job component validation. Personnel
Psychology, 62, 533552.
Steel, P. D., Huffcutt, A. I., & Kammeyer-Mueller, J. (2006).
From the work one knows the worker: A systematic review
of the challenges, solutions, and steps to creating synthetic
validity. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 14,
1636.
Taras, D., Steel, P., & Ponak, A. (2010). Personality and time
delay among arbitrators. Philadelphia, PA: Labour Arbitration
Conference.
Turban, D. B., Lee, F. K., da Motta Veiga, S. P., Haggard, D. L.,
& Wu, S. Y. (2013). Be happy, dont wait: The role of trait
affect in job search. Personnel Psychology, 66, 132. doi:
10.1111/peps.12027.
399
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2009).
Employment and earnings, 2009 annual averages and the
monthly labor review. Available at http://www.dol.gov/wb/
stats/main.htm (accessed 20 November 2010).
Venti, S. (2006). Choice, behavior and retirement saving. In G.
Clark, A. Munnell, & M. Orszag (Eds.), Oxford handbook of
pensions and retirement income (Vol. 1, pp. 2130). Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Wanberg, C., Zhu, J., & van Hooft, E. A. J. (2010). The job
search grind: Perceived progress, self-reactions, and selfregulation of search effort. Academy of Management Journal,
53, 788807.
Wilk, S., Desmarais, L. B., & Sackett, P. (1995). Gravitation to jobs commensurate with ability: Longitudinal and
cross-sectional tests. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 79
85.
Withey, M. J., Gellatly, I. R., & Annett, M. (2005). The moderating effect of situation strength on the relationship between
personality and provision of effort. Journal of Applied Social
Psychology, 35, 15871608.