Mirrors Prisms and Lenses

flsWi^.
i.Lû'
y?qin\s^
0C-;
,,:.,.
MIRRORS, PRISMS AND LENSES
?&&&
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK
BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS

ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO
MACMILLAN &
LONDON
CO., Limited
BOMBAY CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN
CO. OF
TORONTO
CANADA,
Ltd.
MIRRORS, PRISMS AND
LENSES
A TEXT-BOOK OF GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
BY
JAMES
P. C.
SOUTHALL
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

AUTHOR OF " THE PRINCIPLES AND METHODS
OF GEOMETRICAL OPTICS "

1918
All rights reserved
Copyright, 1918
By THE MACMILLAN
Set up and electrotyped.
<2>fc
COMPANY
Published December, 1918.
84
c.
is
PREFACE
In spite of the existence of a number of excellent works
on geometrical optics, the need of a text-book which will serve
as an introduction to the theory of modern optical instruments appears to be generally recognized; and the present
volume, which is the outgrowth of a course of lectures on
optics given in Columbia University, has been written in
the hope that it may answer this purpose.
In a certain
sense it may be considered as an abridgment of my treatise
on The Principles and Methods of Geometrical Optics, but
the reader will also find here a considerable mass of more or
less new and original material which is not contained in the
larger book. I have endeavored, however, to keep steadily
in
mind the
the work
is
limitations of the class of students for
whom
primarily intended and to employ, therefore,
only the simplest mathematical processes as far as possible.
With
this object in
I have purposely entered into much

and more elementary portions of the
fact the method which has been found
view
detail in the earlier
subject, following in
most satisfactory with my own pupils; but I venture

hope that the book may be not without interest also to
readers who already possess a certain knowledge of the
to be
to
subject.
Recent years have witnessed extraordinary progress in

both ophthalmology and applied optics. Not many persons
are aware of the rapid rate at which spectacle optics, in particular, is
developing into a severe scientific pursuit; and
there are certain portions of this volume which I think will
be helpful to the modern oculist and optometrist. Thus,

for example, I have been at some pains to explain the fundamental principles of ophthalmic lenses and prisms.
In general, however, I have necessarily had to omit much
Preface
vi
that
is
essential to a
thorough knowledge of the theory of
In fact, in the space at my disposal

has been found quite impossible to describe a single one
of these instruments in detail. In the latter portion of the
optical instruments.
it
book the theory

is
of the chromatic
and spherical aberrations
treated as briefly as possible; and I have given
Von
SeidePs
formulae for the five spherical aberrations in the case of a
system of
infinitely thin lenses, chiefly
because these formulae
are exceedingly useful in the preliminary design of an optical
But a complete discussion of these subjects would

beyond the plan of this volume.
The problems appended to each chapter were originally
collected for the use of my pupils and are generally of a very
elementary description. A few of them have been adapted
from other text-books, but in such cases I have now lost sight
system.
lie
far
of their sources.
perchance this book should help to stimulate the study

and universities, the author will feel
abundantly repaid. Unfortunately, at present geometrical
If
of optics in our colleges
would seem to be a kind of Cinderella
optics
ulum
in the curric-
of physics, regarded perhaps with a certain friendly
toleration as a mathematical discipline not without value,

but hardly permitted to take rank on equal terms with her
sister branches of physics. On the contrary, it might be inferred that any system of knowledge which had already
placed at the disposal of scientific investigators such incomparable means of research as are provided by modern
optical instruments, and which has found so many useful
applications in the arts of both peace and war, would be deserving of the highest recognition and would be fostered and
encouraged in all possible ways. According to the maxim,
fas est et ab hoste doceri, the fact that from the time of Fraun-
hofer the
Germans have not ceased to cultivate this field of

and applied science with notable achievements,
theoretical
is
certainly not without significance for us in this country
and
in
England.
Indeed, both in England and in France,
Preface
vii
apparently due to the exigencies of war, schools of applied
have recently been organized.

Nearly all of the diagrams in this volume were drawn by
my friends, Professor Joseph Hudnut, Dr. B. A. Wooten and
Mr. J. G. Sparkes, to whom I am much indebted. I desire
also to express my grateful acknowledgments to my colleague, Professor H. W. Farwell, for numerous valuable
criticisms from time to time and especially for aid in making
the photographic illustrations in Chapter II.
Any suggestions or corrections which may improve and
extend the usefulness of the book will be appreciated.
James P. C. Southall.
Columbia University,
New York, N. Y.,
optics
April 4, 1918.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
Lights and
Shadows
Pages
Sections
1-27
1-11.
1.
Luminous Bodies
2.
Transparent and Opaque Bodies

Rectilinear Propagation of Light
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1-3
Shadows, Eclipses, etc

Wave Theory of Light
Huygens's Construction of the Wave-Front
Rays of Light are Normal to the Wave-Surface ....
The Direction and Location of a Luminous Point.
.
Field of
View
10.
Apparent Size
11.
The
Effective
9,
10
10-13
13-15
15-18
18,
19
20-22
23-25
Rays
25-27
Problems
CHAPTER
Reflection of Light.
II
Plane Mirrors
Pages
Sections
26-63
12-25.
12.
Regular and Diffuse Reflection
13.
Law
14.
Huygens's Construction
15.
Image
16.
The
28-30
30-32
of Reflection
of the
of Reflection at a Plane
Wave-Front
in case
Mirror
in a Plane Mirror
Field of
View
of a Plane Mirror
17. Successive Reflections
18.
3-5
6-9
Images in a System
of
from
Two
Two
Inclined Mirrors
ix
Plane Mirrors
33-37
37-40
40-43
43
43-48
Contents
Pages
Sections
19.
Construction of the Path of a
Ray
Reflected into
48-50
the Eye from a Pair of Inclined Mirrors

Rectangular Combinations of Plane Mirrors
21. Applications of the Plane Mirror
22. Porte Lumiere and Heliostat
23. Measurement of the Angle of a Prism
50, 51
20.
Angular
24.
Measure
25.
Hadley's Sextant
Problems
of
Deflections
52, 53
53-55
55
by Mirror and
56-58
58-60
Scale
60-63
CHAPTER
III
Refraction of Light
Pages
Sections
64-94
26-39.
26.
Passage of Light from One
27.
Law
28.
Experimental Proof of the
Medium
to Another. ...
of Refraction
29. Reversibility of the Light
Law
65
65-67
64,
67-69
of Refraction
Path
69
Values of the Index of Refraction

31. Huygens's Construction of a Plane Wave Refracted
70
at a Plane Surface
Mechanical Illustration of the Refraction of a Plane
70-72
30. Limiting
32.
Wave
72,73
74-76
Index of Refraction
34. Construction of the Refracted Ray
35. Deviation of the Refracted Ray
33. Absolute
76-78
36. Total Reflection

37.
Experimental Illustrations of Total Reflection.
38. Generalization of the
fraction.
Principle
Laws
of
of Reflection
Least
and Re-
Time (Fermat's
86-89
Law)
39.
The
78
78-83
83-86
Optical Length of the Light-Path and the
Law
Malus
89-91
Problems
92-94
of
Contents
CHAPTER
xi
IV
Refraction at a Plane Surface and also through a Plate

with Plane Parallel Faces
Sections
Pages
40-47.
95-112
40. Trigonometric
Calculation of
Ray
Refracted at a
Plane Surface
95, 96
42.
Imagery in a Plane Refracting Surface by Rays

which Meet the Surface Nearly Normally
Image of a Point Formed by Rays that are Ob-
43.
The Image-Lines
44.
Path
45.
Segments of a Straight Line

104, 105
Apparent Position of an Object seen through a
Transparent Slab whose Parallel Sides are Per-
41.
liquely Refracted at a Plane Surface

of a
98, 99
Narrow Bundle
of
Rays Re-
fracted Obliquely at a Plane

of a
100
Ray Refracted Through a Slab with Plane

101-103
Parallel Sides
46.
96-98
105-107
pendicular to the Line of Sight
Images in the two Parallel Faces of a Plate

Glass Mirror
107-110
Problems
110-112
47. Multiple
CHAPTER V
Refraction through a Prism
Pages
Sections
113-148
48-62.
48. Definitions etc
49. Construction of
50.
51.
Path
of a
Ray Through
a Prism.
The Deviation of a Ray by a Prism

Grazing Incidence and Grazing Emergence
52.
Minimum
53.
Deviation away from the Edge of the Prism
116, 117
117, 118
119-122
Deviation
54. Refraction of a
Plane
113
113-116
Wave Through
55. Trigonometric Calculation of the
a Principal Section of a Prism
122, 123
a Prism
Path
of a
Ray
123, 124
in
124, 125
Contents
xii
Sections
Pages
Total Reflection at the Second Face of the Prism.

125-128
57. Perpendicular Emergence at the Second Face of
56.
58.
the Prism
Case when the Ray Traverses the Prism Symmet-
59.
Minimum
rically
129
129
129-133
Deviation
Ray by Thin Prism

133, 134
an Ophthalmic Prism.
Centrad and
Prism-Dioptry
134-138
Position and Power of a Resultant Prism Equivalent to Two Thin Prisms
138-142
Problems
142-148
60. Deviation of
61.
62.
Power
of
CHAPTER
VI
Reflection and Refraction of Paraxial
Rays
at a Spherical
Surface
Section^
Pages
63-86.
149-216
63. Introduction.
149-153
Definitions, Notation, etc
Rays at a Spherical Mirror ...

Definition and Meaning of the Double Ratio
Perspective Ranges of Points
The Harmonic Range
64. Reflection of Paraxial
65.
66.
67.
68. Application to the
153-156
156-159
159-161
161-164
Case of the Reflection of Par-
Rays at a Spherical Mirror

164-166
Focal Point and Focal Length of a Spherical Mirror 166-168
Graphical Method of Exhibiting the Imagery by
Paraxial Rays
168-171
axial
69.
70.
71. Extra-Axial
72.
The
Conjugate Points
171-175
Lateral Magnification
73. Field of
View
176
176-179
of a Spherical Mirror
74. Refraction of Paraxial
Rays
at a Spherical Surface
75. Reflection Considered as a Special
Case
tion
76. Construction
Axial Point
179-182
of Refrac-
182,
of
the Point
M'
183
Conjugate to the
183-186
Contents
xiii
Pages
Sections
77.
The Focal Points
(F, F') of a Spherical Refracting
Surface
186-190
78. Abscissa-Equation Referred
Vertex of the
to the
Spherical Refracting Surface as Origin

79.
The Focal Lengths
/,
190, 191
of a Spherical Refracting
191-193
Surface
Points; Conjugate
Conjugate
80. Extra-Axial
Planes
of a Spherical Refracting Surface
193, 194
81. Construction of the Point Q'
which with respect to

a Spherical Refracting Surface is Conjugate to
the Extra- Axial Point
82. Lateral
Magnification
fracting
83.
for
194-196
case
of
Spherical
Re-
Surface
The Focal Planes
196
of a Spherical
Refracting Sur-
197-199
face
84. Construction of Paraxial
ical
85.
86.
Ray
Refracted at a Spher199, 200
Surface
The Image-Equations in the case of Refraction

Paraxial Rays at a Spherical Surface
The so-called Smith-Helmholtz Formula
of
200, 201
201, 202
203-216
Problems
CHAPTER
VII
Refraction of Paraxial Rays through an Infinitely Thin
Lens
Pages
Sections
217-257
87-98.
89.
217-223
Forms of Lenses
The Optical Center O of a Lens surrounded by the
223-226
same Medium on both sides
The Abscissa-Formula of a Thin Lens, referred to
90.
The Focal Points
87.
88.
the Axial Point of the Lens as Origin

91. Construction
Axial Point
Lens
of
226-229
229-232
Thin Lens
the Point M' Conjugate to the
with respect to an Infinitely Thin
of
an
Infinitely
232-234
Contents
xiv
Pages
Sections
Conjugate
92. Extra-Axial
Points
Q'; Conjugate
Q,
234-236
Planes
Magnification in case of Infinitely Thin
93. Lateral
236, 237
Lens
237-240
Imagery in a Thin Lens
The Focal Lengths /, /' of an Infinitely Thin
240-242
Lens
Central Collineation of Object-Space and Image242-244
Space
Central Collineation (cont'd). Geometrical Con-
94. Character of the

95.
96.
97.
244-247
247-249
structions
98. Field of
View
of
an
Infinitely
Thin Lens
249-257
Problems
CHAPTER
Change
Wave-front in Reflection and
of Curvature of the
Refraction.
VII
Dioptry System
Pages
Sections
258-299
99-110.
99.
Concerning Curvature and
its
Measure
Wave at a Plane Surface.

Spherical Wave at a Spherical Sur-
100. Refraction of a Spherical
101. Refraction of a
269-274
face
Spherical
Wave
a Spherical
finitely Thin Lens
104. Reduced Distance
Wave
102. Reflection
of
at
a Spherical
274-276
Mirror
103. Refraction
of
through an In-
105.
The Refracting Power
106.
Reduced Abscissa and Reduced "Vergence"
107.
The Dioptry
108.
Lens-Gauge
as Unit of Curvature
281-284
284-286
286-288
289
Rays through a Thin Lens289-291
System
Problems
276-279
279-281
288,
110. Prismatic
258-265
265-269
Power
of a
Thin Lens
291-295
295-299
Contents
xv
CHAPTER IX
Astigmatic Lenses
Pages
Sections
"
111-116.
111.
300-328
Curvature and Refracting Power of a Normal Sec300-305

tion of a Curved Refracting Surface
112. Surfaces of Revolution.
Cylindrical and Toric Sur-
305-310
faces
113. Refraction of a
114.
Narrow Bundle
of
Rays
incident
Normally on a Cylindrical Refracting Surface.

Thin Cylindrical and Toric Lenses
115. Transposing of Cylindrical Lenses
116. Obliquely Crossed Cylinders
Problems
310-314
314-318
318-320
320-326
326-328
CHAPTER X
Geometrical Theory of the Symmetrical Optical
Instrument
Sections
Pages
329-255
117-124.
Method of tracing the Path of a Paraxial

Ray through a Centered System of Spherical Re-
117. Graphical
329-331
fracting Surfaces
Path of a Paraxial Ray through

a Centered System of Spherical Refracting Sur-
118. Calculation of the
332-334
an Optical System 334-339
120. Construction of the Image-point Q' conjugate to an
Extra-Axial Object-Point Q
339, 340
121. Construction of the Nodal Points, N, N'
340-342
122. The Focal Lengths/,/'
342-344
123. The Image-Equations in the case of a Symmetrical
Optical System
344-349
faces
119.
The
124.
The Magnification-Ratios and
so-called Cardinal Points of
their
Mutual Rela-
tions
349-351
Problems
351-355
Contents
xvi
CHAPTER XI
Compound Systems. Thick Lenses and Combinations
of
Lenses and Mirrors

Pages
Sections
356-396
125-132.
125. Formulae for
126. Formulae for
Combination
Combination
of
of
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
Optical Systems 356-359

Optical Systems
Power
360-362
362-365
Thick Lenses Bounded by Spherical Surfaces
The so-called "Vertex Refraction" of a ThickLens 365, 366
366-370
Combination of Two Lenses
Optical Constants of Gullstrand's Schematic Eye 370-374
374-376
Combination of Three Optical Systems
376-384
"Thick Mirror"
384-396
Problems
in terms of the Refracting
127.
Two
Two
CHAPTER
XII
Aperture and Field of Optical System
Pages
Sections
397-424
133-143.
139.
Ray-Bundles by Diaphragms or Stops 397-399

399-401
Pupils of the System.
401-404
Illustrations
Aperture-Angle. Case of Two or More Entrance-Pupils 404-406
406-409
Field of View
Field of View of System Consisting of a Thin Lens
409-413
and the Eye
413, 414
The Chief Rays
140.
The
133. Limitation of
134.
135.
136.
137.
138.
The Aperture-Stop and the
so-called " Blur-Circles"
sion)
141.
The
(or Circles of Diffu-
in the Screen-Plane
Pupil-Centers
as
Object-Space and Image-Space

Proper Distance of Viewing a Photograph
143. Perspective Elongation of Image
144. Telecentric Systems
142.
Problems
414-416
Centers of Perspective of
416, 417
417-419
419
420-423
423, 424
Contents
CHAPTER
Optical
System
xvii
XIII
Magnifying Power of Optical

Instruments
Pages
of the Eye.
Sections
425-464
145-159.
145.
The Human Eye
425-431
Eye
the Eye
431-433
146. Optical Constants of the

147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
Accommodation of
433, 434
Far Point and Near Point of the Eye
434, 435
Decrease of the Power of Accommodation with Increasing Age
435, 436
Changes of Refracting Power in Accommodation. 436, 437
437-^39
Amplitude of Accommodation
.
152. Various Expressions for the Refraction of the

153.
Eye
Emmetropia and Ametropia
443-446
446-448
154. Correction Eye-Glasses

155. Visual
Angle
156. Size of Retinal
157.
Apparent Size
Image
of
439
439-443
448, 449
an Object seen Through an Optical
449-452
Instrument
Magnifying Power of an Optical Instrument Used
452-455
in Conjunction with the Eye
455-460
159. Magnifying Power of a Telescope
461-464
Problems
158.
CHAPTER XIV
Dispersion and Achromatism
Pages
Sections
465-507
160-174.
160. Dispersion
Dark Lines
by a Prism
465-471
472
between the Color of the Light and the Fre473-476
quency of Vibration of the Light- Waves
163. Index of Refraction as a Function of the WaveLength
476, 477
161.
162. Relation
of the Solar
Spectrum
Contents
xviii
Sections
Pages
164. Irrationality of Dispersion
165. Dispersive
Power
477^L79
479-481
Medium
of a
166. Optical Glass
167.
168.
169.
170.
171.
172.
173.
174.
Chromatic Aberration and Achromatism

"Optical Achromatism" and "Actinic Achromatism"
Achromatic Combination of Two Thin Prisms
Direct Vision Combination of Two Thin Prisms.
Calculation of Amici Prism with Finite Angles
Kessler Direct Vision Quadrilateral Prism
Achromatic Combination of Two Thin Lenses
Achromatic Combination of Two Thin Lenses in
Contact
Problems
.
481-487
487-489
489^91
491-493
493-495
495-497
497-499
499-502
502-505
505-507
CHAPTER XV
Rays
Spherical Aberration, Astigmatism
of Finite Slope.
of Oblique Bundles, etc.
Pages
Sections
508-557
175-193.
508, 509
175. Introduction
176. Construction of a
Ray
Refracted at a Spherical Sur-
509-512
face
177.
The Aplanatic Points
of
a Spherical Refracting Sur512, 513
face
178. Spherical Aberration
179. Spherical
513-515
Along the Axis
515, 516
Zones
180. Trigonometrical Calculation of a
Ray
Refracted at a
516-519
Spherical Surface
181.
Path
of
Ray through
a Centered System of Spheri-
Numerical Calculation 519-522

522-525
of Aplanatism
183. Caustic Surfaces
525, 526
184. Meridian and Sagittal Sections of a Narrow Bundle
of Rays before and after Refraction at a Spherical
526-529
Surface
cal Refracting Surfaces.
182.
The Sine-Condition or Condition
Contents
xix
Pages
Sections
185.
Formula
for Locating the Position of the
Image-
Point Q' of a Pencil of Sagittal Rays Refracted at
a Spherical Surface
529, 530
Image-Point P' of a Pencil of Me530-533
ridian Rays Refracted at a Spherical Surface.
186. Position of the
187.
Measure of the Astigmatism

of Rays
188. Image-Lines
189.
(or
of a
Narrow Bundle
533, 534
Focal Lines) of a Narrow Astig-
matic Bundle of Rays

The Astigmatic Image-Surfaces
190.
Curvature of the Image
191.
Coma
534-536
536-538
538-540
Orthoscopy
193. Seidel's Theory of the Five Aberrations
Problems
540-543
543-545
545-550
551-557
Index
559-579
192. Distortion; Condition of

CHAPTER
LIGHTS AND SHADOWS
Luminous Bodies. The external world is revealed to

by means of light. With the rising sun night is
changed into day, and animals, vegetables and minerals in
all their manifold varieties of form and shade and color,
1.
the eye
which were quite invisible in the dark, are now revealed to

Wherever the eye turns to gaze, there comes to it
from far or near a messenger of light conveying information
about the object which is under inspection. In an absolutely
dark room everything is invisible, because the eye can perceive objects only when they radiate or reflect light into it.
In the strict sense a source of light is a self-luminous body
which shines by its own light, such as the sun or a fixed star
or a candle-flame; but frequently the term is applied to a
body which merely reflects or transmits light which has
fallen upon it from some other body, as, for example, the
moon and the planets which are illuminated by the light
from the sun. In this latter sense the blue sky and the
clouds, which, shining by light derived originally from the
view.
sun, contribute the greater portion of

daylight,
what
is
are to be regarded as light-sources.
meant by
point-
a small element of luminous surface of relatively negligible dimensions

source of light or a luminous point
or else a
body
like
is
in reality
a star at such a vast distance that
pears like a point.
it
ap-
Transparent and Opaque Bodies. In general, when

light falls on a body, it is partly turned back or reflected at
or very near the surface of the body, partly absorbed within
2.
Mirrors, Prisms
and Lenses
the body, and partly transmitted through it.

black body which absorbs all the light that
An
absolutely
on it does
not exist; the best example we have is afforded by a body
whose surface is coated with lamp-black. The color of a
body as seen by reflected light is explained by the fact that
part of the incident light is absorbed, whereas only light
characteristic of the color in question
is
falls
cast off or reflected
from the body. Thus, when sunlight falls on a piece of red

flannel, it is robbed of all its constituent colors except red,
and thus it happens that the color by which we describe
the body is in fact due to the light which it rejects. If the
piece of red flannel were illuminated by pure blue light, it
would appear black or invisible.
A substance such as air or water or glass, which is pervious to light, is said to be transparent. None of the light
that traverses a perfectly transparent body will be absorbed;
and, on the other hand, a perfectly opaque body is one which
No
suffers no light at all to be transmitted through it.
substance
is
either
absolutely
transparent or absolutely
These terms, therefore, as applied to actual bodies

are merely relative, and so when we say that a body is opaque,
we mean only that the light transmitted through it is so
Naturally, one
slight as to be practically inappreciable.
thinks of clear water as transparent and of metallic substances generally as opaque; but a sufficiently large mass
of water will be found to be impervious to light, whereas,
on the other hand, gold leaf transmits green light. A perfectly transparent body would be quite invisible by transmitted light, although its presence could be detected by
observing the distortion in the appearance of bodies viewed
through it.
Again there are some substances which, while they are
not transparent in the ordinary sense, are far from being
opaque, such, for example, as ground glass, alabaster, porcelain, milk, blood, smoke, which contain imbedded or suspended in them fine particles of matter of a different optical
opaque.
Rectilinear Propagation of Light
3]
quality from that of the surrounding mass.
penetrate through materials of this nature in a

irregular fashion,
translucent.
3
Light does
more
or less
and accordingly they are described as
In the interior of such granular structures or
"cloudy media"
undergoes a so-called internal diffused

may be possible to
discern the presence of a body through an intervening mass
of such material, the form of the object will be to some exlight
reflection or scattering; so that while it
tent indistinct and unrecognizable.
An
optical
medium
is
any
with ponderable matter, which

metrical optics
it is
space, whether filled or not

is
pervious to light.
In geo-
generally assumed that the media are
not only homogeneous and isotropic (meaning thereby that

the substance possesses the same properties in
as, for
example,
air, glass,
transparent as well.
3. Rectilinear Propagation of Light.
body
is
all directions),
water and vacuum, but perfectly
When
an opaque
interposed between the observer's eye and a source
it is well known that all parts of the latter which

on straight lines connecting the pupil of the eye with
points of the opaque obstacle will be hid from view. We
cannot see round a corner; we can look through a straight
tube but not through a crooked one. A child takes note of
such facts as these among the very earliest of his experiences
and recognizes without difficulty the truth of the common
saying that "light travels in straight lines," which in the
language of science is called the law of the rectilinear propagation of light. The light that comes to us from a star
of light,
lie
traverses the vast stretches of interstellar space in straight

fines until it reaches the earth's
posed of layers of
is comfrom the upper
atmosphere, which
air of increasing density
medium through which the light passes in this short remainder

of its downward journey is no longer isotropic, and, hence,
portions towards the surface of the earth; so that the
be no longer
straight but curved by a gradual and continuous bending
also this part of the light path will, in general,
Mirrors, Prisms and Lenses
4
from the
below.
less
dense layers of
This explains
why
it
the more dense layers
air to
is
necessary for an observer
on the earth's surface looking through a long narrow tube

at a star not directly overhead to point the tube not at the
star itself but at its apparent place in the sky, which depends
on the direction which the light has when it enters the eye;
and, consequently, in accurate determinations of the position of a heavenly body, the astronomer
always careful
is
due to this
and a principal reason
to take account of the apparent displacement

so-called " atmospheric refraction,"
why
astronomical observatories are nearly always located
on high mountains
is
to obviate as
much
disturbing influence of the atmosphere.
any
we
as possible the
In aiming a
rifle
call " sighting,"
which
are at the basis of some of the most delicate methods of
measurement known to us, we rely with absolute confidence
on this proved law of experience concerning the rectilinear
propagation of light; and, in fact, the most conclusive demonstration that a line is straight consists in showing that it
The notion of a "ray of
is the path which light pursues.
light" is derived from this law, and any line along which
light travels is to be regarded as
a ray of light. According to this
or in
of the ordinary processes
^"^
f^~^^^ ^^
idea, therefore, the rays of light
X^-^
in
"^^^^
an
isotropic
medium
are
straight lines.
Fig.
A very striking proof of the

1. Rectilinear Propagation rectilinear propagation of light
is
afforded
by placing a lumi-
nous object (Fig. 1) in front of an opaque screen in which

there is a very small round aperture. If now a second screen
or a white wall is placed parallel to the first screen on the
other side of it, there will be cast on it a so-called inverted
image of the object, the size of which will be proportional to
the distance between the two screens. From each point of
the luminous object rays go out in all directions, and a narrow
Pinhole
3]
cone of these rays
Camera
will traverse the perforated screen
through
the opening and illuminate a small area on the other screen,
and thus every part of the object will be depicted in this way
by little patches of light arranged in a figure which is similar
in form to the object, but which is completely inverted, since
not only top and bottom but right and left are reversed in
consequence of the rectilinear paths of the rays of light. It
be remarked that this image is not an optical image in
may
11), but the phenomenon

can be explained only on the supposition that light proceeds
the strict sense of the term (see

in straight lines.
If
another small opening were
front screen very near the
first
hole, there
made
in the
would be two
images formed which would partly overlap each other, so that

the resultant image would be more or less blurred, and if we
have a single large aperture, we could no longer see any
distinct image at all.
The
Porta
is
pinhole camera, invented

(c.
by Giambattista Della
1543-1615), and sometimes called Porta's camera,
constructed on the principle of the experiment which has
It is very useful in making accurate

photographic copies of the architectural details of buildings,
just been described.
because the image which
is
obtained
is
entirely free
from
distortion.
In the pinhole camera there
is
a certain relation between
the size of the pinhole and the distance of the sensitive plate.
According to Abney, in order to get the best results with

an apparatus of this kind the diameter of the pinhole ought
to be directly proportional to the square-root of the distance
of the plate from the aperture, that is,
y = k\Zx,
where x and y denote the distance of the plate and the diameter of the pinhole, respectively, and k denotes a constant, the value of which will depend on the unit of length.
Thus, if x and y are measured in inches, A; = 0.008; in centimeters, k = 0.01275.
[4
Shadows, Eclipses, etc. The forms of shadows are also

easily explained on the hypothesis that light proceeds in
straight lines, for the outline of the shadow cast by a body
is precisely similar to that of the object as viewed from the
place where the source of light is. Thus, for example, the
4.
Fig. 2.
Shadow
(umbra) of opaque globe
illuminated
by
point-source S.
shadow
of a sphere held in front of a point-source of light
has the form of a circle, and the shadow cast by a circular

disk will have the outline of an ellipse of greater and greater
eccentricity as the disk is turned more and more nearly
edge-on towards the
light.
Sunday when the shade
Fig.
3.
Shadow
is
Passing
drawn down,
(umbra and penumbra)
a
if
of
shop- window
the sun
is
on
shining
opaque globe
illuminated by two point-sources Si, S2.
on the window, one can read the shadow of the sign painted
on the glass quite as distinctly as the sign itself. The interposition of an opaque body between a source of light and
a wall not only darkens a portion of the wall or casts its
shadow there, but it converts an entire region of space between it and the wall into a dark tract either wholly or par-
Shadows
4]
screened from the light.
Thus, for example, the space

which is comprised within the
cone of rays proceeding from the point-source S that are
intercepted by E gets no light from S, and this wholly unilluminated region is called the umbra or true shadow. When
there are two luminous points Si and S2 (Figs. 3 and 4), the
region of shadow behind the opaque body E consists of the
tially
(Fig. 2)
Fig. 4.
behind the body
Shadow
(umbra and penumbra) of opaque globe

by two point-sources Si, S2.
illuminated
umbra A which is wholly screened from both sources of light

and the so-called penumbra or partially illuminated space
composed of a space Bi which gets light only from Si and
a similar space B 2 which gets light only from S2. Points lying
beyond the penumbra will receive light from both sources.
If the light-source has an appreciable size, light will proceed from each of its shining points in all directions. Suppose, for example, that an opaque globe E (Fig. 5) is placed
in front of a luminous globe S: then the dark body will
intercept all rays that fall within the cone which is tangent
externally to the two spheres, and, consequently, the portion A of this cone which lies behind E will be completely
8
screened from
umbra where no light comes.

there are two penumbral regions Bi and
partially illuminated,
Fig.
5.
points of the source S, so that this portion
all
constitutes the
also
Shadow
but the illumination
(umbra and penumbra)
of
is
In this case
which are
not uniform,
opaque globe
illuminated by luminous globe S.
but increases gradually from total darkness at the outer

borders of the umbra into the complete illumination of the
region outside the shadow. The shadow cast on a screen
by an opaque body exposed to an extended source of light
has no sharp outline but fades by imperceptible gradations
into the bright space outside. As to the umbra, it terminates
in a point at a certain distance x behind the opaque body,
provided the diameter of the latter is less than that of the
luminous globe in front of it, that is, provided R is greater
than r, where R, r denote the radii of luminous and opaque
globes, respectively.
If the distance d between the centers
of the two globes is known, the length x of the umbra may
be calculated from the proportion
R d+x.
x
whence we
find
x=
r
Thus, for example, the diameter of the sun is 109.5 times

that of the earth, and the distance between the two bodies
Wave Theory
5]
is
93 millions of miles.
of Light
Accordingly, the umbra of the earth
found to extend to a distance of more than 857 000 miles

behind it. Sometimes the moon whose distance from the
earth is about 240 000 miles enters inside the shadow, and
becomes then totally eclipsed. When the moon is only
partly inside the earth's umbra, there is a partial eclipse of
the moon. On the other hand, if the earth or any part of it
comes inside the moon's shadow, there will be an eclipse
of the sun visible from points on the earth that are in the
is
shadow.
The angular diameter of the sun is 32' 3.3"; whence it is
easy to calculate that the length of the umbra of an opaque
globe in sunlight is about 105 times the diameter of the globe.
On the other hand, if the light-source is smaller than the
interposed object, the umbra, instead of contracting to a
point, widens out indefinitely; and thus, whereas the shadow
cast on the opposite wall
by a hand held
in front of a
made by
fire is
smaller than the object, the shadow
hand
in front of a small source of light like
may
be prodigious in extent.
Wave Theory
5.
of Light.
The term
broad
the same
a candle-flame
"ray," as
we have
a purely geometrical conception, but in oremployed

dinary usage a ray of light implies generally an exceedingly
narrow beam of light such as is supposed to be obtained
it,
when
is
sunlight
is
admitted into a dark room through a pinBut when the experiment is
hole opening in a shutter.

carefully
this
made to try to isolate a so-called ray of light in

new and unexpected difficulties arise, and,
to our preconceived notions, we are disconcerted
fashion,
contrary
by finding that the smaller the opening in the shutter, the

more difficult it becomes to realize the geometrical conception which is conveyed by the word "ray." In fact, in consequence of this experiment and others of a similar kind,
we
begin to perceive that the statement of the law of the

be modified; for
rectilinear propagation of light needs to
among
other
phenomena we
discover that
when
light pro-
Mirrors Prisms and Lenses
10
ceeds through a very narrow aperture in a screen,
it
does
not pass through it just as though the screen were not present, but it spreads out laterally from the point of perforation in all directions beyond the screen, proceeding, in fact,
very much as it might do if the opening in the screen were
the seat of a new and independent source of light.
The truth is, as has been ascertained now for a long time,
light is propagated not by "rays" at all but by waves; and
if, in general, it is found that light does proceed in straight
lines and does not bend around corners as sound-waves do,
the explanation is because the waves of light are excessively
short, considerably less than one ten-thousandth of a centimeter. Wave-lengths of light are usually specified in terms
of a unit called a "tenth-meter" or an "Angstrom unit,"
which is the hundred-millionth part of a centimeter (see
- 10 meter = 0.000 000 01
162) that is, 1 Angstrom unit = 10
cm. The wave-length of the deepest red light is found to
be about 7667 of these units and the wave-length of light
corresponding to the extreme violet end of the spectrum
is a little more than half the above value or 3970 units.
According to the wave-theory the phenomena of light
are dependent on an hypothetical medium called the ether,
which may be compared to "an impalpable and all-pervading jelly" that not only fills empty space but penetrates
freely through all material substances, solid, liquid and
gaseous, and through which particles of ordinary matter
move easily without apparent resistance, for it is imponderable and exceedingly elastic and subtle, insomuch that
;
no one has ever succeeded

its
in obtaining direct evidence of
It is this ether
existence.
which
is
the vehicle by which
transmitted and through which waves of

light are incessantly throbbing with prodigious but measurable velocity, which in vacuo is about 300 million meters per
light-energy
is
second or about 186 000 miles per second.

6. Huygens's Construction of the Wave-Front.The great
Dutch philosopher Huygens (1629-1695), who was a contem-
Construction of Wave-Front
6]
11
porary of Newton's (1642-1727), and who is usually regarded

as the founder of the wave-theory of light, encountered his
greatest difficulty in trying to give a consistent
and
satis-
factory explanation of the apparent rectilinear propagation of
His mode of reasoning, as set forth in his " Treatise

on Light " published in 1690, while by no means free from
objection, leads to a simple geometrical construction of the
wave-front which corresponds with the known facts in regard
light.
to the procedure of light.
Let O (Fig. 6) designate the position of a point-source of

light from which as center or origin ether waves proceed in
an isotropic medium with
equal speeds in
tions.
direc-
all
At the end
of a
certain time the disturb-
ances will have arrived

all the points which
on a spherical surface
Ci described around O as
center, and at the instant
at
lie
in question this surface

will
be the locus of
particles in the
that are in
the
all
medium
this
initial
phase of excitation, and

so
it
Fig. 6
H.uygens's construction of wavefront.
represents the wave-
front at this
moment.
Now
according to Huygens, every
point in the wave-front becomes immediately a

or center from which so-called secondary
new
source
waves or wave-
These innumerable' ripples or wavelets

from all the points affected by the
principal wave overlap and interfere with each other,
and Huygens inferred that their resultant sensible effects
are produced only at the points of the surface which at any
lets
spread out.
starting
together
given instant touches
or,
as
we say, envelops all the secondary

new principal wave-
wave-fronts, and that accordingly the

12
[6
front will be this enveloping surface; so that the effect
the
same
as though the old wave-front
is
had expanded into
the new, the disturbance marching forward along a straight

line in
any given
direction.
Obviously, in an unobstructed
isotropic
as
is
medium, such
supposed,
here
the enveloping surface

or
new wave-front
will
be a sphere concentric
with the old wavefront, and the straight
lines
that radiate out
from the center
will
be
the paths of the dis-
turbance.
Now if a plane screen
MN
(Fig.
7)
is
inter-
posed in front of the
advancing waves, and

if there is an opening
Fig. 7.
Huygens's construction of spherical AB in the Screen, each
PaSSing thr Ugh
* & P oint in the opening
Tcrlen.
between A, which is
nearest to the source O, and B, which is farthest from it,
^^
become in turn a new center of disturbance whence

secondary spherical waves will be propagated into the re-
will
gion on the other side of the screen.
Since the disturbance
have arrived at the point A before it has reached a point

X between A and B, the secondary wave emanating from
A will at the end of a given time t have been travelling for
a longer time than the secondary wave coming from X. If
the radius of the wavelet around
at the time t is denoted
by r, and if the distance OX is put equal to x, then d = x-\-r
will denote the distance from O which the disturbance will
have gone at the end of the time t; and since this distance
is constant, whereas the distances denoted by x and r are
will

Rays Normal
to
Wave-Surface
13
variables depending on the position of the point
X, it is
from 0, that is, the greater
the value of x, the smaller will be the radius r = d
re of
the secondary wavelet around X. The enveloping surface in
this case is seen to be that part of the spherical surface described around O as center with radius equal to d which is inevident that the farther
is
tercepted by the cone

which has O for its vertex
and the opening AB in
the screen for a section.
Within
this cone, accord-
ing to
Huygens's view,
the disturbance
is
propa-
gated exactly as though

the perforated screen had
not
been
interposed,
whereas points on the far

side of the
screen and Fig.
outside this limiting cone
are not affected at
all.
It is plain that this
mode
8.
Huygens's construction of plane
waves passing through opening in a
of explanation
is
equivalent to
the hypothesis of the rectilinear propagation of

the luminous point
(Fig. 8) is so far
light.
away
that the
dimensions of the opening AB in the screen may be regarded
as vanishingly small in comparison with the distance of the
If
to the points A, X, B
be regarded as parallel,
and the wave-front in this case will be plane instead of
spherical, that is, the wave-front is a spherical surface with
an exceedingly great radius as compared with the dimensource, the straight lines
drawn from
in the opening in the screen
may
sions of the aperture in the screen.
7. Rays of Light are Normal to the Wave-Surface.

The
most obvious objection to Huygen's construction is, What
right has he to assume that the places of sensible effects are
the points on the surface which is tangent to or envelops
the secondary waves? And why is the light not propagated
14
backwards from these new centers as well as forwards?

Moreover, when the opening in the screen is very narrow,
it is found, as has been already stated ( 5), that this construction does not correspond at all with the observed facts.
It is entirely beyond the scope of this book to attempt to
answer these questions here or to describe even briefly the
remarkable and complex phenomena of diffraction (which
is the name given to these effects due to the bending of the
light- waves around the edges of opaque obstacles).
For
an adequate discussion of these matters the reader must
consult a more advanced treatise on physical optics. Suffice
it to say, that the wave-theory of light and especially the
principle of interference as developed long after Huygens's
death (1695) by Young (1773-1829) and Fresnel (1788-
1827) entirely supports the idea of the rectilinear propagation
of
as
light
commonly understood; notwithstanding
the fact that this law, as indeed
is the case with nearly all

be accepted with certain reservations; but, fortunately, these latter do not concern us at
so-called natural laws, has to
present.
Accordingly, a luminous point

directions,
and the so-called
is
said to emit light in
light-rays in
an
isotropic
all
medium
are straight lines radiating from the center of the spherical wave-surface.
These rays
may
subsequently be bent
abruptly into
new
directions in traversing the
angles to their
own
front,
boundary
between one isotropic medium and another, and under such
circumstances the wave-surfaces may cease to be spherical;
but no matter what may be the form of the wave-surface,
the direction of the ray at any point is to be considered always as
normal to the wave-front that passes through that point (see 39)
In an isotropic medium the waves always march at right
and the
so-called rays of light in
geometrical optics are, in fact, the shortest optical routes

along which the disturbances in the ether are propagated
from place to
place.
With the aid of the principle of interand by the use of the higher
ference (alluded to above)
Apparent Place
8]
mathematics,
it
of Light-Source
may indeed be shown that

P in the path of a ray
duced at any point
15
the effect proof light
is
due
almost exclusively to previous disturbances which have

occurred successively at
lie
the points along the ray which
all
between the source and the point
in question,
and that
disturbances at other points not lying on the ray which goes
through
P are practically without influence at P, that is, their

mutually counteracted. And thus we arrive
effects there are
mutual independence of
one of the fundamental laws of
geometrical optics. From this point of view a ray of light
is to be regarded as something more than a mere geometrical fiction and as having in some real sense a certain physical existence, although it is not possible to isolate the ray
from its companions.
8. The Direction and Location of a Luminous Point.
When a ray of light comes into the eye, the natural inference as to its origin is that the source lies in the direction from
which the ray proceeded. There is no difficulty in pointing out
correctly the direction of an object which is viewed through
an isotropic medium; but if the medium were not isotropic,
the apparent direction of
A
the object might not be,
and probably would not
also at the so-called principle of the
rays of
light,
which
is
also
be,
real
its
direction.
Thus, owing to the

fraction,
'
to Which allu-
sion has been
ready
ef-
atmospheric re-
fects of
( 3),
made
the sun
FlG
9- Direction
and location of a luminous point.
alis
seen above the horizon before
actually risen, and so also in the evening the sun
it
is
has
still
few moments after sunset. For the same reason

a star appears to be nearer the zenith than it really is.
In general, however, when a ray SA (Fig. 9) enters the
eye at A, it is correctly inferred that the source S lies some-
visible for a
where on the straight
line
AS, but whether
it
is
actually
16
situated at S or farther or nearer cannot be determined by-
the eye is transferred from A to

another point B, the source will appear now to lie in the new
direction BS. If the spectator views the source with both
eyes simultaneously, one eye at A and the other at B, or if using
means
of a single ray.
If
it quickly from A to B, the position

be located at the point of intersection
only one eye he moves

of the source at
will
of the straight lines
AS and BS; and
this determination will
be more accurate in proportion as the distance between the

two points of observation A and B is greater or the more
nearly the acute angle ASB approaches a right angle. That
is the reason why in estimating the distance of a remote
object one tries to observe it from two stations as widely
separated as possible, and that explains also
head from side to
why
a person
comparatively near at hand, a single movement of the head may be

sufficient in order to get a fairly good idea of its distance,
or it may be that it is simply necessary to look at the object
with both eyes at the same time. It is amusing to watch
a person with one eye closed attempting to poke a pencil
through a finger-ring suspended in the middle of a room on a
level with his eye; by chance he may succeed after repeated
failures, whereas with both eyes open, the operation is performed without the slightest difficulty.
In case the rays come into the eye after having traversed
two or more isotropic media, it is easy to be deceived about
the direction of the source where they emanated. In order
for a bullet to hit a fish under water, the rifle must be
pointed in a direction below that in which the fish appears
to be. At the boundary-surface between two isotropic media
the direction of a ray of light is usually changed abruptly
by refraction ( 26) so that, in general, the path of a ray
will be found to consist of a series of line-segments.
In
Fig. 10 the broken line ABCD represents the course taken
by a ray of light in proceeding through several media such as
water, air and glass. The line-segments AB, BC and CD
shifts his
side.
If
the object
is
Image
8]
of Point-Source
17
are portions of different straight lines of indefinite extent.
For example, the actual route of the ray in air is along the
straight line between B and C, and if the point P lies on
this line between B and
C,
we
say that the ray
BC passes
" really"
we
through P, whereas
say that this same ray

passes
"virtually
"
through a point Q or R
which lies in the prolongation
of the line-segment
BC
in
either
Fig.
10.Points
!
y ! ng on ray
lying in
Q and R considered
BC *? to be e g arded
;
P,
as
same medium as BC.
direction.
Moreover, thinking of the point Q or R as a point lying on

BC which the light pursues in traversing
the medium between the water and the glass, we must regard such a point as being optically in the same medium
Thus, the points Q and R
as the ray to which it belongs.
in the figure considered as points on the ray BC are to be
regarded as being optically in air, although in a physical
the straight line
sense
Q is
a point in the water and
R is
a point in the glass
(see 104).
Now
let
us suppose that two rays emanating originally
from a point-source S
(Figs. 11 and 12) are
bent at A and B into
new directions AP and
BQ,
respectively, so as
two eyes of
an observer at P and Q.
to enter the
Fig. 11.
image
S'
to be a "real'
of point-source at S.
is
said
In such a case the observer will infer that the rays originated at the point S'
where the straight lines AP and BQ intersect. This point

S', which is called the image of S, may lie in the actual paths
of the rays AP and BQ that enter the eyes, so that the light
from S really does go through S', and in this case (Fig. 11)
18
the image S'
if
is
said to be a real image.
AP
the straight lines
and
BQ
On
the other hand,
have to be produced back-
wards in order to find their point of intersection, the rays

do not actually pass through S', and in this case the image
is said to be a virtual
^x-image of the point S
(Fig. 12).
However, it
must be borne in mind
in connection with these
Fig. 12.
S' is said to
be a "virtual" image
point-source at S.
of p
we
and, hence,
shall
diagrams that in reality

we do not See objects by
means
of
consider bundles of rays in

9.
Field of View.
is
rays;
not be in a position to form an ac-
we come
curate idea of the term optical image until
by the eye
single
The open or
visible space
called the field of view.
in its socket, the field of
is
very
of the stationary eye, and,
over, the field of view of both eyes
The
commanded
Since the eye can turn
view of the mobile eye
more extensive than that
to
11.
is
much
more-
greater than that of
may
also widen his field

head or indeed by turning his entire
body. For the present, however, we shall employ the term
field of view to mean that more limited portion of space
which is accessible to the single eye turning in its socket
around the so-called center of rotation of the eye. When
a person gazes through a window, the outside field of view
is limited partly by the size of the window and partly also
by the position of the eye with reference to it; so that only
such exterior objects will be visible as happen to lie within
the conical region of space determined by drawing straight
one eye by
of vision
itself.
by turning
spectator
his
from the center of rotation of the eye to all the points

edge of the window. Thus, for example, if the opening in the window is indicated by the gap GH in the straight
is the position
line GH in Fig. 13, and if the point marked
luminous
object at P
a
eye,
of
the
of
rotation
of the center
lines
in the
Field of
9]
View
19
window and directly opposite the eye will

be plainly in view, because some of the rays from P may go
through the window and enter the eye. But if the object
is displaced far enough to one side to some position such as
in front of the
Field
Fig. 13.
window
that
marked
of
GH
view determined by contour of

and position of the eye at O.
in the diagram, so that the straight line
OR
does not pass through the window, the object will pass out
of the field of view.
GH
The
straight line
MN
drawn
parallel
supposed to represent a vertical wall opposite the

window. If this wall is covered with a mural painting, the
only part of the picture that can be seen through the window by the eye at O is the section included between the
points T and V where the straight lines OG and OH intersect
to
is
the straight line
MN. The window
acts here as a so-called
field-stop ( 137) to limit the extent of the field of view.
But
the limitation of the visible region depends essentially also
on the position
of the eye,
tracted the farther the eye
the window makes very

placed close to
can
it,
is
becoming more and more confrom the window. The size of
little
and a person
command almost
difference
sitting near
as wide a view as
if
when the eye is

an open window
the entire wall of
room were removed. If one is looking through a keyhole in a door, he must put his eye close to the hole in order
the
to see objects that are not directly in front of
it.
20
[10
The apparent size of an object is

10. Apparent Size.
measured by the visual angle which it subtends at the eye.
Several objects in the field of view which subtend equal
angles when viewed from the same standpoint are said to
have the same apparent size; although their actual sizes will
Fig. 14.
Apparent
if
The
marked
to be
at
all
measured by visual
angle.
they are at unequal distances from the eye.

1, 2 and 3 in Fig. 14 appear to an eye
of the same size. Thus an elephant may ap-
be different
objects
size
man or a boy. Looking through a

pane of glass in a window, one may see a large building or an entire tree, because the apparent extent of the
small area of glass is greater than that of the distant object.
A fly crawling across the window may hide from view a
large portion of the distant landscape outside. A mountain
a few miles off may be viewed through a finger-ring.
The apparent size of an object, being measured by the
visual angle which it subtends, is expressed in degrees or
pear no bigger than a

single
radians.
of the full moon in the sky,

not quite half a degree, so that by holding
less than 9 mm. in diameter at a distance of
The apparent diameter
for example,
is
a coin a little
one meter from the eye, the entire moon could be hid from
view. In fact, instead of the angle itself it is customary to
employ the tangent

ual angle
is
of the angle, especially in case the vis-
Thus, the apparent size of an object

from the eye (in Fig. 15 AB =
measured by the tangent of the angle BOA,
not large.
of height h at a distance d
h,
AO =
that
is,
d) is
Apparent Size
10]
A
Apparent
size=
21
dimension of the object -

,
^
=h
^r
distance from the eye
a
linear
Accordingly, in order to determine the actual size (h) of

it is necessary to know its distance (d) as well
apparent size, because the actual size is equal to the
product of these two magnitudes. The apparent size of an
the object,
as
its
Fig. 15.
Apparent
size varies
inverse^ as distance d and directly as actual

size h.
is an hundred times greater

an hundred feet, or, as we say, the
appare?it size varies inversely as the distance.
As the object
recedes farther and farther from the eye, its apparent size
diminishes until at last it looks like a mere speck and the
details in it have all disappeared.
On the other hand, although the object is quite close to the eye, its actual dimensions may be so minute that it is not to be distinguished from
a point. There is, indeed, a limit to the power of the human
eye to see very small objects, which is reached when the
object subtends in the field of view an angle that does not
exceed one minute of arc. Two stars whose angular distance apart is less than this limiting value cannot be seen
as separate and distinct by a normal eye without the aid
of a telescope.
Now tan l' = sTz-g, and consequently the
eye cannot distinguish details of form in an object which
is viewed at a distance 3438 times as great as its greatest
object at a distance of one foot
than
it is
at a distance of
22
linear dimension.
mm.
24
silver quarter of
a dollar
is
10
about
diameter and viewed from a distance of 82.5
in
meters (3438 times 24 mm. = 82 512 mm. = 82.5 m.) its apparent size will be 1' of arc and it will appear therefore
like
a mere point.
The apparent width
of a long straight
street diminishes in proportion as the distance increases;

until, finally,
if
the street
is
long enough, the two opposite
sidewalks seem to run together at the so-called "vanishing

point."
If
rays of light coming through a
window and
entering
the eye could leave marks in the glass at the points where
they cross
same kind
it,
and
if
made
these marks could be
to emit the
was sent out from the corresponding

points of the object, there would be formed on the glass
a pictorial representation of the object which when held
before the eye at the proper distance would have almost
This
exactly the same appearance as the object itself.
of light as
principle of perspective
and the
is
made
use of in the art of painting,
with his lights and shades and colors, tries

to portray on a plane canvas a scene which will produce
artist,
as nearly as possible the
same visual impression on a specby the natural objects them-
tator as would be produced
So
apparent size is concerned, such a reprebe perfect. In a good drawing the various
figures are delineated in such dimensions that when viewed
from the proper standpoint they have the same apparent
sizes as the realities would have if seen under the aspect
represented in the picture.
No one looking at a photograph of a Greek temple will notice (unless his attention
selves.
sentation
is
far as
may
specially directed to
much
it)
that the
more
distant pillars are
shorter in the picture than the nearer ones.
generally
we pay
little
heed to the apparent
but always try to conceive their real dimensions.
two persons meet and shake hands, neither

that the other appears
were
fifty
yards apart.
much
taller
is
Indeed,
sizes of things,
When
apt to observe
than he did when they
Effective
11]
Rays
23
The
Effective Rays. All the rays that enter the eye

on the retina must pass through the circular window
in the iris or colored diaphragm of the eye which is called
the pupil of the eye and which is sometimes spoken of as
the "black of the eye/' because it appears black against
the dark background of the posterior chamber of the eye.
The pupil of the eye is about half a centimeter in diameter,
although within certain limits its size can be altered to regulate the quantity of light which is admitted to the eye. So
11.
and
fall
far as the spectator's vision is concerned,
it is
only these
rays that go through the pupil of his eye that are of any
and these are the effective rays. When the pupil dilates,
more rays can enter, and consequently the source appears
brighter. The brightness of the source will depend also on
use,
distance, because for a given diameter of the pupil, the
its
aperture of the cone of rays from a nearer source will be
wider than that of the cone of rays from a more distant

source.
In general, therefore, the pupil of the eye regu-
lates the angular apertures of the cones of rays that enter
the eye from each point of a luminous object and acts as
the so-called aperture-stop

of the field of
view
is
Thus, while the extent
( 134).
controlled
by the
field-stop ( 9), the
brightness of the source depends essentially on the size of
the aperture-stop.
A series of transparent isotropic media each separated

from the next by a smooth, polished surface constitutes an
optical system.
An
optical instrument
may
consist of a single
of a combe in contact with

each other or separated by air or some other medium. In
the great majority of actual constructions the instrument
mirror, prisms or lens, but generally
bination of such elements, which
is
it is
composed
may
symmetrical with respect to a straight line called the

Not all the rays emitted by a luminous object
optical axis.
be utilized by the instrument; generally, in fact, only

a comparatively small portion of such rays will be transmitted through it, in the first place because its lateral diwill
24
[11
mensions are limited, and in the second place because, in

addition to the lens-fastenings and other opaque obstacles
(sides of the tube, etc.), nearly all optical
instruments are
diaphragms called
" stops," specially placed and designed to intercept such rays
as for one reason or another it is not desirable to let pass
provided
(133).
with
The
perforated
screens
or
planes of these stops are placed at right angles
to the optical axis with the centers of the openings on the
Accordingly, each separate point of the object
axis.
is
to
be regarded as the vertex of a limited cone or bundle of rays,

which, with respect to the instrument, are the so-called
effective rays,
the point in
because they are the only rays coming from

question that traverse the instrument from
one end to the other without being intercepted on the way.

Moreover, in every bundle of rays there is always a certain central or representative ray, coinciding perhaps with
the axis of the cone or distinguished in some special way,
In a symmetricalled the chief ray of the bundle ( 139).
instrument the chief ray of a bundle of effective
generally defined to be that ray which in traversing
cal optical
rays
is
a certain one of the series of media crosses the optical axis

at a prescribed point, which is usually at the center of that
one of the stops which
is
the most effective in intercepting
the rays and which, therefore,
more
is
called the aperture-stop,
Chapter XII).
According to this definition, the chief rays coming from all
the various points of the object constitute a bundle of rays
as will be explained
fully hereafter (see
which in the medium where the aperture-stop is placed

(sometimes called the "stop medium") all pass through
the center of the stop.
We shall
employ the term pencil of rays to mean a section

made by a plane containing the chief ray.
of a ray-bundle
The effective rays in the first medium before entering

the instrument are called the incident rays or object rays;
and these same rays in the last medium on issuing from the
instrument are called the emergent rays or image rays.
If
we
Ch.
25
Problems
I]
select at
random any point
lying on one of the rays of
the bundle of emergent rays which had
its origin
at the lu-
minous object-point P, in general, no other ray of this bundle

will pass through X, since in a given optical system there
will usually be one single route by which light starting from
the point P and traversing the instrument can arrive finally,
either really or virtually ( 8), at a selected point
in the
However, there may be found a number of

singular points where two or more rays of the bundle of
emergent rays intersect; and under certain favorable and
exceptional circumstances it may indeed happen that there
is one special point P' where all the emergent rays emanating
originally from the object-point P meet again; and then we
shall obtain at P' a perfect or ideal image of P, which is
last
medium.
described
the
by saying that P'
object-point
at P.
is the
image-point conjugate
This image
will
be
to
real or virtual
according as the actual paths of the image-rays go

through P' or merely the backward prolongations of these
paths
( 8).
In order to obtain an image in this ideal sense, the optical
system must be such as to transform a train of incident

spherical waves spreading out from the object-point P into
a train of emergent spherical waves converging to or diverging from a common center P' in the image-space. When
all the rays of a bundle meet in one point, the bundle of rays
In general, howis said to be homocentric or monocentvic.
ever, a monocentric bundle of rays in the object-space will
be transformed in the image-space into an astigmatic bundle
of emergent rays, which no longer meet all in one point;
and in fact this is a usual characteristic of a bundle of optical rays.
PROBLEMS
Why are the shadows much sharper in the case of an
lamp without a surrounding globe than with one?
2. Draw a diagram to show how a total eclipse of the
1.
arc
26
moon
and another diagram to illustrate a

sun.
Give clear descriptions of
occurs;
of
eclipse
[Ch. I
the
total
the
drawings.
3.
An opaque
at a point C,
globe,
is
foot in diameter, with its center
interposed between an arc lamp S and
a white wall which is perpendicular to the straight line

If the wall is 12 feet from the lamp, and if the
SC.
distance SC = 3 feet, what is the area of the shadow on
Ans. 12.57 sq.
the wall?
4.
What
is
when a telegraph
shadow 20 feet
Ans. 36 52' 10".
pole 15 feet high casts a
long on a horizontal pavement?

5.
What
is
160 feet long
the height of a tower which casts a shadow
when a
vertical rod 3 feet high casts a
An
shadow
Ans. 120
feet long?
6.
ft.
the apparent angular elevation of the sun
object 6 inches high
is
feet.
placed in front of a pinhole
from the aperture. What is

on
image
the ground glass screen if
the size of the inverted
Ans. 1 inch.
foot?
of
camera-box
is
1
the
the length
room, and
of
dark
in
the
shutter
a
7. A small hole is made
the
shutter.
of
from
8 feet
a screen is placed at a distance
feet
away is
outside
120
The image on the screen of a tree
high
is
the
tree?
long.
How
measured and found to be 3 feet
Ans. 45 feet.
8. If the sensitive plate of a pinhole camera is 20 cm.
from the pinhole, what should be the diameter of the pinAns. 0.57 mm.
hole, according to Abney's formula?
camera at a distance
9.
What
is
of 6 feet
the apparent size of a
man
6 feet
tall at
a dis-
tance of 100 yards? How far away must he be not to be

Ans. 1 8' 45"; 3.9 miles.
distinguishable from a point?
10. If the moon is 240 000 miles from the earth and its
apparent diameter
is
31' 3",
what
is its
actual diameter?
Ans. 2168 miles.

11.
person holding a tube 6 inches long and 1 inch in
diameter in front of his eye and looking through it at a

tree moves backwards away from the tree until the entire
Ch.
Problems
I]
tree
is
tree?
just visible.
What
is
27
the apparent height of the

Ans. 9 27' 44".
Assuming that the resolving power of the eye is one

minute of arc, at what distance can a black circle 6 inches
Ans. 1719 feet.
in diameter be seen on a white background?
12.
CHAPTER
REFLECTION OF LIGHT.
II
PLANE MIRRORS
Regular and Diffuse Reflection. When a beam of

through an opening in a shutter in a
dark room, falls on a piece of smoothly polished glass, although the glass itself may be almost or wholly invisible, a
brilliant patch of light will be reflected from the glass on the
walls of the room or the ceiling or on some other adjacent obIf a person in the room happens to be looking towards
ject.
the piece of glass along one special direction, he will be almost blinded by the light that is reflected into his eyes. The
glass acts like a mirror and reflects the sunlight falling on
it in a definite direction which depends only on the direction of the incident rays and on the orientation of the reflecting surface, and in such a case the light is said to be
regularly reflected. Thus, for example, signals may be communicated to distant and inaccessible stations by reflecting
thither the rays of the sun by a plane mirror adjusted in a
12.
sunlight, admitted
suitable position.
If
the surface
many
of sunlight seen
day
is
is
not smooth, the light will be reflected in
directions at the
same
time.
The long
sparkling trail
on the surface of a lake or a river on a bright
caused by the reflections of the sun's rays into the
eyes of the spectator from countless
little
ripples
on the
surface of the water.
The
bright spot of light on the wall of a dark
the place where a
beam
of sunlight falls,
room
at
which shines almost
as though this portion of the wall were itself a self-luminous

is visible from any part of the room by means of the
which is reflected from it; and although the incident
rays have a perfectly definite direction, the reflected light
body,
light
28
is
29
Diffuse Reflection
12]
scattered in
all
directions.
Some
of this reflected light
room, which will be more or

less feebly illuminated thereby and rendered dimly visible
by the light which they reflect in their turn; until at last
the light after undergoing in this way repeated reflections
will fall
on other bodies
in the
from one body to another becomes too faint to be percepLight which is reflected or scattered in this way is
tible.
said to be diffusely reflected or irregularly reflected, although,
Ordistrictly speaking, there is nothing irregular about it.
narily it is in this way that bodies illuminated by daylight or by artificial light are rendered visible to a whole
group of spectators at the same time.
The paper on the walls of an apartment which gets very
little light through the windows should be a dull white in
order to scatter and diffuse as much as possible the light
that comes into the room. The walls of a dark chamber
used for developing photographic plates should be painted
a dull black in order to absorb the light that falls on them.
An absolutely black body ( 2) exposed to the direct rays
of the sun will be completely invisible, except by contrast
with its surroundings. If the walls of a dark room and all
the objects within it were coated with lampblack, and if
the air inside were entirely free from dust and moisture,
a beam of sunlight traversing the room could not be seen
and the only way to detect its presence would be by placing
the eye squarely in its path. But if a little finely divided
powder were scattered in the air or if a cloud of smoke were
blown across the beam of light, the course of the rays would
immediately become manifest to a spectator in any part of
the room, because some of the light reflected from the floating particles of matter in practically every direction would
enter the eye.
Any
But the
surface that
is
light itself is quite invisible.
not too rough, that
is,
whose scratches
or ridges are not wider than about a quarter of a wave-
length of light, will reflect light in a greater or

depending on the smoothness of the surface.
less
degree
Waves
of
30
13
white paper are broken up or

and we can get some idea of the
quantity of light that is diffusely reflected from such a surface by letting the light of a lamp shine on the paper when
It is almost
it is held near an object that is in shadow.
startling to see how under the influence of this indirect
illumination the details of the obscure body suddenly appear as if summoned forth by magic. A highly polished
metallic surface makes the best mirror, reflecting somelight falling
scattered in
times as
on a sheet
of
all directions,
much
as three-fourths of the incident light.
Our
ordinary looking-glasses are really metallic mirrors, because

they are coated at the back with silver, and the glass merely
serves as a protection for the reflecting surface.
13.
Law
Fig. 16
of Reflection.
by the
reflecting surface
is
the line ZZ.
straight line
ray of light represented in
AB
whose trace
The
is
incident at
straight line
Fig.
16.
Law
on a smooth
diagram
in the plane of the
of
BN
normal to the surface
reflection:
Z NBA = -Z NBC = Z CBN.

at
B is
and the plane ABN which

and the normal BN is called
which corresponds here with the
called the incidence-normal,
contains the incident ray
the plane of incidence,

plane of the diagram.
AB
The
angle of incidence
is
the angle
between the incident ray and the incidence-normal;
or,
to
Law
13]
more exactly, the
define this angle
angle
of Reflection
31
angle of incidence is the acute
through which the incidence-normal has
about the point of incidence in order
the incident ray; thus,
~ Z NBA.
to
make
it
to be
turned
coincide with
Counter-clockwise rota-
to be reckoned as positive and clockwise rotation as

negative.
This rule will be consistently observed in the
case of all angular measurements.
tion
is
The
AB
is
BC; and if in the above

of the angle of incidence we substitute "reflected
" incident ray," we shall obtain the definition of
of reflection (/3); that is, /3 = ZNBC. The sense
definition
ray"
ray corresponding to the incident ray
reflected
by the
represented
for
the angle
of the rotation
straight line
indicated
is
by the order in which the

named; thus, ZABC is the
letters specifying the angle are
by rotating the
angle described
point
until
it
ZCBA=-ZABC
from
CB
to
straight line
AB
coincides with the straight line
around the
BC; whereas
denotes the equal but opposite rotation
The student should take note
BA.
of this
usage, which will be uniformly employed throughout this
book.
The law
for
of the reflection of light,
more than 2200
which has been known
years, is contained in the following
statement
The
cident
inflected
and
ray
lies
in the plane of incidence, and the inmake equal angles with the normal
rays
reflected
on opposite sides of it; that is, /S =-a.

A very accurate experimental proof of this law
may
be
obtained by employing a meridian circle to observe the light

reflected
from an
artificial
mercury-horizon, that
is,
from
the horizontal surface of mercury contained in a basin.

fact, this is
In
the actual method used by astronomers in meas-
uring the altitude of a star.
The
telescope
is
pointed at the
and then at the image of the star in the mercury mirror,

and it will be found that the axis of the telescope in these
two observations will be equally inclined to the vertical on
star
opposite sides of
it.
32
simple lecture-table apparatus for verifying the law
of reflection of light consists of a circular disk (Fig. 17)

of
ground
glass,
about one foot or more
graduated around
is
13
mounted
made
in diameter,
and
This disk
the circumference in degrees.
so as to be capable of rotation in a vertical plane
about a horizontal axis

perpendicular
this
to
plane and passing through
the center of the disk.

small
piece
mirror
of
with
a plane
plane
its
perpendicular to that of
the disk
Fig. 17.
Optical disk
used to verify law
of reflection.
mirror in the direction
will
and
its center,
the mirror
is
that
perpendicular
is
it
adjusted so
to the radius
BN
on the
A beam
disk.
sunlight
NB
fastened to
is
the disk at
falling
drawn
on
of
the
be reflected back from the
BN,
so that in this adjustincident

and reflected rays
of
the
paths
ment of the disk the
Now if the disk is turned so that
coincide (/?= -a=0).
mirror in the opposite direction
the incident ray
NBA,
that
If,
disk
AB
makes with the normal
BN
the reflected ray will proceed in a direction
an angle
BC
such
ZNBC = ZABN=-a.
without changing the direction of the incident ray, the
is
turned through an angle
6,
the plane of the mirror to-
gether with the incidence-normal will likewise be turned
through this same angle, and the angles of incidence and reflection will
6,
each be changed in opposite senses by the amount
between the incident and reflected rays

be changed by 2 6. Accordingly, when a plane mirror
turned through a certain angle, the reflected ray will be turned
so that the angle
will
is
through an angle twice as great.

Waves
14]
Reflected at Plane Mirror
33
Huygens's Construction of the Wave-Front in Case

Plane Mirror.
1. The case of a plane wave reflected from a plane mirror.
The rebound of waves from a polished surface affords a very
simple and instructive
illustration of Huygens's
14.
of Reflection at a
Principle ( 5)
the
straight
In Fig. 18
AD
line
represents the trace in
the plane of the diagram
a plane mirror, and
of
the straight line

resents
AB
rep-
the trace of a
portion of the front of
an incident plane wave

( 6) advancing in the
direction of the wavenormal BD. At the first
instant under consideration
wave-front
the
supposed to be
AB when
position
disturbance
has
reflecting
and from
this
the
just
reached the point

the
is
the
in
of
surface,
time for-
ward, according to
Huy-
gens's theory, the point
is
to be regarded as
a center of disturbance from which

itself

wave reflected at plane mirror.
Fig. 18.
secondary hemispherical
back into the medium
in front of the
Exactly the same state of things
will prevail at
waves are
mirror.
reflected
this instant
(t
= 0)
at
all
points of the plane reflecting sur-
face lying on a portion of the straight line perpendicular
34
14
and the envelop

from these points
to the plane of the paper at the point A,

of the hemispherical wavelets originating
be a semicylindrical surface whose axis is the straight

mentioned. If the speed with which the waves
travel is denoted by v, then at the end of the time t = YQ/v
the disturbance that was initially at the point P in the wavefront AB will have advanced to a point Q on the reflecting
plane between A and D; and from this moment a new set
of hemispherical wavelets having their centers all on a
straight line perpendicular to the plane of the diagram at
will
line just
the point
will
begin to develop, and their envelop will
be a semicylinder. And so at successively later and

later instants the disturbance will arrive in turn at each
point along AD; until, finally, after the time t = BT)/v the
farthermost point D will be reached. Meanwhile, around
also
the straight lines perpendicular to the plane of the

paper at points lying along AD semicylindrical elementary
wave-surfaces will have been spreading out from the reflecting surface, the radii of these cylinders diminishing
all
from
reaches D,
through
BD, and
At the time when the disturbance
towards D.
the semicylindrical wavelet whose axis passes

will
have expanded until
at this
same
corresponding to a point
to
radius
is
equal to
and D will have been

PQ)/v, and hence its radius will
Q between A
expanding for a time (BD

be egual to (BDPQ) = (BDBK)
Now, according
its
instant the semicylindrical wavelet
Huygens's
=KD.
Principle, the surface
which
any instant is tangent to all these elementary semiwaves will be the required reflected wave-front
at that instant. We shall show that the reflected wave-front
is a plane surface which at the moment when the disturbance reaches the point D contains this point; or, what
amounts to the same thing, we shall show that if a straight
line DC in the plane of the diagram is tangent at C to the
semicircle in which this plane cuts the semicylinder whose
at
cylindrical
axis passes
through A,
it will
be a
common
tangent to
all
Waves
14]
Reflected at Plane Mirror
such semicircles; for example,
will
it
also
35
be tangent to
the semicircle in which the plane of the diagram cuts the

semicylinder belonging to the point Q.
tangent at
From
to the semicircle described around
D
A
draw
DC
as center
and DR tangent at R to the semiaround Q as center with radius QR = KD.

The right triangles ABD and ACD are congruent, and hence
ZDAB = ZCDA; and, similarly, in the congruent right triangles QKD and QRD ZDQK = ZRDQ.
But ZDQK =
ZDAB, and therefore ZRDQ=ZCDA, and hence the two
Accordingly, the trace of
tangents DR and DC coincide.
in
plane
the reflected wave-front
the
of the diagram is the
straight line CD. This reflected plane wave will be propwith radius
AC = BD
circle described
shown
from the
construction that the ray incident at A, the normal AN to
the reflecting surface at the incidence-point A, and the reflected ray AC lie all in the same plane; and the equality of
the angles of incidence and reflection is an immediate consequence of the congruence of the triangles ABD and ACD.
2. The case of a spherical wave reflected at a plane mirror.
In Fig. 19 the light is represented as originating from a
point-source L and spreading out from it in the form of
spherical waves which presently impinge on the plane reflecting surface represented in the diagram by the straight
agated onwards, parallel with
by the
line
reflected rays
AD.
source at
The
is
itself,
AC, QR,
etc.
It is evident
nearest point of the reflecting plane to the
the foot
on the straight
line
of the perpendicular let fall
AD, and
this, therefore, is
point of the mirror to be affected.

of
in the direction
symmetry with
respect to
LA,
it
the
from
first
Obviously, on account
will
be quite sufficient
to investigate the procedure of the waves in the plane of
the
The wave-front
at the time the disturbance

be represented by the arc of a circle described
around L as center with radius equal to LA; let P designate the position of a point on this arc, and draw the straight
line LP meeting AD at Q.
After a time t = FQ/v the disfigure.
reaches
will

36
[14
have advanced from P to Q, and from this

Q will begin to send back wavelets from
the reflecting surface. And so in succession one point of
the mirror after another will be affected until presently the
disturbance reaches the farthest point D. Meanwhile, all
the points along AD on
one side of AL and
along AF on the other
turbance
moment
will
the point
side (AF = DA)
will
have been sending out

wavelets whose radii will
be greater and greater
the nearer
new
these
centers are to the point
A midway
and
between
Draw
F.
LD
straight line
AP
ing the arc
point B:
the
meet-
in the
then at the
moment t = BT>/v when

the disturbance from
has just arrived at D,

the
wavelet
reflected
Huygens's construction of spheri- proceeding from A as

cal wave reflected at plane mirror.
hi
u
center will have ex-
Fig. 19.
<
panded
until its radius
is
equal to
BD, and
instant there will also be a wavelet around

of
radius
(BDPQ) = (BDBK)=KD.
Huygens, the problem

surface which
is
consists,
AL' = LA, and draw the
where
this
surface
in
Since
line
to
finding the
all
LA
these
on the
to a point L'
such
and mark
produced meets
straight line L'Q,
straight
line
Q
LQ + QR = LK + KD = LD,
the semicircle described around
KD = QR.
therefore,
Produce the straight
other side of the reflecting
the point
same
as center
According
tangent at a given instant to
secondary waves.
that
at this
as center with radius
obviously,
Image
15]
in
Plane Mirror
37
R = L D; and therefore a circle described around L' as center with radius equal to L'D will touch at R the semicircle
L
described around
as center with radius equal to
QR.
touch at a point C on the straight

line LA the semicircle described around A as center with
radius AC = BD.
Consequently, this circle will be the.
Moreover,
envelop of
therefore,
as axis.
will also
it
is
all
The
these semicircles.
reflected wave-front,
obtained by revolving the arc
The
straight line
QR
is
DCF
around LL'
the path of the reflected
ray corresponding to the incident ray PQ; the angle of

cidence at Q is equal to the angle ALQ and the angle of
flection is equal to
inre-
AI/Q, and these angles are evidently
equal, in agreement, therefore, with the law of reflection.

15.
Image
in a
Plane Mirror.
In Fig. 19 the plane mirror
bisects at right angles the straight line LL',
Fig. 20.
L'
is
image
of object-point
in
plane mirror
AD;
AL = Im-
position of the point L'
the incidence-point
and since the
is
independent of the position of

coming from
(Fig. 20), all the rays
L and falling on the plane mirror will

be reflected along paths which, when prolonged backwards,
the luminous point
38
15
all meet in the point L'.

Thus, to a homocentric bundle of
incident rays reflected at a plane mirror there corresponds also
a homocentric bundle of
reflected rays.
This remarkable
property of converting a homocentric bundle of rays into
another homocentric bundle is characteristic of a plane
mirror, because
no other
optical device
cept under conditions that are
more
capable of
is
it.
ex-
or less unrealizable in
Thus, the image 1/ of an object at L is found by

drawing a straight line from L perpendicular to the plane
mirror, and producing this line on the other side of the
mirror to a point L' such that the line-segment LI/ is bipractice.
sected
of
by the plane
a plane mirror
is
of the mirror; so that
an object
in front
seen in the mirror at the same distance
The image in this case is virtual ( 8). The late

Silvanus Thompson in his popular lectures
published under the title Light Visible and Invisible describes the following simple method of showing how the
rays from a candle flame are reflected at a plane mirror
(Fig. 21).
If a vertical pin mounted on a horizontal basebehind
it.
Professor
board
is
by a lighted candle, the position of

determined by the line joining the top of the
illuminated
the shadow
is
pin with the source of light.
If
the pin and the candle are
both in front of a plane mirror placed at right angles to the

base-board, a second shadow will be cast by the pin on account of the reflected rays from the candle that are intercepted by it, and this shadow will be precisely such as would
be produced by a candle flame placed behind the mirror
at the place where the image of the actual flame is formed,
as may be proved by removing the mirror and transferring
the candle to the place where its image was.
If the bundle of incident rays instead of diverging from
a point L in front of the plane mirror converged towards
a point L behind it (as could easily be effected with the aid
of a convergent lens), a real image ( 8) will be produced at
a point L' at the same distance in front of the mirror as the
virtual object-point
L was beyond
it.
Fig. 21.
Shadows cast by an object in front of a plane mirror when object
is illuminated by point-source (from actual photograph), showing that
the source and its image are at equal distances from the mirror.
Image
15]
The image
of
the images of
in
Plane Mirror
an extended object
all
the figure formed by
The diagram
of its points separately.
(Fig. 22) shows, for example,
the image L'M' of an object
The
is
39
how an eye
LM
at
would see
reflected in a plane mirror.
series of parallel lines joining corresponding points of
Fig. 22.
object
Image L'M' of object LM in plane mirror ZZ.
and image
will
be bisected at right angles by the
plane of the mirror.
The dimensions
same as
actly the
of the
image
in
a plane mirror are ex-
Moreover, the top

image correspond with the top and bottom of the object, that is, the image is erect. Also, the
right side of the image corresponds with the right side of
the object, and the left side of the image with the left side
and bottom
those of the object.
of the
of the object (Fig. 23), although it is frequently stated in

books on optics that when a man stands in front of a mirror
the right side of the image shows the left side of the person,
and that if the man extends his right hand, the image will
extend its left hand. The true explanation of the so-called
"perversion" of the image in a plane mirror, which is strikingly seen when a printed page is held in front of the mirror,
is that it is the rear side of the image that is opposite the front
40
side of the object.
The image
of a printed
16
page in a mirror
has exactly the same appearance as it would have if the

page were held in front of a bright light and it was viewed
from behind through the paper. When a person looks in

a mirror at his own image, his image appears to be looking
back at him in the opposite direction, if he faces east, his
image faces west, and if we call the east side of object or
image its front side and the west side its rear side, then the
rear side of the image is turned towards the front side of
the object; although, because this side of the image corresponds to the front side of the object,
take to regard
it
it is
a natural mis-
as also the front side of the image.
explanation of the
common
The
impression that, whereas up
and down remain unchanged in the image of an object in

a plane mirror, right and left are reversed, is probably because a person regarding his own image under such circumstances is unconsciously disposed to transfer himself mentally into coincidence with his image by a rotation of 180,
not around a horizontal, but around a vertical axis, thus
producing a confusion of mind as to right and left but not
as to top and bottom. The reason why this mental revolution is performed around the vertical axis seems to be due
partly to the circumstance that this movement can be
readily executed in reality, and partly also perhaps to the
fact that the human body happens to be very nearly
symmetrical with respect to a vertical plane.
16. The Field of View of a Plane Mirror.
ing diagram (Fig. 24) the straight line
In the adjoin-
GH
represents the
trace in the plane of the paper of the surface of a plane mirror,
and the point marked O' shows the position
of the center
eye of a person who is supposed to be

looking towards the mirror. Evidently, the straight lines
in the edge of
HO', GO' drawn to 0' from the points G,
of the pupil of the
the mirror will represent the paths of the outermost reflected

rays that can enter the eye at 0', and therefore the
view
( 9)
is
limited
by the contour
of
field of
the mirror just
Fig. 23.
Image of
object in plane mirror (from actual photograph).
Field of
16]
View
of Plane
Mirror
41
as if the observer were looking into the image-space through

a hole in the wall that exactly coincided with the place ocCorresponding to the pair of recupied by the mirror.
flected rays
HO' and GO'
intersecting at O' there
would be
a pair of incident rays directed along the straight lines
Fig. 24.
GO
HO
&**
Field of view of plane mirror for given position of eye.
on the other side of the mirror,

be the real image of a virtual
object-point at O ( 15). Any luminous point lying in front
of the plane mirror within the conical surface formed by
to all the
drawing straight lines such as OG, OH from
points in the edge of the mirror will be visible by reflected
light to an eye placed at 0', and hence this cone limits the
field of view of the object-space.
Through O' draw a straight line parallel to GH, and take
on it two points C', B' at equal distances from O' on oppo-
and
and
it is
towards a point
evident that 0'
will
it, and let us suppose that B'C represents the

diameter in the plane of the diagram of the pupil of the eye.
Construct the image BOC of the eye-pupil B'O'C. Then
if P designates the position of a luminous point lying any-
site sides of
42
where within the
field of
view
that the incident rays PO,
[16
of the object-space,
PC
and
PB
will
it is
clear
be reflected at
Deviation of a ray reflected twice in sucFig. 25.

cession from a pair of inclined mirrors.
the. mirror into the pupil of the eye in the directions P'O',
P'C and
P'B', as though they
P' which
is
the image of P.
had all come from the point

This imaginary opening or vir-
Deviation of a ray reflected twice in sucFiq. 26.

cession from a pair of inclined mirrors.
tual stop
BOC
towards which the incident rays must
directed in order to be reflected into the eye-pupil
all
be
B'O'C
is

43
Inclined Mirrors
18]
called
the entrance-pupil of the optical system consisting
and the eye
of the plane mirror
pupil of the eye itself

ter XII).
is
of the observer;
and the
Chap-
called here the exit-pupil (see
Since the entrance-pupil limits the apertures of
the bundles of rays that ultimately enter the eye,
it
acts
as the aperture-stop of the system ( 11).
from two Plane Mirrors.
17. Successive Reflections
Any
section
made by a
plane perpendicular to the line of in-
tersection of the planes of a pair of inclined mirrors
is
called
If a ray lying in a prinreflected successively at two plane mirrors it
a principal section of the system.

cipal section is
will be deviated
from
its
original direction by
an angle equal
to
twice the dihedral angle between the mirrors.
Let the plane of the principal section intersect the planes

OM, ON (Figs. 25 and
of the mirrors in the straight lines
26)
let 7 = Z MON denote the angle between the mirThe ray PQ lying in the plane MON is incident on
and
rors.
the mirror
OM
at the point Q,
the straight line
whence
it is
QR, meeting the mirror
reflected along
ON
at the point
R, where it is again reflected, proceeding in the direction

RS. Let the point of intersection of the straight lines PQ
and RS be designated by K. Then Z PKR is the angle between the original direction of the ray and its direction after
undergoing two reflections, and we must show that this
angle
is
Draw
them
equal to 2 7.
the incidence-normals at
until they
meet
the straight lines
QRS,
at J.
and R, and prolong
Then by the law
QJ and RJ
of reflection
bisect the angles
PQR
and
respectively.
In Fig. 25,
ZPKR=ZPQR+ZQRS = 2(ZJQR+ZQRJ)
= 2(180 -ZRJQ) = 27;

and in Fig. 26, Z PKR = Z PQR - Z SRQ
= 2(180-ZRQJ-ZJRQ)
= 2ZQJR-27.
18. Images in a System of Two Inclined Mirrors. When
a luminous point
lies
in the dihedral angle
between two
44
[18
plane mirrors, some of
its rays will fall on one mirror and

and consequently there will be two sets
of images.
In Fig. 27 the plane of the diagram is the principal section which contains the point-source S, and the
some on the
other,
straight lines
Fig. 27.
OM, ON
Images
of a
represent the traces of the mirrors
luminous point S in a pair of inclined

and ON.
mirrors
OM
OM
The rays which fall first on the mirror

be reflected as though they came from the image P x of
the luminous point S in this mirror. Some of these rays
falling on the mirror ON will be again reflected and proceed
thence as though they came from the point P2 which is
the image of P x in the mirror ON. Thus, by successive reflections, first at one of the mirrors and then at the other,
a series of images Pi, P 2 etc., will be formed by those rays
which fall first on the mirror
let us call this the P-series
of images. Similarly, the rays that fall first on the mirror
ON will produce another series of images Q x Q 2 etc., which
will be called the Q-series.
Each of these series will terminate with an image which lies behind both mirrors in the
in this plane.
will
OM
18]
Images
dihedral angle
COD
in Inclined
opposite the angle
mirrors themselves;
fall
no more images
on
45
MON
between the
because rays which, after reflection
at one of the mirrors, appear to
uated cannot
Mirrors
come from a point thus
the other mirror,
and so there
sit-
will
be
after this one.
Since the straight line
SP X
OM
is
the perpendicular bisector
the points S and Px are equidistant

of the line-segment
in
straight line OM; and, similarly,
point
the
from every
since
P 2 is
the image of Pi in the plane mirror
ON,
these two
points are likewise equidistant from every point in the

straight line
are
all
OM
all
ON.
Accordingly, the three points S,
equidistant from the point
and
ON
intersect.
the other images,
lines
Applying the same reasoning to
we
perceive that the images of both
ranged on the circumference of a

and whose radius is OS.
series are
is at
P^ P2
where the straight
whose center
circle
In the following discussion of the angular distances of

the images from the luminous point S, the angles will be
reckoned always in the same sense, either

all
counter-clockwise.
Let
y = Z AOB
all
clockwise or
denote the angle be-
tween the two mirrors, the letters A and B referring to the

points where the circle crosses the planes of the mirrors
Also, let a=Z AOS, j8 =ZSOB deand ON, respectively.
note the angular distances of S from A, B, respectively, so
that a +/3=y. Then
ZPiOS = 2a;
ZSOP 2 = ZSOB+ZBOP 2 =0+ZPiOB = 2(a+/3) = 2Y;
Z P 3 OS = Z P3OA+ a=Z AOP2+ a = Z SOP2 2 a
OM
= 27+2a;
Z SOP 4 = Z SOB+ Z BOP4 = P+ Z P3OB
= 2/3+ZP OS = 2(a+/3+7)=47;
Z P5OS = Z P5OA+ a = Z AOP4+ a = Z SOP
= 47+2a.
3
+2a
In general, therefore,
where
ZSOP 2k = 2/c7,
P 2k P 2k +i designate
,
ZP 2k+1 OS = 2/b7+2a,
the positions of the 2fcth and
46
18
(2fc+l)th images of the P-series, k denoting any integer,
SOP 2k P2k+iOS
and where the angles
are the angles sub-
tended by the arcs SBP 2k P 2k+ iAS, respectively.

for the Q-series of images we find
Similarly,
ZQ 2k 0S = 2A;7,
Z80Q 2k+1 = 2ky+2p,
where these angles are the angles subtended by the arcs

Q 2kAS, SBQ 2k+1 respectively.
Evidently, the image P 2k+i will fall on the arc CD behind both mirrors, if arc P 2k+1 AS>arc DAS, that is, if
2&Y+2 a > 180 -0;
and, by adding (/3-a) to both sides of this inequation,
and dividing through by y, this condition may be expressed
,
as follows:
'
In the same
C and D
way we
180-a
find that the
image P2 k
will fall
between
if
180 -a
2k>j'
7
Thus, the total number of images of the "P-series whether it

be odd or even, will be given by the integer next higher than
(180 a)/ y; and, similarly, the total number of images
t
of the Q-series will be given by the integer next higher than
(180- PHy.
The only exception to this rule is when the angle y is

contained in (180
/3) an exact whole numa) or (180
ber of times; in the former case the last image of the P-series
falls
falls
at C,
at
and
in the latter case the last
D; and
image of the Q-series
instead of taking the integers next above
the quotient (180 a)/y or (180 fi)/y, we must take

the actual integer obtained by the division. An example
Thus, suppose 7 = 27, a = 8,

and the integers next higher than (180 a)jy
and (180 f})/y will be 7 and 6, respectively; hence in
this case there will be 7 images of the P-series and 6 images
o the Q-series or 13 images in all. But if a = 10 and fi = 17,
will
make
then /?=
the matter clear.
19,
47
Kaleidoscope
18]
each
series will
all.
The
be found to have 7 images, 14 images
exceptional case occurs
(180
and 6 Q-images.
for then
/3)/y
= 6, and
when a = 9 and
hence there
will
/3
in
= 18,
be 7 P-images
y between the mirrors is an exact multiple

if 180/ y = p, where p denotes an integer,
next higher than (180- a)/ J and (180- P)/y
the angle
If
of 180, that
the integers
is,
both be equal to p,
no matter what may be
will
the
position
special
of
the object between the
two mirrors;
so that in
such a case the number

of images in each series
will
be equal, but the last

of one set will co-
image
incide with the last
points
P2
S,
P4
Q47 Q2 an d the
p 1, p3,
of
In fact, the
the other.
the vertices
Q
v*3>
01
points Fig. 28. Images of a luminous point in a

pair of plane mirrors inclined to each
Q
^1 ar p
other at an angle of 60.
two equal
sides each; and if p is odd, the polygon

have one of its corners between C and
is even, one of the corners of the polygon
SP 2 P4
Q4Q2 will fall between C and D; in either case
this vertex is the position of the last image of both series.
Thus, for example, if 7 = 60 (Fig. 28), then p = 3, and the
two polygons are the equilateral triangles SP2Q2 and P1P3Q1
regular polygons, of
P1P3
Q3Q1
D, whereas if p
.
will
(orPAQx).
The toy called a kaleidoscope, devised by Sir David
Brewster (1781-1868), consists essentially of two long narrow
strips of mirror-glass inclined to each other at
of 60
tube
and inclosed
is
closed
by a
in a cylindrical tube.
circular piece of
an angle
One end
of the
ground glass whereon
are loosely disposed a lot of fragments of colored glass or
48
[19
beads, and at the other end of the tube there
When
the instrument
looking in
it will
pattern formed
form of which
is a peep-hole.
held towards the light, an observer
an exquisitely beautiful and symmetrical

objects and their images, the
by the colored
may
the tube around
Fig. 29.
see
is
its
be almost endlessly varied by revolving

axis so that the bits of glass
assume new
Path of ray reflected into eye from a pair of inclined

mirrors.
positions.
In fact, this device has been turned to practical
use in making designs for carpets and wall-papers.

19. Construction of the
Path
of a
Ray Reflected
Eye from a Pair
of Inclined Mirrors.
paths of the rays
by which a
spectator standing in front of a
pair of inclined mirrors sees the

it
is
image of a luminous
point,
convenient to assume, for the sake of simplicity, that
the eye at
first
into the
In order to trace the
in Fig.
29
lies in
the plane of the paper.
step in the construction of the path of the ray
is
to
The
draw
the straight line from the given image-point to the eye,
because
if
the eye sees this point the light that enters the
Inclined Mirrors
19]
eye must arrive along this
image
will
If this line
line.
the mirror in which the image
49
is
does not cross
produced, this particular
not be visible from the point E.
Now
join the
point where this line meets the mirror with the preceding
image in the same series; the part of this line that lies between the two mirrors will evidently show the route of the
Showing how an eye at E sees the images of a luminous point S in a rectangular pair of plane mirrors.
Fig. 30.
light before its last reflection.
Proceeding in this fashion
from one mirror to the other, we shall trace backwards the

zigzag path of the ray until we arrive finally at the luminous
source at S. Consider, for example, the image P 3 formed
in the mirror OA in Fig. 29.
This image is visible to the
eye at
OA.
lines
E
If
because the straight line

J and
P3E
cuts at
K the mirror
designate the points where the straight
KP 2 and JPi meet the mirrors OB and OA, respectively,

SHJKE will represent the path of the ray
the broken line
from the source at S into the eye at E.
Fig. 30
shows how
50
20
an eye at E in front of two perpendicular plane mirrors can

see the images Pi, P 2 Qi and Q 2
20. Rectangular Combinations of Plane Mirrors.
In a
rectangular combination of two plane mirrors (7 = 90) the
image formed by two successive reflections will be inverted in the principal section of the system, but in any
plane at right angles to a principal section the image will
be erect. For example, if an object is placed in front of two
vertical plane mirrors at right angles to each other, the
image produced by two reflections will have the same position and appearance as if the object had been revolved bodily
through an angle of 180 about a vertical axis coinciding
.
with the line of intersection of the planes of the mirrors, as

represented in Fig. 31. In this case the image remains ver-
whereas it is horizontally inverted. On the

one of the mirrors is vertical and the other
horizontal, the image by twofold reflection will have the
same position and appearance as if the object had been
revolved through 180 around a horizontal axis coinciding
with the line of intersection of the two mirrors (Fig. 32);
that is, the image now will be upside down but not inverted
tically erect,
other hand,
if
horizontally.
Therefore, in order to obtain an image that is completely

reversed in every respect,
plane mirrors
two rectangular combinations
may be employed
of
with their principal sections
mutually at right angles, so disposed that the rays coming

from the object will be reflected in succession from each of
the four plane surfaces. An auxiliary system of this description is sometimes used in connection with an optical instrument for the purpose of rectifying the image which otherwise
would be seen inverted. A rectifying device depending on this
principle
is
the so-called
by Abbe (1840-1905)
Porro prism-system
in the design of the
lar telescope or field-glasses (c. 1883)
ment
is
in the
shown
in Fig. 33.
(1852), utilized
famous prism binocu-
A sketch of the arrange-
Two rectangular prisms are placed
tube of the instrument, between the objective and the
Fig. 32.
Image of an object in a rectangular pair of plane mirrors (from
actual photograph) showing how the last image is obtained by rotating
the object through 180* around the line of intersection of the mirrors.
One mirror vertical, the other horizontal.
;
Porro Prism System
20]
51
ocular, with their principal sections at right angles to each
The axial ray, after traversing the objective, crosses

normally the hypothenuse-face of the first prism and is
totally reflected (see 36), in the plane of a principal section,
at each of its two perother.
pendicular faces so as to
emerge from the hypothenuse-face in a direction

precisely opposite to that
which
it
had when
it first
This
crossed this surface.
ray
now undergoes a
simi-
lar cycle of experiences in
a principal section of the

second prism, and finally
emerges from this prism
Same
had when
in the
it
direction as FlG
.,
it
.i
met the
33. Porro prism-system
in prism
binocular field glasses.
ray parallel to the axial ray and lying above

a horizontal plane containing the axis will be converted by
first
prism.
two
reflections in the first prism into a ray

below this plane; and, similarly, a ray parallel to the axis and lying on one side of a vertical plane
containing the axis will, in consequence of the two reflections within the second prism, be converted into a ray whose
path lies on the opposite side of this vertical plane. Thus,
the combined effect of the two reflecting prisms together
will be to reverse completely the position of the ray with
respect to the horizontal and vertical meridian planes, so
that the ray will issue from the system on opposite sides of
both these planes. If the system of prisms were removed,
the image in the instrument would appear inverted, but by
interposing the prisms in this fashion the image will be
rectified and oriented exactly in the same way as the object;
which in the case of many optical instruments is an essential
virtue of the
whose path
lies
consideration.
52

21. Applications
of
the
Plane Mirror.
[21
It
is
hardly-
necessary to say that the plane mirror for various purposes has been in use among civilized peoples of all ages;
although the use of mirrors as articles of household furniture and decoration does not go back farther than the
By a combination of two
more plane mirrors a lady can arrange the back of
early part of the 16th century.
or
Fig. 34.
Porte lumi&re.
With
her dress and in fact see herself as others see her.
the aid of a mirror or combination of mirrors many in-
The
genious " magical effects" are produced in theaters.
plane mirror also constitutes an essential part of numerous
useful scientific instruments in
is
to alter the course of a
some
beam
of
which its only duty

whereas in various
of light,
forms of goniometrical instruments and contrivances for determining an angular magnitude that is not easily measured
Porte Lumiere
22]
directly the angle in question
is
53
ascertained indirectly
by
observing the angle turned through by a ray of light which

is
reflected
from a plane mirror.
22. Porte
Lumiere and Heliostat.
As good
an
illustra-
tion as can be given of the use of a plane mirror for chang-
ing the direction of a
beam
Fig. 35.
porte lumiere (Fig. 34),
of sunlight
is
afforded
by the
Heliostat.
which consists essentially
of a plane
mirror ingeniously mounted so as to be capable of rotation
about two rectangular axes, whereby it may be readily adjusted in any desired azimuth and reflect a beam of sunlight through a suitable opening in the wall of the building
to any part of the interior of the room.
However, owing to the diurnal movement of the sun,
54
22
a continual adjustment of the mirror is necessary in order

to keep the spot of light for any length of time at the place
in the room where it is needed, and sometimes this manipulation is very inconvenient and annoying, especially in the
case of a laboratory experiment extending perhaps over
a considerable part of a day. Thus, for example, in studying the solar spectrum it is often desirable to illuminate the
slit in the collimator tube of the spectrometer for hours at
a time. For such purposes it is better to use a heliostat
(Fig. 35), which is contrived so that the plane mirror is continuously revolved by clockwork around an axis parallel
to the earth's axis so as to preserve always the same relative
position with respect to the sun in its apparent diurnal
motion in the sky. The mirror can also be turned about
a horizontal axis, and it has first
to be adjusted about this axis so
that the rays of the sun are reflected towards the north pole
of the celestial sphere, that
is,
parallel to the axis of the earth.
The mirror being adjusted

this angle,
which
the declination of
Fig. 36.-Princi P le
of heliostat.
at
depend on
the sun above
will
or below^ the celestial equator,
and turning
at the rate of 15
per hour around an axis parallel to the axis of rotation of

the earth,
it is
evident that the rays of the sun will continue
to be reflected constantly in the

for example, that the mirror
ZZ
(Fig. 36) so that
reflected at
the ray
is
same
direction.
SB coming from
in the direction
BP
Suppose,
adjusted in the position

the sun at S
is
parallel to the axis of the
AB of the
denoted by
2a = ZPBS, and if the angle between the normal to the
mirror and the axis of rotation is denoted by r), then, evidently, rj = a.
If the sun's declination on a certain day
earth and therefore parallel to the axis of rotation
mirror.
If
the polar distance of the sun
is
Measurement
23]
of
Angle
of
Prism
55
+10, then 2 a = 90- 10 = 80, and 77 = 40. If, on the

other hand, the sun is 10 below the equator, 2a=100 and
is
77
= 50.
The
heliostat
provided also with a fixed mirror which
is
reflects the rays from the rotating mirror in a definite di-
rection, as desired, usually in a horizontal direction into
the room where the sunlight
instrument
is
is
to be used.
Generally, the
mounted on a permanent ledge outside the
window; sometimes it is placed on the roof of the building

and the fixed mirror adjusted so as to send the sun's rays
down a
vertical tube at
the bottom of which there

is
another mirror placed
S^~
at an angle of 45 with
the vertical where

rays are once
more
flected so that the

of sunlight
'
^^^C^
the
re-
beam
which enters
the room will be horizontal.
Measurement
23.
the Angle of a Prism.
of
Another laboratory application of the principle
of a plane mirror
method
in the
is
seen
of using a
goniometer to ascertain
FlG 37-Measurement of angle of prism.

-
the dihedral angle between two plane faces of a glass prism

The angle that is actually measured by the goniom( 48)
.
eter
is
the angular distance between the images of a distant
two faces of the prism. Parallel rays

coming from a far-off source at S (Fig. 37) and incident on
the two faces of the prism that meet in the edge V are reflected as shown in the diagram, and the angle between the
two directions of the reflected rays is obviously equal to
object as seen in the
twice the dihedral angle
/3.
56
Measure
24.
Scale.
The
of
Angular Deflections
[24
by Mirror and
angular rotation of a body, for example, the
deflection of the magnetic needle of a galvanometer, is frequently measured by attaching a mirror to the rotating
body from which a beam of light is reflected. This reflected
whereby the actual
light acts as a long weightless pointer
Fig. 38.
Mirror,
telescope and scale for measure-
ment
movement
of the
of angles.
body can be magnified
to
any extent with-
out in the least affecting the sensitiveness of the apparatus.
In Fig. 38 the plane mirror which is capable of rotation

about an axis perpendicular at A to the plane of the paper
is
its initial position by the line-segment

The straight line MN in front of the mirror and
known distance (c? = AB) from it represents a scale
represented in
marked
at a
1.
An eye at E looking through

A will see the image in the mirror
graduated in equal divisions.

a telescope pointed towards
of the scale-division at S, the so-called " zero-reading," be-
cause the light from S incident at

position
(" equilibrium-position")
into the eye at E.
If
now
angle 6 into the position

will
come
the mirror
marked
2,
on the mirror
is
in the
reflected along
is
AE
turned through an
another scale-division
into the field of view of the telescope
and coin-
Mirror and Scale
24j
57
cide with the cross-hair in the eye-piece.

division corresponds to the point
PA
that comes along
that
marked
now
is
P,
If
this
it is
reflected along
the eye at E; and evidently, according to
13,
scale-
the light
AE
into
Z PAS = 2 0.
In making a measurement by this method, the three points

designated by S,
and
are generally adjusted so as to
be very near together, if not actually coincident. If they

were coincident, the planes of the mirror and scale would
be parallel, and the axis of the telescope would coincide
with the straight line BA perpendicular to the scale at B.
But in any case the Z B AS = e will be a constant, depending
partly on the initial position of the mirror and partly on
the direction of the axis of the telescope; thus,
tan = a/d,
where a = BS. If, therefore, we put x = SP, we have:
x
-j
= tan e+ 2 6) tan e
(
whence, since the value of x can be read off on the scale, it

will be easy to calculate the value of the required angle 6
through which the mirror has been turned. In many cases
where
this
method
is
employed the angles denoted by 6 and
are both so small that there will be
little
error in sub-
stituting the angles themselves in place of their tangents.
Under these circumstances the above formula
will
be greatly
and we
simplified, for the angle e will disappear entirely,

shall obtain
e= Td>
where, however,
it
must be noted that this expression gives

The value of 6 in de-
the value of the angle 6 in radians.
is found by multiplying the right-hand side of this

formula by 180/ 7T, so that we obtain:
grees
degrees.
Tr.a
A
and
lamp and
scale,
scale
is
sometimes used instead of a telescope
the light of the lamp being reflected from the
58
[25
made
of translucent
mirror on to the scale which

glass, so that it is
is
usually
easy to read the position of the spot of
light.
25.
Hadley's Sextant.
the principle of
17
is
Fig. 39.
Another instrument which
the sextant, which
is
utilizes
employed
for
Principle of sextant.
measuring the angular distance between two bodies, for example, the altitude of the sun above the sea-horizon. The
plan and essential features of this apparatus are shown in
At the center A of a graduated circular arc ON
Fig. 39.
a small mirror is set up in a plane at right angles to that of
the arc. This mirror can be turned about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the paper and passing through A. Rigidly connected to this mirror and turning with it is a long
solid arm AP whose other end P, provided with a vernier
scale, moves over the arc ON, whereby the angle through
which the mirror turns can be accurately measured. A little
of the graduated part of the arc,
beyond the extremity
a second mirror B is erected facing the first mirror. The

plane of this mirror is likewise perpendicular to that of the
circle, but from the upper half of it the silver has been
removed, so that this portion of the mirror B is transparent.

Moreover, this mirror is fixed with respect to the instrument. An observer looking through a peep-hole or tele-
Mirror Sextant
25]
59
scope attached to the instrument towards the mirror
may-
see a distant object through the upper transparent part of
and at the same time he
this mirror,
it
may
also see just
below
the image of a second object reflected in the lower half
of the glass.
When
the planes of the two mirrors
are parallel, the zero-mark of the vernier on the
arm
coincides with the zero-mark
Suppose, for example, that

allel
to each other, the instrument
Fig. 40.
of the
when the two

is
and B
movable
graduated
arc.
mirrors are par-
pointed at a distant
Model of mirror sextant.

which
be seen directly through

At the same time the
observer will see an image of the object Si by rays which
have been reflected from the mirror A to the mirror B and
thence into the eye at E; for if the two mirrors are parallel,
the direction of a ray after two reflections will be the same
as its initial direction. If now the mirror A is turned until
the image of another object at S 2 comes into the field of
vision, the two objects Si and S 2 will be seen simultaneously,
object, say, a star at Si,
will
the upper half of the fixed mirror B.
A in this new position the incident ray

the ray that is reflected from A to B and thence,
for with the mirror at
S 2A
will
be
as before, into the eye at E. Moreover, since the angle between
the original direction S 2 A of this ray and
its
final direction
60
[Ch. II
S X A is equal to double the angle between the planes of the

two mirrors, that is, is equal to 2 6, where 8 = Z OAP, the
angular distance between the objects at Si and S 2 must be
equal to 2 6, that is, Z SiAS 2 = 2 0. In order to save trouble
in making the readings, half-degrees on the graduated arc
are reckoned as degrees, so that the value of the angle 2 6
is
As the angular distance between

seldom exceed 120, and since, in fact, the
read directly on the scale.

the objects will
method
is
not very accurate for angles greater than
this,
the actual length of the graduated arc need not be greater

than about 60 or one-sixth of the circumference; whence
the
name sextant
is
derived.
is shown in Fig. 40.

For accurate measurements the instrument is made of metal
with a scale etched on a silver strip. Moreover, a telescope
is
is
simple model of a mirror sextant
used instead of a peep-hole; so that with a fine sextant it

comparatively easy to measure the angular distance be-
tween two points to within one-half minute of arc. One

great advantage of this instrument is its portability, and
since it does not have to be mounted on a stand, it is very
serviceable on shipboard for measurements of altitude and
determinations of latitude,
etc.
PROBLEMS
1.
The top
from the
mirror
What
is
of a vertical plane mirror 2 feet high
floor.
The eye
6 feet from the floor and 3 feet from the mirror.
are the distances from the wall on which the mirror
hangs of the farthest and nearest points on the
if
ray of light
the mirror
is
is
reflected at a plane mirror.
turned through an angle
floor that
Ans. 6
are visible in the mirror?

2.
4 feet
is
of a person standing in front of the
6,
ft.
18
Show
in.
that
the reflected ray
be turned through an angle 2 0.

3. Show that the deviation of a ray reflected once at each
of two plane mirrors is equal to twice the angle between the
will
mirrors.
Ch.
Problems
II]
4.
what
a plane mirror
If
is
is
61
turned through an angle of
5,
the deflection indicated by the reading on a straight
Ans. About 17.6 cm.

from the mirror?
Find the angle turned through by the mirror when the
deflection on the scale in the preceding example is 10 cm.?
scale 100 cm.
5.
Ans. 2
What must be the length of a vertical

order that a man standing in front of it may
6.
image of himself?
Ans.
The
52'.
plane mirror in
see a full length
length of the mirror must be
equal to half the height of the man.

7.
Show
line joining
8.
that a plane mirror bisects at right angles the
an object-point with
its
image.
ray of light proceeding from a point
is
reflected
from a plane mirror to a point B. Show that the path pursued by the light is shorter than any other path from A to
the mirror and thence to B.
9. Give Huygens's construction, (1) for the reflection
of a p'ane wave at a plane mirror, and (2) for the reflection
a spherical wave at a plane mirror.
Explain clearly how to determine the limits of the
field of view in a plane mirror for a given position of the eye
of
10.
of the spectator.
11.
candle
Show how an
is
placed between two parallel plane mirrors.
observer can see the image of the candle pro-
duced by rays which have been twice reflected at one mirror

and three times at the other. Draw accurate diagram showing the paths of the rays, the positions of the images, etc.;
and give
clear explanation of the figure.
OA
and OB are two plane mirrors inclined at an angle

and P is a point in OA. At what angle must a ray
of light from P be incident on OB in order that after three
Ans. 45.
reflections it may be parallel to OA?
13. Show that the image of a luminous object placed
between two plane mirrors all He on a circle.
14. Show how by means of two plane mirrors a man
standing in front of one of them can see the image of the back
12.
of 15,
62
[Ch. II
Trace the course of the rays from the back of

eye and explain clearly.
15. Show by a diagram, with clear explanations, how
one sees the image of an arrow in a plane mirror.
16. Construct the image of an arrow formed by two reof his head.
his
head into
flections in
his
mirrors
is
(1) when the mirrors

when the angle between the
a pair of inclined mirrors,
are at right angles, and (2)

60.
Show how a
horizontal shadow of a vertical rod can

be thrown on a vertical screen by a point-source of light with
the aid of a plane mirror. Draw a diagram.
18. An object is placed between two plane mirrors inclined at an angle of 45. Show by a figure how a spectator
may see the image after four successive reflections. Give
17.
clear explanation.
19.
Two
plane mirrors are inclined at an angle of 50.
that there will be 7 or 8 images of a luminous point

placed between them, according as its angular distance from
Show
the nearer mirror
is
or
is
not
less
than
20.
Find the number of images formed when a bright point

is placed between two plane mirrors inclined to each other
at an angle of 25. Ans. 14 or 15 images according as the
angular distance of the luminous point from the nearer mirror is or is not less than 5.
21. A luminous object moves about between two plane
mirrors, which are inclined at an angle of 27. Prove that
at any moment the number of images is 13 or 14 according
as the angular distance of the luminous point from the nearer
mirror is or is not less than 9.
22. The angle between a pair of inclined mirrors is 80.
Find the position of an object which is reproduced by 5
images. Ans. The object must be less than 20 from the
20.
nearer mirror.
23.
Describe a sextant with the aid of a diagram, and ex-
plain its use.

24.
Describe and explain the heliostat.
Ch.
Problems
II]
63
25. Construct the image of the capital

a plane mirror.
letter
as seen in
26. When a candle-flame is placed in front of a screen

with a pin-hole opening, an image of the flame is formed on
a second screen placed

screen
is
replaced
on the back of the

27.
first
Explain clearly
method
But
parallel to the first.
by a plane
screen.
(with
of using a mirror
if
the second
mirror, the image will be formed
Explain
diagram,
and
how
this
formula,
scale for
happens.
etc.)
the
measurement
of
angles.
28.
Describe
how
the dihedral angle of a glass prism
measured on a goniometer-circle.
is
CHAPTER
III
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Passage of Light from One Medium to Another.

Hardly any one can have failed to observe that the course of
light in passing obliquely from water to air is abruptly changed
at the surface of the water. For example, if a coin is placed
at A in the bottom of a china bowl (Fig. 41), and if the eye
26.
is
adjusted at a point
so that the coin
is
hid
from view by the side of

the vessel, then, without
altering the position
of
the eye, the coin can be
made
Fig. 41.
Coin at bottom
visible
by
filling
visible
bowl rendered pouring

bowl with water.
of
merely by
water
in
the
bowl up to a
a ray proceeding from
A may be bent at the surface of the water so as to pass over
the edge of the bowl and enter the eye at C. It is true the
coin will will not appear to be at A but at a point A' nearer
the surface of the water and displaced a little sideways to-
The broken
line
ACB
illustrates
certain level.
how
wards the eye, because the rays that come to the eye intersect at this point A' ( 42). A clear pool of water seems to
be shallower than it really is, and this illusion is greater in
proportion as the line of sight
objects at the
bottom
is
more
oblique, so that bright
of the pool appear to be
gether towards the surface.
When
a stick
is
crowded
to-
partly immersed
under water appears to be bent up towards the surface ( 42).

This bending of the rays which takes place when light
crosses the boundary between two media is called refraction.
in water, the part
64
Law
27]
of Refraction
65
The path of a beam of sunlight through water can easily

be shown by mixing a little milk in the water or by stirring in it a minute quantity of chalk-dust, while a puff of
smoke
will at
so that the
once reveal the track of the
phenomena
beam
in the air,
of
refraction can readily be
In
exhibited to the eye.
every
be found
that the ray is bent farther
from the incidence-normal
in the rarer or less dense
case it will
medium
(see
30)
and
here also, as in the case

of
reflection, there
is
Fig. 42.
perfectly definite connec-
Law of
Refraction.
and that
tion between the direction of the incident ray
of
the corresponding refracted ray.

27.
Law
of Refraction.
In Fig. 42 the
straight line
AB
on a
smooth refracting surface separating two media which for
the present will be designated by the letters a and b. The
straight line NN' drawn perpendicular to the plane which
represents the path of a ray incident at the point
is
tangent to the refracting surface at
represents the
incidence-normal; and the plane of the paper which contains the incident ray
and the incidence-normal
is
the plane
ZZ
repre-
sents the trace of the refracting surface in this plane.
And,
of incidence, as already defined ( 13).
finally,
line
the path of the refracted ray
BC.
The
The
line
shown by the
is
straight
angles of incidence and refraction are defined
to be the acute angles through which the incidence-normal
has to be turned in order to bring
into coincidence with
it
the incident and refracted rays, respectively.

these angles are denoted
by a,
a',
Thus,
if
then
a = ZNBA,
In the figure as drawn the angle a
a'
is
= ZN'BC.
represented as greater
than the angle a', so that, according to the statement at
66
the end of
the
26,
medium
the
medium
is less
27
dense or "rarer" than
b.
Before stating the relation which
tween the angles a and
Newton's
a! ,
it
is
found to
exist be-
necessary to allude to
is
sunlight and indeed soany kind, as, for example, the light
of an arc lamp, is composed of light of an innumerable
variety of colors (see Chapter XIV), as may be shown by
passing a beam of sunlight through a glass prism, whereby
great discovery that
called " white light" of
be seen that white light is a mixture of all the colors

spectrum in all their infinite varieties of hues. On
the other hand, monochro?natic light, as it is called, is light
of some one definite color, as, for example, the yellow light
emitted by a sodium flame which may be obtained by
burning common salt in the flame of a Bunsen burner.
it
will
of the
we
In geometrical optics, unless
are specially concerned
with the investigation of color-phenomena (as in Chapter
XIV),
it is
of the light
The law
nearly always tacitly assumed that the source

is
monochromatic.
found by experiment,
of refraction, as
may now
be stated as follows
The refracted ray lies in the plane of incidence on the opposite side of the normal in the second medium from the incident
ray in the first medium; and the sines of the angles of incidence
and refraction are to each other in a constant ratio, the value of
which depends only on the nature of the two media and on the
color (or wave-length) of the light.
This constant
ratio,
denoted by the symbol n ah
the relative index of refraction

the second
medium
from
the first
is
medium
called
(a)
to
(b) for light of the given color; thus,
sin
^~%;
the value of this constant, as a rule, being greatest for violet
and
least for red light, so that the violet rays are the
" refrangible" of
all.
When
light is refracted
water (w) the relative index of refraction
is,
from
most
air (a) to
approximately,
28]
Proof of
Law
of Refraction
67
naw =4/3, and hence under these circumstances
sina/ =
Although there are many different varieties of

optical glass, for rough calculations the value of the relative index of refraction from air (a) to glass (g) may be
taken as n ag = 3/2; which means that the sine of the angle
which the ray makes with the normal in glass is about twothirds of the sine of the angle which the corresponding ray
makes with the normal in air.
Although the law of refraction is quite simple, it somesin a.
how eluded discovery until early in the seventeenth century

when the true relation between the angle of refraction and
the angle of incidence was first ascertained by Willebrord
Snell (1591-1626) or Snellius,
of
Leyden, and the law
therefore, often referred to as Snell' s
Law
is,
of Refraction.
The law was
first published by the French philosopher

Descartes (1596-1650), who had probably seen Snell's
papers, although he does not allude to him by name.
Experimental Proof of the Law of Refraction. The

between the angles of incidence and refraction can
be very strikingly exhibited with the aid of the optical disk
that was mentioned in 13 in connection with a lecturetable experiment for verifying the law of reflection of light.
The vertical ground glass disk is adjusted in the track of
a narrow beam of sunlight (or parallel rays from a lantern)
in such a position that the path of the light is shown by a
band of light crossing the face of the disk along one of its
diameters. The glass body through which the light is refracted has the form of a semicylinder, the two plane parallel sides being ground rough so as to be more or less opaque,
whereas the curved surface and the diametral plane face
are both highly polished.
This half-disk has a radius of
about 2 inches and is about one-half inch thick or more. It
can be fastened against the vertical face of the optical disk
with its axis horizontal and coinciding with the axis of rotation
of the disk, as represented in the diagram Fig. 43. If this
adjustment is made, and the disk turned so that the inci28.
relation
68
dent ray
at
its
AB
meets the polished plane face
BC
center B, the refracted ray
will
of the glass
28
body
proceed through
the glass along a radius of the semicylinder, and therefore

it will emerge again
meeting the curved surface normally,
into the air without being
The
di-
NN' which
is
further deviated.
ameter
marked on the
face of the
optical disk
normal to
is
the plane surface of the
and if from the

and C where the
incident and refracted rays
glass body,
points
cross the circumference of

Fig. 43.
Optical
Disk used to verify

law of refraction.
the disk perpendiculars are

* -m
,1
^_
0n the ^î
normal
let fal1
i
NN', the lengths of these

be proportional to the sines
of the angles of incidence and refraction NBA and N'BC,
respectievly. Now it will be found that, no matter how we
turn the disk, the perpendicular AX will always be about
perpendiculars
AX and CY
will
one-and-a-half times as long as the perpendicular
we
CY.
If
substitute for the half-disk of solid glass a hollow vessel
of the
same form and
this vessel
with water,
the perpendicular
AX
size
with thin glass walls, and
we
shall find
will
now
if
we
fill
that the length of
always be about one-and-one-
third times that of the perpendicular
CY, because the relative
index of refraction from air to water
is 4/3, as above stated.

law of the refraction of fight
is to be found in the fact that this law is at the basis of the
theory and construction of nearly all optical instruments,
and it has been subjected, therefore, to the most searching
The law of refraction may also be regarded as comtests.
pletely verified by the methods that are employed in the
determination of the indices of refraction of transparent
bodies, solid, liquid and gaseous; which are described in
But the best proof
of the
Reversibility of Light Path
29]
treatises
69
on experimental optics usually under the
title of
"refractometry."
29. Reversibility of the Light Path.
AB
is
reflected at
placed at
at right angles to
ray back on
itself;
When a ray of
BD,
in the direction
BD
will
light
a plane mirror
turn the reflected
arriving again at B, the light will ob-
viously be reflected there so as to return finally to the point
where it started. This is a simple instance of a general

law of optics known as the principle of the reversibility of
the light path.
Experiment shows that the same rule holds
likewise in the case of the refraction of light,
and that
if
ABC is the route pursued by light in going from a point

A in one medium to a point C in an adjoining medium by
way
of the incidence-point B,
and
if
then the light
is
re-
versed by some means so as to be started back along the
be refracted at B into the first medium

And, in general, if the final direction
of the ray is reversed, for example, by falling normally on
a plane mirror, the light will retrace its entire path, no
matter how many reflections or refractions it may have
suffered.
Thus, in any optical diagram, in which the dipath CB,
it
will
along the path BA.
rections of the rays of light are indicated
may
by arrow-heads,
be reversed, if we wish to ascertain

how the rays would go through the system if they were to
enter it from the other end.
these pointers
all
It follows, therefore, since

sin
sin a'
that
we have
sin a'
ab '
that
is,
ba '
the relation
âb-^ba
from
sin
=1
the relative indices of refraction
from
(b) to (a) are reciprocals of each other.
ample, since n aw = 4/3
(a) to (b)
and
Thus, for ex-
is the index from air to water, the

index from water to air is n wa = 3/4. Similarly, if ?i ag = 3/2,
the index from glass to air is n ga = 2/3.
70
30. Limiting Values of the

ingly,
tion
we
may
second
Index of Refraction.
31
Accord-
see that the value of the relative index of refrac-
be greater or
medium
(b)
is
less
than unity.
If
n ab >l, the
said to be more highly refracting or
medium
and since in
which means
that the refracted ray is bent towards the normal, as happens
when light is refracted from air to water (w ab = 1.33). On
the other hand, if nab <l, the second medium (b) is said to
be less highly refracting or (optically) rarer than the first
medium (a), and now the angle of refraction (a') will be
greater than the angle of incidence (a), so that in this case
the refracted ray will be bent away from the normal, as, for
example, when light is refracted from water into air (n wa =
Glass is more highly refracting than water, and
0.75).
diamond has the greatest light-bending power of all optical
media, the index of refraction from air to diamond being
about 2.5. The values of the constant n ab for pairs of
media a, b that are available for optical purposes are comprised within comparatively narrow limits, say, between
In the exceptional case when nab =l, the angles
1/2 and 2.
of incidence and refraction will be equal, and the rays pass
from a to b without change of direction. This is the reason
why a glass rod is invisible in oil of cedar. Sometimes accidental differences of refrangibility between two adjacent
layers of the same medium enable us to distinguish one
Similarly,
part of a transparent medium from another.
also, the presence of air-bubbles in water or glass is made
(optically)
denser than the
this case sin
a >sina',
it
first
follows that
(a);
a >
a'',
manifest by the refractions that take place at the boundaries.

A fish swimming in water does not see the water around him,
but the phenomena of refraction may make him aware of the

existence of a different medium above the surface of the water.
31. Huygens's Construction of a Plane Wave Refracted
Plane Surface. The straight lines AB and AD (Fig. 44)

show the traces in the plane of the diagram of the plane
at a
wave-front advancing in the
first
medium
(a) in
the direc-

Waves Refracted
31]
at Plane Surface
71
BD
and the plane refracting surface, respectively. The

is supposed to have just arrived, at the point A
of the- refracting plane, which from this moment ( = 0)
becomes a new origin
from which secondary
tion
disturbance
wavelets
hemispherical
are propagated into the
second
medium
(b)
Now
propagated with
light is
different velocities in dif-
media; thus, for
ferent
example, the velocity of

light
what
water
in
about
is
only
three-fourths
it is
in air
velocity in glass
of
and the
is about
two-thirds of the velocity

in
Consequently,
air.
when waves
of light pass

wave refracted at plane surface.
Fig. 44.
from
air
glass,
the part of the wave-front that
into
water or
is
in the denser
medium
advances more slowly than the part that is still in the air,
so that the direction of the wave-front is changed in passing
from one medium to another. Let the velocities of light
in the media a and b be denoted by v a and v^, respectively.
Then after a time i = BD/ya when the disturbance which
was at B has just arrived at D on the boundary between
the two media, the secondary wavelets which have been
spreading out from A as center will have been propagated
,
in the second
medium
(6)
to a distance
AC
M = --BD;
and, similarly, at the same instant from any intermediate

point
lying on
AD
between
and
the disturbance will
have proceeded into the second medium
(b)
QR=-(BDPQ)=-KD,
to a distance
72
where
shown
(not
32
in the figure) designates the foot of
the perpendicular let
fall
on BD.
from
Thus, the
radii
elementary cylindrical refracted waves whose axes are

perpendicular to the plane of the diagram at A and Q are
of the
b
"-
SfcD,
respectively;
and, according to
KD,
Huygens's
principle,
the
which
Exis tangent to all these elementary cylindrical surfaces.
actly the same method as was used in the similar problem
of reflection ( 14) can be applied here; and thus it may be
refracted wave-front at this instant will be the surface
shown that
the point
moment when
at the
wave-front will be the plane

is
the disturbance reaches
of the plane refracting surface, the refracted
CD containing this point, which

C
perpendicular to the plane of the figure and tangent at
to the elementary
wave represented by the
face described about
AC.
medium the wave marches forward in the diLA and in the second medium in the direction AC.
In the
first
rection
Snell's law of refraction

the
spherical sur-
as center with radius equal to
figure
by observing that
27)
may
be deduced from
where a =
BD = AD.sina,
Z NAL = Z DAB denotes the angle of incidence, and AC =

AD. sin a', where a' = Z N'AC = Z ADC denotes the angle of
refraction.
Consequently,
sin
a
/
sin a'
BD
AC
Vb
= ttt = a = a
constant,
which constant must, therefore, be identical with the relative

index of refraction n ab
for the case when the light travels

medium than it does in the second (v a >v h),
when the second medium is more retarding or "op-
The diagram
is
drawn
faster in the first
that
is,
denser"
tically
32.
Wave.
( 30)
than the
first.
Mechanical Illustration of the Refraction of a Plane
A simple
of a plane
follows
wave
mechanical illustration of the refraction

at a plane surface may be devised as
Mechanical Illustration
32]
Two boxwood
are connected
73
wheels each about two inches in diameter

iron axle about 4 inches long passing
by an
through the centers of the wheels at right angles to their

If this body is placed on a
smooth rectangular board, about a yard long and about
18 inches wide, which is
planes of rotation (Fig. 45).
slightly tilted,
to
roll
and allowed
diagonally
board,
its
along a straight
if
down the
path
a piece of
will
line.
be
But
cloth or
felt
velveteen cut in the form

of a rectangle
is
glued in
the middle of the board,
with
its
long side parallel
to the edge of the board,
then when the body descends the inclined plane

obliquely,
one of the wheels
will arrive at the
edge of FlG
45.
Mechanical
illustration
of
refraction.
the cloth before the other,
be suddenly slowed up while the other wheel

move on the bare board under the same conditions as before. Consequently, the axle will be made to swing
round until both wheels get on to the cloth piece, the direc-
so that
it
will
continues to
tion of motion having been abruptly changed in this process.
At the opposite edge
change
an opposite sense,
so that when the roller leaves the retarding surface and
emerges again on to the bare board, it will be found to be
going approximately in the same direction as at first. These
of the direction of
of the cloth rectangle, a similar
motion takes place
in
bendings in the course of the roller descending the inclined

plane at the places where it crosses the parallel sides of the
cloth rectangle are analogous to the deviations in the line
of march of a plane wave of
surrounded by air.
light in traversing
a glass slab
74
Index of Refraction.
33. Absolute
the velocities of light in the media

then, as
theory of
we have
If v & v h
,
and
c,
and
denote
vc
respectively,
just seen ( 31), according to the
naC
iti
we
a,
33
wave-
the relative indices of refraction will be:
light,
and, hence,
~V
nbc
"~Vc
find
nac.
n ab=-;
Wbc
so that in case
we know
the values n ac n bc of the indices

,
with respect to each of the two media a and

n
b, the value
ab of the index of medium b with respect to
medium a can be obtained at once by means of the above
of a
medium
Moreover, since
relation.
29)
1
Wbc
the preceding equation
may be written
as follows
a, b and c are
n ac = 3/4 and n ch =-3/2, the index of refraction from water to glass is found by
the above formula to be n ab = 9/8.
In fact, if there are a number of media a, &, c, . . . , i> j, h
it is obvious that we shall have the following relation between the relative indices of refractions:
n ab -n bc
nij.n jk = n ak
which is easily remembered by observing the order in which
Thus, for example, suppose the three media

water, glass
and
air,
respectively; since
the letters occur in the subscripts.
In particular,
medium
medium
is
identical with the first
an optical instrument surrounded by

and accordingly we obtain
in
âb-^bc
....
air,
nij.n ja
( 29).
as
if
is
the last
the case
then n ak = n aa =
= l.
A special case of this general relation, viz.,

has already been remarked
a,
1,
Absolute Index of Refraction
33]
Since w ac .n ca =7i bc .n cb =
75
and n ab .n\iC = n ac we may write
also:
"'ca
and
formula suggests immediately the idea of employing some suitable medium c as a standard optical medium with
respect to which the indices of refraction of all other media
this
may be expressed. The natural medium to choose for this purpose
is
the ether
itself
which
light traverses in
coming to the
earth from the sun and stars; and so the index of refraction of
a medium with respect to empty space or vacuum is called

index of refraction or simply its refractive index.
Thus, the absolute index of refraction of vacuum (c) is equal
its absolute
is, n c = l.
Similarly, the symbols
be employed to denote the absolute indices of
a, b, respectively; so that here they are really
to the magnitudes denoted by n CSL n ch in the
formula, which, therefore, may be written
to unity, that
n a nh
,
will
the media
equivalent
preceding
nh
that
is,
the relative
index of refraction of
medium a is equal to the

b to that of medium a.
The absolute indices of
to
refraction of
substances are greater than unity.

in ordinary
atmospheric
in vacuo that for
take
the
air is so
index
The
with respect
nearly equal to
of
for
its
we may
refraction
actual value
medium
all known transparent

The velocity of light
practical purposes
all
absolute
equal to unity.
medium b
ratio of the absolute index of
of
air
air
at
velocity
generally
as
0C.
under a pressure of 76 cm. of mercury, for sodium

is
also
and
light,
1.000293.
With every
fore,
isotropic
medium
there
is
associated, there-
a certain numerical constant n called
its
(absolute)
when a ray of light is reindex n into another of index n
index of refraction; and, hence,

fracted from a
medium
of
Mirrors, and Prisms Lenses
76
the trigonometric
formula for
the
34
law of refraction
may
be
written thus:
n'
sina'
may also be put in the following symmetric form

n'.sina' = ft.sina.
which
mode
This latter
other
sina
way
of writing this relation suggests also an-
of stating the
Fig. 46.
fundamental fact
Construction
of refracted
in regard to the
ray (n'>n)
refraction of light, as follows: Whenever a ray of light is refracted
from one medium

and the sine
to
normal
to the refracting
another
the product of the index
of the angle between the ray
of refraction
fraction (n'.sina/) as before refraction (n.sina).
uct
light
is
and
the
surface has the same value after re-
This prod-
K = n.sin a = n'.sina'
which does not vary when the

crosses a surface separating a pair of isotropic media
called the optical invariant of refraction.
34. Construction of the Refracted
Ray.
Let the absolute
two media separated from each other

by a smooth refracting surface be denoted by n, n', and let
the straight line AB (Figs. 46 and 47) represent the path
in the first medium (n) of a ray incident on the boundaryindices of refraction of
Construction of Refracted
34]
The
surface at the point B.
Ray
straight line
NN'
77
represents
the normal to the refracting surface at this point, and hence
the plane of the diagram

straight line
ZZ shows
is
the plane of incidence.
The
the trace in this plane of the plane
tangent to the refracting surface at the incidence-point B;

in the special case
when the
refracting surface
is itself
plane,
be the trace of the surface of separation between the two media. With the point B as center
this straight line will
Fig. 47.
Construction
and with any radius
of refracted
r describe in
the plane of incidence the
arc of a circle cutting the incident ray

in the first
medium; and
n'jn times as great, that
is,
in the
ray (n'<n)
AB
same
in
a point
lying
plane, with radius
with radius n'r/n, describe also
the arc of a concentric circle intersecting at P' the straight

line
HP
drawn through P perpendicular to ZZ at H. If

medium is more highly refracting than the first,
the second
is, if n'>n, the radius of the second circle will be greater

than that of the first, as represented in Fig. 46; whereas
when n'<n, the second circle is inside the first, as in Fig. 47.
The path of the refracted ray correspodinng to the given
that
78
incident ray
BC in
the second
The
is
will
36
be represented by the prolongation
medium
of the straight line P'B.
proof of this construction consists simply in showing
that the
BC
AB
ZN'BC
between the normal and the straight
line
equal to the angle of refraction a' as given by the
formula
n'.sin a'
= n.sin a,
where
a=ZNBA
denotes
Evidently, from the figure,
given angle of incidence.
the
we have
sinZHPB _BP _n'

sin/HP B~BP "'
and since ZHPB = ZNBA=a, and Z HP'B = Z N'BC, we
obtain immediately the relation: n'. sinZN'BC = ft.sina and
therefore ZN'BC=a'.
35. Deviation of the Refracted Ray.
The acute angle
/
through which the direction of the refracted ray has to be

turned to bring it into the same direction as that of the incident ray
and
is
is
called the angle of deviation of the refracted ray
denoted by
e;
thus, =
Obviously,
e= a
The only ray
ZP BP
(Figs.
46 and 47).
a'.
whose direction
will remain unchanged after the ray enters the second medium is the one
that proceeds along the normal NB (a = a'=e = 0).
The
more obliquely the ray AB meets the refracting surface,
that
is,
incident at
the greater the angle of incidence, the greater also will
be the deviation-angle.
The
truth of this statement will be
apparent from an inspection of the relation between the

angles
a and
e as
exhibited in Fig. 46 or Fig. 47.
The
inter-
cept PP' included between the circumferences of the

construction-circles,
which remains constantly
two
parallel to the
incidence-normal, increases in length as the angle of inci-
dence increases, whereas the other two sides BP, BP' of

the triangle BPP', being always equal to the radii of the
remain constant in length; and hence the angle

must increase in absolute value as the angle a increases.
In ordinary refraction, as we have
36. Total Reflection.
seen, there can only be one refracted ray corresponding to
circles,
Total Reflection
36]
a given incident ray, but the question
79
may
be asked: Is
it
possible that, under certain circumstances, there will be
no refracted ray, so that the incident

reflected at
light will
the surface without being refracted at
be
all?
totally
Evi-
dently such will be the case whenever in the foregoing construction ( 34) the point P' (Figs. 46
and 47) cannot be
located, because the path of the refracted ray
by the
Let us examine,
is
is
determined
straight line P'B.
more highly
first,
the case
when the second medium

first, n'>n (Fig. 46).
refracting than the
Fig. 48.
Limiting
refracted ray (n >ri)
Suppose that the straight line AB which represents the

path of the incident ray is initially in the position NB, and
that it is rotated from this position around the point B as
a pivot until it has turned through a right angle in the plane
of the figure. While the point P on AB describes a quadrant
of the circumference of the circle of radius BP, the point
P' will trace out an arc of the concentric circle of radius
BP', which, however, will never be equal to a quadrant of
this circumference; for when the point P has completed its
quadrant and arrived at the point D (Fig. 48) on the tangent plane drawn to the refracting surface at B, the point
80
P' will likewise have reached the extremity of
The
arc where
incident ray
ZB
just grazes the re-
and most of the

and does not enter the second medium at
fracting surface at
light is reflected
or skims along
but the portion that
all,
its
36
D meets the circumference
the tangent to the inner circle at

of the outer circle.
it,
refracted pursues the path
is
BQ
corresponding to this extreme position of the point P', and

this will
be the outermost of
medium
enter the second
all
the refracted rays that
at the point B.
The
ZN'BQ=A
which is the greatest value that the angle of refraction can

have in the case when n'>n is called the limiting or critical
angle with respect to the
two media. Since
sinZ N'BQ = sinZ PP'B
= BD/BP'
A may
the magnitude of the angle
n\n\
be found from the
rela-
tion:
sinA
which
may
a = 90,
first
(n'
a/
likewise be derived
=A
medium
= 3/2),
(n <n
n/n',
is
in
the
substituting the values
refraction-formula.
air.(n = l)
sinA =
by
Thus,
and the second medium
2/3, so that
if
is
the
glass
the critical angle for air-glass
For air-water sinA = 3/4, A =

48 35'; and, consequently, a ray of light whose path lies
partly in air and partly in water cannot possibly make
an angle with the normal in the water greater than about
48 30'. For example, when a star is just rising or setting,
the rays coming from it will fall very nearly horizontally
on the surface of tranquil water and will be refracted into
the water, therefore, at an angle of approximately 48 30'
with the vertical, so that if these rays entered an eye under
the water, the star would appear to be nearly halfway to
the zenith. In fact, all the rays coming into an eye placed
under water from the entire overhanging arch of the sky
would be comprised in the water within a cone whose axis
points to the zenith and whose angular aperture is about
97.
In this connection it is interesting and instructive to
examine a photograph of an air-scene made with a so-called
is
found to be
A =41
49'.
Total Reflection
36]
81
"fish-eye" camera immersed below the level of a clear pool

of water,
how the world outside

Wood, of the Johns
has obtained a number of pictures of
which affords some idea
the pond must look to a
fish.
of
Professor
Hopkins University,
this kind, some of which are reproduced in illustrations in
his very original book on Physical Optics, where also a brief
description of the essential features of the ingenious pin-
Fig. 49.
Limiting incident ray (n'<n)

was used
hole camera which
in
making these pictures
is
also given.
Accordingly,
when
light is refracted
from a rarer to a
denser medium, there will always be a refracted ray cor-
responding to a given incident ray, because
it
is
always
possible under these circumstances to locate the position

of the point P' opposite P, or, to express
because when
n<n
it
in
another way,
there will always be a certain acute
angle a' that will satisfy the equation sina' = n.sina/tt' for
values of a comprised between 0 and 90. But in the opposite case when, the first
(n>n
to
),
air,
for
medium
is
example, when the light
the statement just
made
is
denser than the second

is
refracted from water
no longer
true.
The
es-
82
[36
Total Reflection
37]
diameter of the cork

the pin
is
is
83
6 inches and the head of
(say)
not more than 2.5 inches below the water-level
and vertically beneath the center of the cork, an eye placed

anywhere above the level of the water will be unable to see
the pin, because all the rays coming from it that meet the
surface of the water beyond the edge of the cork will be
totally reflected back into the water.
In Fig. 49 since sin ZNBP = sinZP'PB = BP'/BP, we find
in this case when n'<n that sinA = n'/n, which will also be
obtained by putting a = A, a' = 90 in the refractionformula n.sina = n .sina'.
Comparing this result with
/
the formula sin A = n/n' obtained for the case
and
greater than unity,
The sine of
when n'>n,
an angle
recalling the fact that the sine of
we may formulate the
is
never
following rule:
the so-called
critical angle (A) with re-
spect to two
media
is the
ratio of the index of refrac-
tion of the rarer to that of

the
denser medium.
Or,
the sine of the critical angle
(A) of a substance is the

reciprocal
A-*
of the absolute
index of refraction of the

substance: thus,
sinA = -.
37.
Experimental
Il-
Fig. 52.
Rephenomenon
Optica
Disk used to show total
reflection.
lustrations of Total
flection.
The
of glass described in 28.
may be exand the semicylinder
of total reflection
hibited with the aid of the optical disk

If
the disk
is
turned so that the
on the curved surface

beam
Fig.
in
shown
of the semicylinder, as
52, the rays meet this
the glass to the plane
through
normally
proceed
surface
and
of incident parallel rays
face without being deviated.
falls first
At the plane surface a por-
84
tion of the
beam
is
37
reflected and, in general, a portion
fracted from glass to
If the disk is
air.
angle of incidence at the plane surface
is
is re-
turned until the

just equal to the
critical angle (A), the rays emerging into the air will pro-
ceed along the plane face, and

farther in
the same
if
the disk
is
turned a
little
sense, so that the angle of incidence
exceeds the critical angle, the light will be totally reflected.

An ingenious contrivance for exhibiting the procedure of
light in passing
Fig. 53.
from water to
air consists of
Demonstration
air
tively large glass
tank
and
of refraction
total reflection.
(Fig. 53) filled
a compara-
from water to
with water and pro-
vided with a plane vertical metallic screen the lower half of

which is under water while the upper half extends into the
air
above.
tally
glass
cylindrical
beam
of light
is
directed horizon-
and normally against the lower part of the vertical

wall of the tank, which is behind the screen and par-
to it. The rays entering the water are received first

on the surface of a solid reflecting cone of aperture-angle
90 placed in the water under the screen and mostly in front
of it, the axis of the cone being horizontal and its apex
turned towards the on-coming light. From the surface of
this cone the rays are reflected through the water in all diallel
rections in a vertical plane coinciding as nearly as possible
with the front side of the screen turned towards the specSurrounding the conical reflector and co-axial with
tators.
Total Reflection Prism
37]
it,
there
is
a cylindrical cavity of diameter very
than that of the base of the cone.

der
is
85
made
The
of thin sheet-metal blackened
wherein a number of equal horizontal
little
larger
surface of this cylin-
slits
on the
inside,
are cut at equal
angular distances apart, and through these
slits narrow
from the surface of the cone are
permitted to pass upwards towards the surface of the water,
their courses being shown by the bright traces on the screen.
Some of these beams will be refracted out into the air,
whereas others, meeting the water-surface more obliquely,
will be totally reflected.
If rays are incident normally on one of the two perpendicular faces of a glass prism ( 48) whose principal section is an
beams
of light reflected
isosceles right-triangle (Fig. 54),
they
will enter the
out
deviation,
and
prism withfalling
the hypothenuse-face at an angle

of 45,
which
is
*~~
on
z
^_
greater than the

*"~
critical
angle of glass, they will
be totally reflected there and

turned through a right angle, so
that they will emerge in a direction normal to the other of the two
perpendicular faces of the prism.
prism of
tems.
this
kind
It is used, for
is
FlG 54. Total

-
frequently employed
reflection
prism
in optical sys-
example, in connection with a photo-
graphic lens to rectify the image focused on the sensitive

plate of the camera, so that the right
and
negative will correspond to the right and

object.
None
of the light
the prism, and
if
is
the prism
lost
is
of high transparency there will
by the
made
of
left sides of
the
left sides of
the
total reflection in
good optical glass
be comparatively
little loss
by absorption in the prism or by reflection on entering and leaving it. The same optical effect can be produced
by a simple plane mirror, but as a rule a polished metallic
of light
surface absorbs the incident light to a considerable extent.
86
38
However, the loss of light in the case of a mirror silvered

on glass is very slight; but on the other hand, the fine layer
of silver may easily be injured mechanically or tarnished
by exposure to the air. If the glass mirror is silvered on
the back side, the light will be reflected from both surfaces
of the glass and there will be confusion. Moreover, a glass
mirror may easily get broken or become dislocated in an
optical instrument; whereas a prism made of a solid piece
of glass is much more substantial and durable.
Optical prisms consisting of solid pieces of highly trans-
parent homogeneous glass with three or more polished plane

faces are very extensively used in the construction of
optical instruments for rectifying images
modern
which would other-
wise be inverted or for bending the rays of light into

directions, etc.
reflections before
it
issues
from the prism, and these
tions are often total reflections.

total, it is best to silver
If
the reflection
reflecis
not
the surface.
38. Generalization of the

fraction.
new
Usually the light undergoes several interior
Principle of Least
Laws of Reflection and ReTime (Fermat's Law). The
laws of reflection and refraction, which merely describe the
observed effects when light
falls
on the
common
surface of
separation of two homogeneous media, and which are capable of simple explanation on the basis of the wave-theory,
and 31),
which
combined
into
general
law
first
anmay be
a
was
nounced about 1665 by the French philosopher Fermat,
and which may be stated as follows: The actual "path pursued by light in going from one point to another is the route
as has been illustrated in certain special cases ( 14
that,
under
the given conditions, requires the least time.
In case the reflections and refractions take place only

at plane surfaces,
easily proved.
flected
the truth of the above statement
Consider,
first,
from a plane mirror.
the case when
The
straight line
is
the light is re-
ZZ
(Fig. 55)
represents the trace of the plane mirror in the plane of the
diagram, and
and
designate the positions of a pair of

88
to a certain other point
question
is,
Of course,
in the
Where should he
38
The
plowed ground.
ZZ?
would be along the straight
line from A to C which intersects ZZ
at the point marked E in the figure,
cross the dividing line
his shortest route
but unless the straight line AC happens to be perpendicular to ZZ this

Inwill not be his quickest way.
stead of crossing at E, suppose he
selects a point F on ZZ which is a
little
nearer to his objective at C;
then although the length
FC
in the
plowed ground is shorter than beFig. 56.

Quickest route fore, on the other hand the distance
from A to C via path AF over the smooth ground is longer,
ABC.
but on the whole we may assume that
the route AFC will take less time than the shortest route
AEC. But if the point of crossing ZZ is taken too far from
E, the advantage of the shorter distance in the rough ground will presently be more than offset by the
increasing length of the distance that
has to be traversed in the smooth

ground.
Accordingly, there
tain point
is a ceron ZZ such that the
time taken along the route

will
be the quickest of
all
Now we shall see that this
is
ABC
routes.
also the
very path that light would take if it

^
p
j
from A to C across
were refracted
ZZ, supposing that the ratio of the

velocities of light
of
ZZ were
Fig. 57.
Fermat's principle of least time in case
of refraction at plane
on the two sides
the same as the ratio of the

two parts of the field.
In the accompanying diagram (Fig.
surface.
velocities of
walking
in the
ABC
57) the
broken
line
represents the actual path of a ray of light from a
Optical Length
39]
point
medium
in the first
(n
so that
by the law
if
NBN'
a point
(n) to
ZZ
side of the plane refracting surface
89
on the other
in the second
medium
the normal to the surface at B, then
is
of refraction
sin/NBA _rt_v
sinZN'BA~n v''
where
v,
v'
denote the speeds with which light travels in
the media n,
the route
The time taken
n', respectively.
to go over
ABC is
AB BCl
*~
and we wish to show that
this
v'
time
is
less
than the time
AD DC
V
along any other route

tion of
any point on ZZ
DH
DG,
ADC, where
different
perpendicular to
AB, BC,
designates the posi-
Draw
respectively; then, since
Z BDH = Z N'BC,
Z BDG = Z NBA,
evidently
from the point B.
we have:
sinZBDG
sinZBDH
GB
GB HB
HB~V
0r
'
Now
AB BC_ AG+GB BC = AG HC.

v
and
since
v'
AG<AD and HC<DC,

/AB
BC\
(v+vj
and hence the time via ABC
other route from A to C.
It
v'
two media
'
therefore
/AD DC\
< \ir + y)>
,
is less
than
should be remarked, however, that
surface between
v'
is
it
would be
via
any
when the boundarytime taken by
curved, the
go from a point A across the surface to another point

C is not always a minimum. It may, indeed, be a maximum,
light to
but
it is
39.
of
always one or the other.
The
Malus.
Optical Length of the Light-path,
In the time
and the Law
that light takes to go along the path
90
ABC
from a point
adjacent
medium
(n
in
) it
39
one medium (n) to a point C in an

would traverse in vacuo the distance
AB BC
-="( V + T ).
V
denotes the velocity of light in vacuo. But by the

definition of the absolute index of refraction ( 33), n = V/v,
where
n'=V/v'; and hence the

equivalent
vacuo
distance
in
is
nJUB+n'JBC.
The optical length of the
path of a ray in a medium
Fig.
5S.-Optical|ngth
of
ray-path
ig
defined tQ be
prod _
uct of the actual length

of the ray-path
by the index
of the
medium
(n) that
is,
(I)
n.
I.
Suppose, for example, that light traverses a series of media

wi,
ri2,
etc.,
as represented in Fig. 58; the total optical length
along a ray will be:
ni.li+rh.k+
where
fcth
?k
+nm
.Z
k =m
m =2Jn k .Zk
k=l
denotes the actual length of the ray-path in the
medium.
Now
the wave-front at any instant due to a disturbance

emanating from a point-source is the surface which contains all the farthest points to which the disturbance has
been propagated at that instant. Thus, the wave-surface

may be defined as the totality of all those points which are
reached in a given time by a disturbance originating at a point.
In a single isotropic medium the wave-surfaces, as we have
seen, will be concentric spheres described around the pointsource as center; but if the wave-front arrives at a reflecting or refracting surface /*, at which the directions of the
so-called rays of light are changed, the form of the wavesurface thereafter will, in general, no longer be spherical; and
even in those exceptional cases when the reflected or refracted
is spherical, the waves will spread out from
wave-front
Law
39]
a new center which

center.
The
of
Malus
91
seldom identical with the original
is
function 2nl has the
same value
for all ac-
and
tual ray-paths between one position of the wave-surface
another position of
of the wave-front
it;
so that
when the form and
and the paths
of the rays at
position
any instant
are known, the wave-front at any subsequent instant
may
be constructed by laying off equal optical lengths along the

path of each ray.
A consequence of this definition of the wave-surface is
that the ray is always normal to the wave-surface (7), as will
be evident from the following
reasoning.
Suppose that the
straight line
AB
(Fig.
59) repre-
sents the path of a ray incident
on the refracting surface ZZ at

the point B, and that the straight
line
BC
represents the path of
the corresponding refracted ray.
Moreover, let the wave-SUrface

which passes through the pomt
.
be designated by
any other
FlG 59. Law of Malus:

normal to wave-front.
-
Ray
From the incidence-point B draw

BD, meeting the wave-surface a
<r.
straight line, as
D.
in the point
Then by the
principle of least time, the
route
ABC
is
route
ABD,
because the natural or actual route between the
quicker, that
is,
optically shorter, than the
A and D would not be by way of the incidence-point

Hence, the straight line BC must be shorter than BD,
and therefore BC is the shortest line that can be drawn from
the incidence-point B to the wave-surface a.
points
B.
The same
and
reasoning
refraction,
is
applicable to
all
cases of reflection
and hence we may make the following gen-
eral statement:
Rays
of light meet the wave-surface normally; and,
The system of surfaces which intersect

rays emanating originally from a point-source
versely,
wave-surfaces.
This law was published by
Malus
in 1808.
con-
at right angles
is
a system
of
92
[Ch. Ill
PROBLEMS
1.
(a)
ray
whose index
refracted from
is
vacuum
medium
into a
of refraction is\/2, the angle of incidence being
45: find the angle of refraction.
Find the angle
(b)
a ray which
of incidence of
vacuum
fracted at an angle of 30 from
into a
is re-
medium
of
index equal to \/3.
Find the relative index of refraction when the

and refraction are 30 and 60, respec-
(c)
angles of incidence
Ans.
tively.
(a)
30; (b) 60;
(c)
y/%:
3.
Assuming that the indices of refraction of air, water,

glass and diamond have the values 1, -|, f and -, respec2.
tively,
calculate
the angle
of
refraction
in
each of the
following cases:
(a) Refraction from air to glass, angle of incidence 40;
from air to water, angle of incidence 60; (c) from air
to diamond, angle of incidence 75; (d) from glass to water,
angle of incidence 30; (e) from diamond to glass, angle of
(b)
incidence 36 52' 11.6". Ans. (a) 25 22' 26"; (6) 40 30' 19";
(c) 22 43' 44"; (d) 34 13' 44"; (e) 90.
3.
The
ameter
is
height of a cylindrical cup

3 inches.
is
4 inches and
its di-
person looking over the rim can just
on the opposite side 2.25 inches below the rim.

is filled with water, looking in the same
direction as before, he can just see the point of the base
farthest from him. Find the index of refraction of water.
see a point
But when the cup
Ans. 4:3.
4.
by
The index
air.
of a refracting sphere is\/3;
ray of
light, entering
incidence of 60 and
it is
surrounded
the sphere at an angle of
passing over to the other side,
is
and partly refracted. Show that the

ray and the emergent ray are at right angles to
there partly reflected

reflected
each other.
5.
In the preceding problem, show that the reflected ray

the sphere again and be refracted back into the
will cross
Ch.
Problems
Ill]
a direction exactly opposite to that which the ray had
air in
before
it
6.
93
entered the sphere.
straight line
drawn through the center
ical refracting surface
nated by A.
If J, J'
of a spher-
meets the surface in a point desigdesignate the points where an inci-
dent ray and the corresponding refracted ray intersect the

straight line
AC, and
TL
CJ = .AC, show
if
71
that
CJ'= .AC,
n'
where n, n' denote the indices of refraction of the first

and second media, respectively.
7. Construct the path of a ray refracted at a plane surface.
Draw diagrams for the cases when n' is greater and
less than n. Construct the critical angle in each figure.
8. The velocity of light in air is approximately 186000
How
miles per second.
fast does
it
travel in alcohol of
Ans.. Approximately, 136
index 1.363?
460 miles per
sec.
A fish is 8 feet below the surface of a pool of clear water.
9.
A man
shooting at the place where the fish appears to be
points his
gun at an angle
of 45.
Where
will the bullet
cross the vertical line that passes through the fish?
(Take
index of water as 1.33, and neglect any deflection of the

bullet caused
by impact with the
water.)
Ans. 3 feet above the

10.
Assuming
that
the
velocity
30 000 000 000 cm. per sec, calculate
and
of
its
light
in
fish.
air
is
velocity in water
in glass.
11.
Prove that n ab = n cb n ac
:
Show that the sine of the critical angle of an optical

medium is equal to the reciprocal of the absolute index of
12.
refraction.
13.
Assuming same values
problem No.
in
2,
of the indices of refraction as
calculate the values of the critical angle
for each of the following pairs of

(b)
air
14.
and water,
(c)
air
media:
(a)
air
and
glass,
and diamond.
Ans. (a) 41 48' 40"; (b) 48 35' 25"; (c) 23 34' 41".
A 45 prism is used to turn a beam of light by total
internal reflection through a right angle.
What must be
94
[Ch. Ill
the least possible value of the index of refraction of the
Ans. \/2.
glass?
Show that when a ray of light passes from air into

a medium whose index of refraction is equal to\/2> the de15.
viation cannot be greater than 45.

16.
The
absolute index of refraction of a certain trans-
parent substance
is
-.
Show
that a luminous point at the
center of a cube of this material cannot be seen
eye in the air outside,
if
by an
at the center of each face of the
cube a circular piece of opaque paper is pasted whose radius

is equal to three-eighths of the edge of the cube.
17. What will be the greatest apparent zenith distance of
a star to an eye under water?
18. Explain why it is that it is not possible for a person
by merely opening his eyes under water to see distinctly
objects in the water around him or in the air above the
water; whereas, if he is provided with a diver's helmet with
a plate glass window in it, he will experience no difficulty
in distinguishing
Rays
such objects clearly.
upwards in all directions

from a luminous point at the bottom of a trough containing a layer of a transparent liquid 3 inches in depth and of
Show that all rays which meet the
refractive index 1.25.
surface outside a certain circle whose center is vertically
above the point will be totally reflected; and find the radius
Ans. 4 inches.
of this circle.
20. A pin with a white head is stuck perpendicularly in
the center of one side of a flat circular cork, and the cork
Assuming
is floated on water with the pin downwards.
that the head of the pin is 2 inches below the surface of the
water, find the smallest diameter the cork can have so that
a person looking down through the water (index -|) from
the air above (index unity) could not see the head of the pin.
19.
of light are emitted
Ans. 4.535 inches.

21. Plot
a curve showing the deviation
of the angle of incidence

is
from water (n = 4/3) to
for the case
air (n
= 1)
as a function
when the
refraction
CHAPTER
IV
REFRACTION AT A PLANE SURFACE, AND ALSO THROUGH A

PLATE WITH PLANE PARALLEL FACES
40. Trigonometric Calculation of Ray Refracted at a
Plane Surface. A geometrical construction of the path of
the
ray was
refracted
given in
The path
34.
a ray refracted at a
plane surface may also
of
be
easily
determined by
trigonometric calculation.
The
straight
Figs. 60
line
yy in
and 61 represents
the plane refracting surface
FlG 60.-Refractio D.of ray at plane

Separating
& the two
1
face: a = AL, v =AL (n >n).
-
sur-
media of indices n, n',

and the straight line LB shows the path of a ray which is incident on yy at the point marked B. The straight line LA
perpendicular to yy at A
is
the axis of the refract-
ing plane with respect
to the position
tudes
of the
The magni-
point L.
?;
= AL
Z ALB which determine

Fig. 61.
Refraction of ray at plane surface:

v
= AL,
=AL'
(n'<n).
completely the position

q ^\q incident rav
J are
sometimes called the

Let L' designate the point where the refracted ray L'B intersects the axis xx, and let z/ = AL',
a' = Z AL'B denote the coordinates of the refracted ray. The
ray-coordinates.
95
"
96
problem
is:
fracted ray
From
Given the incident ray
determine the re-
a').
(*/,
either
a),
(v,
41
diagram we obtain immediately the relation:
z/_tan a
"tana"
and since n.sma = n'.sma', we obtain
finally the following
formulae for calculating the refracted ray:

v
V?
??
Now
from
it
if
.sm 2 a
cos a
the point
-, sin
is
n
=
.sin a.
.
n'
a luminous point, rays will emanate
whereas the magnitude v will

remain the same for all these
rays, the angle a will vary from
But for different
ray to ray.
in all directions, and,
we
values of a, in general
obtain
different
magnitude
v',
values
shall
the
of
and, consequently,
the position of the* point 1/ on

the axis will be different for different incident rays
L.
Fig.
62.Refraction of paraxial
rays at plane surface: u=
coming from
Accordingly, the bundle of
ref r acted rays
corresponding to
homocentnc
a
bundle
of mcident
AM, w' = AM' u n =u:n,
(n'>n).
rays will not be homocentric.
41. Imagery in a Plane Refracting Surface by Rays
.
which Meet the Surface Nearly Normally. The more

or less blurred and distorted appearance of objects seen
under water
is
familiar
to
everybody.
When
the
rays
that enter the eye meet the surface of the water very
is almost grotesque.
If the pupil
were not comparatively small, it would indeed
be practically almost impossible to recognize an object under
water, even if the eye were placed in the most favorable
position vertically over the object.
It is only because the
apertures of the bundles of effective rays that enter the eye
obliquely, the distortion

of the eye
Plane Refracting Surface
41]
are quite narrow, that there

in the case of refraction at
When
is
97
any true image-effect at
all
a plane surface.
the eye looks directly along the normal to the
plane refracting surface at an object-point
on the other
and
rays coming
side of the surface (Figs. 62

63), the effective
from
will
meet the surface
very
nearly
perpendicularly,
and the incidence-points
will
be so close to the point A

that there will be practically no
all
MB,
between the lengths

and
and accordingly under
these
circumstances
difference
MA
we may
Fig.
write sin a in place of tan a.
63.
Refraction of paraxial
rays at plane surface: m = AM,
u' = AM', u' n' = u:n (n'<n).
:
Similarly, also, with respect to
the refracted ray, sin a' can be substituted here for tan
KM = u, AM
a/.
where M, M'
designate the points where a ray which is very nearly normal to the refracting plane crosses the normal before and
And
if
in this case
after refraction,
we put
we have
u
ii',
therefore,
tan a
sin
tan
sin a'
a'
and, hence, by the law of refraction
-n
n'
u'
The
or
u =
n'
.u.
angle a has disappeared entirely from this formula, and
the value of v!
may be found as soon as the value of u is given.
This means that corresponding to a given position of the

object-point
there is a perfectly definite image-point M',
and the points M, M' are said to be a pair of conjugate points.

Accordingly, when a narrow bundle of homocentric rays is
incident nearly normally on a refracting plane, the correspond-
ing bundle of refracted rays will be homocentric also.
And
if
98
[42
the aperture of the bundle is infinitely narrow, the imagery

will be ideal.
For example, a pebble at the bottom of a pool of water
12 inches deep will be seen distinctly from a point in the air
vertically above it, but it will appear to be only 9 inches
below the surface of the water, since n'/w = 3/4. On the other
hand, an object 9 inches above the surface will seem to be
12 inches above it to an eye in
the water vertically beneath the
object,
in
beca-use
this
case
n'/n= 4/3.
42. Image of a Point Formed
by Rays that are Obliquely Re-
fracted at a Plane Surface.
But
if
the bundle of rays com-
ing from the luminous point S

(Fig. 64) is a wide-angle
bundle
of considerable aperture,
no
dis-
tinct ima S e wil1 be formed b ^

Fig. 64,-Caustic by refraction at
plane surface from water to these rays after refraction at a
air '
section
plane, but the points of interof the
refracted
called caustic surface,
rays will be spread over a so-
which in
this
case
is
a surface of
SA drawn from
S to the reshows a meridian section of this

surface for the case when the rays are refracted from a
revolution around the normal

fracting plane.
The
denser to a rarer
medium
the evolute of an
ellipse.
figure
(n'< n), the curve in this case being
Each
refracted ray produced back-
wards touches the caustic surface. The cusp of the meridian

curve is on the normal SA at the point M' where the image of
S is formed by rays that meet the refracting plane nearly perpendicularly, as explained in the preceding section. Wherever
the eye is placed in the second medium, only a narrow
bundle of rays coming from S can enter it through the pupil
of the eye. The nearest approach to an image of the source
at S as seen
by rays that
are refracted
more
or less obliquely
Caustic Surface
42]
99
will be the little element of the caustic surface which is the

assemblage of the points where the effective rays that enter
the eye touch this surface. Thus, rays entering the eye at E
appear to come from the point S' where the tangent from E
touches the caustic. It is evident now why an object S under
WATER
Fig. 65.
Rod
partly immersed in water appears to be bent
upwards.
water appears to be raised towards the surface and at the

same time also to be shifted towards the spectator more and
more as the eye at E is brought nearer to the surface of the
water, until finally when the eye is on a level with the surface
of the water, the image of S appears now to be at V on the
refracting plane. Rays from S that meet the surface beyond
where the caustic curve is tangent to

be totally reflected. The image of S
seen by the eye at E is blurred and distorted, because
this limiting point
the straight line
ZZ
will
the image-point S'
the point of intersection of a very
is
limited portion of the bundle of refracted rays that enter
the eye.
The above explanation makes
ABC
(Fig. 65)
which
appear to an eye at
ABC'. The image
by point
clear
to be bent at
BC
plotted point
it
why
a straight
line
partly in air and partly in water will
is
of the part
for
into the broken line
BC
any position
under water can be
of the eye.
100
43.
The Image-lines
[43
Narrow Bundle
of a
The diagram
of
Rays Re-
shows
which originating at S
and falling on the refracting plane ZZ at the points B and C
are refracted in the directions CE and BD into the eye of an
observer. The refracted rays produced backwards intersect
at S' and cross the normal
fracted Obliquely at a Plane.
the paths of two rays
SBD
and
(Fig. 66)
SCE
SA
marked
at the points
WandV.
Evidently,
the rays from S that
all
fall
on the refracting plane at

B and C
points between
will, after
Fig. 66.
Oblique refraction at plane surface (n'<n).
tersect
SA
tween
refraction, in-
at points be-
and W.
Sup-
pose
that the figure
is
SA
as
revolved around
then each
my
^yj
generate a conical surface, and the vertices of these cones will

for the rays that are actually
be at the points S, V, and
drawn
DE
in the
diagram.
The bundle
of rays that enter the eye
be a small portion of the refracted rays that are

contained between the conical surfaces whose vertices are
at V and W. These conical surfaces intersect each other in
the circle which is described by the point S' when the figure
is rotated around the axis SA, and it is a little element of
arc of this circle perpendicular to the plane of the diagram
at
will
at S' that contains the points of intersection of the rays that
enter the eye.
This
is
called the
primary image-line (188) of
the narrow bundle of refracted rays. There is another

image line at V called the secondary image-line, which lies in
the plane of the paper, and which
is
generally taken as per-
pendicular to the axis of the bundle of refracted rays, though

of the axis
sometimes it is considered as the segment
VW
of revolution.
But these are
only alluded to in this place.
intricate matters that
(See Chapter
XV.)
can be
Path
44]
44.
Path
of a
Parallel Sides.
of
Ray through
Plate
101
Ray Refracted Through a Slab with Plane
When a ray
of light traverses several
media
in succession, then
ui sin ai = rbi sin a/,

n^ sin a2 = n 3 sin a 2 etc.
where n h n^, n3 etc., denote the indices of refraction of the
media, and a h oi'; a 2 02'; etc., denote the angles of incidence
and refraction at the various surfaces of separation. In the
'
',
Fig. 67.
Path
of
ray refracted through plate with plane parallel
sides.
special case when these refracting surfaces are a series of

parallel planes, the angle of incidence at one plane will be
equal to the angle of refraction at the preceding plane

(
k + i = a/, where the integer k denotes the number of the
plane).
The
simplest case of this kind occurs
two parallel refracting planes,
when
and when the
there are only
last
medium
is
102
the same as the

of glass
air,
parallel sides
= ni = n,
ai=a
we have the
Accordingly,
sin ai
= n'
and surrounded by
Then
as represented in Fig. 67.

n<i
44
for example, in the case of a slab
first, as,
bounded by plane
and
ri2
= n',
=a'.
following pair of equations:
sin
f
,
n' sin a'

.
=n
a2
sin
f
;
and, therefore:
0.2
CLi
a;
which means that the ray emerges from the slab in the same
direction as it entered it. Thus, when a ray of light traverses
a slab with plane parallel sides which is bounded by the same
medium on both sides, the emergent ray will be parallel to the
incident ray.
as follows:
may
Obviously, this statement
be amplified
When a
ray of light traverses a series of media each

separated from the next by one of a series of parallel refracting
planes,
the final
and
original directions of the ray will be
parallel, provided the first
and
media have
last
the
same index
of refraction.
The only
effect
(Fig. 67) in the
of the interposition
path of the ray
of the glass plate
to shift the path to one
is
side without altering the direction of the ray.
It might be
apparent position of an object
as seen through such a plate of glass would not be altered,
but this is not true in general, as we shall proceed to explain.
Every ray that traverses the plate will be found to be dis-
inferred, therefore, that the
placed at right angles to
its original
position through a dis-
tance
sin(a-aO
'
cos a'
where d denotes the thickness of the plate.

\/n' 2 -n 2 .sin 2 a
cos a =
Since
n'
the formula above

"R
may be
t>_ sma
put also in the following form
(~\/^ /2 -^ 2 sin 2
\/V
-ft .sin
a-n.cosa
2
Plate with Plane Parallel Faces
44]
Accordingly, the shift

cident ray.
If
BD
2
the object
103
varies with the slope of the inis
very far away, the rays that
enter the eye will be parallel, so that the apparent position
by viewthrough a plate of glass with plane parallel sides, no

matter what may be the angle of incidence of the rays, and
consequently the plate may be turned to the rays at difof a distant object will not be altered in the slightest
ing
it
0&^
^k*
Fig. 68.
Apparent
position of object seen through plate with

plane parallel sides
any change in the appearance of the object as seen through it. But if the objectpoint S (Fig. 68) is near at hand, an eye at E will see it in
ferent angles without producing
the direction ES, but
when the
glass is interposed,
it will
appear to lie in the direction ES' which is sensibly different

from ES, and this difference can be increased or diminished
by rotating the plate around an axis perpendicular to the
plane of the figure.
This principle
is
utilized
very ingeniously
ophthalmometer designed by Helmholtz (1821-1894) for measuring the curvatures of the refracting surfaces of the eye. It is employed also in an instrument for measuring the diameter of a microscopic object,
which Professor Poynting has called the " parallel plate micrometer" (see Proc. Opt. Convention, London, 1905, p. 79).
in the original
form
of
104
45
The finite portion of

45. Segments of a Straight Line.
a straight line included between two points is called a segment
of the line, while each of the other two parts of the line is to
be regarded as a prolongation of the segment. Considered
as generated by the motion of a point along a straight line
from a starting-point or origin A to an end-point or terminus
Fig.
<
AB
B, the segment
A&
bZ
60. Segments
AB =
is
frequently spoken of also
as the step from

Or
of a straight line:
-ba.
the
order of
capital letters placed at the ends of a
to
AB. The
naming the two
Step
segment describes
the sense of the motion or the direction of the segment. Thus,

with respect to direction the step BA (Fig. 69) is exactly the
reverse of the step
Two
steps
AB
AB.
and
CD
are said to be congruent, that
is,
AB = CD,
provided these steps are not only equal in length but executed in the same sense.
If A, B, C are three points ranged along a straight line in
any
order, that
is, if
AB
and
straight line such that the
CD are two steps along the same

end of one step
point of the other, then the step
the
sum
of the steps
AB
AC
is
is
the starting
said to be equal to
and BC; thus,
AB+BC = AC;
and hence
also
AB = AC-BC, BC = AC-AB.
we suppose that the point
Moreover,
the point A, it follows that
if
is
identical with
AB+BA = 0orAB= -BA.

Thus,
if
one of the two directions along a straight
line is
regarded as the positive direction, the opposite direction is

For example, if the distance
to be reckoned as negative.
A and B is equal to 12
+12, thenBA= -12.
between
AB=
linear units,
and
if
we put
Apparent Position
46]
Similarly, also,
we may
105
write:
AB+BC+CA = 0;
or
if
designates the position of any fourth point on the
straight line, then
AB+BC+CX = AX.
These ideas will be found to be of great service in treating
a certain class of problems in geometrical optics; and an
application of this method of adding line-segments occurs
in the following section.
46. Apparent Position of an object seen through a

transparent Slab whose Parallel Sides are perpendicular
to the Line of Sight.
70 the
Fig.
joining
Mi
In
line of sight
the object-point
with the spectator's

E is perpendicular
eye at
at Ai and
lel
A 2 to the paral-
faces of the transpar-
ent slab, and
all
the rays
that enter the eye will
through
the
slab
close to this axial
line.
pass
Inside the slab they will proceed as if they had originated at

a point Mi' on the line of sight, but being again refracted,
they will emerge into the surrounding medium as if they had
of the
come from a point
2 ', which is the apparent position
perpennearly
object-point as seen by rays that are very
If n, n' denote the indices
dicular to the faces of the slab.
of refraction of the two media, then, according to 41 and
45,
we may
write the following equations:
106
Hence, the apparent displacement of the object
MiM = MiAi+AiA2 +A2M2

2
'
= MiA
46
is:
'
+A A +-A M
77
lb
=M A
1
77
+A A +- (A A +A M
2
')
lb
=M A +A A (l-^)+A M
1
lb
accordingly,
d = AiA 2
if
=Â A
I
lb
the thickness of the plate
is
denoted by
Ml M 2 = ^d.
'
Thus, we see that the apparent displacement in the line of

sight depends only on the thickness of the plate and on the
relative index of refraction (V: n), and is entirely independent
of the distance of the object-point from the slab.
Hence,
also, the size of the image of a small object viewed directly
through a glass plate is the same as that of the object, but
its apparent size will be different, because since the image
and object are at different distances from the eye, the angles
which they subtend will be different.
An object viewed perpendicularly through a glass plate
surrounded by air (n n = 3 2) will appear to be one-third
the thickness of the plate nearer the eye than it really is.
r
If
if
the displacement of the object
is
denoted by
x,
that
is,
we put MiM' 2 = x, then

n'_ d
n d-x'
This relation has been utilized in a method of determining

A microscope S
the relative index of refraction {n'\ n).
pointed vertically downwards is focused on a fine scratch
or object-point O. A plate of the material whose index
is
to be determined
is
then inserted horizontally between
the object and the objective of the microscope.
The
inter-
position of the plate necessitates a re-focusing of the micro-
scope in order to see the
object distinctly, which
will
Multiple Images
47]
107
to be at a point 0' nearer the microscope by

the distance # = 00'. This distance x is easily ascertained
now appear
terms of the distance through which the objective of the

microscope has to be raised in order to obtain a distinct image
in
The
of the object.
and,
have
thickness of the plate
consequently,
all
is
easily measured,
we
the data for de-
termining the value of

n'jn.
This
method
is
especially convenient for
obtaining the index of

refraction
of
liquid
(Fig. 71).
Images
47. Multiple
two Parallel Faces

of a plate glass Mirin th e
ror.
An object
is
repro- Fig.
71.-
-Measurement of index
of refrac-
tion of a liquid.
duced in a metallic mirror by a single image, but in a glass mirror which is silvered
on the back side there will be a series of images of an object
in front of the glass, which may be readily seen by looking a
little obliquely at the reflection of a candle-flame in an ordinary looking glass. The first image will be comparatively
faint, the second one the brightest and most distinct of all,
and behind these two principal images other images more
or less shadowy may also be discerned whose intensities
diminish rapidly until they fade from view entirely. These
multiple images by reflection may also be seen in a transparent block of glass with plane parallel sides.
The light falling on the first surface is partly reflected and
partly refracted.
It is this reflected portion that gives rise
image of the series.

across the plate will be partly
to the
first
The
rays that are refracted
reflected at the second face,
a portion of this light will be

refracted back into the air and give rise to the second image
and, returning to the
first face,
of the series; while the other portion of the light will
be
re-
108
[47
back into the glass to be again reflected at the back

and so on. In the diagram (Fig. 72) the source of the
is supposed to be at the point marked S, and the straight
fleeted
face,
light
Fig. 72.
Multiple images by reflection from
the two parallel faces of a plate of glass.
line
drawn from S perpendicular to the
parallel faces of the
meets these faces in the points marked Ai and A 2

The path of one of the rays coming from S is indicated in
glass slab
Multiple Images
47]
109
the figure, and it can be seen how it zigzags back and forth
between the two sides of the slab, becoming feebler and
feebler in intensity at each reflection.
We consider here only
such rays from S as meet the surface very nearly normally.

The series of images of S will be formed at S', S", S"', etc.,
all
lying on the prolongation of the normal
SAiA 2 and
,
it is
ranged in a row one behind the

other, that ordinarily when we look in a mirror we do not see
because these images are
all
the images separated.
The
had come from S', the

by the relation A]S' =
SAi. But the refracted ray crosses the slab as if it had come
from the point T, the position of which is determined by the
relation TAi = n.SAi, where n denotes the index of refraction
of the glass (the other medium being assumed to be air of
reflected ray 1 proceeds as
if it
position of this point being determined
index unity).
reflected as
TA
2.
Arriving at the second face, this ray will be
if it
had come from a point
Returning to the
first
surface,
fracted out into the air as the ray
it
such that
will
A2U =
be partly
marked 2 proceeding
re-
as
came from the second image-point S", the position of

which is determined by the relation AiS" = AiU/n; and also
partly reflected as if it had come from a point V such that
VAi = AiU. The ray is reflected a second time at the second
= VA 2 and
face, as if it came from the point W, where A 2
being once more refracted at the first face, emerges into the
air as the ray marked 3, appearing now to come from the
image-point marked S'" determined by the relation AiS'" =
AiW/n.
if it
What
is
the interval between one image and the next?
For example,
val S"S'".
let
This
us try to obtain an expression for the inter-
may
be done as follows:
S"S'" = S"Ai+AiS'";
+A 2 W)/n= (AiA 2 +VA )/n

= (A!A 2 +VAi+AiA 2 )/tt= (AiU+2AiA 2 )/n
= AiS"+2d/n;
AiS"' = AiW/n= (AiA 2
'
110
[Ch.
where d = AiA 2 denotes the thickness of the glass

Hence, we find
IV
plate.
n
It appears, therefore, that the distance between one image
2
and the next is constant and equal to - times the thickness
Thus, for a glass plate for which n = 3/2 the

one
image to the next is equal to 4/3 the thickdistance from
of the plate.
ness of the plate.
PROBLEMS
1.
A ray of light traverses in succession a series of isotropic
media bounded by
parallel planes,
and emerges
finally into
a medium with the same index of refraction as that of the

Show that the final path of the ray is parallel
first medium.
to
its original direction.
Construct accurately the paths of six rays proceeding

from a point below the horizontal surface of water and refracted into air; and show where the object-point will appear
to be as seen by an eye above the surface of the water, for
2.
three different positions of the eye.
Why
does the part of a stick obliquely immersed in

water appear to be bent up towards the surface of the water?
3.
Explain
4.
clearly.
Derive the formula
=-
for the refraction of paraxial
rays (63) at a plane surface.

5. A ray of light incident on a plane refracting surface at
an angle a crosses a straight line drawn perpendicular to the

surface at a distance v from this surface. How far from the
surface does the refracted ray cross this line?
36 feet above the surface of a pond, how high

does it look to a diver who is under the water? What is the
apparent depth of a pool of water 8 feet deep?
6.
If
a bird
is
Ans. 48 feet above the surface; 6
feet.
Problems
Ch. IV]
What
7.
object
sides
if
is
will
be the
effect
111
on the apparent distance of an
a slab of transparent material with plane parallel
interposed at right angles to the line of vision?
Ans. It will appear to be nearer the eye by the amount
(n
I) jd,
where d denotes the thickness of the slab and n de-
notes the index of refraction of the material.
8.
fiat,
cube of glass of index of refraction
1.6 is placed
on a
horizontal picture; where does the picture appear to be
to an eye looking perpendicularly
down on
it?
Ans. It will appear to be raised three-eighths of the thickness of the cube.
9.
microscope
is
placed vertically above a small vessel
and focused on a mark on the base

transparent liquid of depth d
poured
in the vessel,
layer of
and then
found that the image of the mark has been displaced
it is
through a distance x which

microscope.
is
is
of the vessel.
Show
is
determined by re-focusing the
that the index of refraction of the liquid
equal to d/(d x).

10.
In an actual experiment
made by
the above method to
determine the index of refraction of alcohol, the depth of the

liquid
was 4 cm., and the displacement of the image was

What value was found for the index of
found to be 1.06 cm.

alcohol?
11.
Ans. 1.36.
candle
is
observed through a tank of water with
vertical plane glass walls.
The
line of sight is perpendicular
to the sides of the tank, the candle being 15 cm. from one
side
and 39 cm. from the opposite
position of the candle?
side.
What
is
the apparent
(Neglect the effect of the thin glass
Ans. It appears to be 9 cm. from the near
walls.)
side.
an object viewed normally through a plate of glass

with plane parallel faces seems to be five-sixths of an inch
nearer than it really is, how thick is the glass?
12. If
Ans. 2.5 inches.

13.
layer of ether 2 cm. deep floats on a layer of water
3 cm. deep.
What
is
the apparent distance of the bottom of
112
the vessel below the free surface of the ether?

refraction of water =1.33
and
[Ch.
IV
(Take index of
of ether = 1.36.)
Ans. 3.73 cm.

14.
person looks perpendicularly into a mirror
of plate glass of thickness one-half inch silvered
at a distance of 15 inches
If his
eye
where
will his
is
made
on the back.
from the front
face,
image appear to be?

2
/3
inches from the front face.

a stick is partly immersed in a transparent
liquid of index n at an angle 6 with the free horizontal surface, what is the angle 6 which the part of the stick below
the surface appears to make with the horizon as seen by an
eye looking vertically down on it from the air above the
Ans. 15
15.
When
'
liquid?
Ans. tancr
= tan0
CHAPTER V
REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM
48. Definitions, etc.
An optical prism
is
a limited portion
of a highly transparent substance with polished plane faces
where the
light
is
reflected or
refracted.
great variety of geometrical forms
employed
20, 37)
in
;
stricted to
many
but in
types of modern optical instruments

this chapter the
mean a
Prisms in a
and combinations are

term prism
will
be
(cf.
re-
portion of a transparent, isotropic sub-
stance included between two polished plane faces that are
The straight line in which the planes of the

meet is called the edge of the prism, and the dihedral angle between these planes is called the refracting angle.
This angle, which will be denoted by the symbol /3, may be
more precisely defined as the convex angle through which the
not parallel.
two
faces
face of the prism has to be turned around the edge of the

prism as axis in order to bring this face into coincidence with
first
The
the second face.
first
face of the prism
the rays enter and the second face

rays emerge.
is
is
that side where
the side from which the
Every section made by a plane perpendicular

is a principal section, and we shall
to the edge of the prism
consider only such rays as traverse the prism in a principal
problem of oblique refraction

through a prism presents some difficulties which are beyond
section, not only because the
the scope of this volume, but especially because in actual

practice the principal rays are usually confined to a principal
It will also be assumed, for simplicity,
surrounded by the same medium on both
section of the prism.
that the prism
is
sides.
I.
Geometrical Investigation
Path of a Ray Through a Prism.

diagram (Fig. 73) represents the principal
49. Construction of
The plane
of the
113
114
49
whose edge meets this plane perpendicumarked V. The traces of the two plane
are shown by the straight lines ZiV, Z 2 V intersecting at
section of a prism
larly at the point
faces
V.
The
straight line
ABi
represents the path of the given
incident ray lying in the plane of the principal section and
Fig. 73.
falling
Construction
on the
The problem
first
of path of ray through principal section

of prism (n'>n).
face of the prism at the incidence-point Bi.
path of the ray both within

it is solved by a method
essentially the same as that employed in 34.
Let n denote the index of refraction of the medium surrounding the prism and n' the index of refraction of the prismmedium itself. With the point V as center, and with radii
of constructing the
the prism and after emergence from
equal to r and
.r,
where the radius
may have any
con-
venient length, describe the arcs of two concentric circles both

lying within the angle
Z 2 VE, where
designates a point on
the prolongation of the straight line ZiV beyond V.
Through
49]
Construction of
straight line
draw a
Ray through Prism
VG
ABi meeting
parallel to
of radius nr/n' in the point designated
the point
the
draw a
GE
straight line
face of the prism (produced
first
of the
Then the
circular arcs.
VH
parallel to the straight line
For
the ray within the prism.
incidence-normal to the
and
Bi,
if
to
let
perpendicular at
if
necessary),
GE
and
(likewise
necessary) meets the circumference of the other
if
two
the arc
by G; and through
designate the point where the straight line
produced
115
first
straight line
BiB 2 drawn
will represent
the path of
the straight line
if
NiN/
is
the
face of the prism at the point
the angles of incidence and refraction at this face
are denoted
by
ai =
ZNiB
A,ai
= ZNi BiB 2
/
then by the
law of refraction
n.sinai = n'.sinai'.-
But by the construction
sinZEGV VH n'
sinZEHVVG-n'
and since Z EGV= Z NiBiA = ai, it follows that Z EHV = a/;
and hence the path of the ray within the prism must be
VH.
parallel to
Again, from the point
let fall
the second face of the prism, where
and
this perpendicular;
let
a perpendicular
HF
J designate the point where
Then the
intersects the arc of radius nr/n'.
on
designates the foot of
HF
straight line
B 2 C drawn from the incidence-point B 2 parallel to the straight

VJ will represent the path of the emergent
we draw N 2 N 2 perpendicular to the second face
line
'
at
B 2 and
face
are
if
ray.
For
if
of the prism
the angles of incidence and refraction at this
by
denoted
spectively, then n' sin

.
ZN B
a2 =
a2 = n
sinZFJV
sin
2 Bi,
a 2 '.
VH
a2
'
= ZN 2 'B 2 C,
re-
But
n'
sinZFHV" VJ~n'
by construction ZFHV= a 2 it follows that
a 2 ', and hence the path of the emergent ray will
be parallel to VJ.
and
since
ZFJV=
116
50
when n >n, as
glass
prism
surrounded
of
a
by air. The
case
ordinary
in the
also
diagram
for
the
other
case when
draw
a
should
student
The diagram
(Fig. 73)
is
drawn
for the case
n'<n, showing the procedure of a ray through a prism of less

highly refracting substance than that of the surrounding
medium, for example, an air prism surrounded by glass, such
as
is
formed by the air-space between two separated glass
prisms.
Ray by a Prism. The total dethrough

a prism, which is equal to
viation of a ray refracted
produced by the two
deviations
the algebraic sum of the
50.
The Deviation
of a
may
be defined as the angle e= ei~\r e 2

through which the direction of the emergent ray must be
turned in order to bring it into the direction of the incident
ray; thus, in Fig. 73, e = ZJVG; and if the angle e is measrefractions (35),
ured in radians, the arc JG = e J V. In order to specify

completely an angular displacement, it is necessary to give
.
not only the magnitude of the angle and the sense of rotation
of the radius vector, but also the plane in which the displacement occurs. This plane may be specified by giving the
direction of a line perpendicular to
the angle here under consideration
it,
which
may be
in the case of
the edge of the
prism or any line parallel to it; because any such line will
be perpendicular to the principal section of the prism in
which the ray lies. In fact, the angle e may be completely
represented in a diagram by a straight line drawn parallel
to the edge of the prism, which by its length indicates the
magnitude of the angle and by its direction shows the sense
of rotation. Thus, for example, the line may be drawn along
the edge of the prism itself from a point V in the plane of the
principal section and always in such a direction that on
looking along the line towards that plane
Z JVG =
be seen to be a counter-clockwise rotation.
will
deviation of
20 in a principal section coinciding, say, with the plane of
the paper would be represented, therefore,
by a
perpendicular to this plane of length 20 cm.,
if
straight line
each degree
Ray "Grazes" one Face
51]
of
Prism
117
were to be represented by one centimeter. If e= +20, this

would point out from the paper towards the reader, and
if = -20, it
would point away from him.
Thus, if the
prism, originally "base down," is turned "base up" (as the
opticians say), everything else remaining the same, the sign
of the angle e will be reversed, and so also will be the direction of the vector which represents this angle.
51. Grazing Incidence and Grazing Emergence.
The
angle GHJ between the normals to the two faces of the prism
is equal to the refracting angle (3; and hence for a given prism
this angle will remain always constant. No matter how the
direction of the incident ray ABi (or VG) may be varied,
of this angle will lie always on a certain portion
the vertex
line
of the circumference of the construction-circle of radius
and the
sides
HG, HJ
will
directions perpendicular to the faces of the prism.
there will be
r,
remain always in the same fixed
two extreme or
Obviously,
limiting positions of the point
marking the ends of the arc on which it is confined, namely,

the positions winch H has when one of the sides of the angle
GHJ is tangent to the circle of radius nrjn'; which can occur
only for the case
will lie inside
it will
If
when n'>n, because otherwise the
point
the circumference of this circle and therefore
be impossible for either HG or HJ to be tangent to it.

HG is tangent to the inner circle at G, as shown
the side
in Fig. 74, the point
will lie in the
plane of the
first
face
and accordingly the corresponding ray incident

on the first face of the prism at the point Bi, which must
have the direction VG, will be the ray ZiBi which, entering
of the prism,
the prism at "grazing" incidence (ai = 90), traverses the
prism as shown in the figure.

On the other hand, when the side HJ of the angle GHJ is
tangent at J to the construction-circle of radius nr\n' (Fig. 75),
the point J will
straight line
lie
VJ
in the
second face of the prism, and the
will coincide
with the straight
line
VZ 2
Under these circumstances the ray emerges from the prism at

B 2 along the second face in the direction B 2 Z 2 (a 2 '= -90).
/
118
The
the
straight line
first
KB
51
shows the path of the ray incident on
face of the prism at Bi which " grazes" the second
face on emerging
from the prism.
Any ray incident at Bi and
lying in the principal section of the prism within the angle
KB1Z1
will
succeed in getting through the prism and emerging
Fig. 74.
Case
into the surrounding
cident at Bi
lies
when ray "grazes"
medium
first
face of prism.
again; whereas
if
the ray in-
anywhere within the angle VBiK,
it
will
be totally reflected at the second face of the prism. The

ray KBi is called the limiting incident ray and ZNiBiK = t
These relations will be
is the limiting angle of incidence.
discussed more fully in the analytical investigation of the
path of a ray through a prism ( 55, foil.) but it may be
remarked that ZGHV= a/ in Fig. 74 and ZJHV= a 2 in
Fig. 75 are both equal to the critical angle A ( 36) with
;
respect to the
two media
n, n'
(sinA=n/n').
Minimum
52]
52.
Minimum
Deviation.
Deviation
Between
terminal positions of the vertex
119
the two extreme or

of
ZGHJ
shown
in
an intermediate place which is

of special interest and importance and to which, therefore,
attention must be called. In general, the sides HG, HJ interFigs. 74
and
75, there is also
Fig. 75.
Case when ray
"grazes" second face of prism.
cepted between the two construction-circles (Fig. 73) will

= J, as in Fig. 76, the angles
be unequal in length, but if
HG H
GVJ,
GHJ
and
diagonal
VH
the path
BiB 2
EVF
will evidently all
of the quadrangle
be bisected by the
VGHJ. When
of the ray inside the prism,
this happens,
which
is
parallel
prism symmetrically, that is, the triangle

to VH,
In fact, the points designated in the diais
isosceles.
VBiB 2
gram by the letters V, D and O will be the summits of isosceles triangles having the common base BiB 2 and they will
crosses the
all lie
therefore on the bisector of the refracting angle
/3
120
ZZiVZ 2 which
,
cidence at the
is
perpendicular to
first
face
second face are equal in
The
angle of in-
012'
of
The same
ai.
Ray traverses prism symmetrically (VBi = VB2)

minimum
is
which the ray makes inside
true also in regard to the angles
of
52
emergence at the
magnitude, although they are de-
scribed in opposite senses, so that
Fig. 76.
VH.
and the angle
case
deviation.
the prism with the normals to the two faces, that
is,
ci2
-a/.
Now when
the ray traverses the prism symmetrically, as

e has its least value
represented in Fig. 76, the deviation

Q
In order to show that this
is
true,
it will
to reproduce the symmetrical quadrangle
Suppose that H' desig-
in a separate diagram, as in Fig. 77.
nates the position of a point infinitely near to
on the arc of the
circle of radius
be convenient
in Fig. 76
VGHJ
r,
H lying likewise
and draw H'G', H'J'
HG, HJ and meeting
the arc of the other circle
in the points G', J', respectively.
In the figure the point H'
parallel to
is
taken below the point H, and in this case
it is
plain that
Minimum
52]
Deviation
121
the two parallels HJ, H'J' will meet the circumference of
the inner circle more obliquely than the other pair of parallel
HG,
lines
J' J
H'G', and, consequently, the infinitely small arc
intercepted
the
between
will be
than the arc G'G
first
greater
pair
between the
Hence, the
small angle J'VJ will be
greater than Z G'VG, and
intercepted
second pair.
therefore
ZJ'VG'>ZJVG.
The
angle
JVG here is
angle of deviation
the
)
of
the ray that goes sym-
Fig. 77.
Case
of
minimum
/=
metrically through the prism; whereas Z J' VG
is
deviation.
the angle
ray which traverses the prism along a very

And according to the above reasonslightly different path.
of deviation of a
ing (for
we
shall arrive at the
point H' also above H),
we
e>
Accordingly,
we
same
result
if
we take
the
find:
e
see that the ray which traverses the prism sym-
metrically in the plane of a principal section is also the ray
which
is least deviated.
It is
easy to verify this statement experimentally.
for example,
an
if
a bundle of parallel rays
is
isosceles triangular prism, so that while
allowed to
some
Thus,
on
fall
of the rays
are incident on one of the equal faces and are transmitted
through the prism, the other rays of the bundle are reflected
from the base of the prism, as represented in (1) in Fig. 78;

and if then the prism is gradually turned around an axis
parallel to its edge, first, into position (2), which is the position of minimum deviation, and then past this position into
a third position (3), it will be observed that when the prism
is
in the position of
from the base
will
minimum
deviation the rays reflected
be parallel to the rays which emerge at
122
53
the second face of the prism; which can only be the case
when the rays
cross the prism symmetrically.
many
In spectroscopic work and in
other scientific uses of
the prism, the position of mini-
mum
deviation, which
found,
frequently
is
is
easily
the
most
convenient and advantageous ad-
justment of the prism for purposes

of observation.
away from the
53. Deviation
Edge
of the Prism.
When a ray
of light passes through a prism of
more
highly
refracting
material
than that of the surrounding medium (n'>n), the deviation is al-
ways away from
the edge towards
the thicker part of Ihe prism.

If
the angles of the triangle
(Fig. 79) at B x and B 2 are

both acute, the incident and
emergent rays lie on the sides of
the normals at Bi and B 2 away
,1
r*
e
j
fr0m the P^sm-edge,
SO that at
both refractions the ray will be
u
T
It
bent away trom the edge.
VBiB 2
Fig.
78.
Experimental
proof
ray which traverses

prism symmetrically is ray
that
of
minimum
deviation.
,-,
one of the angles, say, the angle at
the ray will not be deviated at
by the
all
2,
away from the

or
B2
is
edge.
And,
finally, if
a right angle,
is
this point, but at the other incidence-point
refraction at
it
will
be bent
one of the angles at Bi
obtuse, for example, the angle at Bi (Fig. 80), the
deviation on entering the prism
will, it is true,
be towards
the edge of the prism, but this deviation will not be so great
away from the edge which is

the second refraction when the ray issues from
as the subsequent deviation
produced at
the prism, as
may
be easily seen from the diagram.
Thus,
Wave
Plane
54]
Refracted Through Prism
when n >n, the

f
in every case
123
be away
total deviation will
from the prism-edge.

If
n'<n,
these effects will be reversed.
all
Fig. 79.
Deviation away from edge
of prism.
Plane Wave Through a Prism.

shows a principal section of the prism,
54. Refraction of a
The diagram
(Fig. 81)
and the straight line BiD represents the trace of a plane

wave (supposed to be perpendicular to the plane of the
paper and parallel therefore to the
edge of the prism) advancing to-
wards the
BiD.
If
lies in
face of the prism in
first
DV
the direction
at right angles to
around the point Bi, which
the
face of the prism, the
first
arc of a circle
is
described with ra-
71
dius
BE = -,DV,
HUYGENS'S
straight line
at
principle
5),
the
Deviation away
from edge of prism
Fig. 80
VE tangent to this circle
'
E will represent the trace of the wave-front inside the prism.
Let the straight

at
then, according to
B2
Around
the arc of a
line
circle;
BiE meet
the second face of the prism

n'
then the straight line
VF= - EB
BF
2
describe
tangent to this
124
circle at
will represent
55
the trace of the emergent wave-
front.
The
C will have emanated from

some point on ABi, and the time
taken by the light to go from Bi to
disturbance at any point
B2
inside the prism
same
to
in
dium
39)
lengths
Fig.
will
be the
as that required to go from
the surrounding me;
that
is,
the optical
along these two routes
are equal. For, as appears from

81. Refraction of plane ^he Construction,
wave through prism.
n (DV+ VF) = n'.BiB 2
.
An
excellent
and most instructive mechanical
of the refraction of
tained
by using the
illustration
a plane wave through a prism can be obroller
and
tilted
board described
in
32
with a triangular piece of plush cloth glued in the middle

of the
board to represent the prism (see Fig. 45).
II.
55.
Analytical Investigation
Trigonometric Calculation of the Path of a Ray in a
The angles of incidence and

and second faces of the prism, denoted
are, by definition ( 27), the acute angles
Principal Section of a Prism.

refraction at the first
and a 2 a 2 ',
through which the normals to the refracting surfaces at the
incidence-points have to be turned in order to bring them into
coincidence with the incident and refracted rays at the two
by ai,
ai'
faces of the prism; thus, in Fig. 73,
ai',
ZN B
2
Bi= a 2
ZN B C= a
ZNiBiA=
rii,
ZNi'BiB 2
'.
Assuming that the prism is surrounded by the same medium on both sides, and being careful to note the sense of
rotation of each of the angles, we obtain by the law of refraction,
taken in conjunction with the obvious geometrical
relations as
shown
in the figure, the following
system of
aa
Total Reflection in Prism
56]
125
equations for calculating the path of a ray through a prin-
prism
cipal section of a
a 2 = a/ fi, n sin 2 = n' sin 2

Combining these formulse so as to ehminate ai' and a 2 we
= 7i.sinai,
n'.sinai'
'
may
derive the following convenient expression for deter-
mining the angle

prism
sin
Thus,
if
a2
emergence (a 2 ') at the second face
of
= sm ai
o - sin pnVn' 2 -n 2
n
cos p
we know the value
of the
sin 2 a\
.
of the relative index of refraction
and the refracting angle of the prism (/3=ZZiVZ 2 ),

we can calculate the angle of emergence ( 2 ') corresponding
to any given direction (ai) of the ray incident on the first
(n'/ri)
face of the prism.
The
total deviation ( e ) of a ray refracted through a prism

measured, as defined above (50), by ZJVG, and since
this angle is equal to the external angle at
in the triangle
is
DBiB 2 we
,
have:
=ZB BiD+ZDB
2
Bi
= Z Ni'BiD - Z NiBiB 2 -f Z DB 2 N 2 - Z BiB 2N 2

= ai a/ a '+ a
and since a\ a 2 =/3, we obtain finally the following
2
ex-
pression for the angle of deviation:
e= ai- a 2 '-/3.
These formulae contain the whole theory of the refraction of
a ray through a prism in a principal section. It will be interesting to discuss analytically
some
of the special cases
which we have already studied in the preceding sections of

this chapter.
Second Face
56. Total Reflection at the

If
of the Prism.
the angle of emergence at the second face of" the prism is

is, if
a 2 = -90, the emergent ray B 2 C
a right angle, that

will issue
tion
'
from the prism along the second face

Tl
Zi (Fig. 75)
Hence,
sin
<x 2
sin
a2
Tl
fore
a 2 = - A, where
A denotes
the
critical
'
in the direcTl
-
and there-
36) of the
Tl
angle
126
media
n, n',
denned by the relation sinA =
value of the angle a 2

reflected at
is
If
56
the absolute
greater than A, the ray will be totally
the second face of the prism, and there will be no
emergent ray. This case may be discussed in some detail.

For a prism of given refracting angle (/J), there is a certain
limiting value
(t)
face of the prism
of the angle of incidence

(
51) for which
/
/
1
1
we
shall
( cti)
at the first
have at the second
Limiting Incident
56]
Ray
127
be worth while to examine this formula for certain particular

values of the refracting angle
(1) If
/3.
/3>2A, then, since sinA =
-?,
the formula shows that
l will be greater than unity, so that for a prism of this

form there is no angle corresponding to the limiting angle t.
No ray can be transmitted through a prism whose refracting
angle is more than twice as great as the critical angle of the two
media in question. A prism of this size is called a totally
sin
Fig. 83.
reflecting
prism;
rounded by
air,
Prism
with refracting angle
/3
= A.
if it is made of glass of index 1 5 and surthe refracting angle should be about 84 at

.
least.
(2) If
= 2A, we
jft
sented in Fig. 82.
find that
= 90;
which
The only ray that can
is
the case repre-
get through this
prism is the ray that traverses it symmetrically, entering the

prism along one face and leaving it along the other.
(3) If /3> A but <2A (that is, if 2A> (3> A), the value of
the angle
as determined
prised between 90
in Fig. 73.
The
and
0.
by the formula above

This
is
will
be com-
the case which was shown
direction of the limiting incident ray
is
be-
128
tween ZiBi and NiBi; that
ZViBK
is,
will
56
be an obtuse
angle.
(4) If j8
= A, we
find
= 0, and
then the limiting incident

ray
will
proceed along the
normal NiBi, as shown in

Fig. 83, and ZVBiK (or
ZVBiA) will be a right
angle.
(5)
FinaUy,
if
limiting
angle
dence
will
(i)
/5<A,the
of
inci-
be negative
in sign;
and therefore
more or
less thin
in a
prism of
this description the limit-
ing incident ray
apex
of
acute angle (Fig. 84).

Any ray incident on the
lying within the angle
the
KBi
will
on the side of the

/5<A.
normal NiBi towards the
the prism, so that the angle VBiK will be an
-Prism with a refracting angle
Fig. 84.
whereas
prism;
if
mentary angle VBiK,
first
KBiZi
the
it
fall
and
be transmitted through
face of the prism at Bi

will
ray
will
falls
within
the supple-
be totally reflected at the
second face.
In Kohlrausch's method of measuring the relative index
n'
of refraction
( ), the prism
is
adjusted so that the incident
lb
ray " grazes" the
(a 2
is
means
and then if the refracting angle

known, and if the angle of emergence
measured, the value of n'\ n may be calculated by
prism
of the
of the
(/3)
first face,
is
formula
& "I
;n
v/ n
The
sin P
principle of total reflection
prism refractometers of
ment
cos/3-sina2'
, (ai
is
= 90).
also
employed
Abbe and Pulfrich
of the index of refraction.
for
in the
measure-
Minimum
59]
57.
Prism.
di'=
Deviation
Perpendicular Emergence at the Second Face of the

For this case we have d 2 = d 2 ' = 0, and therefore
cii=
fi,
-, and hence:
n'_ sin(ftsin/3
n
which
129
is
e)
a convenient formula for the experimental de-
also
termination of the value of the relative index of refraction.
and the method
description of the apparatus
may
be found
in the
of procedure
standard treatises on physics.
Case when the Ray Traverses the Prism SymmetAs has been pointed out already ( 52), a special
case of great interest occurs when the ray traverses the prism
symmetrically.
Under these circumstances, the general
58.
rically.
prism-equations given in
di= -
d2
55 take the following forms:
2 a
/3+o
-
'
~"
a 2= 2>
sin
sinwhere
eQ
denotes the angle of deviation of this symmetric
The last
hofer method
ray.
tion, the angles
ment.
This
last
of these formulae
is
the basis of the Fraun-
of determining the relative index of refracfi
and
formula
being both capable of easy measure-
may
also
be transformed into the
fol-
lowing form:
n.sin|
tan-^ =
2
'
n n.cos-^
,
whereby the refracting angle

of n, n' and e
f3
can be calculated in terms
59.
its
Minimum
Deviation.
refracting angle
(n'/ri).
The
(/3)
The prism
and the
itself is
defined
by
relative index of refraction
total deviation (e) of
a ray refracted through

130
59
a given prism depends only on the angle of incidence (ai),

according to the formula:
= ai- a 2 '-
may be
P;
terms of a h /3 and n'[n,

Hence,
for
a given value of these
as we have seen ( 55).
will
be uniquely determined.
three magnitudes the angle e
On the other hand, for a given value of the angle e there
for the angle
a2
'
expressed in
always be two corresponding values of the angle of incidence ai; for it is obvious from the principle of the reversi-
will
bility of the light-path ( 29) that
the
a second ray incident on
face of the prism at an angle equal to the angle of
first
emergence of the first ray will emerge at the second face at

an angle equal to the angle of incidence of the first ray at
the first face, and these two rays will be equally deviated in
passing through the prism.
For example, suppose that the
values of the angles of incidence and emergence in the case

of the first ray are
the
first
ai=
7, a 2 ' = 7': a second ray incident on
face of the prism at the angle
at the second face at an angle a 2 ' =

will suffer precisely
ai= y'
y, and each
the same deviation,
viz.,
emerge
will
of these rays
e= 7
7'
Thus, corresponding to any given value of the angle
/3.
within certain limits, there will always be a pair of rays which

are deviated by this same amount. One pair of such rays
consists of the two identical rays determined
di=7=-
by the
relation
a 2 '.
is the ray which traverses the prism symmetand a little reflection will show that the deviation of
this ray must be either a maximum or a minimum.
But while the best way of demonstrating that the ray
In fact, this
rically,
which goes symmetrically through the prism is the ray of minimum deviation ( 52) involves the employment of the methods
of the differential calculus, the following analytical proof
demands
of the student a
knowledge of only elementary
mathematics.
The
deviation at the
first
face of the prism
is ei
= Hi
a/,
Minimum
59]
Deviation
and that at the second face

hence the total deviation
e=
or, since
i-f-e 2
a/ - a 2 =
e2
is
131
=a -a
2
53)
then
value (e
that
(ai a 2 ')
n'>n, and,
always the
is
bent away from the edge of the prism
is
evident that the angle e will have
it is
Now
is least.
its least
ray for which the function
in the case of that
and
already
'
Assume now
55.
consequently, that the angle e is positive, as
when the ray
(35),
= (ai- a/) + (a 2 - a 2 '),

= ai a 2 - /3, as has been
remarked, for example, in

case
'
is
13,
since
n sin di = n' sin a/, n sin a 2 ' = n' sin a 2

we obtain by subtraction
n(sin ai sin a 2 ') = 7i'(sin a/ sin a 2 ),
and hence by an obvious trigonometric transformation
d\-^ a 2 '
ai+tt/
ai'+a
ai'
2
2
o
9 2
.
n. sin
which
may
ai-a
=n
According as ai= a 2
the prism will (see
the deviation
we
,cos
'
e2
35)
r
,
.sm-^.-
the deviation
at the
be greater than, equal
at the second face; that
first
face of
to, or less than,
is,
according as
a 2 ', we shall have ( ai di')=( a 2 a 2 '), and hence also
ai+a2 / > a 2 +ai

2
2
<
If
be written as follows:
sm
ai=
=w
cos
suppose,
first,
(a 2 +a/) > 0; and
that
ai>
a2
r
,
'
then
a/> a 2 and
since the cosine of a positive angle de-
creases as the angle increases,
it
follows that here
we must
have:
a/+a
cos
On the
other hand,
if
>cos
we suppose,
ai-f-a
^ 2
'
second, that ai<
a 2 ', then
132
60
but in this case (a 2 +ai')>

a/) and ( cti+ a 2 ') are both
negative, the absolute value of the former is greater than that
of the latter, and hence here also we find exactly the same
ai'<-a 2 and (a2 +ai')<0;

ai+ a2 '), so that although (
result as before.
Thus, whether ai
is
greater or less than
a 2 ', the ratio
ai'+ft2
^
cos
aH-a 2
cos-
and only
in the case
Hence, sin
unity.
and then
when
'
2
ai
has
also the deviation
'
a2
will this ratio
'
its least
e) is
value
when a\ = a/,
minimum and
equal to
equal to
= 2ai-/3.
The same process of reasoning applied to the case when

n'<n leads to the conclusion that the angle will be a maxi-
mum for the ray which traverses such a prism symmetrically,

an air-prism surrounded by glass; but in this case
be negative in sign, and since a maximum value
a negative magnitude corresponds to a minimum absolute
for example,
the angle
of
will
value, the actual deviation of the ray

60. Deviation of
angle of the prism
is
least in this case also.
Ray by Thin Prism.

(/3) is
in Fig. 85, the deviation (e) will likewise
of the
same order
If
the refracting
small, as represented, for example,
of smallness; for
if /5
be a small angle
= a/ - a 2 is small, then
( ai a 2 ') will be small also, and the angle e is the difference

between these two small magnitudes. In fact, the deviation
produced by a thin prism will not only always be small,
but it will never be very different from its minimum value
Accordingly, in the case of a thin prism, we may put
e
without much error; and therefore very approxie =
.
mately
(see 58)
n
n
2
.
sin
&
Deviation in Thin Prism
60]
Consequently, the deviation

will
on the angle of incidence
more nearly
is
e,
as calculated
depend only on the prism-constants
and
ai).
we may
sin
^,
Fig. 85.
by
( /3,
this formula,
n' n)
:
and not
The smaller the angle
correct this formula will be;
so small that
sin 2
133
and
substitute ~ and
respectively,
if
/5,
the
the angle
/3
in place of
we obtain the exceedingly
Prism with comparatively small refracting

angle.
and convenient practical relation for the angle

deviation of a ray refracted through a thin prism, viz.:
useful
which, however,
is
more frequently
of
written:
-(-Dft
where n
is
refraction.
employed now
to denote the relative index of
Accordingly, in a thin prism the deviation
is di-
134
redly proportional
61
For example, the

by
to the refracting angle.
deviation in the case of a thin glass prism surrounded
which n =
air for
61.
is
one-half the refracting angle.
Power of an Ophthalmic Prism. Centrad and Prism-
Dioptry.
An ophthalmic prism
index of refraction
is
is
a thin glass prism, whose
usually about 1.52, which
is
used to
and weaknesses of the ocular

muscles which turn the eye in its socket about the center of
rotation of the eye-ball. In an ordinary laboratory prism
the two faces are usually cut in the form of rectangles having
correct
faulty
tendencies
common side; but the contour of

an ophthalmic prism which has to be worn in front of the eye
the edge of the prism as a
in a spectacle-frame is circular or elliptical like that of
other eye-glass, and
its
edge
is
any
the line drawn tangent to this
curve at the thinnest part of the glass.
The
line
drawn
perpendicular to this tangent at the point of contact and

lying in the plane of one of the faces of the prism
called "base-apex" line,
which
is
is
the so-
a term frequently employed
by writers on spectacle-optics.
The formula
e=(n-l)/3
obtained in 69 is peculiarly applicable to the weak prisms
used in spectacles. As long as the refracting angle of the
prism does not exceed, say, 10, the error in the value of e
as calculated
by
this
approximate formula
will
be
less
than
5 per cent.
Formerly it was customary to give the strength or power

an ophthalmic prism in terms of its refracting angle ft
expressed in degrees; but the proper measure of this power
is the deviation produced by the prism.
However, instead
of measuring this angle in degrees, Dennett has suggested
that the deviation of an ophthalmic prism shall be measured
in terms of a unit angle called a centrad, which is the onehundredth part of a radian and equal therefore to the angle
subtended at the center of a circle of radius one meter by an
of
arc of length one centimeter.
Since
7r
radians = 180, the
Centrad and Prism-Dioptry
61]
135
between the centrad and the degree
relation
is
given as
follows
1=
centrads,
,ft
or
1
=1
745
ctrd.,
1 ctrd.
573.
Prior to this suggestion, Mr. C. F. Prentice, of
New
York, had proposed in

1888 to measure the deviation of an ophthalmic
prism in terms of the

linear or tangential dis-
placement in centimeFig. 86.

Deviation of prism:
j
on a screen placed
tan =ab:OA.
at a distance of one
meter from the prism. If the straight lines OA, OB (Fig. 86)
represent the directions of the incident and emergent
rays, respectively, then ZAOB will be the angle of deviation of the prism; and if a plane screen placed at right angles
ters
to
OA
Now
at
if
is
by OB
at B, then
OA = 100
cm. and
intersected
the distance
AB
tanZ AOB=^-.
AB = z
if
cm.,
ZAOB
would
the prism would be
then, according to Prentice's method, the
be an angle of x units and the power of

denoted by x. Dr. S. M. Burnett suggested that the name
prism-diopter or prism-dioptry be given to this unit. (The term
"prismoptrie" was proposed by Professor S. P. Thompson.)
The prism-dioptry is the angle corresponding to a deviation

one centimeter on a tangent
and, accordingly,
when the
line at
angle of deviation
is
is
equal to the
power of the
said to be x prism-dioptries or z A, where the symbol
angle whose trigonometric tangent
prism
of
a distance of one meter;
stands for prism-dioptry.
The
is
x/100, the
chief objection to be
against this unit of angular measurement
is
urged
that the angle
subtended at a given point O (Fig. 87) by equal line-segments

on a line Ay perpendicular to Ox at A diminishes as the
136
segment on Ay
taken farther and farther from A. In

x
* z/100 is less than x tan 1/100, x
less than x times one prism-dioptry.
Or-
is
dinarily, the variability in the
magnitude
constitute an insuperable objection to
Fig. 87.
Unequal
61
is
other words, since tan

prism-dioptries
it;
of a unit would
but so long as the
O by equal intervals on straight

perpendicular to OA.
angles subtended at
line
Ay drawn
angles to be measured are always small, as
ophthalmic prisms, the prism-dioptry
is
the case with
may
be regarded as invariably equal to the tan - 1 1/100 or about 34' 22. 6" without
sensible error; and hence we may say, for example, that
= 5A, although this statement is not quite accurate.
At any rate, whatever may be the theoretical objec-
2A+3A
tions, this unit of
prism
measurement
of the strength of a thin
so convenient and satisfactory that
it has been genadopted in ophthalmic practice.

In point of fact, with the small angular magnitudes which
are here pre-supposed (the power of an ophthalmic prism
seldom exceeds 6 ctrd.), there is practically no distinction to
be made between the angle itself and the tangent of the angle,
erally
is
Centrad and Prism- Dioptry
61]
we may regard
so that
identical in
the centrad
most cases; that
1A = 1
Accordingly,
power
(p)
the prism-dioptry as
is,
ctrd.
we obtain the
of
and
137
=0.573.
following relation between the
an ophthalmic prism expressed in prism-
diop tries or centrads and the refracting angle
(/3)
given in
degrees:
P=^f (n-l)/3=l. 745(n-l)ft

where n denotes the relative index of
refraction.
then the power of a prism of refracting angle
/3
If
n= 1.5,
degrees
is
0.873 prism-dioptries.
However, in order to exhibit the actual relations still

more clearly, the following table gives the values in degrees,
minutes and seconds of all integral numbers of prism-dioptries
and centrads from 1 to 20; and incidentally it will be seen
that whereas an angle of k centrads contains k times as
many
and seconds as an angle of 1 centrad, where

k denotes any integer from 1 to 20, the same statement is
degrees, minutes
not strictly true of the prism-dioptry.
138
PrismDioptries
[62
Combination
62]
of
Two Thin
Prisms
139
other with their edges inclined to each other at an angle 7

which can be measured; and having obtained the necessary
correction in this way, he has to prescribe a single prism which
will produce precisely the
same
resultant effect as
the
two
superposed
prisms of the trial-case.
In general,
it
would be
exceedingly laborious and

difficult to calculate
the
power
of this
prism,
but, fortunately,
resultant
the problem in this case

is
enormously simplified
by the
Fig. 88, a.
Parallelogram law for finding single prism equivalent to a combination of two thin prisms.
fact that the refracting angles are so small that
it is
an approximate solution which is

accurate and reliable for ordinary practical
quite simple to obtain

sufficiently
purposes.
Let the deviation-angles or powers of the two prisms, denoted by pi and p 2 be represented, according to the method
,
explained
r/
the
in
vectors
respectively
OA,
by
OB,
(Fig.
88),
50,
which are drawn
parallel
to the edges of the prism,

so that
plete
Fig. 88,
b.
Parallelogram law
single prism equivalent to

tion of two thin prisms.
for finding
Z AOB =
OACB
Com-
and draw the
a combina- agonal OC.
OC
7.
the parallelogram
will
The
di-
vector
represent
on
the same scale the deviation-angle or power p of the resultant

prism, as we shall proceed to show.
P is taken anywhere in the plane of the paralleloit may easily be proved that the area of the
triangle POC is equal to the sum or difference of the areas of
the triangles POA and POB according as the point P lies
If
a point
gram OACB,
140
outside the
Z AOB,
62
as in Fig. 88 (a), or inside this angle, as in
And, therefore, if PQ, PR and PS are

drawn perpendicular to OA, OB and OC, respectively, then
Fig. 88 (b) respectively.

,
SP.OC = QP.OA=*=RP.OB.
For
simplicity, let us
assume that the deviations
p2
p\,
produced by the two component prisms are indefinitely

small. Now suppose that the point P is turned, first, about
OA as axis through a very small angle pi and then about OB
In consequence of the
as axis through the small angle p 2
first rotation it will move perpendicularly out from the plane
of the paper towards the reader through a tiny distance
corresponding to the arc of a circle described around Q as
.
center with radius
QP, the length
of this arc being equal
by the angle, that is, equal to

OA is made equal to the magni-
to the product of the radius
QP OA,
since the length of
tude of the angle

the point
is
If
p.
now
in this slightly altered position
again rotated, this time, however, around
as axis, through another small angular displacement pi

either
it will
move a
as in the case
little
shown
OB
= OB,
AOB,
move back
farther out from the plane
in Fig.
88
(a),
or
it will
away from the reader, as in the case shown in Fig. 88

by an additional amount equal to RP.OB. And as
latter displacement will also
(b),
this
be very nearly at right angles to
the plane of the paper, the resultant angular displacement

of the point
sum
of its
P may
be regarded as equal to the algebraic
two successive displacements and numerically
equal, therefore, to
QP.OA RP.OB,
where the upper sign
outside the angle
this angle.
ment
of
is
AOB
to be taken in case the point
and the lower
sign in case
lies
inside
In either case, therefore, the resultant displacebe equal to SP OC. But this product is equal
will
to the linear displacement which the point

it
it lies
P would have
experienced an angular displacement represented
if
by the
vector OC.
Hence,
if
the straight lines
OA,
OB
drawn
parallel to the
Combination
62]
of
Two Thin
Prisms
141
edges of the two thin prisms represent the components of the

total deviation of a ray
diagonal
OC
which traverses both prisms, the
of the parallelogram
OABC
will represent the
and this effect will be produced

prism
of
power
by a single
p = OC placed with its edge inclined to the edge of the prism of power pi ( = OA) at an angle
6 = Z. OAC. If the powers p h p 2 of the two component prisms
resultant or total deviation,
are given in prism-dioptries (or in terms of
able unit, for example, degree, centrad, etc.),
angle
y between
the edges of the prisms
is
any other suitand if also the
given in degrees,
the power p of the resultant prism may, therefore, be computed by the formula:
P=Vpi 2 +P2 2 +2pi. Pi- cost

and the angle 6 which shows how the resultant prism
be placed may be calculated by the formula:
,
tanfl=
In particular,
As an
if
7 = 90,
is
to
Sin7
Pi+P2.cosy
then
p= -\/pi +P2
2
2
>
illustration of the use of these formulae,
that the deviations produced
tan 6
suppose
by the two prisms separately
are 3
and 5, and that the edges of the prisms are inclined to

each other at an angle of 60. Then pi = 3, p 2 = 5, y = 60,
and hence the deviation produced by the two prisms together
5V3
will be p = \/9+ 25+ 15 = 7; and since tan#=
the
resultant prism in this case is found to be a prism of power

7 placed with its edge at an angle of nearly 38 13' with that
of the
weaker of the two component prisms.
" rotary prism" used for finding the necessary prismatic
is an instrument, circular in form,

which consists of two ophthalmic prisms of equal power
(pi = 7?2) conveniently mounted so that the prisms can be
rotated about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the instrument, one in front of the other, the angle between the
prism-edges being shown by the positions of two marks which
correction of a patient's eye
142
move
[Ch.
as the prisms are turned over a circular arc graduated
in degrees.
In the
initial position
when the two marks are
at opposite ends of a diameter of the circular scale the base
one prism corresponds with the edge of the other, so that

two prisms are equivalent to a glass
plate with plane parallel faces (7 = 180, p = pi P2 = 0).
The maximum effect is obtained when the edges of the prism
of
in this position the
correspond (7 = 0, p = pi~{-p2 = 2pi). With a device of this

we can obtain, therefore, any prismatic power from
kind,
p=
On
to p = 2pi.
the other hand,
we can resolve the effect of a given

prism of power p into a component p cos 6 in one direction
and a component p sin 6 in a direction perpendicular to the
Thus, a prism of power 5 centrads with its edge at an
first.
.
angle of 30 to the horizontal

of
two prisms
of
is
equivalent to a combination
powers -- and ~ centrads, with their
edges horizontal and vertical, respectively.
PROBLEMS
1. Show how to construct the path of a ray refracted
through a prism in a principal section; and prove the con-
Discuss the following special cases, and draw
struction.
them (a) Incident ray normal

Emergent ray " grazes " second
separate diagrams for each of

to
face of prism, (b)
first
face;
(c)
Ray
cident on
is
Show
that the total deviation of a ray in a principal
the surrounding
more highly
medium
is
refracting material than
always away from the prism-
Discuss each of the three possible cases,
viz.,
When
the point where the two incidence-normals intersect

(a) inside
the prism,
(b)
outside the prism, and
(c)
falls
on one of
Draw diagram for each case.

Obtain a formula for calculating the magnitude of the
the two faces of the prism.

3.
in-
face on side of normal towards the edge of
section of a prism of
edge.
Ray
traverses prism symmetrically; (d)
first
the prism.
2.
Problems
Ch. V]
143
angle of incidence at the first face of the prism of the ray

which emerges from the prism along the second face; and discuss this formula for the cases when the refracting angle of
the prism is (a) greater than 2 A, (b) equal to 2 A, (c) less
than 2A but greater than A, (d) equal to A, and (e) less than
A; where A denotes the so-called critical angle of the two
media concerned. Draw diagram for each case.
4. Show that the deviation of a ray which goes symmetrically through a prism in a principal section is less than
that of any other ray.

5. Show that the point of intersection of the incidencenormals to the two faces of a prism is equidistant from the
incident ray and its corresponding emergent ray.
6. Construct the path of a ray refracted through a prism
of small refracting angle;
matter how the ray

7.
and show that the angle
of deviation
be a small angle of the same order of smallness, no
will also
What
is
falls
on the prism.
the smallest angle that a glass prism (n =
5)
can have so that no ray can be transmitted through it?

What is the magnitude of this angle for a water prism
(n = 1.33)?
(Assume in each case that the prism is sur-
rounded by
air of
index unity.)
Ans. 83 37' 14"; 97 10' 52".

8.
What must be
index of refraction
the refracting angle of a prism whose
is
equal to \/2 in order that rays that

its faces at angles less than 45 will
are incident on one of
Ans. 75.
be totalfy reflected at the other face?
9. The refracting angle of a prism is 60 and the index of
refraction
is
deviation
is
The
refracting angle of a glass prism (n
and the angle
What
is
that the angle of
minimum
and draw accurate diagram showing the

the path of this ray through the prism.
30,
construction of
10.
Show
equal to \/2.
the angle of
= 1.5)
is
60,
Find the angle of deviation.

minimum deviation for this prism?
of incidence
is
45.
Ans. 37 22' 52.5"; 37 10' 50".

11.
If
the angle of
minimum
deviation of a ray traversing
144
[Ch.
a principal section of a prism is 90, show that the index of

refraction cannot be less than s/2.
12. Find the angle of minimum deviation in the case of a
glass prism (n
=1
54) of refracting angle 60.
Ans. 40 42' 28".

13.
40
is
The minimum
deviation for a prism of refracting angle

found to be 32 40'. Find the value of the index of
Ans. 1.7323.
refraction.
14.
glass prism of refracting angle 60
that the ray "grazes" the
angle of emergence
is
first face,
and
is
adjusted so
in this position the
found to be 29 25' 49".
Determine
Ans.
the index of refraction.

15.
prism
is
made
of glass of index 1.6,
52.
and the angle
found to be 28 31' 20". Calculate

Ans. 42 39' 44".
16. The efracting angle of a water prism (n = -|) is 30.
How must a ray be sent into this prism so that it will emerge
of
minimum
deviation
is
the refracting angle.
along the second face?

Ans. Ray must He on the side of the normal towards the
edge of the prism, and make with the normal an angle of
25 9' 15".
17. The angle of incidence for minimum deviation in the
Find the
case of a prism of refracting angle 60 is 60.
Ans. v3.
index of refraction.
18.
Find the index of refraction of a glass prism for sodium

measurements: Refracting angle of
light for the following
prism = 45
4';
angle of
minimum
deviation = 26 40'.
Ans. 1.53.
19
The
refracting angle of a prism
is
30 and
its
index of
Find the angles of emergence and deviation

for each of the following rays: (a) Ray meets first face normally; (b) Angle of incidence at first face is equal to 24 28';
(c) Angle of incidence at first face is equal to 53 8'; and
refraction
(d)
Ray
Ans.
is 1.6.
" grazes" first face.
(a)
(d) 13 59';
53
46
8';
1'.
23 8';
(6)
24 28'; 18 56';
(c)
0; 23 8';
Problems
Ch. V]
145
Find the refracting angle of a glass prism (n = 1.52)

which the minimum deviation is 15. Ans. 27 24' 15".
21. The refracting angle of a flint glass prism is measured
and found to be 59 56' 22.4"; and the angles of minimum
20.
for
deviation for rays of light corresponding to the

lines
D,
F and
following values: 46 31'
Calculate the values of the indices of
5.7", respectively.
refraction n B
n F and n H
Ans.
rc
D = 1 603528; nF = 1 614771 n H = 1 634183.

.
The refracting
22.
angle of a crown glass prism
and found to be 60
2'
D,
F and
are also measured and found to have the
49.4", respectively.
,
and
it is
required to produce a
angle
must
A ray of light
24.
3'
Calculate the values of the indices of
To what
and 40
n D n F and n K
Ans. n D = 1 516274 nF = 1 522437 nu = 1 532370.
prism is to be made of crown glass of index 1.526,
refraction
measured
minimum
Fraunhofer
following values: 38 38' 14.3"; 39 10' 51.8";
23.
is
10.8"; and the angles of
deviation for rays of light corresponding to the

lines
Fraunhofer
and found to have the

4.15"; 47 35' 59.2"; and 49 30'
are also measured
minimum
deviation of 17 20'.
Ans. 31 20'.
be ground?
falls on one face of a prism in a direction
it
Assuming that the rean acute angle, show that
perpendicular to the opposite face.

fracting angle of the prism
(/3) is
the ray will emerge along the opposite face

cot/3
where
25.
if
= cotA 1,
A denotes the critical angle of the prism-medium.

A ray "grazes" the first face of a prism and emerges
at the second face in a direction perpendicular to the first

face:
show that the
refracting angle
(/3) is
such that
cot/3=Vw2-l-l,
where n denotes the index
26.
The
refraction
of refraction of the
refracting angle of a prism

is
s/7/3.
of a ray that will
What
is
is
prism-medium.
60 and the index of
the limiting angle of incidence
be transmitted through the prism?

Ans. 30.
146
27.
Show
that
if
denotes the angle of
tion of a prism of refracting angle
greater than (7r

less
than
28.
/3,
and the index
[Ch.
minimum
the angle
fi
devia-
cannot be
of refraction cannot
be
sec-^--
Show
that the
minimum
deviation of a prism of given
index of refraction increases with increase of the refracting

angle of the prism.
29.
Derive the formula for the angle of deviation of a thin

show that the deviation is approximately con-
prism, and
stant for
all
angles of incidence.
Show
that when a thin glass prism of index f is imwater of index |- the deviation of a ray will be
only one-fourth of what it would be if the prism were sur30.
mersed
in
rounded by
air.
The refracting angle of a prism of rock salt is 1 30'.

How much will a ray be deviated in passing through it?
And what should be the refracting angle of a rock salt prism
31.
which
is
to produce a deviation of 48'?
= 1 54.)
What must be
of rock salt
32.
(Index of refraction
Ans. 48' 36" 1 29\
;
the refracting angle of a water prism of
obtained with
|- to produce the same deviation as is
a glass prism of index f whose refracting angle is equal to
index
2?
Ans.
33.
2.
What
is
the power of the prism in prism-dioptries?
Ans.
34.
3.
glass prism of index 1.5 has a refracting angle of
The power
of a prism
is
745 prism-dioptries.
2 prism-dioptries and
n= 1 .5.
Ans. 2 29.
Find the refracting angle.
35. A prism of refracting angle 1 25' bends a beam of
Calculate the index of
light through an angle of 1 15'.
refraction and the power of the prism in prism-dioptries.
Ans. n = 1 882; 2 18 prism-dioptries.
36. Two thin prisms are crossed with their edges at an anThe first prism produces a deviation of 6 and
gle of 30.
the second a deviation of 8. Find the deviation produced
.
Problems
Ch. V]
147
by the single prism which is equivalent to this combination

and the angle which the edge of the resultant prism must
make with
the edge of the
Ans. Deviation
tween
first
prism.
resultant
of
prism = 13.53; angle be-
edge and that of the 6-prism=17
its
Two
11'.
each of power 5 prism-dioptries, are

combined base down with their base-apex lines inclined to
the horizontal at angles of 45 and 135. Find the equivalent
37.
prisms,
single prism.
Ans.
A prism
of
power a
little
more than 7
prism-dioptries,
base down, vertical meridian (edge horizontal).

38.
What
will
10 placed with
be the horizontal effect of a prism of power

base-apex line at an angle of 20 with the
its
horizontal?
Ans. It will be the same as the effect of a prism of power

nearly 9 4 in horizontal meridian (edge vertical)
.
The base-apex line of a prism of power 4 centrads makes

an angle of 120 with the horizontal. Show that it is equiva39.
lent to a combination of
two prisms, one of power 2 centrads in
the vertical meridian (edge horizontal) and the other of power
3.46 centrads in the horizontal meridian (edge vertical).

40. Find the single prism equivalent to a combination of
two prisms superposed with their base-apex lines at right
angles to each other, the power of one being 3 and that of
the other
4.
prism of power 5 with its base-apex line inclined to

that of the weaker prism at an angle of nearly 53 8'.
Ans.
41.
Two
equal prisms, each of power
in meridians inclined to each other at
3,
are superposed
an angle
of 120.
Find the equivalent single prism.

Ans. A prism of power 3 in a meridian halfway between
the meridians of the two components.
42. The angle between the base-apex lines of a combination of two unit prisms is 82 50', and the bisector of this
angle
is
horizontal.
combination?
What
is
the horizontal effect of the
Ans.
5 units.
148
[Ch.
ABCDE is the principal section of a pentagonal prism.
43.
AB = BC, AE = CD, ZABC = 90, ZEAB = Z BCD = 112.5.

A ray of light RS lying in the principal section is incident on
the face BC at the point S. The ray enters the prism at this
and
face,
is
reflected, first,
from the face AE, and then from
DC, and emerges finally at a point P in the face AB

Show that PQ makes a right angle
direction PQ.
the face
in the
with RS.
44.
ABC
is
a principal section of a triangular prism,
Z B = 2Z A. A ray of light lying in the plane ABC is refracted

BC, and after undergoing two
from the side AB and then from
into the prism at the side

internal reflections,
the side
side
AB.
first,
CA, emerges
Show
into the surrounding
medium
at the
that the total deviation of the ray will be
equal to the angle at B.
CHAPTER
VI
EEFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF PARAXIAL RAYS AT A

SPHERICAL SURFACE
63. Introduction.
Definitions, Notation, etc.
of the spherical refracting or reflecting surface
The center
ZZ
(Fig. 89)
be designated by C. The axis of the surface with respect

to a given point
is the
will
straight
joining
line
with C, and the point
where
MC
the
straight
(produced
sary) meets
if
line
neces-
ZZ is called the
pole or vertex of the surface
with respect to the point
M.
cal
Evidently, the spherisurface
metrical
will
be sym-
around
MC
Fig.
89,
a.
Ray
spherical
as
and the plane of the

diagram which contains the
point
axis,
axis
is
incident on convex
surface crosses axis at
in front of surface.
a meridian section of the
surface.
It will
be convenient to take the vertex
as the origin
of a system of plane rectangular coordinates; the axis of
the surface being chosen as the z-axis and the tangent to the
surface at its vertex, in the meridian plane of the diagram,
being taken as the
?/-axis.
The
is the direction of the incident

line,
and
since the diagrams are all
that the incident light goes
the z-axis to the right of

the axis.
positive direction of the x-axis
ray which coincides with
The
from
drawn on
this
the supposition
a point lying on
be on the positive half of
left to right,
will
positive direction of the y-axis
is
the direction
found by rotating the positive half of the x-axis through a

149
150
63
motion of the
Acthe positive direction of the x-axis is along a
right angle in a sense opposite to that of the
in the meridian plane of the diagram.
hands of a clock
cordingly,
Fig. 89,
b.
if
Ray incident on convex spherical surface crosses
axis at point
M on the other side of the surface.
horizontal line from left to right, the positive direction of

i/-axis will be vertically upwards.
According as the center C lies on the same side of the
spherical surface as that from which the incident light comes
or on the opposite side, it is said to be concave (Fig. 89, c
the
and
d) or convex (Fig. 89,
a and
6),
respectively.
The
radius
r of the spherical surface is the abscissa of the center C, that

is,
= AC.
It is the step
from
to C,
and
this is
positive step for a convex surface (Fig. 89, a
negative step for a concave surface (Fig. 89,

radius of a convex surface whose center
vertex
is
= +60
the same size
is
cm.,
and the radius
60
cm.
is
and
and
always a
b) and a
d).
The
60 cm. from
its
of a concave surface of
Ray
63]
Incident on Spherical Surface
151
be assumed in this chapter that any ray with which

lies in a meridian plane of the spherical
surface; so that any straight line such as RB which represents the path of an inciy
It will
we
are concerned
dent ray
the
will intersect
axis either " really" (Fig.

"
89, a and c) or " virtually
(Fig. 89, b
and
some
by
d) at
point designated here
(see
The
8).
by
designated
point
is
any
point on the incident ray
RB
at which
arrives
either
the
before
it
light
Fig
gets to
M or the incidenceThe
c.
Ray incident on concave
spherical surface crosses axis at point
in front of the surface.
M
BC
which joins the point of

point B.
incidence with the center of the surface will be the incidencenormal, and
if
straight line
designates a point on this normal lying in
front of the spherical surface, then
Z NBR = a
will
be the
angle of incidence ( 13 &

The plane of this
27).
angle
is
the plane of inci-
dence, which
is
the merid-
ian plane of the diagram.
From the incidence-point
draw
BD
perpendicular
D the orDB is called the
to the x-axis at
dinate h =
Fig.
incidence-height of the ray.
89, d.-Ray incident on concave

spherical surface crosses axis at point
on the other side of the surface.
The
the
that
rr-axis
it
slope of the Tdy is the
acute angle thrQugh
has to be turned around the point
may
coincide in
position
ZAMB=
denoted by 6, then
case of angular magnitudes
6.
( 13),
wMch
in order
(but not necessarily in
direction) with the rectilinear path of the ray.

is
If this angle
Here, as always in the
counter-clockwise rotation
152
is
to be reckoned as positive.
And,
finally,
63
the acute angle
subtended by the
arc BA will be denoted by (f>. This angle, sometimes called
the "central angle," is denned as the angle through which
the radius CB must be turned around C in order to bring B
= ZBCA. The
into coincidence with the vertex A; thus,
at the center
angles A,
of the spherical surface
6 and
defined as above, are given
<,
by the
fol-
lowing relations:
h
tan#
= t^Tt>
sm<f>
These formulae should be

Fig. 89, (a), (&),
= ~,
verified
a=
6-\-<j).
diagrams
for each of the
(c), {d).
BM = COS0'
-, and since (see 45)
*
DM = DC+CA+AM = r.cos</>-r+AM,
Moreover, since
we
find:
EM = r(cos<ft-l)+AM
COS0
Now
in the special case
close to the vertex
when
the incidence-point
is very
of the spherical surface, the angle of in-
cidence a will be exceedingly small as will be also the angles
denoted by 6 and
are
all
</>
and
if
and higher powers, so that
we can
cos a
these angles expressed in radians
such small fractions that
we may
write the angles themselves and put cos 6 = cos
= 1.
Obviously, in such a case
Under these circumstances the ray

ray,
neglect their second
in place of the sines (or tangents)
we
shall
RB
is
have
<f>
BM = AM.
called a paraxial
sometimes also a "central" or "zero" ray,
a= d = 4> = 0,
approximately.
paraxial ray is one whose path
lies
very near the axis of
and which therefore meets this surface at

a point close to the vertex and at nearly normal incidence: the
angles denoted by a, 6 and <j> being all so small that their second
the spherical surface
powers
may
be neglected.
In this chapter and for several subsequent chapters

shall
we
be concerned entirely with the procedure of paraxial
Paraxial Rays: Spherical Mirror
64]
rays; that
is,
we
shall consider only
153
such rays as are com-
prised within a very narrow cylindrical region immediately
surrounding the axis of the spherical surface which is likewise the axis of the cylinder. Accordingly, the only portion
of the spherical surface that will be utilized for reflection or
refraction will be a small zone
whose summit
is
at A; so that,
so far as paraxial rays are
concerned, the rest of the

spherical surface
may
be
had no
optical existence or at any
rate as if it were opaque
and non-reflecting. Thus,
regarded as
for example,
if
it
the surface
might be painted over

with lampblack leaving
bare and exposed only
the small
in the*
be
set
effective
Fig.
90,
O.
Reflection of ray at concave mirror.
zone
immediate vicinity of the vertex; or a screen might
up
at right angles to the axis close to the vertex with
a small circular opening
in
it.
Even then a source
of light
lying at a considerable dis-
tance
off
the axis would
send rays which notwithstanding

incident
that they
near
were
the vertex
would not be paraxial

64. Reflection of
rays.
Par-
axial Rays at a Spherical
the
accom(Fig. 90,
Mirror.
FlG.
90,
6.
Reflection of ray
vex mirror.
at con-
In
panying diagrams
a and
RB
6)
the straight line
represents the path of
an incident ray crossing the axis of a spherical mirror ZZ at the

point
and incident on the mirror at the point B, and the
straight line BS shows the path of the corresponding re-
154
64
fleeted ray crossing the axis, "really" (Fig. 90, a) or "virtu-
ally" (Fig. 90,

reflection
and
designates a point on
marked M'.
BN
is
which
it
By
the law of
the incidence-normal
lies in
front of the
Since the normal bisects the interior or exterior
mirror.
angle at
may
at the point
b),
Z NBR = Z SBN where
of the triangle
MBM',
the following proportion
be written
CM_M C
/
BM
Now if the ray RB
stituted in the
is
BM'
a paraxial ray, the letter
above equation
in place of B,
A may be suband thus
we
obtain
CMM'C
AM
AM''
Denoting the abscissae, with respect to the vertex A, of

the axial points
M, M' by
u, u', respectively,
that
is,
putting
AM = u, AM' = u', and also, as stated in 63, putting AC =

we may
r,
write:
CM = CA+AM= -r+u = u-r,

M'C = M'A+AC= -u'+r=-(u'-r);
so that, introducing these symbols in the equation above,
we
obtain:
u r_
u
may
which
be put
in the
form
u
If,
u'
u'
(see 67)
form and dimensions of the mirror are

the value of r is assigned as to both magand if also the position of the point
therefore, the
known
(that
is, if
nitude and sign),
In writing this proportion, care must be taken to see that the two
members of it shall have the same sign. For example, in each of the
and
diagrams in Fig. 90, as they are drawn, the segments
have the same direction along the axis, so that for each of these figures
the ratio
is positive.
Now if the ratio M'C AM' is to be
put equal to this ratio, it must be positive also, that is, the segments
*
CM
CM AM
:
M'C and AM'
in each
diagram must have the same direction.
AM
Paraxial Rays: Spherical Mirror
64]
155
where the incident paraxial ray crosses the axis of the

spherical mirror
u =
r.u
2u-r
But the most noteworthy conclusion

formula
is
M'
may
given, the abscissa u' of the point
is
where the corresponding reflected ray crosses the axis

be calculated by means of the expression:
to be
drawn from
this
the fact that, provided the rays are paraxial, their
actual slopes do not matter, for none of the angular magni-
tudes a,
or
6,
cf>
appears in the formula; which means that
paraxial rays which cross the axis at the point
all
M before
reflection will cross the axis after reflection in the spherical
mirror at one and the same point M'.
Thus, a homocentric
bundle of paraxial rays incident on a spherical mirror remains

homocentric after reflection.
If,
therefore,
designates the
position of a luminous point in front of the mirror,
the mirror
is
and
if
screened so that only such rays as proceed close
to the axis are incident on
it, the bundle of reflected rays

form at a point M' on the straight line
an ideal
image of the luminous point M. According as the imagepoint M' lies in front of the mirror (Fig. 90, a) or beyond it
(Fig. 90, 6), the image will be real or virtual, respectively.
Thus, for a real image in a spherical mirror, the value of u'
as found by the formula above will be negative, whereas
for a virtual image it will be positive.
It may be noted also that the formula is symmetrical with
respect to u and n so that the equation will not be altered
by interchanging the symbols u and u' ; and hence it follows
that if M' is the image of M, then likewise
may be regarded
as the image of M'. This is indeed merely an illustration of
the general law known in optics as the "principle of the
MC
will
reversibility of the light-path" (29).
of the equation implies
more than
ciple; for it indicates that in
is
But the symmetry
involved in this prin-
the case of reflection object-
space and image-space coincide completely, the actual paths

of the incident
and
reflected rays
both lying
in the space in
156
front of the mirror.
Accordingly, an incident ray and
65
its
corresponding reflected ray are always so related that when

either
is
regarded as object-ray the other will be an image-ray.
The Double Ratio of Four Points on a Straight Line

65. Definition
and Meaning
of the
Double Ratio.
It
be convenient and profitable at this place to turn aside

from the special problem which is here under investigation
in order to devote a few paragraphs to a brief explanation
will
of the simpler metrical processes of modern projective

geometry, which are of great utility in geometrical optics,
especially when we are concerned with imagery by means
of the so-called paraxial rays.
1
,
(ft/)
Fig. 91.
Line-segment
AB
divided
and externally at D, and

and D.
internally at
internally at C
(a)
(b)
If L designates the position of a point on a straight line

determined by the two points A, B, the line-segment AB is
said to be divided at
in the ratio
AL
BL.
If
the point
BL are
in opposite senses along the line, and the ratio AL BL will
be negative, and in this case we say that the segment AB is
" divided internally" at L. On the other hand, if the point L
does not lie between A and B, the ratio AL BL will be
positive, and we say that the segment AB is " divided ex-
lies
between
and B, the steps
(see 45)
AL
and
ternally" at L.
Accordingly,
if
A, B, C,
(Fig. 91,
a and
6)
designate a
Double Ratio
65]
series of four points all
any
and
BD, respectively; and
ranged along a straight
order of sequence, the segment
AB
AD
in the ratios
157
AC BC
:
and
the quotient of these two ratios
will
:
line in
be divided at
called the double ratio (or
is
" cross ratio") of the four points A, B, C, D.
This double
symbolically by inclosing the four letters
ratio is
denoted
ABCD
in parentheses; thus,
according to the above def-
inition,
where the
first
two
letters in the parentheses
points of the segment and the last

points of division.
two
The line-segment
same way by the points
and
According as the two ratios
mark the end-
letters designate the
CD
is
divided in the
for
AC BC
:
and
AD BD
:
have
the same sign or opposite signs, the value of the double ratio
(ABCD)
will
be positive or negative, respectively. Suppose,

segment AB is divided internally at C,
for example, that the
Then the
as represented in both a and b of Fig. 91.
AC BC
:
be negative.
will
Now
if
AB
ratio
divided also in-
is
ternally at D, as in Fig. 91, a, the ratio AD DB will likewise

be negative. Accordingly, if C and D are both points of internal division (or both points of external division), the
double ratio (ABCD) will be positive. But if one of these
:
AB
points divides
internally while the other divides
(ABCD)
it
ex-
will
be nega-
In order to form a clear idea of the values which
(ABCD)
ternally (Fig. 91, b), the double ratio

tive.
may
A,
assume,
and
let
us suppose that the points designated by
in Fig.
92 represent three stationary points on a
and that
designates another fixed point not

on this line. The straight line x and the point O together
determine a plane which is the plane of the diagram. Now
let y designate a second straight line lying in this plane and
straight line x,
158
65
passing through O, and let the point of intersection of the

And if the
straight lines x and y be designated by Y.
straight line y
is
supposed to turn around
as a pivot in a
opposite
say,
sense,
to
that of the motion of the
hands
point
of
clock,
the
Y will be a variable
point moving along the

straight line x constantly
in the
in
92. Central projection from Oof the

lying on the
point-range
Fig.
ABCDE
straight line x.
same sense, namely,

92 from left to
Fig.
Assume,
right-
ample,
...
ex-
for
the
that
three
k
r~\
stationary points A, C,
-n
are ranged along the straight line x from left to right in the
order named, as shown in the figure; and suppose that the
variable point
line
OY
starts originally at B, so that the revolving
or y coincides initially with the
"ray" marked
the figure and
BY = BB = 0,
AY BY =
Hence, under these circumstances the
oo
value of the double ratio of the four points A, B, C,
ABcY
/
When the revolving
D
b in
and, consequently, the ratio

initial
Y will be:
>=i S=:
ray has turned through
ZBOD,
where
designates a point lying on the straight line x to the
beyond B, the point Y will be at D outside the segment

and the double ratio (ABCY) will be negative, as explained above. As y continues to revolve around O, the point
Y will move farther and farther to the right along the straight
line x, until when y is parallel to x, and in the position of the
ray marked e in the figure, the point Y will then coincide
right
AB
with
E of the
AE BE = 1
the infinitely distant point
AE = BE =
Y is at E,
oo
and hence
straight line x.
;
Now
and therefore when
Perspective Ranges of Points
66]
159
the revolving ray y has turned beyond the position

which had
represented by the straight line e, the point
When
just vanished at one end E of the straight line x now reappears from the other end E, proceeding along it still in
the same sense from left to right. Thus, before the ray y
Y will pass
AY = AA = 0, and
aBmn AC AY = AC AA = -
(ABCY)=
BC BY BC BA
and thus we see that as the point Y has traversed the straight
has executed a complete revolution, the point
through A, and at this moment,
line
x from
ratio
B via the infinitely distant point E to A,
the double
(ABCY) has assumed all negative values from
to
oo
by turning from
the position a to its initial position b, the point Y moves from
A via C to B. When Y is at C, AY = AC, BY = BC, and
Finally, as the ray y completes its revolution
(ABCY) = |:g = + l;
so that in passing along x from
and B,
it
as the point
has
all
(ABCY) assumes
to C,
between
positive values comprised
+ oo
all
Between
and +1.
positive values less than unity.
Thus,
traverses the straight line x continually in
the same sense until
the double ratio
it
has returned to
(ABCY)
will
assume
its
all
starting point,
possible values
both positive and negative.

In general, since
(ABUD)
we may
BC BD AD AC DA'DB CB CA
:
'
'
write:
(ABCD) = (BADC) = (CDAB) = (DCBA).

66. Perspective
Ranges
of Points.
If
A, B, C,
etc., desig-
nate the positions of the points of a point-range x (Fig. 92)

outthese points are said to be " projected" from a point
side of
and
if
x by the straight
lines or
"rays" OA, OB, OC,
etc.;
these rays intersect another straight line x' (Fig. 93)
in the points A', B',
C,
etc.,
the two point-ranges
said to be in perspective with respect to the point
x, x'
are
as center
160
The
of perspective.
points A, A'; B, B'; C,
called pairs of corresponding points of the
point-ranges
Fig.
A, B, C,
designate the positions of any four points of
on
x',
then
as
we
shall proceed to show.
A', B',
C, D'
designate the corresponding points
(A'B'C'D')
Straight
AA BB A'A
C,
A
'
two point-ranges
in
(ABCD) = (A'B'C'D').
Through the points A, B,

C,
= (ABCD),
lines x, x' are bases of
perspective, so that
parallel lines
are
ABCD
and
Fig. 94.
etc.,
93. The point-ranges

and A'B'C'D'
are in perspective relation with respect to the
point O as centre of perspective.
x,
if
C;
two perspective
x, x'
b
If
[66
and B' (Fig. 94) draw four

and B'B/ meeting the ray OG
Harmonic Range
67]
161
A c B c A c and B c respectively; and

points draw four other parallel lines
same
through these
B'B d meeting the ray OD or d in the
and
A'
BB
AAd
Ad'
d
points Ad, B d Ad' and B d respectively. Then, evidently,
or c in the points
'
',
'
',
AC = AA AD _ AAd
BC BB BD BB d
C
'
'
A'C A'A
B'C B'B C
'
hence,
'
A'D'
A'Ad
'
162
67
Four harmonic points may be denned not merely by the

is equal to - 1, but
metrical relation that their double ratio

also
by a geometrical
Let P, Q, R, S
relation, as
(Figs.
we
shall
now
show.
95 and 96) designate the positions of

four points lying
\z
all
in
one plane, no three of

which are in the same
straight
line. These
four points will deter-
mine
six
straight lines,
PQ, PR, PS, QR,

PQRS; QS, and RS, which are
viz.,
Fig.
95. Complete
quadrilateral
(ABCD)=-1.
called
the sides Qf the
complete quadrilateral whose four vertices are at the points

P, Q, R,
and
Any two
S.
tain all the vertices

quadrilateral.
viz.,
sides,
which meet
QR
point
which together con-
of opposite sides of the
Accordingly, there are three pairs of opposite
PQ
in
RS
and
a point
PS and
designated by A,
which
of these lines
form a pair
meet
in
designated by B,
and QS and PR which

meet in a point designated by O. The three
are
points A, B and
sometimes
called
FlG 96. Complete quadrilateral

-
the
secondary vertices of the quadrilateral.
what connection
PQRS;
this figure
We
shall explain
now
has with a harmonic range of
points.
The secondary
two
vertices
pairs of opposite sides
and B are determined by the

PQ, RS and PS, QR; and the
and D where the third pair of opposite sides QS

and PR meet the straight line AB divide the segment AB
harmonically. For, since A, B, C, D and P, R, O, D are in
points
Harmonic Range
67]
163
perspective relation with respect to the point
perspective
( 66),
as center of
therefore
(ABCD) = (PROD).
But
and B, A, C,
are also in perspective to

P, R, 0,
each other with respect to the point S as center of perspective;
consequently,
(PROD) = (BACD).
It follows therefore that
(ABCD) = (BACD).
But by the
definition of the double ratio
(BACD) =
(ABCD)
Accordingly, here
we must have:
(ABCD)=
(ABCD)
or
(ABCD) 2 =1.
According to this equation, therefore, the double ratio
(ABCD) must be equal to +1 or 1. But we saw above
in a
( 65) that the double ratio of four points A, B, C,
straight line can be equal to +1 only in case one of the
B is coincident with one of the pair C, D; which

cannot happen in case of the four points A, B, C,
of the
points A,
quadrilateral
PQRS.
Therefore,
we must have
here:
(ABCD)=-1;
and hence, by definition, the points A, B are harmonically
separated by the points C, D. Similarly, also, the points
P, R are harmonically separated by the points O, D.
If A, B, C, D is a harmonic range of points, then
BC = DB
AC AD'
that
BA+AC _ DA+AB
AD
AC
is,
AC-ABAB-AD
AC
AD
164
which
may
finally
11
A B'
harmonic range of
characteristic of a
is
four points A, B, C,
(c/.
68. Application to the
Rays
68
be written in the form:
AC AD
an equation that
64).
Case
at a Spherical Mirror.
of the Reflection of Paraxial
When
paraxial rays are re-
flected at a spherical mirror whose center is at C, we saw

= M'C AM', where M, M' designate
( 64) that
CM AM
:
the positions of a pair of conjugate points lying on a central
ray which crosses the mirror at the point marked
a and
b)
Consequently, the four points C, A,
M, M'
range of points lying on the central ray

that the pair of conjugate points
separated by
M, M'
the center of the mirror
the positions of three of these points,

position of the fourth point
the complete quadrilateral
are a harmonic
AC, and we may say
harmonically
is
and the point

Thus,
where the central ray meets the mirror.
M'
(Fig. 90,
and therefore
we can
if
we know
construct the
by the aid of the properties of

67). For example, the image-
with respect to a
be constructed as follows:
Draw a straight line x (Fig. 97, a and b) to represent the
-axis of the mirror, and mark on it the positions of the three
given points, A, C and M, which may be ranged along this
line in any sequence whatever depending on the form of
is real or
the mirror and on whether the object-point
Through
draw another straight line in any convirtual.
venient direction, and mark on it two points which we shall
call Q and S, and draw the straight lines AQ and CS meeting
in a point R and the straight lines AS and CQ meeting in a
point
conjugate to a given point
spherical mirror
may
point P.
line
Then the
x in the point
straight line
M' which
is
PR will intersect the

conjugate to
to a spherical mirror whose vertex
is
at
straight
with respect
and whose center
Spherical Mirror: Conjugate Axial Points
68]
is
It will
at C.
165
be remarked that in performing this conis needed is a
struction the only drawing instrument that

straight-edge.
M'
If
Concave Mirror: Construction of point

in front of the mirror.
conjugate to axial point
Fig. 97, a.
the mirror
is
concave, the possible sequences of these
four points on the axis are
C,
M,
A, M',
when
M,
C, M', A; M', C,
the object-point
is real,
M, A; and
and C, M',
Convex Mirror: Construction of point M'

97, b.
on axis of mirror.
conjugate to virtual object-point
Fig.
A,
M, when
the object-point
convex mirror the points

ing arrangements:
M,
may
is
virtual.
In the case of a
occur in any one of the follow-
A, M', C,
when the
object-point
166
is real,
69
and M', A, M, C; A, M, C, M' and A, M', C, M,
when the
object-point
is
virtual.
The student should
accuracy of these statements by

drawing a diagram for each of these eight sequences according to the directions for the construction as given above.
satisfy himself as to the
Fig. 97, a
shows the case of a concave mirror with the points

M, C, M', A; whereas Fig. 97, b represents
a convex mirror with a
in the order
virtual object-point at
M,
the order in this case being A,
M,
C, M'.
Point
69. Focal
and
Focal Length of a Spherical
special case
Focal point of
a.
mirror (AF = FC)
FlG.
point
and since here
b)
This means that a

indrical bundle of
coincides
with the infinitely distant
M'
will lie at
determined by the relation:
(CAEF')=-1,
oo we must
AF'=F'C.
CE = AE=
ject-point
of the x-axis, the conjugate point
point F' (Fig. 98, a and
I n
the
when the ob-
Mirror.
have:
cylinci-
dent paraxial rays parallel
To E
a*
to the axis of a spherical
mirror will be transformed

into a conical bundle of
reflected
rays
with
its
vertex at a point F' which

is
midway between
vertex
If,
the
A and the center C.
on the other hand, the image-point
M'
coincides with
the infinitely distant point E, the conjugate object-point

will
He on the axis at a point
determined by the relation:
(CAFE') = -
1,
Focal Length of Mirror
69]
and therefore we obtain here
in the
167
same way as above:
AF = FC.
a conical bundle of
Accordingly,
F midway between
vertex at a point
and
its
incident rays with its
the vertex of the mirror
center will be transformed into a cylindrical bundle
of reflected rays parallel to the axis of the mirror.

letters
F and
The
F' will be used to designate the positions of
the so-called focal points of an optical system which
metric around an axis.
They
is
sym-
are not a pair of conjugate
might naturally be inferred from the fact that

In the case of a
letter.
spherical mirror these two points, as we have seen, are coincident with each other, which is a consequence of the identity
of object-space and image-space to which reference was made
at the conclusion of 64. The focal point of a concave mirror
points, as
they are designated by the same
lies in
front of the mirror, as
shown
in Fig. 98,
b,
so that
paraxial rays parallel to the axis will be reflected at a con-
cave mirror to a real focus at F; whereas in the case of a

convex mirror the focal point F lies behind the mirror (virtual focus), as
The
shown
in Fig. 98, a.
f of a spherical mirror
focal length
the abscissa of the vertex
may
be defined as
with respect to the focal point
as origin; that
is
concave or convex, the focal length will be positive or negative,
respectively.
It
is,
/=FA.
may
Hence, according as
the mirror
be remarked that the signs of / and
r are always opposite, the relation between these magnitudes
being given by the following formula:
/=-ôrr=-2/.
Hence,
also, the abscissa-relation
obtained in
64
may
be
written in terms of / instead of r as follows
it
abscissae u, u' are
the focal
u v! f
must be borne
in mind that, whereas the

measured from the vertex A as origin,
length / is measured from the focal point F.
where, however,
168
If
[70
the abscissae, with respect to the focal point F, of the
M, M' are denoted by

FM' = x', then, since
AM = AF-f-FM, AM' = AF+FM',
pair of conjugate axial points
that
is, if
x, x' t
FM = x,
the connection between the w's and the x's
is
given
by the
following equations:
u ' = x'-f;
u=x-f,
and substituting these values
clearing
of
fractions,
we
in
the formula above and
derive the
Newtonian
so-called
formula, viz.:
x.x'=f;
an exceedingly simple and convenient form of the
abscissa-relation between a pair of conjugate axial points.
which
is
The right-hand
and hence the
side of this equation

abscissae x,
is
essentially positive,
x must always have
like signs.
Consequently, in a spherical mirror the conjugate axial points
M, M'
lie
always both on the same side of
70. Graphical
Paraxial Rays.
the focal point F.
Method of exhibiting
The points M, M' in Fig.
the Imagery by
99, a
and
b desig-
For paraxial rays the reflecting (or

99, a.
refracting) surface must be represented in diagram
by the straight line Ay, not by the curved line AZ.
Fig.
nate the positions on the axis of a spherical mirror of a pair

of conjugate points constructed according to the
explained in
68.
On
the reflecting sphere
D, and draw the straight
lines
MD, M'D
ZZ
method
take a point
meeting the tan-
Diagrams
70]
gent
Ay
Rays
169
in the plane of these lines in the points B,
spectively.
point
for Paraxial
Also,
draw the
straight line
M'B.
Now
G,
re-
if
the
were very close to the vertex A of the mirror, then

would represent the path of an incident
the straight line
Fig.
MD
For paraxial rays the reflecting (or

99, b.
refracting) surface must be represented in diagram
by the straight line Ay, not by the curved line AZ.
paraxial ray crossing the axis at
M, and
the path of the
corresponding reflected ray would be along the straight line
DM'.
But under these circumstances, the three points

by the letters D, B, G would all be so near
together that even when we cannot regard D as absolutely
coincident with A, we may consider D, B and G as all coincident with one another. Therefore, when the ray is paraxial,
we may, and, in fact, in the diagram we must, regard the
designated here
straight line
BM'
as showing the path of the reflected ray.
It is quite essential that this point
which
explained should be rightly apprehended
is
seldom clearly
by the
student.
In
diagrams showing the imagery by means of paraxial ra3r s

the duty of the straight lines that are drawn is not primarily
to represent the actual paths of the rays themselves but to
locate
by
their intersections the correct positions of the pairs
of corresponding points in the object-space
and image-space.
In the construction of such diagrams, a practical difficulty
170
is
70
encountered due to the fact that, whereas in reality parcomprised within the very narrow cylindrical
axial rays are
region immediately surrounding the axis of the spherical

surface
this
obviously quite impossible to show them
( 63), it is
way
in the figure,
because
it
would be necessary to take
the dimensions of the drawing at right angles to the axis

so small that magnitudes of the second order of smallness
would no longer be perceptible at all; thus, for example, the

points B, D, G in Fig. 99 would have to be shown as one
point.
On the other hand, if the lines in the diagram are
not all drawn close to the axis, the relations which have been
found above will cease to be applicable, so that, for instance,
the rays shown in such a drawing would not intersect in the
places
demanded by the
formulae.
Accordingly, in order to overcome this difficulty, a

of constructing these figures
which, although
it is
method
has been very generally adopted,
confessedly in the nature of a com-
promise, has been found to be on the whole quite satisfactory,
and wherein at any rate the geometrical relations are in

agreement with the algebraic conditions, which is the essential
requirement.
In this plan, while the dimensions parallel
to the axis remain absolutely unaltered, the dimensions at

right angles to the axis are all prodigiously magnified in the
same proportion.
h = ~DB (Fig. 89)
Thus, for example, if the incidence-height

a small magnitude of the order, say, of
is
one-thousandth of the unit of length,
it
will
be shown in
the figure magnified a thousand times; whereas another or-
was only one one-millionth of the unit

and which, therefore, would be of the second order
of smallness as compared with h, would appear even in the
magnified diagram as a magnitude of the first order of smalldinate whose height
of length
And
by
although in reality
drawing by a line of
finite length, an ordinate of the second order of smallness
as compared with h will be entirely unapparent in the
ness.
if
the ordinate denoted
infinitely small, is represented in the
magnified diagram.
h,

71]
Extra-Axial Conjugate Points
171
Of course, as already intimated, one effect of this lateral

will be to misrepresent to some extent the relations of the lines and angles in the figure. For instance, the
circle in which the spherical mirror (or refracting surface)
is cut by the plane of a meridian section will thereby be
transformed into an infinitely elongated ellipse with its
major axis perpendicular to the axis of the spherical surface,
and this ellipse will appear in the diagram as a straight line
Ay tangent to the circle at A. The minor axis of the ellipse
remains unchanged and equal to the diameter 2r of the circle,
and moreover the center of the ellipse remains at the center C
of the circle. But the most apparent change will be in the
angular magnitudes which will be completely altered and
For example, every straight line drawn through
distorted.
the center C really meets the circle ZZ (Fig. 89) normally,
but in the distorted figure the axis of symmetry will be the
only one of such lines which will be perpendicular to the
straight line Ay which takes the place of the circular arc ZZ.
Angles which in reality are equal will appear unequal, and
and after all this is the really essential
vice versa. However
matter the absolute dimensions of the abscissa? and the relative dimensions of the ordinates will not be changed at all; and
therefore lines which are really straight will appear as
straight lines in the figure, and straight lines which are
enlargement
parallel will
be shown as such.
The
abscissa of the point of
intersection of a pair of straight lines in the drawing will be
the true abscissa of this point.
In such a diagram, therefore, any ray, no matter what

it may have nor how far it may be from the axis, is to
be considered as a paraxial ray. The meridian section of
the spherical reflecting or refracting surface must be repre-
slope
sented in the figure by the straight fine

position of the center
show whether the surface
Ay
(?/-axis),
and the
with respect to the vertex
will
convex or concave.
71. Extra-Axial Conjugate Points.
If we suppose that the
is
axis of the spherical mirror is rotated about the center
172
[71
through a small angle ACU, so that the vertex A moves

along the mirror to a neighboring point U, the conjugate
axial points
M, M'
will describe also small arcs
MQ, M'Q'
of concentric circles; and, evidently, the points Q, Q' will be
Fig. 100.
Concave mirror: Object

axis; its
image M'Q'
is
is
MQ
perpendicular to
a small line
real and inverted.
harmonically separated (67, 68) by the points C, U, so that

(CUQQO = (CAMM') = - 1. Thus, we see how the point Q'
the image-point conjugate to the extra-axial object-point Q.
and
In the diagram (Fig. 100) the circular arcs AU,
M'Q' will appear as straight lines perpendicular to the axis, as
is
MQ
explained in
70.
We
derive, therefore, without difficulty
the following conclusions:

(1)
Th
pendicular
axis;
(2)
image, in a spherical mirror, of a plane object perto the
axis is likewise a plane perpendicular to the
straight line passing through the
center of the
spherical mirror intersects a pair of such conjugate planes in
pair of conjugate points; and (3) To a homocentric bundle of

incident paraxial rays proceeding from a point Q in a plane
perpendicular
to
the axis of
a spherical mirror
there corre-
Spherical Mirror: Construction of
71]
sponds a homocentric bundle of
reflected
Image
rays with
173
its vertex
Q'
lying in the conjugate image-plane.
In order to construct the image-point Q' of the extra-axial

we have merely to find the point of inter-
object-point Q,
any two
section after reflection at the spherical mirror of
Fig. 101, a.
Lateral
magnification
and construction
of
image in
concave mirror.
The diagrams (Fig. 101,

which are drawn according to the method explained
rays emanating originally from Q.
a and
b)
in 70, exhibit this construction for the cases
when the mirror
concave and convex. Of the incident rays proceeding

from Q, it is convenient to select for this purpose two of the
following three, namely: the ray QC which proceeding to-
is
wards the center C meets the spherical mirror normally at

U, whence it is reflected back along the same path; the ray
QV which proceeding parallel to the axis and meeting the
mirror in the point designated by
the straight line joining
ray
QW
is
reflected at
along
with the focal point F; and the
which being directed towards the focal point
reflected at
W in a direction parallel to the
where these
reflected
rays
intersect
will
axis.
is
The point
be the image-
174
[71
Moreover, having located the position of
point Q'.
Q',
we
can draw QM, Q'M' perpendicular to the axis at M, M', respectively; and then M'Q' will be the image of the small
In Fig. 101, a the image M'Q' is real and
object-line MQ.
inverted, whereas in Fig. 101, b it is virtual and erect.
;\\f
ir
Fig. 101,
b.
Lateral magnification and construction of image in convex

mirror.
is real or virtual and erect or inverted

depend both on the position of the object and on the
form of the mirror.
If the object-point Q is supposed to move, say, from left
to right along the straight line QV drawn parallel to the
Whether the image

will
axis of the mirror, the corresponding image-point Q' will
traverse the straight line

direction.
numerals
1,
a straight
number
VF
continuously in the. same
Thus, in the diagrams (Fig. 102, a & b) the

2, 3, etc., ranged in order from left to right along
line parallel to the axis of the mirror,
show a
of successive positions of the object-point, while the
primed numbers
1', 2', 3', etc.,
lying along the straight line
VF, show the corresponding positions of the image-point.
The
straight lines 11', 22', 33', etc.,
of the mirror.
all
meet at the center

Imagery
71]
in Spherical
175
Mirror
TO 4 AT
Sf
'
TO E
AT0O ^-^V OBJE,CT
RAY
00
TO E AT CO
f
/8
CONCAVE MIRROR
(a)
TO 5 AT 00
IMAGE^ray
TO E ATCO
TO E AT OO
^WTr
3' 4-
OBJECT RAY
r-
<V
c
X
CONVEX MIRROR
lb)
%
TO
Pig. 102,
a and
b.
Imagery
in
(a)
mirror.
concave
S AT
mirror,
(6)
00
convex
176
72.
The
Lateral Magnification.
If
73
the ordinates of the
pair of extra-axial conjugate points Q, Q' are denoted by

= y,
y, y', respectively, that is, if in Fig. 101, a and b,
MQ
M'Q' = y', the
ratio y'jy
the axial point
y = y'jy.
The
M.
is
called the lateral magnification at
This ratio
will
sign of this function
be denoted by y; thus,
indicates whether the
image is erect or inverted. The lateral magnification may

have any value positive or negative depending only on the
position of the object.
In the similar triangles
M'Q'
and
MCQ, M'CQ'
:MQ=M'C:MC;
since
where
MC = r-u,
M'C = r-u',
u=AM, u' = AM', r = AC; and since according
abscissa-formula
r-u' _
v!
ru
we
to the
64)
derive the following formula for the lateral magnification
in the case of
a spherical mirror:
V
Also,
from the
figure
we
see that
M'Q' _ AW _
and since
FA _ M'Q' _ FM'
~MQ~MQ"FM AV FA'
FM = z, FM' = z and FA=/, we derive
r
also an-
other formula for the lateral magnification, as follows:
This expression shows that the lateral magnification is inversely proportional to the distance of the object from the
focal plane.
73. Field of View of a Spherical Mirror.When the

image of a luminous object is viewed in a spherical mirror,
the axis of the mirror is determined by the straight line O'C
Field of
73]
(Fig. 103,
a and
b)
View
of Spherical
Mirror
177
joining the center O' of the pupil of the
observer's eye with the center
assumption that the image
is
of the mirror; and,
formed by the
paraxial rays, the actual portion of the mirror that
Fig. 103, a.
Field of view for eye
in front of
on the
reflection of
is
utilized
convex mirror.
immediately surrounding
meets the reflecting surface. According to the method of drawing these diagrams which was
described in 70, the line-segment GH which is perpendicular to the axis at A and which is bisected at A will represent
a meridian section of this zone in the plane of the figure, so
consists of a small circular zone
the vertex
A where the
axis
that the points designated
by G,
are opposite extremities
of a diameter of the effective portion of the mirror.
All the reflected rays that enter the eye at O'

sarily lie within the conical region
the isosceles triangle
O'GH
must neces-
determined by revolving
around the axis of the mirror.
178
The outermost rays that can
[73
possibly be reflected into the eye
at O' will be the rays that are reflected along the straight
lines
HO' and GO'.
mirror (Fig. 103,
Fig. 103,
b.
6),
In order to see a real image in a concave

the eye must be placed in front of the
Field of view for eye in front
of
concave mirror.
mirror at a distance greater than the length of the radius.
The
incident rays corresponding to the extreme reflected
O which is conjugate to 0';

and hence the field of view ( 9) within which all object-points
must lie in order that their images in the mirror may be
visible to an eye at O' will be limited by the surface of a
right circular cone generated by the revolution of the isosceles
triangle OHG around the axis of the mirror. Thus, exactly
as in the case of the corresponding problem in connection
with the field of view of a plane mirror ( 16), the contour of
rays will intersect in a point
the effective portion of the spherical mirror acts also as a
imagery produced by paraxial rays.

Through O draw B'J' at right angles to the axis of the
mirror, and mark the points B', J' at equal distances from
0' on opposite sides of the axis. Then B'J' may be supposed
field-stop for the

r
to represent the diameter in the plane of the diagram of the

iris
opening of the pupil of the observer's eye.
by the method described

image
in 71, the object-line
in the mirror is B'J'.
Construct
BJ whose
Evidently, any ray which after
Spherical Refracting Surface
74]
reflection enters the pupil of the eye
179
between B' and
J'
must
before reflection have passed, really or virtually, through
the conjugate point on the straight line between
In fact, the circle described around
versal plane perpendicular to the axis at

will act like
and
J.
as center in the trans-
with radius
OB
a material stop to limit the apertures of the
bundles of incident rays.
It is the so-called entrance-pupil
of the system, while the pupil of the eye plays the part of
the exit-pupil (see 16).
Thus, for example,
if
S designates
the position of a luminous point lying anywhere within the

field of
means
view, the eye at O' will see the image of S at S'
by
which are drawn from S to all points

of the entrance-pupil and which after reflection at the
mirror are comprised within the cone which has its vertex
at S' and the exit-pupil as base.
The entrance-pupil BJ is
the aperture-stop of the system ( 11).
74. Refraction of Paraxial Rays at a Spherical Surface.
In the accompanying diagrams Fig. 104, a and b, the straight
line RB represents an incident ray meeting the spherical
refracting surface ZZ at B, while the straight line BS shows
of a bundle of rays
Fig. 104, a.
Convex spherical refracting surface (n'>n).
the path of the corresponding refracted ray.
If
the position
where the incident ray crosses the axis is

given, the problem is to determine the position of the point
M' where the refracted ray meets the axis. The angles of
of the point
180
incidence and refraction are
by the law
ZNBR=a, ZN'BS=
74
a',
and
indices of refraction of the first
and
of refraction
n'.sina' = n.sina,
where
n denote the
n,
In the triangles
second media, respectively.
MBC, M'BC,
we have:
CM BM = sina
:
Fig. 104,
b.
CM' BM' = sina'
sin0,
Concave spherical refracting surface
where
$ = ZBCA.
other,
we
{nf
sin0,
> n)
Dividing one of these equations by the
obtain:
CM .BM
_n'
CM' BM' n
'
if the ray RB is a paraxial ray, the incidence-point B

be so near the vertex A of the spherical refracting surface
that A may be written in place of B, according to the def-
Now
will
inition of a paraxial ray as given in 63.
Therefore, in the
case of the refraction of paraxial rays at a spherical surface
the four points C, A,
M, M' on
the axis are connected by
the following relation
CM ,:.AM _n'
CM AM' n
181
74]
which
may
be written
65)
(CAMM')=-;
n
that
the double ratio of the
is,
is constant
the first
and equal
medium
to the
four axial points C, A,
to the relative
M, M'
index of refraction from
second.
Thus, for a given spherical surface (that is, for known

positions of the points A and C) separating a pair of media
,
of
known
M'
relative index of refraction (n'/ri), the point
on the axis corresponding to a given position of the axial

point
M has a perfectly definite position, entirely independent
of the actual slope of the incident paraxial ray
RB; whence
M,
so that to a
it
may
be inferred that
M'
is
the image of
homocentric bundle of incident paraxial rays with
its
vertex
lying on the axis of the spherical refracting surface there corre-
sponds also a homocentric bundle of refracted rays with its

on the axis.
r
is real, whereas in Fig. 104, 6
In Fig. 104, a the image at
vertex
virtual.
it is
than
less
Since the relative index of refraction
zero, the value of the
double ratio
the case of refraction at a spherical surface
is
not "separated"
( 65)
by the
never
in
necessarily
positive; consequently, the pair of conjugate points

is
is
(CAMM')
M, M'
pair of points A, C, as
was
found to be the case in reflection at a spherical mirror ( 68)

Thus, if M, M' designate the positions of a pair of conjugate
axial points with respect to a spherical refracting surface, it
is
to M' along the axis one

always possible to pass from
or the other without going through either of the points
or C, although in order to do this it may sometimes be
way
necessary to pass through the infinitely distant point of the

axis (see 65)
of the surface
Accordingly, depending only on the form
and on whether n
is
greater or less than
n',
there will be found to be sixteen possible orders of arrange-
ment
of these four points, viz.:
A, C,
M,
M, M';
M; A, M,
M; M, M',
A, C, M',
A, C, M'; M', A, C,
M', C; A, M', M, C;
A, C; M', M, A, C;
182
[75
together with the eight other arrangements obtained
by
re-
versing the order of the letters in each of these combinations;
combinations that are
in other words, exactly the series of
not possible in the case of a spherical mirror where the pair

of conjugate axial points
M, M'
is
harmonically separated
by the pair of points A, C, so that (CAMM') = -1 ( 68).

The student should draw a diagram similar to Fig. 104 for
each of the possible arrangements of the four points above
Fig. 104, a shows the case M, A, C, M' and
shows the case M, M', C, A.
Moreover, if (CAMM')=w'/n, then also (CAM'M) =
ft/ft', as follows from the definition of the double ratio ( 65).
mentioned.
Fig. 104, b
Consequently,
if
a paraxial ray
is
refracted at a point
of
a spherical surface from medium n to medium n' along the

broken line RBS, a ray directed from S to B will be refracted
from medium n to medium n in the direction BR; which is

in accordance with the general principle of the reversibility
of the light-path ( 29). If therefore M' is the image of
when the light is refracted across the spherical surface in a
given sense, then also
will be the image of M' when the
f
refraction takes place in the reverse sense.
Considered as a Special Case of Refracwas implied above that if it were possible for the
ratio n'/n to have not only positive values but also the unique
negative value 1, the single formula (CAMM.')=n'ln
would express the relation between a pair of conjugate axial
points M, M' both for a spherical refracting surface and
75. Reflection
tion.
It
for a spherical mirror.
The question
naturally arises, there-
a general rule of this kind applicable also to

other problems in optics that are not necessarily concerned
with paraxial rays or particular conditions? Returning to
fore, Is there
fundamental principles and recalling the laws of reflection

and refraction, we observe that while the angles of incidence
and refraction always have like signs, the angles of incidence
and reflection, on the contrary, have opposite signs. In
order, therefore, that the refraction-formula
f
.
sina' = n sina
.
Construction of Conjugate Axial Points
761
may
183
include also the law of reflection as well, the values
must be such that a'= a

is a solution of the equation in question; and obviously this
solution can be obtained only by putting
of
n and
n' in the latter case
= n,
or
= 1.
n
Accordingly, the rule discovered above to be true in a special
found to be entirely general, so that, at least from a

purely mathematical point of view, the reflection of light
may be regarded as a particular case of refraction back again
into the medium of the incident light, provided we assign to
case
is
this
medium two
equal and opposite values of the absolute
The convenience
index of refraction.
parent, since
it
makes
it
of this artifice
is
ap-
quite unnecessary to investigate sep-
arately and independently each special problem of reflection

and refraction; for when in any given case the relation between an incident ray and the corresponding refracted ray
has been ascertained,

the condition
n'=
it will
be necessary merely to impose
in order to derive
immediately the
analogous relation between the incident ray and the corresponding reflected ray. Thus, for example, any formula
hereafter to be derived concerning the refraction of paraxial
may be converted into the corresponding formula for the case of a spherical mirror by
rays at a spherical surface
putting
n'= n.
76. Construction of the Point
Point
M.
the axial point

face,
M'
Conjugate to the Axial
In order to construct the point M' conjugate to
M with respect to a spherical refracting sur-
we may proceed as follows
Through the vertex A (Fig. 105, a, b, c and d) and the center

draw a pair of parallel straight lines (preferably but not
necessarily) at right angles to the axis; and on the line going
through C take two points
and O' such that
CO:CO' = n':n.
Join the given axial point
O, and
let
M by a straight line with the point
designate the point where this straight
line,
184
76
Spherical refracting surface: Construction of image-point

Fig. 105.
conjugate to axial object-point M; construction of focal points F,
(a) Convex surface, n'>n; order MACM'.
(6) Concave surface, n'>n; order MM'CA.
(c) Convex surface, n' <n; order MM'AC.
(d) Concave surface, n'<n; order MCAM'.
M'
F\
'
Construction of Conjugate Axial Points
76]
produced
if
parallel to
drawn through
necessary, meets the line
CO; then
185
the required point
M'
place where the straight line BO', produced
be at the
will
necessary,
if
intersects the axis.
The
will
straight line
Ay drawn
perpendicular to the axis at
be tangent to the spherical surface at
its
vertex and this

;
line will represent the spherical surface in the
diagram, since
we
Thus,
are concerned here only with paraxial rays ( 70)
and incident
crossing the axis at
to the incident ray
.
RB
on the surface at B, there
BS
will
correspond the refracted ray
crossing the axis at M'.
The proof
of the construction consists in
the double ratio
n'
(CAMM')
is
equal to
we saw above
M, M'.
the relation which, as
conjugate points
In the pair of similar triangles
in
( 74),
showing that
accordance with
connects the two
CMO, AMB,
CM:AM = CO:AB;
and
in the pair of similar triangles
CM'O', AM'B,
AM':CM' = AB:CO'.
Multiplying these two proportions, we obtain:
CM
CM'
AM'
CO
AM
CO'
or
CM AM
n'
CM' AM' n
and hence
(CAMM') = -.
n
The diagrams
to right in
MCAM'.
medium
illustrate four cases, viz., the cases
are ranged along the axis from left
the orders
MACM', MM'CA, MM'AC and
In the diagrams Fig. 105, a and

is
when
M, M'
the points A, C,
6,
the second
represented as more highly refracting than the
186
and
d,
surface
the opposite case
is
shown
is
convex, and in b and d
(n'<ri); in a
it is
and
the
concave.
The Focal Points (F, F') of a Spherical Refracting

The object-point F which is conjugate to the in-
77.
Surface.
finitely distant
is
77
(n'>n), whereas in the two other diagrams Fig. 105,
first
image-point
and the image-point F' which
conjugate to the infinitely distant object-point
of the
axis are the so-called focal points of the spherical refracting

surface.
conical bundle of incident paraxial rays with its
vertex at the primary focal point
will
be converted into a
cylindrical bundle of refracted rays all parallel to the axis
and meeting therefore
in the infinitely distant point
of
the axis; and, similarly, a cylindrical bundle of paraxial rays
proceeding from the infinitely distant point

will
of the axis
be transformed into a conical bundle of refracted rays
with
its
vertex at the secondary focal point F'.
According to the method explained in 76, the focal point

F may be constructed by drawing the straight line O'H
(Fig. 105, a, b, c and d) through 0' parallel to the axis meeting
the straight line AB in the point designated by H; and then
the straight line OH will intersect the axis in the primary focal
point F. Similarly, if the straight line OK is drawn through
O parallel to the axis meeting AB in a point K, the point of
intersection of the straight line KO' with the axis will determine the position of the secondary focal point F'. In
brief,
the diagonals of the parallelogram
axis in the focal points F, F'.

is
The spherical
OO'HK
meet the
refracting surface
said to be convergent or divergent according as the focal
point F'
grams
is
real or virtual, respectively.
Fig. 105,
a and
Thus, in the dia-
d, incident rays parallel to the axis are
brought to a real focus at F', so that the surface is convergent

for each of these cases; whereas in the diagrams Fig. 105,
b
and
c,
incident rays parallel to the axis are refracted as
if
they proceeded from a virtual focus at F'.
Moreover, certain characteristic metric relations

derived immediately from the diagrams Fig. 105, a, 6,
may
c,
and
be
d.
'
Spherical Refracting Surface: Focal Points
77]
187
For example, in the two pairs of similar triangles FAH, HO'O

and F'CO', O'HK, we obtain the proportions:
CF' HO = CO' HK,
FA HO' = AH O'O,
and since CO' = AH, HK = 0'0, we find:
7
FA = CF';
and hence
also
F'A = CF.
Accordingly, concerning the positions of the focal points of
a spherical refracting surface we have the following rule:

The focal points of a spherical refracting surface lie on the
axis at such places that the step from one of them
is identical
-
with the step from the vertex
to the center
to the other
focal point.
This statement should be verified for each of the diagrams.

Not only will the center C be seen to be at the same distance
from the primary focal point as the secondary

from the vertex A, but the direction from F to
be the same as that from A to F'.
This relation
may
focal point is
will
always
way;
also be expressed in a different
for, since
FA = CF' = CA+AF',
we have the
which
FA-f-F'A = CA; or AC = AF+AF';

be put in words by saying that the step from the
the center of a spherical refracting surface is equal to
may
vertex to
the
following equation
sum
And,
of the steps
from
finally, since in
the vertex to the two focal points.
the pair of similar triangles
FAH,
FCO, we have:
FC:FA=CO:AH=CO:CO'=n':w,
and since FC= CF= F'A, we obtain
and important relation, viz.
also another useful
F'A__n'
FA
and, consequently: The two focal points F, F' of a spherical

refracting surface lie on opposite sides of the vertex A, and at
distances
fore,
we
from
it
which are in
are given the positions of one of
If, theren
the two focal points,
the ratio of
to
188
AIR
[77
GLASS
Focal points
Fig. 106, a, b, c and d.
arating air, of index 1, and glass, of
(a) Refraction from air to glass at
"
"
" "
"
(6)
"
glass to air "
(c)
"
"
" " "
(d)
of spherical refracting surface sep-
index
1.5.
convex surface.
concave "
"
convex
concave "
Spherical Refracting Surface: Focal Points
77]
189
or F', as well as the positions of the points A, C which determine the size and form of the spherical surface, we have
all the data necessary to enable us to locate the point M'
For we can
conjugate to a given axial object-point M.
locate the position of the other focal point
and thus determine
the value of the ratio n' n.

:
Whether the secondary
focal point will
on one side or
lie
the other of the spherical refracting surface, that is, whether

the surface will be convergent or divergent, will depend on
each of two things,
viz.: (1)
Whether
Whether the
surface
is
than
convex
For
or concave,
and
example,
the rays are refracted from air to glass (n'/n =
if
(2)
n' is greater or less
n.
we find that AF= 2 CA,

AC so that starting at the vertex A and taking the
step CA twice we can locate the primary focal point F; and
returning to the vertex A and taking the step AC three
3/2),
according to the above relations
AF' = 3
we
times,
arrive at the secondary focal point
F\
The
dia-
and b, show the positions of the focal points

for refraction from air to glass for a convex surface and for
a concave surface. In this case the convex surface is convergent and the concave surface is divergent. On the other
hand, when the light is refracted from glass to air (n'/n=
2/3), we find AF = 3 AC, AF' = 2 CA (Fig. 106, c and d), and
in this case the concave surface is convergent and the convex
grams
Fig. 106, a
surface
is
divergent.
it may be added that the constructions and

which have been given above for the case of a spherical
In conclusion,
rules
refracting surface are entirely applicable also to a spherical

mirror.
the
In fact, here
method
we have an
excellent illustration of
of treating reflection as a special case of refrac-
which was explained in 75. For if we take n'= -n,

the two points O, 0' (Fig. 107, a and b) will lie on a straight
line passing through the center C of the mirror at equal dis-
tion,
tances from
in opposite directions.
jugate to the axial object-point
The
and the
point
M'
con-
focal points F,
F' will be found precisely according to the directions for
190
l78
79]
center
and the pair
of conjugate axial points
AM = u, AM' =
CM = CA+ AM = u-r,
is, if
191
AC = r,
that
CM' = CA+ AM' = u'- r;
may
(CAMM = n'
/
and since the formula
M, M',
then
u',
evidently be
written as follows:
CM'_
CM
AM'
AM'
we obtain
r_
ur
u
u
Dividing both sides by
we
r,
derive the so-called invariant
relation in the case of refraction of paraxial rays at a spherical
surface, in the following form:
.f.-iy-.p-!).
ul
\r
-,
u
which
is
ul
\r
Usually, however, this equation
written as follows:
is
= -+
u
to be regarded as one of the fundamental formulae of
geometrical optics.
If
the two constants r and n'/n are known,
the abscissa u' corresponding to any given value of u

easily be determined.
Putting n' =
( 75),
we
may
obtain the
abscissa-formula for reflection of paraxial rays at a spherical
mirror
=,
( 64)
and
if
we put
oo
we
derive the formula
for the refraction of paraxial rays at a plane surface

It is
(41).
because this linear equation connecting the
abscissae of a pair of conjugate axial points includes these
other cases also that some writers have proposed that the
formula above should be called the characteristic equation of

paraxial imagery.
79.
The
Surface.
Focal Lengths
The
steps
from
f,
of a Spherical Refracting
the focal points
F and
F'
to the vertex
192
79
are called the focal lengths of the spherical refracting surface;
the
primary focal
le?igth,
denoted by
F (/=FA), and
respect to
f, is the
abscissa of
with
the secondary focal length, denoted
by f, is the abscissa of A with respect to F'(/' = F'A).

Since FA+F'A = CA ( 77), and since
-r, the focal
CA=
lengths and the radius of the surface are connected
by the
following relation:
f+f'+r=0,
and hence
of the third
if
two
of these
magnitudes are known, the value
may always be determined from the fact
sum
that their
For example, starting at any

point on the axis and taking in succession in any order the
three steps denoted by /, /' and r, one will find himself at
the end of the last step back again at the starting point.
algebraic
is
equal to zero.
Moreover, the focal lengths are connected with the indices

of refraction
by the
following relation ( 77)
JV
n'
-=--orn.f'+n'.f=0;
and, hence, the focal lengths of a spherical refracting surface

are opposite in sign and in the same numerical ratio as that of
the indices of refraction.
This formula, as we shall see
( 122),
represents a general law of fundamental importance in geo-
metrical optics.
Expressions for the focal lengths in terms of the radius

relative index of refraction {n! n) may be derived
immediately from the pair of simultaneous equations above
and the
/ and
/'.
likewise be easily obtained
by
by
solving
them
for
the abscissa-formula
values,
viz.,
expressions
may
the two pairs of corresponding
( 78)
u= /, u'=
The same
substituting in succession in
go
and w=oo, u'=f.
And,
they may also be obtained geometrically from one of

the diagrams of Fig. 107 by observing that, since by confinally,
struction
CO CO' n'\n,
:
it
CO': 0'0 = n: {n'-n),
follows that
CO: 0'0 = n': (n'-n).
80]
Now
193
from the two pairs of similar triangles FAH,

O'HK we obtain the two proportions:
HO'O and
F'AK,
FA: HO' = AH: O'O,

and
0'H = AK: HK;
F'A:
since
FA=/, HO' = AC = r,
AH = CO',
F'A=/',
AK = CO,
and
HK = 0'0,
we have,
finally:
,_
J
n'-n
Tl
n'
n'-n'
T'
which are exceedingly useful forms of the expressions
for the
focal lengths.
Since
n'
f"
the abscissa-relation connecting u and v!
may
be expressed
in terms of one of the focal lengths instead of in terms of the
radius
r,
for example, in terms of the focal length/, as follows:

n'
_n.n
Conjugate Points Conjugate Planes of a

If the axis AC of a spherical
refracting surface is revolved in a meridian plane through
a very small angle about an axis perpendicular to this plane
80. Extra-Axial
Spherical Refracting Surface.
at the center C, so that the vertex of the surface
little
to one side of its former position
is
displaced
to a point
on
M, M' will likewise

new positions Q, Q';
the surface, the pair of conjugate points
undergo
slight displacements into the
and, evidently, the same relation will connect the four points
C, U, Q, Q' on the central line UC as exists between the four

points C, A, M, M' on the axis AC, and accordingly ( 76)
we may
write:
(CUQQ')=';
194
and hence
it is
81
obvious that the points Q, Q' are a pair of
extra-axial conjugate points with respect to the spherical
refracting surface.
Thus,
the points belonging to an ob-
if
immediate vicinity of the axis

on an element of a spherical surface which is concentric with
ject are all congregated in the
the refracting sphere, the corresponding image-points will
be assembled on an element of another concentric spherical

and any straight line going through C will determine
by its intersections with this pair of concentric surfaces two
all
surface,
conjugate points Q, Q'. In order that the rays concerned

all be incident near the vertex A, it is necessary
may
to assume that
the
little
ZUCA
very small, which means that
is
elements of the surfaces described around
C may
be regarded as plane surfaces perpendicular to the

Accordingly, the imagery produced by the reaxis AC.
fraction of paraxial rays at a spherical surface may be dein fact
scribed
(1)
by the
following statements:
The image of a plane
object perpendicular to the axis
of a spherical refracting surface is similar to the object, and

will lie likewise in a plane perpendicular to the axis; (2) A
straight line
drawn through
the center
will intersect
a pair of
conjugate planes in a pair of conjugate points Q, Q'; and (3)

Incident rays which interesct in
will be transformed into
refracted rays
which
intersect in Q'.
Diagrams showing the

spherical surface should be
plan explained in
refraction of paraxial rays at a
drawn therefore according to the
70, as has
been already stated.
The
spherical refracting surface must be represented in the figure
by the plane tangent
to the surface at its vertex A,
trace in the meridian plane of the drawing

line
Ay which
is
is
whose
the straight
taken as the y-axis of the system of rect-
angular coordinates whose origin
is
at
( 63).
Q' which with Respect to a

Spherical Refracting Surface is Conjugate to the ExtraThe point Q' conjugate to the extra-axial
axial Point Q.
point
is
easily constructed.
Having
first
located the focal
195
81]
points F, F'
( 77),
we draw through
(Figs.
108 and 109) a
straight line parallel to the z-axis meeting the y-axis in the
point designated
Fig.
108.
by V; then the point
Spherical refracting surface: Lateral magnification and

construction of image.
straight lines
QF
Fig.
VF' and
may
QC
will
surface, n'
> n.
be the required point Q'.
109.
also be
Spherical
refracting
construction of image.
straight line
is
M, M'
surface:
Lateral
Concave
drawn through
will likewise pass

If
Convex
drawn through Q, viz., the straight

meeting the y-axis in the point marked W; and if a
third line
line
of intersection of the
surface,
magnification
and
n'>n.
parallel to the x-axis,
it
through Q'.
designate the feet of the perpendiculars let
fall
196
82
from Q, Q' respectively, on the z-axis, then M'Q' will be

the image of the small object-line MQ. In Fig. 108, which
represents the case of a convex refracting surface, the image
is real and inverted, whereas in Fig. 109 the surface is
concave and the image is virtual and erect. Both diagrams
are drawn for the case when n'>n.
If the object-point Q coincides with the point marked V,
the image-point Q' will also be at V, and image and object
be congruent. The pair of conjugate planes of an optical

system for which this is the case are called the principal
planes (see 119); and hence the principal planes of a spherical infracting surface coincide with each other and are identical
will
with the tangent-plane at the
vertex.
82. Lateral Magnification for case of Spherical Refract-
ing Surface.The ratio M'Q':
MQ (Figs. 108 and 109)
is
the
so-called lateral magnification of the spherical refracting sur-
face with respect to the pair of conjugate axial points
Since
M, M'.
Spherical Refracting Surface: Focal Planes
83]
The Focal Planes
83.
The
197
of a Spherical Refracting Surface.
focal planes are the pair of planes
which are perpendic-
ular to the axis at the focal points F, F'.
"The
infinitely
distant plane of space/' which, according to the notions of
the modern geometry,
is
to be regarded as the locus of the
infinitely distant points ( 65) of space, is the
image-plane
conjugate to the primary focal plane, which is the plane

On the other hand, reperpendicular to the axis at F.
garded as belonging to the object-space, the infinitely disis imaged by the secondary focal plane perpendicu-
tant plane
lar to the axis at F'.
The rays proceeding from an

I
(Fig.
infinitely distant object-point
110) constitute a cylindrical bundle of parallel in-
Toj'at
Fig. 110.
Focal planes and focal lengths
<*>
of spherical refracting surface.
the infinitely distant plane of

in the secondary focal
be
formed
space, its image V
plane, and the position of V in this plane may be located by
cident rays.
Since I
lies in
will
drawing through the center
of the spherical refracting
surface a straight line parallel to the system of parallel

I.
Thus, for
be regarded as a
be formed in the secondary
rays which meet in the infinitely distant point
example, the image of a star which

point infinitely far
focal plane
ment
is
and
if
away
will
may
the apparent place of the star in the firma-
in the direction CI, the star's
image
will
be at the
198
point
I'
where the straight
line
CI meets the secondary
83
focal
plane.
Similarly,
if
J designates the position of an object-point
lying in the primary focal plane, its image J' will be the infinitely distant point of
Thus,
the straight line JC.
homocentric bundle of incident paraxial rays with
to
its vertex
a
in
primary focal plane, there corresponds a cylindrical bundle

of refracted rays; and to a cylindrical bundle of incident paraxial
the
rays there corresponds a homocentric bundle of refracted rays

with its vertex in the secondary focal plane.
The
directions of the infinitely distant points I
and
J' are
given by assigning the values of the slope-angles
= ZFCI = ZF'CP,
0'
= ZFCJ = ZF'CJ';
and the points I' and J conjugate to them will lie in the secondary and primary focal planes on straight lines passing
through the center C and inclined to the axis at the angles
6 and 0', respectively. The angle 0, which is the measure
of the angular distance from the axis of the infinitely distant
object-point I, determines the apparent size of an object
in the infinitely distant plane of the object-space; and, sim-
the measure of the apparent size of the

image of the object FJ.
Draw the straight lines JG and FK paralled to the optical
axis and meeting the ?/-axis in the points designated by G
and K, respectively; then the straight lines FK and CP will
be parallel to each other, and the same will be true with
respect to the straight lines GF' and JC. Hence,
and AG = FJ,
ZAFK= 0, ZAF'G = 0'; and since
ilarly,
0' is
the angle
infinitely distant
AK=FT
we
find:
|l=tan0,!^ = tan0'.
Putting
FA=/
and F'A=/' (79), we obtain the following
expressions for the focal lengths:
FT
/=__,
tan
/'
= FJ
.
tan
6'
since the tangents of the small angles 8, 8' are indis-
and
we
obtain
is the ratio of the height of the
image,
tinguishable from the angles themselves (see 63)
new
definitions of the focal lengths, as follows:
The primary focal length
an
and
in the secondary focal plane, of
apparent
the
199
84]
size of the object;
is the ratio of the height of

to the
apparent
The
an
infinitely distant object to
the secondary focal length
object in the
size of the infinitely distant
ratio of the
apparent
primary focal plane

image.
size of the infinitely distant
image to the height of an object in the primary focal plane

a measure of the magnifying power of the optical system
(see 158), and in this sense we may say that the magnifying
power of a spherical refracting surface is equal to the reciprocal
is
of the secondary focal length.
84. Construction of Paraxial
Surface.
IB
Ray Refracted at a
Spherical
The refracted ray corresponding to a paraxial ray
(Fig.
110) incident on a spherical refracting surface at
B may
easily be constructed, for example, in one

ways:
(a) Through the primary focal point draw the straight
line FK parallel to IB meeting the y-axis in the point K and
through K draw a straight line parallel to the z-axis meeting
the secondary focal plane in the point I'; the path of the
the point
of the following
refracted ray will

(b)
lie
along the straight line BI'.
Through the center
draw a
straight line CI' parallel
to the given incident ray meeting the secondary focal plane

in the point I'; the
will
path of the corresponding refracted ray
be along the straight line BI'.
Let J designate the point where the given incident

ray crosses the primary focal plane, and draw the straight
line JG parallel to the z-axis meeting the y-axis in the
point designated by G; then the path of the required
refracted ray will lie along the straight line BI' drawn
(c)
through the incidence-point B parallel to the straight line

GF', where F' designates the position of the secondary focal
point.
200
85.
85
the required refracted ray will be along the
(d) Finally,
BP
straight line
drawn
The Image-Equations
JC.
in the case of Refraction of
Paraxial Rays at a Spherical Surface.
may
ordinates of the image-point Q'
The rectangular co-
be expressed in
terms of the coordinates of the object-point Q. But the
forms of these expressions will depend partly on the particu-
and
easily
which define the surwhich the coordinates

are referred. The axis of the spherical surface will always
represent the axis of abscissae (x-axis), and the ?/-axis will
be at right angles to it; but the origin may be taken at any
place along the x-axis. If the vertex A is taken as the origin
( 63), the coordinates of Q, Q' will be (u, y) and (u', y');
that is, u = AM, u' = AM', / = MQ, 2/'=M'Q'; and since
( 78 and 82)
lar pair of constants (n'/n, r
face
and partly on the system
n' _ n.n'
v!
we obtain by
solving for u'
/, /')
of axes to
_nu'
'
and
'
n'u
y';
nry
,_
u+nr'
(n'-n) u+nr'
In terms of the same coordinates, but with a different
pair of constants, viz., /, /', instead of n :n, r, the imagen'ru
,_
(n'' n)
equations
It will
may be put also in other forms, as follows:

be recalled that in 79 the abscissa-formula was
written
n'
_n
and since ( 79) n'/n = f'/f, n and

and the image-equations will become:
/'.
/+
u,
-r ,i-i1=0
tt
yf
tt
n'
may
be eliminated
J'+ u '- /<
f+u
ff
fu
These formulae
which are also frequently employed.

may
also be easily derived from the geometrical relations in
Figs. 108 and 109, since we have the proportions:
= AF': AM'.
= VA:
FM:
AM
VW
Smith-Helmholtz Equation
86]
201
Instead of a single system of rectangular coordinates,
may have two
we
systems, one for the object-space and the
For example, if the focal points

two such systems, and
other for the image-space.
F, F' are selected as the origins of

if
the abscissae of the pair of conjugate axial points
are denoted
u=
by
x, x',
that
is, if
AM = AF+ FM = x -/,
# = FM,
u'
z^F'M',
M, M'
then, since
= AM' = AF'+ F'M' = x' -/',
may
be eliminated from the equations

above, and the image-equations will be obtained finally in
the abscissae, u, v!
their simplest forms, as follows:
These relations
of similar
Figs. 108
may
triangles
and
109.
/'"
be derived directly from the two pairs

FMQ,
and F'M'Q', F'AV in
FAW
The
abscissa-relation
x.x'=f.f
is
the so-called Newtonian formula (see
69)
If
the x's are
plotted as abscissae and the x"s as ordinates, this equation

will represent
a rectangular hyperbola.
Theô-called Smith-Helmholtz Formula. In Fig. Ill

M'Q' = 2/' represents the image in a spherical refracting
86.
if
Fig. 111.
surface
Ay
the axis at
Spherical refracting surface:

of a small object-line
M, and
if
Smith-Helmholtz law.
MQ, = y perpendicular
to
designates the incidence-point of a
202
paraxial ray which crosses the axis before
tion at
and
after refrac-
and M', respectively, then in the triangle
= BM':BM,
= ZAM'B denote the
86
MBM'
sin0:sin0'
= ZAMB,
where
incident ray
MB
Since the ray
and
also
is
0'
slopes of the
and the corresponding refracted ray
we may put
BM' = AM' = v!
= sin 0,
paraxial,
BM = AM = u,
-,
^ = u'
or
u'. 0'
= u.
63)
0'
BM'.
= sin 0'
Hence,
0.
6'
But
82)
ri .y' _n.y
and, therefore,
by multiplying these two equations so as to

we obtain the important invariant-
eliminate u and u
relation
in
the
case of refraction of
paraxial rays at
spherical surface, viz.:

ri.y'. 6'
= n.y.
0.
This formula states that the function obtained by the conhas the same value
y,
tinued product of the three factors n,
after refraction at a spherical surface as
it
had before
re-
a special case of a general law which is found

to apply to a centered system of spherical refracting surfaces ( 118) and which is usually known as Lagrange's law;
but undoubtedly Robert Smith who announced the law for
fraction.
It is
the case of a system of thin lenses as early as 1738
is
entitled
The importance of the relation was

recognized by Helmholtz( 182 1-1894), and the form in which
to the credit of
it
is
it.
written above
is
due to him.
proper to adopt the suggestion of P.

to this equation as the
On the whole it seems

Culmann and to refer
Smith-Helmholtz formula.
Problems
Ch. VI]
203
PROBLEMS
If
1.
ical
designates the vertex and
mirror, and
M, M'
if
paraxial ray crosses the straight line

reflection, respectively,
the center of a spher-
designate the points where a
AC
before and after
show that
1+1=2
u
u
where
= AC, w = AM,
The
2.
u'
= AM'.
radius of a concave mirror
is
30 cm.
proceed from a point 60 cm. in front of
it;
Paraxial rays
find
where they
are focused after reflection.
Ans. At a point 20 cm. in front of the mirror.
The
3.
point
is
60 cm.
luminous
placed in front of the mirror at a distance of
is
(a)
120
60 cm., (c) 30 cm., and (d) 20 cm. Find the position

of the image-point for each of these positions of the object.
Ans. (a) 40 cm. in front of mirror; (b) 60 cm. in front of
cm.,
(b)
mirror;
4.
(c)
at infinity;
candle
is
and
(d)
60 cm. behind mirror.
placed in front of a concave spherical mir-
a distance of 5 inches from

image be formed?
Ans. 30 inches behind the mirror.
5. An object is 24 inches in front of a concave mirror of
radius 1 foot; where will its image be formed? If the object
is displaced through a small distance z, through what dis-
ror,
whose radius
the mirror.
is
Where
foot, at
will the
tance will the image move?
Ans. Image
is
8 inches in front of mirror; distance through
which image moves

6.
An
object
radius 4 feet.
what
7.
is
will
be 2z/(z
placed
If the object is
foot
18).
from a concave mirror of
moved
inch nearer the mirror,
be the corresponding displacement of the image?

Ans. The image moves 3.7 inches nearer the mirror.
An object-point is 10 cm. in front of a convex mirror of
will
radius 60 cm.
Find the position of the image-point.

Ans. 7.5 cm. behind the mirror.
204
[Ch.
VI
Given the positions on the axis of a spherical mirror

C and an object-point M; showhow to construct the position of the image-point M'. There
are eight possible arrangements of these four points; draw
a diagram for each one of them.
8.
of the vertex A, the center
9.
point
If x, x'
denote the abscissae, with respect to the focal
as origin, of a pair of conjugate points on the axis
of a spherical mirror,
show that
x.x'=}\
where / denotes the focal length of the mirror. How are

object and image situated with respect to the focal plane?
10. An object is placed at a distance of 60 cm. in front of
a spherical mirror, and the image is found to be on the same
side of the mirror at a distance of 20 cm. What is the focal
length of the mirror, and is it concave or convex?
Ans. Concave mirror of focal length 15 cm.
11. How far from a concave mirror of focal length 18
inches must an object be placed in order that the image
shall be magnified three times?
Ans. 1 ft. or 2 ft. from the mirror, according as image is
erect or inverted.
12.
candle-flame one inch high
is
18 inches in front of
a concave mirror of focal length 15 inches.

and size of the image.
Ans.
The image
will
Find the position
be real and inverted, 90 inches from
the mirror, and 5 inches long.

13.
small object
is
placed at right angles to the axis of
a spherical mirror; show
how
to construct the image,
and
derive the magnification-formula:
14.
u'
y
luminous point moves from
left
to right along a
straight line parallel to the axis of a spherical mirror.
Show
both concave and convex mirrors how the

conjugate image-point moves.
15. The center of a spherical mirror is at C, and the
by diagrams
for
Problems
Ch. VI]
QQ'
straight line
joining a pair of conjugate points meets
the mirror in a point U.

point which
205
If
designates the position of a
not on the straight line QQ', and
is
if
a straight
drawn cutting the straight lines PU, PQ, PC and PQ'

the points V, R, Z and R', respectively; show that R, R'
line is
in
are a pair of conjugate points with respect to another spherical
mirror whose center
is
Z and whose
at
radius
is
equal to
VZ.
16.
Show by
geometrical construction that the focal point
of a spherical mirror lies
midway between
the center and the
vertex.
17.
An
object
placed 5 inches from a spherical mirror of
is
Assuming that the object
focal length 6 inches.
where
will
nification?
is
real,
the image be formed, and what will be the mag-
Draw diagrams
for
both convex and concave
mirrors.
Ans. For concave mirror, image

magnification
=+6;
for
is 30 in. behind the mirror,

convex mirror, image is 2 T8T inches
behind the mirror, magnification =

tV
18. How far from a concave mirror must a real object be
placed in order that the image shall be (a) real and four
times the size of the object, (b) virtual and four times the
size of the object,
and
(c)
real
and one-fourth the
Draw diagrams showing
object?
size of
the
the construction for each
of these three cases.
Ans. Distance of mirror from the object
and
is
equal to
(a)
where / denotes the focal length.

19. What kind of image is produced in a concave mirror
by a virtual object? Illustrate and explain by means of a
5//4, (b) 3//4,
(c) 5/,
diagram.
is real and erect and smaller than object.
Determine the position and magnification of the image
of a virtual object lying midway between the vertex and
focal point of a convex mirror.
Draw diagram showing
Ans. Image
20.
construction.
Ans.
The vertex
of the mirror will be
midway between
the
206
axial point of the
image and the
[Ch.
focal point of the mirror,
VI
and
the image will be real and erect and twice as large as object.
21.
Show
that
when an
object
is
placed
midway between
the focal point and the vertex of a concave mirror the image
will
be virtual and erect and twice as large as the object.

An object 3 inches high is placed 10 inches in front of
22.
a convex mirror of 30 inches focal length.

and size of the image.
Find the position
Ans. Virtual image 7.5 inches from the mirror and 234
inches high.
23.
An
object
placed in front of a concave mirror at a
is
distance of one foot.
the image
If
what
large as the object,
is
is
real
and three times as
the focal length of the mirror?
Ans. 9 inches.
24.
The
2 cm. high,
is
An
23 cm.
is
object,
placed in front of the mirror at a distance of
one meter. Find the position and size of the image.

Ans. A real image, 0.26 cm. high, 13 cm. from the mirror.
25. Find the position and size of the image of a disk 3
inches in diameter placed at right angles to the axis of a
spherical mirror of radius 6 feet, when the distance from the
object to the mirror
is (a) 1 ft., (6)
Ans. For a concave mirror:

in diameter, 18 inches
(c)
Real inverted image,
(a)
ft.,
and
(c)
ft.
Virtual image, 4.5 inches
from mirror;
(6)
Image at
infinity;
1.5 inches in diameter, 4.5 feet
from
the mirror.
26.
Assuming that the apparent diameter
30', calculate
in
of the sun is
the approximate diameter of the sun's image
a concave mirror of focal length 1 foot.

Ans. A little more than one-tenth of an inch.
ft. from a wall, and it is required to

image of the flame which shall be magnified three times.
Determine the position and focal length
of a concave mirror which would give the required image.
Ans. The mirror must have a focal length of 3 ft. and must
be placed at a distance of 4 ft. from the object.
27.
gas-flame
throw on the wall a
is
real
207
Problems
Ch. VI]
28. It is desired to throw on a wall an image of an object

magnified 12 times, the distance of the object from, the
Find the focal length of a concave
wall being 11 feet.
mirror which will do this, and state where it must be
placed.
it
Ans. The focal length of the mirror must be f|

must be placed 1 ft. from the object.
29.
ft.,
and
Assuming that the eye is placed on the axis of a spherand that the rays are paraxial, explain how the
ical mirror,
field
of
view
is
Draw
determined.
accurate diagrams for
concave and convex mirrors.

30. A man holds, halfway between his eye and a convex
mirror 3 feet from his eye, two fine parallel wires, so that
they are seen directly and also by reflection in the mirror.
the apparent distance between the wires as
seen directly is 5 times that as seen by reflection, the radius
Show
that
if
of the mirror
is
3 feet.
on a thin sheet of transparent glass is

placed between the eye of an observer and a convex mirror
When the distance between the
of focal length one foot.
is
three
feet, one of the scale divisions
eye and the scale
divisions
of the image in the mirror.
three
appears to cover
31.
scale etched
Find the position of the mirror.
The mirror is one foot from the scale.

on
a thin sheet of transparent glass is
32. A
interposed between the eye of an observer and a convex
mirror of focal length /. When the distance of the scale from
Ans.
scale etched
the eye
is
b feet,
divisions of its
one division of the scale appears to cover
image
in the mirror.
If
now
the scale
is
displaced through a distance c in the direction of the axis

of the mirror,
it is
found that one division of the scale apFind an expression
pears to cover k divisions in the mirror.

for
in
terms of m,
k, b
and
c.
Ans.
(km) (bc)
f=
be
{b{k-m)-(k-l)c\ {6(fc-m)-(fc+l)c
208
33.
[Ch.
VI
concave and a convex mirror, each of radius 20 cm.,
are placed opposite to each other and 40 cm. apart on the
An object 3 cm. high is placed midway between

Find the position and size of the image formed by
reflection, first, at the convex, and then at the concave mirror.
Draw accurate diagram, and trace the path of a ray from
same
axis.
them.
a point in the object to the corresponding point in the image.
The image
r cm. from the concave mirror,

and inverted, and i\ cm. high.
34. Same problem as No. 33, except that in this case the
image is formed by rays which have been reflected first from
the concave mirror and then from the convex mirror.
Ans. The image is 6f cm. behind the convex mirror,
virtual and inverted, and 1 cm. high.
35. Two concave mirrors, of focal lengths 20 and 40 cm.,
are turned towards each other, the distance between their
Ans.
is
12i
real
An object 1 cm. high is placed

between the mirrors at a distance of 10 cm. from the mirror
whose focal length is 20 cm. Find the position and size of
the image produced by rays which are reflected first from
the nearer mirror and then from the farther mirror.
Ans. A real inverted image, 1 cm. long, at a distance of
60 cm. from the mirror that is farther from the object.
36. The distance between the vertices Ai and A 2 of two
spherical mirrors which face each other is denoted by d,
vertices being one meter.
that
An
= A 2 Ai. The
is, <2
and F 2
and the
object
is
focal points of the mirrors are at Fi
focal lengths are /i
= FiAi and
/2 = F 2 A 2
placed between the mirrors at a distance u\
from Ai. Rays proceeding from the object are reflected,

first, from the mirror Ai and then from the mirror A 2 show
that the distance of the final image from the mirror A 2 is
;
</i.m~(/i+m)
and that the magnification
Ah
is
fi.f*
(/i+o (/2 +d)-/i.r
Problems
Ch. VI]
209
on the mirror A 2 and then on Ai,

same meanings as in No. 36,
the image from mirror Ai will be
37. If the rays fall first
these letters having exactly the
then the distance of
fi\(f2+d) (ttrH)+/2 rfl

d)/2+(t*i+d) Ui-h-dY
(/i
and the magnification
be
will
Uh
m
(A-d) f2+(ui+d) Ui~h-d)
38. If the mirror
show that when the

first
Nos. 36 and 37
in
is
a plane mirror,
light is reflected froni the plane mirror
the distance of the image from the curved mirror
is
(uid)f2
h+dui
is
fr\-d-ui
and that when the

first,
light is reflected
from the curved mirror
the distance of the image from the plane mirror
is
ih+d) (U!+d)+f2 d
\
h+ui+d
is
h
'
f2+Ui+d
both the mirrors are plane, the magnification will be
and the image after two reflections, first at Ai and
then at A 2 will be formed at a distance of (u\d) from
A 2 whereas if the light falls first on mirror A 2 the distance
of the image from the other mirror will be (uy\-2d).
If
unity,
39. If
M, M'
of indices
on the axis
which divides two media
are a pair of conjugate points
of a spherical refracting surface

f
n and n show that

,
(CAMM')=-,
n
where
and
designate the vertex and the center of the
spherical surface.
40.
Show how
to construct the position of the point
M'
210
[Ch.
VI
on the axis of a spherical reand draw diagrams for all the possible arthe four points A, C, M, M'. Prove the con-
conjugate to a given point

fracting surface;
rangements of
struction, and derive the formula n'/u' = n/u-\-(n'ri)/r,
where n, n' denote the indices of refraction, and w = AM,
u'
= AM',r = AC.
41.
Show how
the formula in No. 40 includes as special
cases the case of refraction of paraxial rays at a plane sur-
face
and the case
42.
From
of reflection at a spherical mirror.
the formula in No. 40 derive expressions for
the focal lengths
/' of a spherical refracting surface,
/,
and
show that
f+f+r = 0,
43.
case of a spherical mirror?

44.
ra./'+rc'./=0.
Does the construction found
in
No. 40 apply to the
Explain with diagrams.
Apply the construction employed
in
No. 40 to de-
termine the positions of the focal points F, F' of a spherical

refracting surface,
FA = CF',
45.
face?
Where
and show that

F'A:
F'A = CF,
FA=
-':
n.
are the focal points of a plane refracting sur-
Explain clearly.
46. Explain
how
the results of No. 44 are applicable to
a spherical mirror.
47. Air
and
glass are separated
by a
spherical refracting
= AC.
Find the positions of the focal

points F, F' for the cases when the refraction is from air to
glass and from glass to air and when the surface is convex
and concave; illustrating your answers by four accurately
drawn diagrams. (Take indices of refraction of air and
glass equal to 1 and 1.5, respectively.)
48. From the figures used in No. 44 for constructing the
surface of radius
7'
positions of the focal points F, F', derive the formulae for
the focal lengths which were obtained in No. 42.

49. Light falling on a concave surface separating water
(n=1.33) from glass (n' = 1.55) is convergent towards a
point 10 cm. beyond the vertex. The radius of the surface
Problems
Ch. VI]
is
211
Find the point where the refracted rays cross the
20 cm.
axis.
Ans. 13.19 cm. beyond the vertex of the sphere in the

glass
medium.
50. Light
is
refracted from air to glass (n
spherical surface.
rays
is
and
n = 3:
2) at
the vertex of the bundle of incident
If
in the glass
fracting surface,
and 20 cm. from the vertex

if
of the re-
the refracted rays are converged to
a point in the glass and 5 cm. from the vertex, determine

the form and size of the surface.
Ans. Convex surface of radius 2 cm.
51.
small air-bubble in a glass sphere, 4 inches in di-
ameter, viewed so that the speck and the center of the sphere
are in line with the eye, appears to be one inch from the
point of the surface nearest the eye.
What
is its
actual dis-
tance, assuming that the index of refraction of glass
is
1.5?
Ans. 1.2 inches.
The
radius of a concave refracting surface is 20 cm.

image of a real object is formed at a distance of
40 cm. from the vertex, and the distance from the object
to the image is 60 cm. The first medium is air (n = 1). Find
the index of refraction of the second medium.
52.
virtual
Ans. n' =
53. Light diverging
by a
index
is
from a point
spherical refracting surface to a point

1.5.
The
twice as far
MM' =18
1.6.
in air is converged
M'
in glass of
and the point

from the surface as the point M'. Find the
distance
cm.,
Ans. 1.5 cm.

Find the positions of the focal points F, F' of a concave spherical refracting surface separating air from a medium of index 1.6, having found that the image of a luminous
point 30 cm. in front of the surface is midway between the
luminous point and the surface.
Ans. AF =
13.63 cm.;
AF'= -21.81 cm.
55. A convergent bundle of rays is incident on a spherical
refracting surface of radius 10 cm.
The relative index of
radius of the surface.

54.
212
[Ch.
VI
from the first medium to the second medium is

r
n = 2:l). If the incident rays- cross the axis
and the refracted rays at M', and if M'M = +60 cm.,
at
determine the positions of the points M, M'.
refraction
equal to 2 (n
Ans. If the surface is convex, AM = +77.72 cm., AM'

= + 17.72 cm. If the surface is concave, then either AM =
+30 cm., AM' = 30 cm. or AM = +20 cm., AM' = -40 cm.
56. A beam of parallel rays passing through water (n =
1.3) is refracted at
a concave surface into glass

20 cm., where
(n'
= 1.5).
the light be
If the radius of
the surface
focused?
Ans. Virtual focus, 150 cm. from the surface.
57.
small air-bubble
is
is
imbedded
in
will
a glass sphere at
a distance of 5.98 cm. from the nearest point of the surface.

What will be the apparent depth of the bubble, viewed from
this side of the sphere, if the radius of the sphere is 7.03 cm.,
and the index
of refraction
from
air to glass is 1.42?
Ans. 5.63 cm.

58.
Assuming that the cornea
refracting surface of radius 8
mm.
of the eye
is
a spherical
separating the outside air
from the aqueous humor (of index f), find the distance
of the pupil of the eye from the vertex of the cornea, if its
apparent distance is found to be 3.04 mm. Also, if the apparent diameter of the pupil
diameter?
59.
is
4.5
mm., what is its real

Ans. 3.6 mm.; 4 mm.
Construct the image M'Q' of a small object
pendicular at
MQ per-
M to the axis of a spherical refracting surface,
and derive the magnification-formula in terms of the disand M' from the vertex of the surface. Draw
two diagrams, one for convex, and one for concave surface.
tances of
60.
Derive the image-equations of a spherical refracting
surface referred to the focal points as origins.

61.
Derive the image equations of a spherical refracting
surface in the forms
= 0,
y'/y =f/(f+u) = (f'+u')/f.
that there are two positions on the axis of a
f/u+f'/u'+ 1
62.
Show
spherical refracting surface
where image and object coincide.
Problems
Ch. VI]
63.
213
Locate the two pairs of conjugate planes of a spheriwhich image and object have the
cal refracting surface for
same
size.
A real object, 1 cm. high, is placed 12 cm. from a convex spherical refracting surface, of radius 30 cm., which
separates air (n = l) from glass (n' = 1.5). Find the position
64.
and
size of the
Ans. Image
image.
is
virtual
and
erect, 1.25
cm. high, 22.5 cm.
from vertex.
65.
is
In the preceding example, suppose that the object
a virtual object at the same distance from the spherical
refracting surface.
Find the position and
size of the
image
in this case.
Ans. Image
is
real
and
erect,
I cm. high, and 15 cm.
from vertex.
66. Solve
is
Nos. 64 and 65 for the case when the surface
concave; and draw diagrams showing construction of the
image
in all four cases.
No. 64 on the supposition that the first medium

and the second medium air.
Ans. Image will be virtual and erect, if cm. high, and
f ? cm. from vertex.
68. (a) The human eye from which the crystalline lens
has been removed (so-called "aphakic eye") may be re67. Solve
is
glass
garded as consisting of a single spherical refracting surface,

namely, the anterior surface of the cornea. If the radius
is taken as 8 mm., and if the index of refraceye-medium (both the aqueous and vitreous
humors) is put equal to |, what will be the focal lengths
of the aphakic eye?
(b) Assuming that the length of the
eye-ball of an aphakic eye is 22 mm., where will an object
have to be placed to be imaged distinctly on the retina at
the back of the eye?
Ans. (a)/=+24mm.,/'=-32mm.; (b) ^ = +52.8 mm.,
which means that the object must be virtual and lie behind
of this surface
tion of the
the eye.
214
[Ch.
VI
69. Listing's " reduced eye" is composed of -a single

convex spherical refracting surface of radius 5.2 mm. separating air (n = l) from the vitreous humor (n' = 1.332).
Calculate the focal lengths.
Ans.
/= + 15.68 mm., /'=
-20.90
mm.
In Donder's "reduced eye" the focal lengths are

assumed to be +15 and 20 mm. Calculate the radius of
70.
the equivalent spherical refracting surface and the index of

refraction of the vitreous
humor
The angular
71.
for these values of the focal
Ans.
lengths.
spherical refracting surface

glass (n'
= 1.5)
= +5mm.;
n' = i.
distance of a star from the axis of a
The
is 10.
which separates air (n = l) from

surface is convex and of radius
Find the position of the star's image.

real image will be formed in the secondary focal
plane about 3.5 cm. from the axis.
72. What is the size of the image on the retina of Listing's " reduced eye" (No. 69) if the apparent size of the
10 cm.
Ans.
distant object
73.
is
5?
Ans. 1.36
a radius of 3 inches,
is
made
of glass of index 1.5.
that rays of light proceeding from a point on

in front of its plane surface will
74.
emerge
its axis
Show
4 inches
parallel to the axis.
paraxial ray parallel to the axis of a solid refracting
sphere of index n'
a point
mm.
hemispherical lens, the curved surface of which has
is
refracted into the sphere at
first
towards
X on the axis, and after the second refraction crosses
If the first and last media are the

show that the point F' lies midway between the second vertex of the sphere and the point X.
the axis at a point F'.
same and
of index n,
75. A small object of height y is placed at the center of

a spherical refracting surface in a plane at right angles to
the axis.
Determine the position and
Show how
the Smith-Helmholtz formula
size of the image.

(
86)
is
appli-
cable to a part of this problem.
Ans. Image
y'
= n.y/n'.
is
in
same plane
as object, erect,
and
of size
Problems
Ch. VI]
76.
plane object
Show
surface.
erect
and
formula
it
of
that
same
is
215
placed parallel to a plane refracting
image formed by paraxial rays
its
Is the
size as object.
86) applicable to a plane refracting surface?
applicable to a spherical mirror?
is
Smith-Helmholtz
Explain
Is
clearly.
a convex spherical refracting surface of radius

which separates air (n = l) from water (n' = -|), the
image is real, inverted and one-third the size of the object.
Find the positions of object and image.
If a ray proceeding from the axial point of the object is inclined to the
axis at an angle of 3, what will be the slope of the correspond77. In
0.75,
ing refracted ray?
Ans. Object is in air and image is in water, their distances

from the surface being 9 and 4, respectively; slope of refracted ray
is
4.5.
78. In a spherical refracting surface
a=6+<p,
a'=d'+<p,
where a, a/ denote the angles of incidence and refraction,

6, 6' denote the inclinations of the ray to the axis before
and after refraction, and <p denotes the so-called central
angle (ZBCA). For a paraxial ray the law of refraction
may be written
n'.a'
From
n'
u
79.
= n.a.
these formulae deduce the abscissa-relation in the form
The curved
_n
n'
n
r
surface of a glass hemisphere
Rays coming from a luminous point
is
at a distance
silvered.
u from
the plane surface are refracted into the glass, reflected from
the concave spherical surface, and refracted at the plane

surface back into the
spherical surface
If r
air.
and n the index
show that
denotes the radius of the

of refraction of the glass,
216
where
v! denotes the distance of the
[Ch.
VI
image from the plane
surface.
80.
plane object of height one inch
angles to the axis of a spherical mirror.

flected ray corresponding to
is
The
placed at right
slope of the re-
an incident paraxial ray which
emanates from the axial point of the object at a slope of +5

+10. Is the image erect or inverted, and what is its size?
is
Ans. Inverted image, one-half inch high.
CHAPTER
VII
REFRACTION OF PARAXIAL RAYS THROUGH AN INFINITELY

THIN LENS
Forms of Lenses. In optics the word lens is used

denote a portion of a transparent substance, usually
87.
to
isotropic,
comprised between two smooth polished surfaces,
may
one of which
faces of the lens.
and
this
contrary
may
These surfaces are
be plane.
The curved
called the
faces are generally spherical,
always be considered as implied unless the

Lenses with spherical faces
expressly stated.
is
are sometimes called " spherical lenses" to distinguish them

from cylindrical, sphero-cylindrical and other forms of
lenses which are also quite common, especially in modern
spectacle glasses. A plane face may be regarded as a spherical or cylindrical surface of infinite radius.
The
both
axis of a lens
is
the straight line which
faces, and, consequently,
is
a ray whose path
normal to
along
lies
the axis (the so-called axial ray) will pass through the lens
without being deflected from this

ical lens is
line.
The
axis of a spher-
the straight line joining the centers
d, C 2
the two spherical faces, and since a lens of this kind
metric around the axis,
it
may
of
sym-
be represented in a plane
figure
by a meridian section showing the
great
circles
faces.
is
arcs of the
two
which this plane intersects the spherical

Depending on the lengths of the radii in comparison
in
with the length of the line-segment CiC 2 these arcs intersect in two points equidistant from the axis or else they do
,
not intersect each other at
all.
they intersect, then CiC 2 is less than the arithmetical sum but greater than the arithmetical difference
(a)
of
If
the radii, and the lens
may
217
be a double convex
lens
218
Fig. 112,
a.
Double convex
lens.
>TO n2 AT
1
Fig. 112,
&.
Plano-convex
lens.
00
87
Forms
87]
Fig. 112,
c.
of
219
Lenses
Convex meniscus.
meniscus (Fig. 112, c). A particular

convex lens is a plano-convex lens (Fig. 112, b).
(b) If they do not intersect, then either one circle lies
wholly outside the other, the distance between the centers
(Fig. 112, a) or a convex
case of a double
being, therefore, greater than the arithmetical

radii, so
or, in
that the lens
is
case one of the surfaces
(Fig. 113, b); or else
one
sum
of the
a double concave lens (Fig. 113,

is
a),
plane, a plano-concave lens
circle lies
wholly inside the other,

is less than the
so that the distance between the centers
arithmetical difference of the radii, and then the lens has
the form of a concave meniscus (Fig. 113,
The
first face of a lens
is
c).
the side turned towards the in-
two faces
and the distance from the vertex Ai of
face to the vertex A 2 of the second face, which is
cident light.
The
points where the axis meets the
are called the vertices,
the
first
d, is called the thickness of the lens; thus, d

Since the direction which the light takes in going
across the lens from Ai to A 2 is the positive direction along
denoted by
AiA 2
the axis (see 63),
magnitude.
the thickness d
is
essentially a positive
220
A1/
IA
12.
\\
/
Fig. 113, a.
Double concave
lens.
N
TO
AT oo
C,
fc
Fig. 113,
b.
Plano-concave
lens.
\
\
Az
Cz Ci
'
Fig. 113,
c.
Concave meniscus.
87
Forms
87]
The
radii of the surfaces,
of
221
Lenses
denoted by
rh r2,
are the ab-
C 2 with respect to the vertices

Ai, A 2 respectively; thus, ri = AiCi, r 2 = A 2 C 2
Certain special forms of spherical lenses may be mentioned
of
scissa?
the centers Ci,
here, viz.
(a) Symmetric Lenses, which are double convex or double
concave lenses whose surfaces have equal but opposite
curvatures (ri-f-r 2 = 0). A particular case of double convex
symmetric lens is one whose two faces are portions of the
same
spherical surface; a lens of this kind being sometimes
called a solid sphere (d = ri r 2

(b)
= 2r
1)
whose two faces have the same

curvature (CiC 2 = 0). A concentric lens may be
Concentric Lenses,
center of
Fig. 114.
Concentric concave meniscus.
a double convex lens characterized by the relation d = r\ r 2

of which a "solid sphere" is a special case; or it may have
the form of a concave meniscus for which either ri>r 2 >0
,
and d = ri r 2
(c)
(Fig. 114) or
ri<r 2 <0 and d = r 2 -
r\.
Lenses of Zero Curvature, in which the axial thickness
222
Fig. 115.
Lens of zero curvature
(ri
87
= r2).
between the centers (d =

a convex meniscus characterized
of the lens is equal to the distance
AiA 2 = CiC 2 ). This lens is

by the condition that r\ r 2 =
Lenses
may
(Fig. 115).
two main
also be conveniently classified in
groups, viz., convex lenses and concave lenses, depending on
the relative thickness of the lens along the axis as compared
with
lens
its
is
thickness at the edges.
greater along the axis than
whereas a concave lens

these two
main
is
The
it is
thickness of a convex
out towards the edge,
thinnest in the middle.
Each
divisions includes three special forms
of
which
have already been mentioned. Thus, the three types of convex lenses are the double convex, the plano-convex and the
convex or " crescent-shaped " meniscus, as shown in Fig. 112;
and, similarly, the types of concave lenses are the double
concave, plano-concave and the concave or " canoe-shaped"
meniscus (Fig. 113).
A
its
convex glass lens of moderate thickness held
in air
with
axis towards the sun has the property of a burning glass
and converges the rays to a
real focus
on the other side
of
Optical Center of Lens
88]
the lens.
convex lens
lens or a positive lens.
223
is
called therefore also a convergent
On
the other hand, under the same
circumstances, a concave lens will render a

light divergent, and, accordingly,
beam
a concave lens
also a divergent lens or a negative lens.
of sunis
called
The explanation
of
the terms " positive" and " negative" as applied to lenses

will
be apparent when we come to speak of the positions of
the focal points of a lens

Finally,
if
( 90).
the curvatures of the two faces of the lens are
opposite in sign, the lens

cave;
if
meniscus; and
is
is
double convex or double con-
the curvatures have the same sign, the lens

if
the curvature of one face
is
is
zero, the lens
plano-convex or plano-concave.
88. The Optical Center

of a Lens surrounded by the
same medium on both sides. When a ray of light emerges
at the second face of a lens into the surrounding medium
in the same direction as it had when it met the first face,
the path of the ray inside the lens
which crosses the
optical center of the lens,
external)
lies along a straight line

remarkable point O called the
which is indeed the (internal or
axis at a
" center of similitude" of the
two
circles
whose
arcs are the traces of the spherical faces of the lens in the
meridian plane which contains the ray.

In order to prove this, draw a pair of parallel radii CiBi and
C 2B 2 (Fig. 116), and suppose that a ray enters the- lens at
Bi and leaves it at B 2 so that the straight line BiB 2 represents the path of the ray through the lens. If the straight
line RBi represents the path of the incident ray, a straight
line B 2 S drawn through B 2 parallel to RBi will represent
the path of the emergent ray; because, since the tangents
,
B 2 are parallel to each other, the

towards this ray which enters it at Bi exactly
like a slab of the same material with plane parallel sides
(44). Consequently, the position of the point O where
to the circular arcs at Bi,

lens behaves
the straight line

axis
of
the lens
BiB 2 produced
,
is
if
necessary, crosses the
seen to be entirely dependent on the
224
Fig. 116.
Optical center of
geometrical form of the lens.

of this point will not
[88
lens.
In particular, the position
depend on the direction
of the inci-
dent ray, as will be shown by the following investigation.
From
OCiB! and
the similar triangles
OC 2 B 2 we
,
derive
the proportion
OCi:
Accordingly,
OC 2 = BiCi: B 2 C 2 =AiCi: A 2 C2
we may
write:
OAi+AiC = AiCi
OA 2 +A 2 C 2 A 2 CV
1
and, consequently:
AiO_n
A
r2
= A 2 Ai+AiO = AiO d; so
'
Now A 2
AiO
The
that
we obtain
finally:
d.
ri-r 2
function on the right-hand side of this equation depends
only on the form of the
lens, so
that the position of the
Optical Center of Lens
88]
with respect to the vertex of the first face of the

be found immediately as soon as we know the
point
lens
may
magnitudes denoted by r h
TO CA AT
Fig. 117.
If
is
if
and
d.
lens with one plane face

of curved face.
is
at the vertex
double convex or double concave, the optical
will lie inside
Fig. 118.
2
r2
oo *
Optical center of
the lens
center
225
the lens between the vertices Ai and
Optical center of meniscus
one face of the lens
is
lies
outside lens.
plane (Fig. 117), the optical
center will coincide with the vertex. of the curved face; and,
226
finally, if
the lens
will lie outside
is
89
a meniscus (Fig. 118), the optical center
the lens entirely.
In general, the positions of the points designated in the

diagrams by the letters N, N' will vary for different raypaths Bi B 2 within the lens; but if the rays are paraxial,
the positions of N, N' are fixed. In fact, if the ray RBi B 2 S
is
a paraxial ray, the points N, N' are the so-called nodal
points of the lens (see 119).

89.
The Abscissa-Formula
of a
Thin Lens, referred
the axial point of the lens as origin.

thickness of a lens
is
to
Ordinarily, the axial
much smaller than either of the radii

many lens-problems this dimension
of curvature, so that in
comparison with the other linear dimensions

Moreover, the lens-formulae are greatly
However,
simplified by ignoring the thickness of the lens.
in using these formulae one must be duly cautious about
is
negligible in
that are involved.
taking too literally results that are strictly applicable only

to
an
infinitely thin lens,
coincident, that
is,
Ai
whose vertices are regarded as
A = d = 0. The
2
approximate formulae
that are obtained for lenses of zero-thickness are often of
very great practical utility, especially in the preliminary

design of an optical instrument composed, it may be, of
whose thicknesses are by no means negligible.

O of an infinitely thin lens coincides
with the two vertices Ai, A 2 and hereafter these three coincident points in which the axis meets an infinitely thin lens
An infinitely thin
will be designated by the simple letter A.
lens is represented in a diagram by the segment of a straight
fine which is bisected at right angles by the axis of the lens;
the actual form of the lens being indicated by assigning the
positions of the centers Ci, C 2 of the two faces. In order to
tell at a glance the character of a lens, the form of it at the
edges may be indicated, as shown in Fig. 119. Fig. 119,a
is a conventional representation of an infinitely thin convex lens, and Fig. 119, b is a similar diagram for an infinitely
several lenses
The
optical center
thin concave lens.
Abscissa-Formula of Thin Lens
89]
227
is surrounded by the same

n denote the index of refrac-
Let us assume that the lens
medium on both
Fig. 119, a.
tion of this
sides;
Infinitely thin
and
let
convex
medium, while
n'
lens;
M, M' conjugate
points on axis.
denotes the index of refraction
of the lens-substance itself.
The broken line RBS (Fig. 119) represents the path of

a paraxial ray which enters and leaves the infinitely thin
Fig. 119,
fr.
Infinitely thin
M'
conjugate points
marked B. The points where the ray

and after passing through the lens
be designated by M, M', respectively. The straight
lens at the point
crosses the axis before

will
concave lens; M,
on axis.
228
89
BM/ which intersects the axis at the point marked Mi'

shows the path the ray takes after being refracted at the first
line
Obviously, the points
face of the lens.
M,
conjugate axial points with respect to the
MY, M'
and, similarly, the points
lens,
M/
first
are a pair of
surface of the
are a pair of con-
jugate axial points with respect to the second surface of
M, M'
the lens, and, therefore,
are a pair of conjugate axial
M' will
M. The
points with respect to the lens as a whole, so that
be the image in the lens of an axial object-point

abscissae of
these points with respect to the axial point
by u, u'; thus, w = AM, w' = AM'.

The radii of curvature of the two
as origin will be denoted

Also, put wi
faces are ri
= AMi
= ACi,
r2
/
.
= AC2-
Accordingly, in order to obtain the formulae connecting
u and
tion
u',
we have merely
to apply the fundamental equa-
78) for the refraction of paraxial rays at a spherical
surface to each face of the lens in succession, bearing in
mind that the

n',
first
refraction
from medium n to medium

from medium n' to me-
is
while the second refraction
dium
n.
is
Thus, we obtain
n'
U\
n n'n
n'n
n
n'
u
u'
U\
ri
r<t
by adding these equations, and dividing
Eliminating U\
through by n, we derive the abscissa-formula for
tion of paraxial rays through
an
the refrac-
infinitely thin lens, in
the
following form
The
u'
n'-n /l
n
1\
\ri
rj'
expression on the right-hand side of this equation, in-
volving only the lens-constants
r f
r2
and
n'/n,
given lens a perfectly definite value, which
puted once for
all.
And
so
if
has for a
may
be com-
we put
l_ n'^n /l
1\
/'
n \ri r 2
f
where the magnitude denoted by / is a constant of the lens
Focal Points of Thin Lens
90]
(which
we
shall afterwards see is the focal length of the
the formula above
lens),
may
u'
is
be written:
_1 = 1
which
229
u /'
the form of the lens-formula that
common. For a given value
of
u we
is
perhaps most
find u' =f.u/(f-\-u).
it may be observed that the equation above

symmetrical with respect to u and -vl ; that is, the equation will remain unaltered if it is written in place of u' and
Incidentally,
is
u'
Accordingly,
in place of u.
conjugate points on the axis
Fig.
120. Infinitely thin
lens:
if
the positions of a pair of
are designated
AP = M'A = BM,
AP' = MA.
(Fig. 120), the pair of axial points designated
likewise be conjugate, provided
that the thin lens at
by M, M'
by
P, P' will
AP = M'A and AP' = MA;
bisects the
two segments
so
PM' and
Another and more striking way of exhibiting this

an infinitely thin lens consists
in saying, that if M' is the image of an axial object-point
at M, and if then the lens is shifted from its first position
P'M.
characteristic property of
at
will
to a point
such that
MB = AM',
the object-point
again be imaged at M'.
The Focal Points
Thin Lens. If
on the
axis of the lens, its image will be formed at a point F' whose
position on the axis may be found by putting u= oo ,u' = AF'
90.
the object-point
is
of
an
Infinitely
at the infinitely distant point
230
in the
ilarly,
formula l/u'l/u=lff; thus, we find AF'=/. Simthe object-point F conjugate to the infinitely dis-
found by substituting in the same

u r oo whence we obThese points F, F' are the primary and sec-
tant point of the axis
is
equation the pair of values u = AF,

tain
90
AF = /.
ondary focal points, respectively, and, accordingly, it is

evident that the focal points of an infinitely thin lens are equidistant from the lens and on opposite sides of it.
The
character of the imagery in the case of an infinitely
thin lens
completely determined as soon as
is
positions of the
two
focal points F, F';
where the axis meets the lens

F', it is
lies
and
we know
the
since the point
midway between F and
obvious that the natural division of lenses
is
into
depending on the order in which the three points

two
are ranged along the axis.
mentioned
above
primary
the
focal point is in front of the lens (Fig.
(1) 7/
classes
121, a), that
is, if
the order of the points
named
in the se-
Focal points
(F, F'),of infinitely thin lens

positive (or convex or convergent) lens the first focal point (F) lies on same side
of lens as incident light (real focus)
Fig. 121,
a.
(FA = AF'=/). In a
quence in which they are reached by light traversing the

axis of the lens is F, A, F', then incident rays parallel to
Focal Points of Thin Lens
90]
231
the axis will be converged to a real focus at F' on the other

side of the lens,
is
and the
lens
is
a convergent lens
( 87).
It
also called a positive lens, because the lens-constant (or
primary focal
/=FA = AF'
length)
is measured along the

assumed that n'>n (as,
axis in the positive sense.
If it is
for example, in the case of
a glass lens in air), the sign of

formula above which de-
this constant /, according to the

fines 1//, will
which
is
be the same as that of the term (l/ri l/r 2 ),
the algebraic expression of the difference of curva-
tures ( 99) between the

is
two
faces of the lens.
If
the lens
double convex, plano-convex or a crescent-shaped me-
that
forms of lenses that are thicker in

the middle than out towards the edges the difference of
curvatures (l/ri l/r 2 ) will be found to be positive. And
niscus
is,
in all
hence, as already stated

tion are convergent
(2)
if
( 87),
thin lenses of this descrip-
n'>n.
// the secondary focal point is in front of the lens (Fig.

is, if the points F', A, F are ranged along the
121, b), that
W
F'
Fig. 121,
bFocal
points
(FA = AF'=/).
(F,F')
of infinitely thin
In a negative (or concave or

divergent) lens the first focal point (F) lies on
the other side of the lens from the incident light
lens
(virtual focus)
232
axis in the order
named, incident
[91
parallel rays will
to diverge from a virtual focus at F',
and
lens is said to be a divergent or negative lens, since
lens-constant
/=FA=AF'
the negative sense.
be made
in this case the
now
measured along the

For lenses which are thinner
is
the
axis in
in the
middle than at the edges, that is, for double concave, planoconcave and canoe-shaped meniscus lenses the difference of
curvatures (1/ri l/r 2 ) will be found to be negative; and
hence for such lenses the constant / will be negative if n >n.
r
more theoretical than practical interest is

by an infinitely thin concentric lens ( 87) for which
r 2 = r h and which is therefore uniformly thick in a direccase of rather
afforded
tion parallel to the axis, so that according to the above

classification it should
In
be neither convergent nor divergent.
the value of the lens-constant / for this lens is inand hence u\=u, so that object-point
and image-
fact,
finity,
M'
bundle of parallel rays

traversing an infinitely thin concentric lens will emerge
from the lens just as though the lens had not been interpoint
are coincident always.
posed in the path of the rays.

Point
M' Conjugate
to the Axial
with respect to an Infinitely Thin Lens.
The
planes which are perpendicular to the axis of the lens at the

focal points F, F' are called the
primary and secondary focal
planes, respectively.
The
point
M'
sides
may
on the axis of an
surrounded by the same medium on both
conjugate to a point
infinitely thin lens
be constructed as follows
Through the given point
(Fig. 122, a and b) draw a

meeting the lens at B, and through the
axial point (A) of the lens draw a straight line AI' parallel
to
and meeting the secondary focal plane in the point
V; then the point where the straight line BF, produced if
straight line
MB
MB
necessary, crosses the axis will be the required point
conjugate to
The
point
M.
M' may
M'
also be constructed in another way,
Thin Lens: Conjugate Axial Points
91]
233
as follows: Let J designate the point where the straight

line
MB
draw a
primary focal plane, and through B

which
crosses the
straight line parallel to the straight line JA,
Fig. 122, a and
M'
(6)
6.
Infinitely
conjugate
Concave
to
axial
thin lens: Construction of point

Convex,
(a)
object-point M.
lens.
will intersect the axis of the lens in the required point
M'.
Fig. 122, a shows the construction in the case of a convex

lens
and
Fig. 122, b
The proof
triangles
is
shows
it
for a
concave
lens.
From
the two pairs of similar

obvious.
we obtain the
and MM'B,
AMT,
MAB, AFT
proportions:
MA = MB = MM'.
AF'
AI'
AM'
'
u
234
and
we
if
we introduce the symbols w = AM,
w'
92
= AM', /=AF',
get:
u _u'
which
is
the same as the abscissa-relation found in
92. Extra-Axial
Planes.
is
Conjugate
Since the axial
point
Points
of
an
Q';
Q,
89.
Conjugate
also the optical center of the lens ( 89), a straight line
drawn through A will represent the path

and after passing through the lens
fore
the axis of the lens
Fig.
123.
Infinitely
is
of
a ray both be-
at this point.
If
rotated in a meridian plane through
thin lens: Image-point Q' conjugate to extra-axial

object-point Q.
a very small angle
FAJ
(Fig. 123)
around the point
as
vertex, the focal points F, F' will describe the small arcs
FJ,
FT
and the straight
line JI' will represent the
at the ends of the arcs
MQ, M'Q'
movement
by a
M, M'
of the axis
will
path of
points Q, Q'
traced out in this angular
a paraxial ray traversing the lens at A.
The
pair of conjugate axial points
evidently occupy the
other on the straight line JI' as
same
relation to each
M, M' have
to each other
Image
92J
on the straight
in Infinitely
line FF',
Thin Lens
235
and therefore Q, Q' are a pair
of
extra-axial conjugate points.
Accordingly,
of
if
the points of an object
lie
in the vicinity
the axis on an element of a spherical surface described
Fig.
Infinitely
124, a and b.
and construction
line
MQ
thin lens:
Lateral magnification
image M'Q' conjugate to short objectperpendicular to axis, (a) Convex, (6) Concave lens.
of
around the vertex A of the infinitely thin lens as center,

the corresponding points of the image will be assembled
on a concentric spherical surface; and since, within the
region of paraxial rays, these spherical elements
regarded as plane,
it
may
be
follows that a small plane object at
236
right angles to the axis will be reproduced
plane image also at right angles to the
by a
93
similar
axis.
Conjugate planes are pairs of parallel planes perpendicular

axis of the lens; and any straight line drawn through
to the
the center of
an
infinitely thin lens will pierce
a pair of conju-
a pair of conjugate points.

In particular, the planes conjugate to the focal planes
gate planes in
and
are the infinitely distant planes of the image-space

object-space,
according as the infinitely distant plane
regarded
belonging
as
one
to
or
the
other
of
is
these
regions.
The
construction of the point Q' conjugate to an extra-
axial object-point
an
ilar
to that
employed
and
124, a
(Fig.
made by
infinitely thin lens, is
in the corresponding
cases both of a spherical mirror (71)

refracting surface
with respect to
b),
a method precisely sim-
( 81)
problem in the
and
of
a spherical
the only difference in this case
being that the center of the lens takes the place of the center
of the spherical surface
and that the
focal points of the
lens are at equal distances on opposite sides of
93. Lateral Magnification in case of Infinitely
The
lateral magnification in the case of
lens, defined, as in
of the
may
image
(y'
an
it.
Thin Lens.
infinitely thin
72 and 82, as the ratio of the height

to the height of the object (y = MQ),
= M'Q')
be obtained from the diagram (Fig. 124) and
is
evi-
dently given by the following formula:

y'
W
y=-=-;
so that the linear dimensions of object
same
it
ratio as their distances
appears that
object
and image
from
the
image
is
lie
on
same
the
erect
and image are in the

Moreover,
the thin lens.
or inverted according as
side or
on opposite sides of
the lens.
Another expression for the lateral magnification may

be derived by considering the two pairs of similar right
Imagery
94]
FAW
FMQ,
triangles
in
Thin Lens
237
and F'M'Q', F'AV, from which we
obtain the proportions:
AW_ FA
MQ FM'
M'Q'_ F'M'
AV
F'A
and since
AW = M'Q' =
we
AV = MQ = y,
?/,
FA = AF'=/,
find:
y'
x'
f
*
y
f
x' = F'M' denote the abscissae of
where z = FM,
with respect to the focal points F,
M, M'
F', respectively, as ori-
Accordingly, the lateral magnification varies inversely
gins.
as the distance of the object
the primary focal plane, and

image from the secondary focal
from
directly as the distance of the
plane.
94. Character
of
Newtonian form
the Imagery in a Thin Lens.
of the abscissa-relation
surrounded by
(c/.
The
85) for an
air is
x.x'=~f,
which shows that object and image
the focal planes; so that
if
lie
on opposite sides of
a point on the axis to the
is
right of the primary focal point F, the conjugate point

will
be found on the axis at the
left of
M'
the secondary focal
point F', and vice versa.
The
character of the imagery produced
of paraxial rays
through an
in the diagrams Fig. 125, a

etc.,
mark the
by the
refraction
infinitely thin lens is exhibited
and
b.
The numerals
1,
2, 3,
successive positions of an object-point which
supposed to traverse a straight line parallel to the axis

from an infinite distance in front
of the lens to an infinite distance on the other side of it.
is
(so-called " object-ray")
Until
it
is real,
with primes,
line
VF'
positions
marked V the object

The corresponding numerals
reaches the lens at the point
thereafter
viz.,
(called
of
the
it is
1',
the
virtual.
2',
3',
etc.,
ranged along the straight
" image-ray")
image-point,
mark
which,
the successive
starting,
from the
238
[94
secondary focal point F', moves along this line always in

the same direction out to infinity and back again to its
starting point.
T0
The
5ATW
N'
straight lines 11', 22', 33', etc., con-
Imagery
94]
in
Thin Lens
239
object-space and image-space. At the point V object and

image coincide with each other in the lens itself, and here
The so-called principal
object and image are congruent.
planes ( 119) of an infinitely thin lens coincide with each
other in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the lens at Us
The fact that object-point and imageoptical center A.
point coincide with each other at

cally
by saying
is
the y-axis is the base of
expressed geometri-
a range of
self
conju-
gate points.
is
In a convex lens (Fig. 125, a) the image of a real object

seen to be real and inverted as long as the object lies in
beyond the primary focal plane; whereas

and erect if the object is placed between
the primary focal plane and the lens. The image of a virtual object in a convex lens is formed between the lens and
the secondary focal plane and is real and erect.
In a concave lens (Fig. 125, b) the image of a real object
lies between the lens and the secondary focal plane, and it
If the object is virtual, its image in a
is virtual and erect.
concave lens will be real and erect if the object lies between
the lens and the primary focal plane, but it will be virtual
and inverted if the object lies beyond the primary focal
front of the lens
the image
is
virtual
plane.
If 2
= MM'
denotes the distance between a pair of con-
= u-\-z,
where u AM,
the formula
l/u'l/u = l/f, we obtain a quadratic in u, which implies,
therefore, that for a given value of the interval z between
object and image, there are always two positions of the
object-point
with respect to the lens ( 89). But under
some circumstances the assigned value of the interval z
may be such that the roots of the quadratic prove to be
imaginary, and then it will be quite impossible with the
given lens to produce an image at the given distance z from
the object. For example, if the object lies in front of a
convex lens (/> 0) at a distance greater than the focal length,
jugate axial points

u'
= AM'.
M, M', then
u'
Substituting this value
of
in
240
then
u<0 and
z>0.
tudes denoted by
MA = -w,
Put a =
and a are
/, z
all
[95
so that the magni-
positive.
Eliminating
from the abscissa-formula, we obtain a quadratic in a

whose roots are given by the following expression:
v!
sVz(s~4/).
which
(z)
will
be imaginary
if
(2 4/)<
between a real object and
cannot be
95.
less
Hence, the distance

image in a convex lens
0.
than four times the focal length f.
The Focal Lengths
The focal
same way
its real
f,
of
an
Infinitely
Thin Lens.
lengths of a thin lens are defined exactly in the

as the focal lengths of a spherical refracting sur-
Infinitely
95]
Thin Lens: Focal Lengths
the ratio of the height of
an
apparent
the lens to the
object
241
in the primary focal plane of
size of its infinitely distant
image.
For example, in the diagram the image of the object FJ

lying in the primary focal plane is EM', which lying in the
infinitely
distant plane of the image-space, subtends the
= ZEF'J' = Z AF'H; and hence /' = FJ/tan 6' =

AH/tan 0' = F'A; so that the secondary focal length may
also be defined as the abscissa of the axial point A of an in0'
angle
finitely thin lens
And
since
with respect to the secondary focal point
F'A = -AF' = -FA,
Accordingly, the focal lengths

the
same medium on
F'.
evidently:
(/, /')
of a lens surrounded by
both sides are equal in magnitude
and
opposite in sign.
the lens
If
is
reversed
by turning
an axis perpendicular to the axis

light is
made
through 180 about

is,
if
the
to traverse the lens in a sense exactly opposite
to that which
be altered.
it
of the lens, that
it
had at
This
is
first,
the focal lengths
/, /' will
not
evident from the fact that the expres-
sion for the focal length/, viz.,

J
(n'-n) (r 2 ~n)\
remains the same when -r h -r 2 are substituted in place of
7*1, r 2
respectively.
Thus, the character of the lens ( 90)
,
and
its
action are not changed
by presenting the opposite
face to the incident rays.
The
(87),
= 1,
focal
for
length of an infinitely thin symmetric lens
which
ri=~r2 = r
(say)
is
f=^f
r*
and
if
w'=1.5, we find f=r. Accordingly, the focal length

an infinitely thin symmetric glass lens surrounded by air
(n=l, n' =1.5) is equal to the radius of the first face. Spectacle glasses were at first symmetric lenses, and in the old
inch system of designation a No. 10 spectacle glass, for example, was a lens whose radius of curvature on each surface
was 10 inches and whose focal length was 10 inches.
71
of
242
one face of the lens
If
r2
is
plane, for example,
71
= r, we find/= ^
nn
or
if i\
= r,
r2
oo
if
r\=
then/=
71
96
go
nn
where
in each case r denotes the radius of the curved sur-
face.
Comparing
preceding case,
lens be
ground
we
this
with the value of / obtained in the
see that if one of the faces of a symmetric
off plane, the focal length of the lens will thereby
be doubled.
96. Central
Space.
Collineation of Object-Space
Comparing the methods and
and Image-
results of this chap-
ter with those obtained in the preceding chapter, the serious
student cannot have failed to remark a striking parallelism

that exists between the imagery
by
paraxial rays in a spher-
and the imagery under the same conIn some instances the
ditions in an infinitely thin lens.
formulae are actually identical, and a closer examination
will show that this similarity extends even to comparative
For, example, the focal points lie on opposite sides
details.
of a lens just as they were found to do in the case of a spherical refracting surface, and the resemblance goes still farFor in a spherical refracting surface the connection
ther.
between the focal lengths (/, /') and the indices of refraction
(n, n') is expressed by the formula n'.f-\-n.f' =
(79);
and if in this formula we put 7i' = n, we obtain the relation
/-f/ = 0, which is the algebraic statement of the fact that
the focal lengths of a lens surrounded by the same medium
on both sides are equal and opposite ( 95)
It has already been pointed out that the imagery in a
ical refracting surface
spherical mirror
may
be regarded as a special case of refrac-
tion at a spherical surface ( 75, 77 and 78) and now it

is proposed to advance a step farther in this generalization
;
process and to
show that
all
these types of imagery which
have been investigated separately and independently are

in reality embraced in a concept of geometry known as
collinear correspondence between one space and another
(called in the theory of optical imagery " object-space"
243
Central Collineation
96]
Moreover, these types of imagery

belong to a particularly simple kind of collinear correspondence to which the name central collineation has been given.
and "image-space")-
an optical instrument is said to divide the surrounding space into two parts, viz., the object-space and
the image-space; but these are not to be thought of as separate and distinct regions but as interpenetrating and including each other; so that a point or ray may be regarded
at one time as belonging to the object-space and at another
time as belonging to the image-space, depending merely
on the point of view. Thus, for example, the infinitely
distant plane of space may be viewed as the image of the
primary focal plane of a lens, and then it is a part of the
image-space; but if the secondary focal plane is regarded
as the image of the infinitely distant plane, the latter is a
lens or
part of the object-space.
Now
the
distinguishing
characteristics
of
the
optical
imagery which is produced by the refraction of paraxial

rays at a single spherical surface or through an infinitely
thin lens may be summarized in the two following statements:
(a)
tersect
All straight lines joining pairs of conjugate points inin one point, viz., the center (C) of the spherical re-
fracting surface or the optical center (A) of the thin lens.
This point which
is
the center of perspective of object-
space and image-space
and
will
(b)
is
called the center of collineation,
be referred to here as the point C.
Any
pair of corresponding incident and refracted rays
lying in a meridian plane meet in a straight line
Ay
called the
axis of collineation (or the y-eixis) which is perpendicular at
A to the optical axis

Any
(or the rc-axis)
straight line going through the center of collinea-
Every central ray is a self-corimage-ray and corresponding objectray lie along one and the same straight line. Moreover,
any point lying on the axis of collineation is a self-conjugate
tion
is
called a central ray.
responding ray; that
is,
244
point; that
is,
along this line object-point and image-point
are coincident with each other.

is
also a self-conjugate point,
The
center of collineation
and hence, in
general, there are
two self-conjugate points on a central ray,

of collineation
of collineation.
[97
viz.,
the center
and the point where the ray meets the axis

Only in case the center of collineation lies
on the axis of collineation
will there
be only one self-conju-
gate or so-called double point on a central ray.
Geometrical Con(cont'd).
from these simple propositions, we
can easily develop a complete theory of optical imagery
for the simple cases mentioned above.
Thus, for example,
97. Central
structions.
Fig. 127.
Collineation
Starting
Central
M, M';
collineation: Construction of pairs of conjugate points

Axis of collineation
P, P'; Q, Q'; R, R'; S, S'; T, T'; and U, U'.

Ay; center of collineation C.
being given the axis of collineation (Ay)
and the center of cola pair of conjugate
lineation (C), together with the positions of
points P, P',
jugate
(a)
we can
construct the position of a point Q' con-
a given point Q, as follows:

In general, the straight line
to
pass through the
PQ
(Fig.
center of collineation.
127) will not
Let
PQ
the
self-
meets the
axis of collineation be designated by T; the image-ray corconjugate point in which the straight line
245
Central Collineation
97]
responding to the object-ray
PT
will lie
along the straight
TP', and since this ray must pass likewise through the
point Q' conjugate to Q, the required point will be at the
intersection of the straight lines TP', QC.
line
(b)
But
in the special case
when the
straight line
PQ
is
a central ray (Fig. 128) the construction which has just
been given
fails,
and we must resort to a
different procedure,
246
OG
in
of
[97
drawn parallel to PP' meeting the axis of collineation

and
the required point I' is the point of intersection
G,
the straight lines GO' and PP'.
is
Similarly,
the position of the object-point J conjugate
to the infinitely distant
image-point J' of the central ray
PP' is found by drawing the straight line O'H parallel to

PP' meeting the axis of collineation in H; then the point
of intersection of the straight lines OH, PP' will be the required point J.
Fig.
129.
Central
collineation: Straight line
PQ
passes through center
of collineation (C). Diagram shows case when

lineation Ay, as in infinitely thin lens (c 1).
The
focal points F, F'
in precisely the
lies
on axis of
col-
on the optical axis are constructed

as the two points J, I' on the
same way
central ray PP'.
The
special case
when
the center of collineation (C) lies
the axis of collineation, that
are coincident,
is
shown
is,
when the two
in Fig. 129,
responds to the case of an infinitely
by the same medium on both
sides.
points
and
on
which evidently corthin lens surrounded
Field of
98]
View
of
Thin Lens
247
would be easy to show by the methods of projective

geometry that the straight lines FJ, FT are parallel to
the axis of collineation and that we have the following relations between the points J, I' and the two self-conjugate
points B, C on the central ray JF:
It
JB = CI',
where
I'B = CJ,
^? = c,
denotes a constant called the invariant of central

which has the value n'\ n for a spherical re-
collineation,
c=
1.
For the
axial
+1
surrounded
For a spherical mirror,
ray the above relations may be written
and the value

by the same medium on both
fracting surface
FA = CF',
for a thin lens
sides.
F'A = CF,
^
AF
= c.
reader who wishes to pursue this subject will find a

complete discussion at the end of Chapter V of the author's
Principles and Methods of Geometrical Optics published by
The Macmillan Company of New York.
If it is
98. Field of View of an Infinitely Thin Lens.
The
assumed that there are no artificial stops present except

in the plane of the lens, and that the imagery is produced
by means of paraxial rays only, the field of view in the case
of an observer looking through the lens along its axis is
easily determined by drawing the straight lines O'G, O'H
(Fig. 130, a and b) in a meridian plane of the lens from the
center 0' of the eye-pupil to the ends G,
of the
diameter
For the lens-opening acts here just

like a round window or port-hole in an opaque wall to limit
the field of view in the image-space of the lens. If O designates the position of the axial object-point which is reproof the lens-opening.
duced by the image-point O', then the straight lines OG, OH

determine the limits in the meridian plane of the diagram of
the field of view of the object-space. Let the straight line
B'C bisected at right angles at O' by the axis of the lens
represent the diameter of the pupil in the meridian plane of
the lens; and construct the line BOC whose image in the lens
248
is
the diameter
B'O'C
of the pupil of the eye.
[98
Then the
image S' of the luminous point S lying within the object-side

field of
view
straight lines
may
be constructed by drawing through S the

SB, SC to meet the lens in two points which
ENTRANCE
PUPIL
PUPIL OF EYE
^%
Problems
Ch. VII]
249
Assuming that the lens-opening is

enough to permit the entire pupil of the eye to be filled
with rays emanating from an axial object-point, the lensopening GH acts as field-stop and the pupil of the eye as
in
the image-space.
large
aperture-stop (Chapter XII).
PROBLEMS
1. Show how
Draw diagrams
to construct the optical center of a lens.
forms of convex and con-
for the various
cave lenses; and prove that the distance of the optical

center from the vertex of the
where
r h r2
first
face
is
equal to rid/(ri
r 2 ),
denote the radii of the two surfaces and d de-
notes the axial thickness of the lens.
In each of the following lenses the axial thickness
2.
is
Find the position of the optical center, and draw

a diagram for each lens showing the position of this point.
(a) Double convex lens of radii 10 and 16 cm.; (6) Double
concave lens of radii 10 and 16 cm.; (c) Plano-convex lens;
(d) Positive meniscus of radii 10 and 16 cm.; (e) Negative
meniscus of radii 20 and 16 cm.; (/) Lens of zero curvature.
3. Rays of light diverging from a point one foot in front
of a thin lens are brought to a focus 4 inches beyond it.
Find the focal length.
Ans. /=-f-3 inches.
2 cm.
An
4.
object
is
placed one foot in front of a thin convex
lens of focal length 9 inches.
Where
is
the image formed?
Ans. 3 feet from the lens on the other
Rays coming from a point 6
5.
lens are converged to a point 18 inches
the lens.
An
6.
of

object
the lens.
7.
lens
is
on the other side
Ans.
/= +4.5
of
inches.
placed in front of a thin lens at a distance
The image
30 cm. from
side.
inches in front of a thin
it.
is
virtual
and 10 cm. from

Ans.
/= 15
cm.
The radius of the first face of a thin double convex

made of glass of index 1.5 is 20 cm. If the focal length
of the lens is
face?
30 cm., what must be the radius of the second

Ans. 60 cm.
250
8.
made
thin convex lens
focal length of 12.5 cm.
If
of glass of index 1.5 has
the radius of the second face
is
+ 17.5
cm.,
lens
concave, and the radius of the
is
what
is
what
is
VII
[Ch.
the radius of the
face?
first
first
face
is
And
if
+17.5
the
cm.,
the radius of the second face?

is +4.6 cm.
a double convex lens was found
Find the
radii 30.4 and 34.5 cm.
Ans. In both cases the radius
The
9.
focal length of
to be 30.6 cm.,
and
its
Ans. 1.528.
index of refraction of the glass.

10.
What
The
will
a glass lens in
focal length of
air is 5 inches.
be the focal length of the lens in water, assuming

air, glass and water are 1,
that the indices of refraction of
| and
11.
I-,
Ans. 20 inches.
respectively?
Show
that any thin lens which
is
thicker in the middle
than out towards the edges is convergent, provided the

lens-medium is more highly refracting than the surrounding
medium.
12.
lens
is
of the
13.
Show
that the focal length of a thin plano-convex
twice that of a double convex lens,
curved surfaces are
all
the curvatures
if
equal in magnitude.
Find the focal length of a thin double convex diamond

index 2.4875, the radius of each surface being 4 cm.
lens, of
Ans. 13.4
14.
The curved
Find
of index 1.5 has a radius of 12 inches.
What must be
its focal length.
the radii of a symmetric double convex lens
same material which has same
of
mm.
surface of a thin plano-convex lens of glass
Ans.
focal length?
/=24
inches; r = 24 inches.
The radii of a thin double convex lens are 9 cm. and

cm. The lens is made of glass of index 1.5. If light di-
15.
12
verges from a point 18 cm. in front of the lens, where will

it
Ans. Real image, 24 cm. from
be focused?
16.
thin lens
is
made
length of the lens in air

is 6,
show that the index
of glass of index n.
is a,
and
if its
If
focal length in a liquid
of refraction of the liquid is
bn
6+a(n~l)'
lens.
the focal
Problems
Ch. VII]
Draw
17.
figures,
paths of the rays of
251
approximately to
light,
showing the
scale,
and the positions
of the images
formed when a luminous object is placed at a distance of

(a) 1 inch, (6) 6 inches from a convex lens of focal length
2 inches.
An
is placed 8 inches from a thin convex lens,

formed 24 inches on the other side of the lens.
If the object were moved nearer the lens until its distance
was 4 inches, where would the image be?
18.
and
its
object
image
is
1 foot from lens.

an object 30 cm. from a thin lens is
Ans. Virtual image,

19.
A virtual image of
formed on the same side of the lens at a distance
from
Find the focal length of the
it.
of 10
cm.
/= ~ 15
cm.
lens.
Ans.
on the axis of
M' on the same
a lens is
side of the lens as M. The distances of
and M' from the
lens are 5 cm. and 10 cm., respectively.
Find the focal
towards a point
intercepted and focused at a point
20. Light converging
21.
cm.
far-sighted person can see distinctly only at a dis-
How much
tance of 40 cm. or more.

tinct vision
+32
/= 10
Ans.
length of the lens.
will his
range of
dis-
be increased by using spectacles of focal length
cm.?
Ans.
The
spectacles
will
enable him to see distinctly
objects as near to his eye as 17.78 cm., so that his range of

distinct vision will
22.
one
The
foot.
be increased by 22.22 cm.
projection lens of a lantern has a focal length of

If
the screen
is
23.
+4
An
how
back
of
Ans. 1024/1023
ft.
1024 feet away,
the lens must the glass slide be placed?
far
engraver uses a magnifying glass of focal length
At what distance
from the work so that the magnification
inches, holding it close to the eye.
must the
may
24.
lens be
be fourfold?
Assuming that the
lent to a thin
Ans. 3 inches.
optical system of the eye
convex lens of focal
is
equiva-
length 15 mm., what
will
252
be the
size of the retinal
image of a child
[Ch.
meter high at a
distance of 15 meters from the eye?

25.
millimeter scale
convex
in front of a
lens,
is
Ans.
mm.
placed at a distance of 84 cm.
and
the scale corresponded to 29
VII
was found that 10 mm.
it
mm.
of
of its real inverted image.
Find the focal length of the lens.

Ans. /= +62.5 cm.
26. If X, X' and Y, Y' are two pairs of conjugate points
on the axis of an infinitely thin lens, and if the lens is midand Y', show that it is also midway beway between
tween X' and Y.
27.
and M' are a pair of conjugate axial points with
respect to an infinitely thin lens whose optical center is at
a point designated by A.
Show
that
when the
lens
is
shifted
from A to a point B such that MB=AM', the points

and M' will be conjugate to each other with respect to the
lens in this
new
position.
Given the positions of the focal points F, F' of an

show how to construct the image-point
conjugate to an axial object-point M. Draw diagrams
convex and concave lenses.
28.
infinitely thin lens,
M'
for
29.
At the
optical center (A) of a thin lens erect a per-
pendicular to the axis of the lens, and take a point

this perpendicular
such that
primary focal length.

a direction that
AL=/, where /
Through
draw a
ZF'AP = 45, where
on
denotes the
line
AP
in such
F' designates the sec-
on the axis
ondary focal point of the lens. Take a point
meeting the
of the lens, and draw the straight line
straight line AP in a point S. If M' designates the foot of
the perpendicular let fall from S to the axis of the lens,
ML
show that M, M' are a pair of conjugate axial points. Draw

two diagrams, one for a convex and the other for a concave
lens.
30.
Derive the image-equations in the case of an
thin lens in the form

31.
Show
l/u'
= \ju-\- 1//,
y'/y
infinitely
= u'\u.
that the focal points of an infinitely thin lens
are at equal distances on opposite sides of the lens.
Problems
Ch. VII]
32.
candle
is
and when a
wall,
253
placed at a distance of 2 meters from a

lens
is
placed between the candle and the
wall at a distance of 50 cm. from the candle, a distinct image

of the latter is cast
upon the
Find the focal length of
wall.
the lens and the magnification of the image.
Ans. /=37.5 cm.; image
The
33.
in
an
3 times as large as object.
is
distance between a real object and
infinitely thin lens is
32 inches.
If
as large as the object, find the position
its real
the image
and
is
image
3 times
focal length of
the lens.
The
Ans.
lens
is
a convex lens of focal length 6 inches
placed between object and image at a distance of 8 inches
from the object.

34. When an object is held at a distance of 6 cm. from
one face of a thin lens, the image of the object formed by
reflection in this face is found to lie in the same plane as the
object. If the object is placed at a distance of 20 cm. from
the lens, the image produced by the lens is inverted and of
The
the same size as the object.
index
1.5.
Find the
radii of the
lens
two
is
made
of glass of
surfaces.
Ans. The lens
is a convex meniscus of radii 6 and |4 cm.

magic lantern the image of the slide is thrown
upon a screen by means of a thin convex lens. Show that
the adjustment for focusing is always possible provided
that the distance from the slide to the screen is not less
than 4 times the focal length of the lens, and provided that
the lens can move in its tube to a distance from the slide
35. In a
equal to twice the focal length.

36.
person holds a lens in front of his eye and ob-
serves that
which
is
by
reflection at the nearer surface
an object
6 feet from the lens appears upright and diminished
to one-twentieth of
its
height.
Looking through the lens
at an object on the other side 6 feet from the lens, its image
is
inverted and diminished in height to one-tenth.
lens
is
faces.
a glass lens of index

Ans.
1.5.
Find the
The
radii of its sur-
double convex lens of radii || and 44
ft.
254
How
[Ch.
VII
from a lens must an object be placed so

be erect and half as high as the object?
that
Ans. The object must be in the second focal plane of the
(Draw diagram showing construction of image for
lens.
convex lens and also a diagram for concave lens.)
38. How far from a thin lens must an object be placed
so that its image will be inverted and half as high as the
object? Draw two diagrams, showing construction of image
for convex lens and for concave lens.
Ans. If the optical center of the lens and the primary
focal point are designated by A and F, respectively, and if
37.
far
image
its
will
the axial point of the object
AM = 3AF.
39. An object
is
designated by
M,
then
to be placed in front of a convex lens of
is
image is
Find the two possible positions, and
draw diagram for each position showing the construction
focal length 18 inches in such a position that its
magnified 3 times.
of the image.
must be 2 ft. from lens;

from lens.
40. In the preceding example if the lens were concave,
where would the object have to be?
Ans. The object would be virtual, at a distance of 1 ft.
from the lens for an erect image, and at a distance of 2 ft.
for an inverted image.
Ans.
if it is
41.
If
image
is
erect, object
and he
inverted, object
must be
1 ft.
person can see distinctly at a distance of

finds that
when he holds a
1 foot,
certain lens close to his
eye small objects are seen distinctly and magnified 6 times.
Find the focal length of the lens.

Ans. /= +2.4 inches.
2
42. Derive the Newtonian formula x.x' =
f for a lens.
43. A convex lens is used to produce an image of a fixed
object on a fixed screen. Show that, in general, there will
be two possible positions of the lens, and prove that the
height of the object is the geometrical mean between the
heights of the two images.

44.
copper cent
is
19
mm.
in diameter
and a
silver
255
Problems
Ch. VII
half dollar
is
30.4
mm.
in diameter.
How
far
from a con-
vex lens of focal length 10 cm. must

placed so that its image in the lens will be just the size of
the larger one?
Ans. It must be placed in front of the lens at a distance
of either 16.25 cm. or 3.75 cm.
45. What must be the radius of the curved surface of a
thin plano-convex lens made of glass of index 1.5 which
the smaller coin be
a real image of an object placed 2 cm. in front of

Ans. 9 mm.
and magnified 3 times?
will give
the lens
46.
Find the magnification of a convex lens of focal
length 0.2 inch for an eye whose distance of most distinct

Ans. 71 times.
vision is 14 inches.
47.
An
object
tance from
is
placed in front of a convex lens at a dis-
equal to 1.5 times the focal length.
it
linear magnification.
If
the object
is
Find the
removed to twice
this
Ans. - 2; |.
be the magnification?
48. An object 5 cm. high is placed 12 cm. in front of a
thin lens of focal length 8 cm. Find the position, size and
nature of the image (a) for a convex lens, and (6) for a
concave lens; and draw accurate diagram for each case.
Ans. (a) Real, inverted image, 10 cm. high, 24 cm. from
lens; (6) Virtual, erect image, 2 cm. high, 4.8 cm. from
distance,
what
will
lens.
49. When an object is placed at a point R on the axis of

a thin lens of focal length /, the image is erect, and when
the object is moved to a point S the image is the same size
as before but inverted; show that
m
m
a positive number denoting the value of the

ratio of the size of the image to that of the object.
50. A screen, placed at right angles to the axis of a thin
where
is
/, receives the image of a small object.

20 times as large as the object, show that
the distance of the screen from the lens is equal to 21/.
lens of focal length

If
the image
is
256
[Ch.
VII
51. Given a convex lens, a concave lens, a concave mirror

and a convex mirror, each of focal length 20 cm. An object
is placed in front of each in turn at distances of 40, 20 and
Draw diagrams showing the construction of the
10 cm.
image for each lens and each mirror and for each of the
three given positions of the object; and find the position
and character of the image in each case.
52. A plane mirror is placed anywhere behind a convex
lens with its plane at right angles to the axis of the lens.
needle
is
set
up perpendicular
focal plane of the lens.
Show
to the axis in the primary
that the image of the needle
produced by rays that have passed twice through the lens

will lie also in the primary focal plane and will be of the
same size as the object but inverted.
53. An object is placed in front of a thin convex lens at
a distance a from it not greater than twice its focal length /;
and a plane mirror is adjusted in the secondary focal plane
of the lens. Show that a real image formed by rays which
have passed twice through the lens will be formed at a distance b in front of the lens; and that f=(a-\-b)/2. Show
also that the image is of the same size as the object but inverted.
Draw a diagram showing the construction of the
image.
54.
convex lens of focal length 10 cm.
is
placed at a
distance of 2 cm. in front of a plane mirror which
is
per-
Where must an eye be

that it may see its own image
pendicular to the axis of the lens.
placed in front of the lens so
by means
of rays which, after having traversed the lens
twice, return into the eye as bundles of parallel rays?
Ans. 3.75 cm. from the

55.
thin convex lens of focal length 10 inches
in front of a
is
concave mirror of focal length 5 inches.
distance between the lens and the mirror
is
lens.
placed
The
10 inches.
placed in front of the lens at any distance from
object
is
Show
that
An
it.
image formed by rays which have passed

twice through the lens will lie at an equal distance from the
its
Problems
Ch. VII]
257
on the other side of it, and that it will be of the same

but inverted.
56. A thin convex lens of focal length 12 inches is placed
12 inches in front of a concave mirror of focal length 8 inches.
lens
size as the object
An
object
is
placed 3 inches in front of the lens.
Show
that
image formed by rays which have passed twice through

the lens is in the same plane as the object and of the same
size, but inverted.
57. The focal length of a thin symmetric double concave
lens made of glass of index 1.5 is five inches.
A luminous
point lies on the axis so far away that it may be considered
as being at infinity. Prove that its image formed by rays
which are reflected at the first surface is 2.5 inches in front
of the lens; the image formed by rays which are refracted
twice at the first surface and reflected once at the second
surface is on the other side of the lens at a distance of 1.25
inches from it; and, finally, the image formed by rays which
after being reflected twice at the second surface have emerged
again into the surrounding air is 0.5 inch from the lens on
the side away from the source.
58. A concave mirror, of radius r, has its center at the
its
/, and the axes

and mirror are in the same straight line. Rays coming from an axial object point at a distance u from the lens
traverse the lens and after being reflected at the mirror
pass through the lens again and emerge from it as a bundle
of rays parallel to the axis. Prove that
optical center of a thin lens, of focal length
of lens
W=o.
f
CHAPTER
VIII
CHANGE OF CURVATURE OF THE WAVE-FRONT IN REFLECTION AND REFRACTION. DIOPTRY SYSTEM

99.
Concerning Curvature and
its
Measure.
Since the
rays or lines of advance of the light-waves are always at

right angles to the wave-surface ( 7), one
gating the procedure of light
wave-surface;
for, in general,
fraction will be to produce

of the wave-front.
is
way
to study the
of investi-
form
of the
the effect of reflection and re-
an abrupt change of curvature
In this method attention
is
concen-
trated primarily on the wave-surface rather than on the
rays themselves; but in reality the only difference between
and the ray-method consists in a new point of view, which

may, however, be serviceable. Thus, when a plane wave
is incident on a lens, the wave-front on emergence will no
it
longer be plane but curved in such fashion that the light-
waves
either converge to or diverge
from a point
in the second
The effect of the lens or optical

focal plane of the lens.
system is to imprint a new curvature on the wave-front,
and
if
the change of curvature which
is
thus produced can
form of the wave can be determined

by mere algebraic addition of the initial and impressed
curvatures.
It will be necessary, however, to explain precisely what is meant by this term curvature and how it is
be ascertained, the
final
measured.
In passing along an arc of a plane curve from a point
AB
is
(Fig. 131) to a point B, the total curvature of the arc
the change of direction of the curve between A and B, which

is evidently measured by the angle between the tangents
This angle is equal to
to the curve at these two places.
the angle at O between the normals AO and BO which are
258
Curvature of an Arc
99]
259
A and B. The mean curvaand B is the change of this angle per unit
length of the arc AB. If, therefore, the length of the arc
AB is denoted by a and the magnitude of the angle BOA
perpendicular to the tangents at
ture
between
Mean curvature
of arc AB measured by
denotes
where a-denotes length of arc and
angle between the normals AO and BO.
Fig. 131.
<P/a,
by
<p,
And
the
<f>
mean curvature between
and
the limiting value of this quotient
infinitely
near to
at the point
or, as
is
is
equal to
(pja.
when the point B
is
the measure of the actual curvature
we
say, the curvature at A.
If
the curva-
denoted by the capital letter R, then R is equal

to the Umiting value of <p/a when the arc a is indefinitely
ture at
is
small.
In Fig. 132 the point

to A;
and the point
is
supposed to be
of intersection
of the
infinitely
near
normals drawn
260
[99
two contiguous points A, B on the curve passing

through these two points is called the center of curvature
of the curve at the point A; the circle described in the
plane of the curve around this point C as center with radius
to the
Curvature of arc BAB at point A midway between

b.
measured by the sagitta AD. (a) Convex, (b) Concave arc.
Fig. 132, a and
and
is
r= AC, which
will coincide
with the given curve throughout
the infinitely small arc AB, is called the circle of curvature

and its radius r is called the radius of curvature at the point
A. Now since by definition the angle <p is equal to the arc
BA
divided
by the
curvature at
is
radius
equal to
point on a curve is equal
that
r,
l/r;
that
=a/r, the
is,
since
is,
the curvature at
to the reciprocal
<p
any
of the radius of curva-
ture at that point, or
The
sign of the curvature
of curvature.
is
the same as that of the radius
Accordingly, if the surface
is
convex with re-
spect to the incident light, the curvature is to be counted as positive,
in accordance with our previous
usage in this respect.
Measure
99]
of
Curvature
261
Thus, for example, when spherical waves spread out from

a point-source, the wave-front at any instant is concave
and its curvature is reckoned, therefore, as negative. If a
convex lens
is
interposed at a distance from the point-source
greater than its focal length, the light-waves will thereby
be converged to a focus on the other side of the lens whence

they will ultimately diverge again. While the wave-front
is advancing from the lens to the focus, its curvature is positive; at the focus itself the wave-front collapses into a point,
wave at this place being infinite; and

beyond the focus the curvature becomes negative. As long
as the wave does not undergo any reflection or refraction,
its curvature varies continuously; whereas a sudden change
of curvature is imprinted on the wave when there is a transition from one medium to another.
Another method of measuring the curvature of a small
arc BB (Fig. 132) is in terms of its bulge AD, where the
points designated by A and D are the middle points of the
arc and its chord. If the points A and B are so close together that they may be regarded as lying on the circle of
the curvature of the
curvature corresponding to the point A, the ordinate
DB = h
be a mean proportional between the two segments into

which the diameter of the circle is divided by the point D,
will
so that
we have
the proportion
XD:h = h:(2r~AD).
Since the segment
AD
is
with the diameter of the
always very small in comparison

curvature, only a vanish-
circle of
ingly small error will be introduced

of
(2r AD)
in the
AD
or since
by writing
above proportion.
h2
2r in place
Thus, we obtain:
=2r'
R = 1/r,
2
ad- h| a
If
the arc
BB
is
not infinitely small, this equation contains
a certain error which
is
more and more
negligible in pro-
262
99
taken smaller and smaller. For a small

arc, therefore, we may say that the segment AD is proportional to the curvature (R) at the point A, and hence it
may be said to measure the curvature at this place. This
portion as the arc
segment
BB
AD
was
because of
is
by Kepler the sagitta of the arc

resemblance to an "arrow" on a bow.
called
its
Curvatures
Curvatures
BAB and BKB are in same
Fig. 134.
arcs
AD
same
Fig. 133.
of arcs
ratio as their sagittae
and KD.
AP
and
ratio
sagittae
VP
of
in
their
AQ
as
and VQ.
" sag " of the curve

it does measure the bulge or
In Fig. 133, where the straight line BDB is the comchord of the small arcs BAB and BKB, the curvatures
Obviously,
at A.
mon
at
and
are evidently in the ratio of
AD
to
KD.
Or,
where the two arcs AP and AQ

have a common tangent at A. If on this tangent a point V
is taken very close to A, and if through V a straight line is
drawn perpendicular to AV intersecting the two arcs in
again, consider Fig. 134,
Spherometer and Lens-Gauge
99]
the points designated by
P and
Q, the curvatures at
263
will
be in the ratio of VP to VQ.

In many optical problems (as has been explained in the
last two chapters) we are concerned only with a very small
portion of the reflecting and
refracting surface (case of
paraxial
such
rays),
and under
circumstances
is
it
and
convenient
especially
simple to measure the curvthe
atures
of
before
and
wave-fronts
after refraction
or reflection
and the curva-
the
of
lenses
by means
sagittae.
or
mirrors
tures
of
their
In fact, the ordi-
nary method of determining

the curvature of an optical
with an instrusurface
ment
called
(Fig. 135)
a spherometer
consists
essen-
Fig. 135.
Spherometer.
employing a micrometer screw to measure the sagitta of the arc whose

chord is equal to the diameter of the circle circumscribed
about the equilateral triangle formed by the conical points
of the tripod which supports the instrument on the curved
tially
in
surface to be measured.
used by
The simple
opticians to measure the
lens-gauge (Fig. 136)
power
of a spectacle lens
In size and external apbased on the same principle.

pearance it resembles a watch, except that on its lower side
is
has three metallic pins projecting from it in parallel lines

The
all lie in a plane parallel to the face of the gauge.
two outer pins are stationary and symmetrically placed so that
it
which
when the instrument
is
held in a vertical plane with the pins
pointing downwards, the straight line
the conical points of the outer pins
BB
is
(Fig. 132) joining
horizontal; whereas
264
the other pin which

is
is
midway between
[99
the two outer ones
capable of being pushed upwards by a slight pressure so
that
its
tip
straight line
A which left to itself falls

BB can be made to ascend
little
little
The
line.
below the
above this
vertical
dis-
placement of the tip A of

the middle pin above or
below the level of the

chord BB, which is equal
to the sagitta of the arc
BAB
whose curvature
to be measured,
on
tered
the
is
is regis-
dial
(see
by the angular
movement of a light hand
108)
or pointer with which the
movable pin
the
If
is
connected.
circle
drawn
is
which passes through the

Fig. 136.
D; and
B,
pins
diameter drawn through

point
end-points
Lens-gauge.
will bisect
of
the
the chord
we
three
and B, the
BB
since the products of the segments
intersecting chords of a circle are equal,

diately
obtain
at a
two
imme-
of
AD (2r-AD)=h
2
,
where r denotes the radius of the circle and 2h = chord BB.

Hence, exactly as above, we obtain here also:
2
h
AD=
approximately;
thus proving again that the sagitta

the curvature l/r = R.
AD
is
proportional to
In using the lens-gauge care must
be taken to see that the plane of the instrument is not tilted

out of the vertical, and this is one reason why a spherometer
is more accurate.
On the other hand, the lens-gauge, besides being
more handy and convenient, possesses a de-
100]
265
cided advantage over a spherometer supported on a tripod
by
reason of the fact that it can be used to measure the

curvatures in different meridians of a non-spherical surface
of revolution, for example, the curvatures of the
normal
111) of a cylindrical or of a toric surface
( 112).
sections
How
(
the lens-gauge
is
graduated
will
be explained presently
108).
Wave at a Plane Surface.

an optical system, therefore, whether
The whole duty
of
266
in
the
100
corresponding problems concerning the reflection
and refraction
method, these
to the case
of paraxial rays.
results should be
when the
reflecting
In fact, according to this

found to apply not merely
and refracting surfaces are
plane or spherical, but equally also to the more general

case
when
these surfaces have any form whatever, provided
they are symmetrical around the optical
axis.
100]
267
B on this surface the incident

be represented in the plane of the figure by the
has begun to affect a point
wave
will
circular arc
equal to
BJB
BM;
described around
midway between
line
MJ
The two
is
the point designated by J lying on the arc

its
two ends B, B, so that the
the perpendicular bisector at
points
M,
J will be found to
lie
straight
of the chord
BB.
always on opposite
GLASS
Fig. 137,
c.
Divergent spherical waves refracted

surface from glass to
sides of the refracting plane.
point
BJB
is
shown
at plane
air.
In Fig. 137, a and
c,
where the
as lying in front of the surface ZZ, the
indicated by a dotted line, because it marks the

which the incident wave-front would have had
if the refracting surface had not been
interposed.
But
the waves travel faster in the rarer medium (air) than in
arc
is
position
the denser
medium
(glass); and,
consequently, the vertex
of the refracted wave-front instead of being at the point J
268
on the axis
will
be at a point
on
this line,
[100
and therefore
the position of the refracted wave-front at the moment

when the disturbance arrives at B will be represented by
the arc
on the
BKB
axis.
of a
If,
air to glass, that
whose center is at a point M'

waves are refracted from
n'>n the velocity v in the first me-
circle
for example, the

is,
if
it
269
101]
follows that
.KA = n.JA.
Now JA
and
KA
BJB and BKB,
are the sagittce ( 99) of the small arcs
and hence they are proporis, to l/JM and
respectively,
tional to the curvatures of these arcs, that
1/KM'.
If
the point
is
u
which
will
near to A,
infinitely
JM = AM = u, KM' = AM' = <-
we may put
and thus we obtain:
be recognized as the relation which
we found
for the refraction of paraxial rays at a plane surface (41).

face.
Here the same method
Fig. 138, a.
at a Spherical Surin the preced-
air to glass.
In each of the diagrams (Fig. 138,
ing section.
and
Wave
employed as
-Divergent spherical waves refracted at convex surface
from
e, f, g,
is
h) the circular arc
ZZ
a, b, c, d,
represents the trace in the
plane of the paper of a meridian section of the spherical

refracting surface with its vertex at
and center
at C.
The
convex in Fig. 138, a, b, c, and d and concave in

Fig. 138, e, f, g, and h. The point
on the axis is the center
of a system of spherical waves which are advancing in the
surface
is
first
medium,
In Fig. 138,
of index n,
a, c, e,
and
towards the refracting surface.
g the point
lies in
front of the re-
270
fracting surface, whereas in Fig. 138,

is
b, d, f,
101
and h
situated on the other side of the surface.
this point
The
points
101]
271
ance begins to affect the points B, B; the point where this

arc crosses the optical axis being designated
by
J.
272
supposed to be
The
less
highly refracting than the
[101
first
{n'<n).
center of curvature of the refracted waves will
lie
at
GLASS
Fig. 138,
/.
Convergent spherical waves refracted at concave

surface from air to glass.
a point
M' on
medium which
the axis, so that the wave-front in the second

passes through B,
will
be represented by
273
101]
BJB and BKB
shown by a dotted
is
line,
because, on ac-
count of the interposition of the refracting surface ZZ, the

part of one or the other of these wave-fronts which is comprised between B, B does not actually materialize; but this
circumstance does not in the least affect the geometrical
relations.
Thus, during the time the light takes to go in the
medium from
J to
Fig. 138,
second
from
(or
to J),
it will
first
travel in the
Convergent spherical waves refracted at

concave surface from glass to air.
h.
medium from
to
words, the optical lengths
AJ and
(or
from
to K).
In other
the axial line-segments
( 39) of
AK are equal, and therefore

n.AJ = n.AK.
how the position of the

we have only to lay off on the
may
This shows
point IVT
for
axis a piece
be found,
AK=-,AJ,
n
and to locate the point M' at the place where the perpendicular bisector of the chord
Draw
the chord
BDB
BK
intersects the optical axis.
crossing the optical axis at right
274
angles at the point
D;
then, evidently, since
AJ = AD+DJ = AD-JD,
we have:
Now
recalling
AE>AD+DK = AD-KD,
n(AD-JD) = n'(AD-KD).
the fact that the points B, B
to be very close to the vertex

surface,
and
and
[102
we remark that the
were assumed
of the spherical refracting
whose summits are at A, J
arcs
K are all very small; and hence the segments AD, JD

KD may be regarded as the sagittce of these arcs and
proportional to their curvatures

1/u',
respectively,
= KM',
where
we
viz.,
l/r,
and
1/u
u'
= AM'
Introducing these values in the
approximately.
equation above,
( 99),
= AC, w = AM = JM,
obtain the characteristic invariant re-
lation for the case of the
refraction of paraxial rays at a
spherical surface, viz.,
(i_lW(I_l,)
\r
in the
u)
same form as was found
\r
The
problem of
Fig. 139, a.
Wave
at a Spherical
Mir-
reflection at a spherical mirror
may
102. Reflection of a Spherical

ror.
in 78.
Divergent spherical waves reflected at convex mirror.
be investigated in the same way. In Fig. 139, a and b,

the arcs BAB, BJB and BKB represent the traces of the
mirror and of the wave-fronts of the incident and reflected
275
Spherical Mirror
102]
In the case of reflection the condition
waves, respectively.
evidently
is
KA = AJ,
because while the incident wave advances along the optical
axis through the distance
AJ
wave
or J A, the reflected
will
travel in the opposite direction through an equal distance
Fig. 139,
KA
or
b.
Divergent spherical waves reflected at concave mirror.
AK.
Therefore the center
may
M'
AK = JA
of the reflected wave

and locating the point
be found by
where the perpendicular bisector of the chord
laying off
KB
inter-
sects the axis.
KD
are to be reHere also the segments AD, JD and

garded as the measures of the curvatures of the small arcs
BAB, BJB and BKB,

fore, to
1/m
respectively,
and proportional, there-
the reciprocals of the radii of curvature,
and 1/V, where
in the limit
when the
viz.,
l/r,
= AC, u=AM=JM, u'=AM' = KM'
arcs are infinitely small.
Now
KD = KA+ AD = AJ+ AD = AD+DJ+ AD,
276
that
103
is,
JD+KD = 2AD;
hence, substituting the symbols u, v! and
r,
we
derive the
abscissa-formula for the reflection of paraxial rays at a

spherical mirror ( 64), viz.,
2+1 = 2
u
u
which
may
be expressed in words by saying that
ture of the mirror is the arithmetical
of the incident
that
and
reflected
mean
the curva-
of the curvatures
waves at the vertex of the mirror;
is,
2-'
where U=l/u, U' = l/u' denote the curvatures of the incident and reflected waves, and R = l/r denotes the curvature of the mirror. Thus, for example, if an incident plane
wave (U = 0) is advancing parallel to the axis of the mirror,
the curvature of the reflected wave will be twice that of
the mirror, and consequently, the center F of the reflected
wave-front will lie midway between the vertex A and the
center
of the mirror ( 69).
Of course, the condition KA = AJ might have been derived at once from the condition n.AJ = n'.XK, which was
found in 101, by putting in this equation n'=n, in accordance with the general rule given in 75.
103. Refraction of a Spherical Wave through an Infinitely Thin Lens.
Since, as has been shown ( 89), a
homocentric bundle of incident paraxial rays with its veron the axis of a thin lens is transformed
tex at a point
into a homocentric bundle of emergent rays with its vertex
at the conjugate point M',
we know
that
if
the waves are
spherical before traversing the lens, they will issue
from
it
as spherical waves, at least in the neighborhood of the axis.
Each of the diagrams (Fig. 140, a and b) represents a

meridian section of the lens which is convex in one figure
and concave in the other. As a matter of fact the lens is
Infinitely
103]
assumed to be
infinitely thin,
Thin Lens
277
and perhaps
it is
well to call
particular attention to this fundamental consideration, be-
by
shown very much
cause in the diagrams, in order to exhibit the relations
means
of the sagittce, the lens-thickness is
exaggerated.
Fig. 140,
a.
Divergent spherical waves refracted through thin convex
Take a point Bi on the

far from the vertex Ai of
object-point
first
surface of the lens not very
this surface,
and around the
M as center with radius equal to BiM
the circular arc BiJBi which
is
lens in the point designated
by
lens.
bisected
by the
axial
describe
axis of the
J; evidently, this arc will
represent the trace in the plane of the diagram of the wavefront of the incident
waves at the moment when the
dis-
turbance reaches Bi. Now the disturbance which is propagated onwards from Bi will proceed across the lens to a
point B2 on the second face of the lens, and since the lens
supposed to be infinitely thin, the distances of Bi, B 2

from the axis are to be regarded as equal, that is, DiBi =
D 2 B 2 where Di, D 2 designate the feet of the perpendiculars let fall from Bi, B 2 respectively, to the axis of the
lens.
If, therefore, around the point M' conjugate to
an arc B 2 KB 2 is described with radius equal to B 2 M', which
is bisected by the axis at the point designated by K, this
arc will represent the trace in the plane of the diagram of
the wave-front of the emergent waves at the same instant
is
278
[103
that the arc B1JB1 shows the wave-front of the incident
waves.
With M, M'
as centers
Fig. 140,
b.
and with any convenient
GH, SL
describe also the arcs
radii
intersecting the axis of the
Divergent spherical waves refracted through thin concave
lens.
S and meeting the straight lines BiM, B 2 M', in

H, L, respectively; so that these arcs represent, therefore,
successive positions of the wave-front before and after
transmission through the lens. Now the optical length of
the light-path from H to L is equal to that along the axis
of the lens from G to S ( 39); and, hence, if n, n' denote
the indices of refraction of the two media concerned, we
lens at G,
may
write
n.HBi+n
and
.B 1 B 2 +n.B 2 L = n.GAi+n
.AiA2+n.A 2 S;
since
n(MH+LM') =n(MG+SM0,
we obtain by
addition of these two equations
n(MB -fB 2 M )+n .B B 2 = n(MAi+A 2 M )+n .AiA

B B2 = D D
Now MBi = MJ,
B 2 M' = KM',
,
and therefore:
w(M J- M Ai+ KM - A 2 M') = n'(Af A 2 - DiD 2 )
2.
;
279
Reduced Distance
104]
Substituting in this equation the following expressions, viz.
MJ-MAi = AiM+MJ = AJ = AiDd-DiJ = A1D1-JD1,

KM'-A M' = KM'+M'A = KA = KD +D A
= KD -A D
AiA = AiDi+DiD +D A = AiDi+DiD -A D
2
we
2,
2,
obtain
n(AiDi-JD +KD 2 -A 2 D 2 )=n (AiDi-A 2 D 2 );

which may be put finally in the following form:
w(KD 2 -JDi) = (n'-n) (AiDi-A 2 D 2 ).
,
has been assumed here that the lens is surrounded by

the same medium (n) on both sides, but the same method
It
would lead to a more general formula

and final media were different.
Evidently, since the points Bi,
ces Ai,
2,
garded as the
B A B 2 B KB
2
B2
the segments A1D1, JDi,

sagittce
2,
for
and
initial
are very near the verti-
A D KD 2 may
2
2,
of the small arcs
respectively;
which the
be reB1A1B1, B1JB1,
since these arcs all
have
be
equal chords, the reciprocals of the radii of curvature
may
substituted in the equation above in place of the
sagittce.
Accordingly,
by n,
is
r2
and
the radii of the lens-surfaces are denoted
if
if
we put
AM = JM = w, A M = KM'=w'
/
permissible in this case,
we
as
derive immediately the fa-
miliar lens-formula for the refraction of paraxial rays ( 89),

viz.:
ul
r2 /
\ri
where / denotes the primary focal length

104.
of
Reduced Distance.
two points lying both
index n,
el
If P,
in the
of the lens.
designate the positions
same medium
of refractive
distinction has already been pointed out (see 39)
between the actual or absolute distance of these points from

each other and the so-called " optical length" of the segment PQ of the straight line joining these points, which
is
obtained by multiplying the absolute length by the index

medium, and which is equal therefore
to
n.PQ.
further distinction, due originally to Gauss,
280
104
to be made now by employing the term reduced distance

between P and Q to mean, not the product, but the quois
tient of the distance
PQ
in which the two points
tance from
the
medium
is
to
is
by the index of refraction of the
P and Q
lie;
equal to
PQ
glass of index 1.5,
that
is,
medium
the reduced dis-
Thus, for example,
and
if
the distance
if
PQ =
12 inches, the optical distance or equivalent light-path in

air will
be 18 inches, whereas the reduced distance
8 inches.
The reduced
thickness of a lens
is
will
= -,
n
be
where
d = AiA 2 denotes the distance of the second vertex A 2 of

the lens from the first vertex Ai and n denotes the index of
refraction of the lens-substance.
never
less,
The
and the reduced distance
the actual distance.
If
the
medium
is
optical distance is
never greater, than
is air
(n=l), the op-
and the reduced distance are both equal to

the absolute distance. Apparently, the first use of the term
"reduced distance" in this sense in English occurs in
Pendlebury's Lenses and systems of lenses, treated after
A distinct adthe manner of Gauss (Cambridge, 1884).
tical distance
vantage in the direction of simplification is usually gained

mathematical formulation by denoting a more or less
complex function by a single symbol; and modern optical
writers, notably Gullstrand and his disciples in Germany,
have recognized the convenience of this idea of " reduced
distance" and utilized it to express the relations between
in
object
and image in their simplest forms; as we

by several examples.
shall
show
presently
In this connection the attention of the student needs to

be called to a point which has been alluded to before (see
Although
8), but which is not always clearly understood.
two points P, Q may be situated physically in different
may be regarded as optically in the same meThus, any point which is on the prolongation, in
either direction, of the line-segment which represents the
media, they
dium.
Refracting Power
105]
281
medium, may,
be regarded as a point belonging
to the medium in question, no matter what may be its acNo better illustration of this
tual physical environment.
notion can be given than is afforded by considering the
actual path of a ray of light through a certain
and
in fact generally must,
on the axis of a spherical refracting surface.

F' lie always on opposite sides of the vertex A, but no matter whether the first focal point F is
on one side of A or on the other, it is to be considered
always as a point in the first medium; and, similarly,
the second focal point F' is to be considered always as
a point in the second medium, so that the reduced distance between F and F' is FA/n+AF'/n' both for a convergent and for a divergent system. The reduced focal lengths
focal points
The
points
F and
-f and .; so that the

n
n
f- - f
reduced distance of F' from F is equal to

n n
The boundary between two optical media is a "twilight
refracting surface are
of a spherical
^
zone," so to speak, which cannot be said properly to be-
long to either
medium; and hence
linear
magnitudes which
refer specifically to the interface or surface of separation
cannot be definitely assigned to one medium or the other.

This applies, for example, to the radius of curvature of a
mirror or of a refracting surface. Whether a surface which
separates air from glass
is
convex or concave, we have no
right to say that the radius of curvature lies in the air or

in the glass; and thus we never speak of the "reduced radius" of a reflecting or refracting surface.
105. The Refracting Power. In the w-form of the ab-
scissa-equation which gives the relation between a pair of con-
jugate points on the axis,
we
are concerned not so
much
with
with the abscissa,

as with the reciprocals of these magnitudes, which, as we
have seen, represent the curvatures of the surfaces of which
the linear magnitudes themselves, that
these abscissa? are the radii.
It is
is,
partly for this reason
282
that
many
105
teachers of geometrical optics regard the so-
method" of studying these problems as

both more natural and more direct than the "ray method."
There is certainly much to be said in its favor, but the truth
called " curvature
both methods have their advantages, and neither is to

be preferred to the other. The student who desires to have
more than a mere elementary knowledge of optics will find
is,
it
necessary to be acquainted with both points of view; and
when he has attained this position, he will realize that the

two methods are perfectly equivalent and that the distinction between them is more or less artificial.
But whether we have the so-called "curvature method"
in mind or not, it will evidently be a step in the direction of
simplifying the abscissae-formula if we introduce symbols
and thereby get rid of
Thus, instead of employing the re-
for the reciprocals of the abscissae,
the fractional forms.
duced focal length,
it will
be better to introduce a term for
the reciprocal of this magnitude.

ing power of an optical system
is
Accordingly, the refractdefined to be the reciprocal
These reciprocal magby capital italic letters. For expower of an optical system will be de-
of the reduced primary focal length.
nitudes will be denoted
ample, the refracting
noted by F; that
The
79)
refracting
is,
according to the above definition:
power
of a spherical refracting surface (see
is:
F = - =~j, = (n'-n)R,
f
where
R=-
denotes the curvature of the surface.
If
the
r
first
medium
is air
(n = l), then
F=j.
of a spherical refracting surface
the curvature of the surface.
is
The
refracting
power
directly proportional to
Refracting Power
105]
The
is
reflecting
defined in the
283
f
power of a spherical mirror {n
same way,
= n,
/'=/)
viz.,
F = - = -2n.R,
where n denotes the index of refraction of the medium in
Thus, although the position of the
front of the mirror.
focal point (F) and the magnitude of the focal length (/) of
a curved mirror will not be altered by changing the medium
in front of the mirror, its reflecting power will be affected;
and this will be the case whether the mirror is concave or
convex.
If
the focal length of a mirror
is
8, its reflecting
power will be one-eighth when the mirror is in contact with

air (n=l), but it will be raised to one-sixth if the medium
in front of the mirror is
water (n = 4)
lens surrounded by the same
The refracting power of a

medium (ri) on both sides is
F = ^=-^
/''
f
If
the curvatures of the two faces of an infinitely thin lens
are denoted
by Ri and
Ri =
2)
that
if
is,
R =
2
r2
ri
then
F=(n'-n) (Ri-R 2 ),
where n' denotes the index of refraction of the lens-substance
and n denotes the index of refraction of the surrounding
medium. If either one of these media is changed, other
things remaining the same, the refracting power of the lens
will be altered.
If F\, F 2 denote the refracting powers of the two surfaces
of a lens, then
F = (n-n')R
F^tn'-^Ri,
and
in place of the preceding equation
F=F
and thus
it
+F
we may
2,
write
appears that the refracting power of an infinitely
284
thin lens is equal to the algebraic
sum
106
of the refracting powers
of the lens-surfaces.
The
power
refracting
a lens depends, therefore, on
of
the curvatures of both faces, but evidently a lens of given

material and of prescribed refracting power
construction
is,
that
One
forms.
different
is,
is
of
"bend" a
to
may have
very
the minor problems of optical

as the technicab phrase
lens,
being given the curvature of one face of the lens,
to find the curvature of the other face so that the refracting
power
may have
of the lens
the magnitudes denoted

the curvature of the
first
a given value.
by
face
media are
different
and
If,
for
example
are assigned,
must be
Ri = R 2 -\If the
n, n' ,
on
F
n
the
two sides of the
and
lens,
if
the indices of refraction of the three media in the order in
which they are traversed by the
and n 3 we
fracting power
of
F=
n<t
J=
light are
denoted by
n\,
find easily the following formula for the re-
an
=(n 2 -n 1 )R 1 +(n 3 -n 2 )R 2 = F l +F 2
J,
where the symbols have precisely the same meanings as

before.
It will
be seen from these examples that one
troducing the term refracting power
effect of in-
a simplification in
consequence of the fact that the two magnitudes denoted
by / and /' are now expressed in terms of a single magnitude F.
106.
is
Reduced Abscissa and Reduced " Vergence
".
The
reduced abscissae of a pair of conjugate axial points M, M'

are defined in exactly the same way as the reduced focal
is to be regarded alThe point designated by

ways as lying in the first medium of the system, and, similarly, the point designated by M' is to be regarded as lying
in the last medium, entirely irrespective of the question as
lengths.
106]
Reduced Abscissa and Reduced "Vergence" 285
to whether either of these points
is
"real" or "virtual,"
as explained in 104.
By way
of illustration, suppose that the optical
system
consists of a single spherical refracting surface separating
two media
is
n and
ef indices
n'
the origin of abscissae
If
taken at the vertex A, so that w = AM, w' = AM', then
the reduced abscissae will be -,
The
reciprocals of these
n' n'
magnitudes, denoted by U, U' are called the reduced "ver-
A; thus,
gences," with respect to the point
U=-,
U'=-,.
u
These functions U, U' are the measures of the convergence

or divergence of the bundles of object-rays and image-rays;
and in this illustration these magnitudes are evidently proportional to the curvatures of the incident and refracted
wave-fronts at the instant
when the disturbance
at the surface of separation of the
Since
surface
arrives
two media.
79) the abscissa-formula for a spherical refracting
may
be written in the form
_n
u~u~f'
this relation
may now
be expressed in the elegant and con-
venient form:
U'=U+F.
This same formula holds in the case of a spherical mirror,
in
U = n/u'
f
which case
',
fraction of the
medium
where n denotes the index of
Moreover, the same formula U'=U-\-F
found to be
is
applicable to the case of an infinitely thin lens.

is
surrounded by the same medium
we must put
U = n/u,
If
(ni),
then
medium
U = ni/u,
the lens
on both sides, then

U' = n/u' and F = n/f, where n' de(n)
notes the index of refraction of the lens-substance.

case the last
re-
in front of the mirror.
(w 3 )
is
different
U' = ns/u', and
from the
F = n\jf.
first
Or
in
medium
In both cases
the formula will be found to be identical in form with that
Mirrors, Prisms
286
we
and Lenses
107
Chapter X, the
and applicable to
any optical instrument which is symmetrical about an axis.
The advantage of a single formula which has such wide apgiven above.
In fact, as
formula U'=U-\-F
is
plicability is obvious.
shall see in
perfectly general
remember* that
It is easy to
the re-
(W) on the image-side of the instrument is

algebraic sum of the reduced vergence (U) on the
duced vergence
equal
to the
object-side
If
that
and
the refracting
power (F)
the abscissas are measured from the focal points F, F',

is, if
we put z = FM, x
X = x-,
--=F
X' =
r
,
the magnitudes
-'
are called the reduced focal point vergences; and the relation
between X, X'
is
by the equation
expressed
X-X'=-F\
107. The Dioptry as Unit of Curvature.

Obviously, the
magnitudes which have been denoted above by capital
italic letters, since they are all equal or proportional to
the reciprocals of certain linear magnitudes, are essentially
measures of curvature, and hence they must be described or

expressed in terms of some unit of curvature, which will itself
be dependent on the unit of length. Opticians guided by
purely practical considerations were the
first
to recognize
the need of a suitable optical unit for this purpose.

unit of curvature which
spectacle optics
and more
is
and which
now almost
is
The
universally used in
coming to be employed more
in all other branches of optics is the curvature
an arc whose radius of curvature is one meter. To this

name dioptry* has been given. Originally, the
of
unit the
suggested by Monoyer of France

LXV1II, 111), being derived from
the Greek tcl o\o7rrpi/<a, whence came also the term "dioptrics"
which was formerly much used by scientific writers as applying to the
phenomena of refraction, especially through lenses. The word is
generally written dioptre in French and Dioptrie in German. Etymologically, the correct English form would appear to be dioptry, and
this spelling has been adopted by the American translators of both
*
The name "dioptrie" was
first
in 1872 (see Annates d'oculistique,
287
Dioptry
107]
dioptry was defined as the refracting power of a lens in air
Consequently, a lens whose focal
of focal length one meter.
length was 50 cm. or half a meter would have a refracting

lens of focal length 2 meters
power of 2 dptr., whereas another

would have a refracting power
of
its
power
refracting
will
by
be 100// dptr.
we have
In general,
\ dptr.
the focal length of a lens surrounded
air is
if
/ centimeters,
But according
to
a unit
not of refracting power only but of any similar magnitude
Thus, for example, if the
of the nature of a curvature.
the definition which
given, the dioptry
is
radius of a mirror or of a spherical refracting surface
a meter,
curvature
its
is
2 dptr.
If
is
half
the distances denoted
the magnitudes
f> r u x etc., are expressed in meters,
denoted by the corresponding capital letters F, R, U, X,
Dr. Drysdale has suggested
etc., will be in dioptries.
that we introduce also the convenient terms millidioptry
by
(
(
>
= 0.001
= 1000
dptr.), Hectodioptry
dptr.)
corresponding,
= 100
dptr.)
and Kilodioptry
respectively,
to
the
meter, centimeter and millimeter as units of length.
Kilo-
Thus,
the refracting power of a lens of focal length 10 cm. might

be variously described as equal to 100 millidioptries, to
10 dioptries, to 0.1 Hectodioptry or to 0.01 Kilodioptry.
But these terms have not come

If
its
into general use.
the focal length of a lens in water (n = 1.3)
refracting
power
will
is
13 cm.,
be the same as that of a lens in
air (n
= l)
mary
focal point of a spherical refracting surface is situated
of focal length 10 cm., viz., 10 dptr.
If
the pri-
Landolt's and Tscherning's books on physiological optics; notwithstanding the fact that the word is usually spelled and pronounced
dioptre in England and diopter in America. Dr. Crew in his well known
text-book of physics writes dioptric. The author has concluded that
on the whole it is best to adopt the spelling used in the text.
The usual abbreviation

is liable
of dioptry is
a capital D.; but as this letter
to be confused with the symbols of magnitude employed in the
formulae,
it
seems preferable to follow the usage of Von Rohr and

who have adopted the abbreviation
other modern writers on optics

dptr.,
although doubtless
many
will object to this long form.
Mirrors,
288
(optically) in air
and Prisms Lenses
108
(n=l) at a distance of 1 meter from the

power of the surface will be 1 dptr.
vertex, the refracting
and the radius of the surface will be equal to (n 1) meters,

where ,nf denotes the index of refraction of the second mef
dium.
If
reflecting
the radius of curvature of a mirror
power
will
be 4 dptr.
in contact with air (n =
if
is
50 cm.,
the reflecting surface
its
is
but it will be 5^ dptr. if the

(w =--) These examples
water
in
contact
with
is
surface
term dioptry is used.
how
the
illustrate
merely
to
are given
108.
Lens-Gauge
described in
99
l),
The
is
dial of the opticians'
lens-gauge
usually graduated so as to give in di-
power of the surface which is measured.

power
of a spherical refracting surface is
The refracting
as we have seen ( 105), but
curvature,
proportional to its
indices
of refraction of the two
the
it is dependent also on
air
and if the index of reis
medium
media. If the first
by n, then F =
is
denoted
medium
fraction of the second
R, and
curvature
the
measures
actually
(nl)R. The gauge
mulof
R
values
the
correspond
to
the readings on the dial
of
the
refractreadings
Direct
tiplied by the factor (n 1).
ing power (F) imply, therefore, that the maker has assumed
a certain value of the index of refraction n; and if the actual
value of n is different from this assumed value, the readings
The value of n assumed by the maker is a
will be erroneous.
constant of the instrument, which should be marked on it,
although it may easily be determined empirically by comoptries the refracting
paring the readings with the determination of the curvature

as obtained with an ordinary spherometer.
Suppose that this constant is denoted by c, and that we

wish to use the gauge to measure the refracting power (F)
of a lens of negligible thickness
made
of glass of index n.
the refracting powers of the two

denoted by F\ and F 2 and the curvatures by Rx and R 2
{n-l)R 2} the
then F = Fi+F 2 where Fi = (n-l)R h F 2 =
necessary
being
expression
last
minus sign in front of the
If
surfaces of the lens are

,
because the refraction in this case takes place from glass
Lens-System
109]
to
But
air.
if
of Negligible
the constant
Thickness
289
has a value different from n,
the readings of the instrument for the two faces of the lens
F h F 2 of the refracting powers.

F2 so that
iY = {c-\)Ri,F 2 '=-{c-l)R 2 Then evidently
^2
t\
7^1>
7^2,
will not give the correct values
Suppose the readings are denoted by Fi,
c-
and hence
F=~
(Fi'+ftO.
c
1
The gauge-readings must be
multiplied therefore
by the
factor
n-1
c.-l
in order to obtain the correct values of the refracting powers.
Suppose, for example, that the graduations on the dial cor-
respond to a value c=1.54 and that the index of the lens

Then the value of the factor
to be measured is n=1.52.
is
0.963; so that
the lens-gauge gives for the refracting
if
power F the value 6.25 dptr., the correct value is obtained

by multiplying this value by 0.963, that is, the correct
value
will
be 6.02 dptr.
System.
Let
Rays through a Thin Lens-
Mi' designate the position of a point conju-
gate to an axial object-point with respect to an infinitely

thin lens of refracting power F\,
and
the axis crosses the lens be designated

is
surrounded by
tfi
= l/wi,
tfi'
air,
and
if
we put
let
by
the point where

If
the lens
Wi = AiMi, wi'
= AiMi',
Ai.
= l/wi',
then
/i'=7i+Fi.
on the axis of the lens beyond Ai (such
that the distance d = AiA 2 is measured in the direction in
which the light is going) another infinitely thin lens is set
If
now
at a point
up with
first lens,
A2
its axis in
then Mi'
the same straight line with that of the
may
be regarded as an axial object-point
290
with respect to the second lens; and
the position of the point conjugate to
if
'
designates
(or Mi')
109
with re-
spect to this lens, then also (supposing that the second lens
is
surrounded by
by
air
and that
refracting
its
power
is
denoted
F 2 ),
U = U2+F
UJ = 1/1*2', w = A M = A M/,
'
where
7 2
= l/w 2
2,
Obviously, the point
'
is
Mi
the axial object-point
Now
= A2M 2
'.
the image-point conjugate to
we may
write
M, M'
and U, U' in place of Ui, U2, respectively.

us impose the condition that the two thin lenses
Mi,
let
w' 2
with respect to the two lenses;
so that regarding the system as a whole,

in place of
'
are in contact with each other or that they are as close together
as possible; in other words, that the axial distance d
the lenses
is
negligible.
If this is
between
the case, the points Ai,
A2
are to be regarded as a pair of coincident points, and hence
w=u
2]
and, therefore,
we may
write
now
UJ = U+FU
Eliminating Ui',
we
U'=Ui'+F2
obtain
UÛ+^+Ft);
and
if
we put
F=F +F
we have
finally:
U'=U+F.
Since this formula
is
seen to be identical in both form and
for a single thin lens, it appears

combination
therefore that a
of two thin coaxial lenses in
lens
single
contact is equivalent to a
of refracting power F equal
meaning with the formula
to-
the algebraic
component
sum
of the refracting powers
F\ and
F2
of the
lenses.
Theoretically, this rule can be applied to a centered system
any number of thin lenses in contact. Thus, the total

fracting power of a thin lens-system will be
of
F=Fl +F2 +
+Fm
re-
Prismatic Power of Thin Lens
110]
where the total number of lenses

may be written
i=m
is
291
denoted by m.
This
formula
F= 2 Pit
where F\ denotes the refracting power of the
ith. lens.
In the case of actual lenses placed together in this fashion

it
will
always be a question,
How
far are
we
neglecting the total thickness of the system?
justified in
Two
adjacent
be placed in actual contact, but a third lens canMoreover, even when
not be in contact with the first.
there are only two lenses, their outward forms may be such
lenses
that
may
it will
not be possible to place them in tangential con-
tact at their vertices, although they can always be
made
to touch at two points symmetrically situated with respect

to their
common
Attention
axis.
is
tion chiefly in connection with the

tion of lenses
which
of spectacle glasses.
is
directed to this ques-
method
of neutraliza-
practiced extensively in the fitting
Two
infinitely thin lenses of equal
and
opposite refracting powers are said to "neutralize" each

other, because
refracting
when they
power (F1+F2)
ing, the neutralization of
are placed in contact their total

is
equal to zero.
Strictly speak-
a negative glass by a positive glass
implies not only that the focal lengths are equal in magnitude but also that the primary focal point of one lens shall
coincide with the secondary focal point of the other. Both
of these conditions are realized in a combination of a planoconcave with a plano-convex lens fitted together so as to form
a slab with plane parallel sides. But even with the relatively
thin lenses employed in spectacles sensible errors may be
introduced by assuming, as
dition
Fi+F =
2
is
is
usually done, that the con-
the -sole or even the main consideration
for neutralization.
110. Prismatic
Power
of a
88)
Only such rays

emerge from a lens
Thin Lens.
as go through the optical center
without being deviated from their original directions.
The
prismatic power of a thin lens, which, like the power of a
292
Mirrors, Prisms
Fig. 141, a and
b.
Prismatic power
(b)
and Lenses
of infinitely thin lens,
Concave
[110
(a)
Convex,
lens.
thin prism ( 70), is measured by the deviation of a ray in

passing through it, depends not only on the refracting power
but also on the place where the ray enters the

In the accompanying diagram (Fig. 141, a and b)
of the lens
lens.
Prismatic Power of Thin Lens
110]
the point
fracting
293
designates the axial point of a thin lens of re-
power F.
ray
RB
out in the direction BS.
incident on the lens at
If
M, M'
passes
designate the points
where the incident and emergent rays cross the axis, then
ZM'BM= e is the angle of deviation; and if = Z AMB denotes the slope of the incident ray and 0' = Z AM'B denotes
the slope of the emergent ray, evidently we have the relation:
e= 0The distance
/i
= AB
$'.
of the incidence-point
from the axis
of the lens or the incidence-height of the ray is called
the spectacle-makers the decentration of the lens.
by
Since
is always comparabe regarded as a paraxial

ray, and hence we can put 6 and 6' in place of tan0 and
the decentration of an ophthalmic lens

tively small, the ray
RB may
tan#' and write:
$'=-- = -h.U',
6=--=-h.U,
where u = AM, m' = AM', U=l/u, U' = 1/u', since the lens
Accordingly,
is supposed to be surrounded by air (n=l).
e
the deviation-angle
v! are all
= h(U'-U),
being expressed in radians
if h,
expressed in terms of the same linear unit.
u and
But
U'-U=F;
and hence
e
= h.F
radians.
In this formula the decentration h must be expressed in
The
if the refracting power F is given in dioptries.
above relation may be derived immediately also from
Fig. 142, where the incident ray RB is drawn parallel to
the axis of the lens, so that in this case 6'
e = 0; and
meters
since tan 6'
h.F.
6'
= =rr-r =
F'A
-tt,
/'
= t = h.F. we
obtain, as above,
If a screen is placed perpendicular to the incident

coming in the direction RB, a spot of light will be produced on the screen at the point N where the straight line
e
light
294
[110
RB
meets the screen; and if now a lens is interposed at a

certain known distance from the screen, the deviation e can
easily be determined by measuring the distance NL through
which the spot of light is deflected.

However, both the radian and the meter are inconveniently large units for expressing the values of the small
mag-
Fig.
142.
Prismatic
power
of infinitely thin lens; incident
ray parallel
to axis.
by e and h. Opticians measure the deviaterms of the centrad or in terms of the prism-dioptry,
which in the case of small angles, as we have seen ( 70),
nitudes denoted
tion in
is
same unit
practically the
as the centrad.
If
the angle
of deviation expressed in centrads or prism-dioptries is denoted by p, while e denotes the value of this angle in ra-
dians, then
Moreover,
if
p = 100
the decentration h
is
stead of in meters,
we
given in centimeters in-
obtain the following formula:
p = h.F;
that is, the deviation (p) in prism-dioptries (or centrads) produced by a thin lens in any zone is equal to the product of the
refracting power (F) of the lens in dioptries by the radius (h)
of the zone in centimeters; or as the opticians usually express
it,
the prismatic
power of a thin lens in prism-dioptries
is
Problems
Ch. VIII]
295
equal to the product of the refracting power of the lens in
by the decentration in centimeters. For example,

a spectacle glass of refracting power 5 dptr. must be decentered about 0.4 cm. or 4 mm. in order to have a prisdioptries
matic power of 2 prism-dptr.

If in Fig. 142 the distance
is
meter, the deflection
AP
LN
of the screen
from the lens
in centimeters of the spot of
be equal to the prismatic power of a lens of focal

by the amount /i = AB.
light will
length /= AF' decentered
PROBLEMS
1.
How
is
the curvature of a
How
wave
affected
by
reflection
wave
by reflection at a spherical mirror?
The distance between a luminous point and the eye
at a plane mirror?
is
the curvature of a plane
affected
2.
an observer
of
is
50 cm.
plate of glass (n=1.5), 10 cm.
midway between
the point and the eye

two parallel faces perpendicular to the line of vision.
Spherical waves spreading out from the luminous point
are refracted through the plate and into the eye. Find the
thick,
with
is
interposed
its
curvature of the wave-front:

glass,
(6)
immediately
(a)
mediately after leaving the
just before
entering
after
glass,
and
the
(d)
enters the
it
glass,
when
it
(c)
im-
reaches
the eye.
Ans.
-2|
3.
(a)
-5
dptr.;
(6)
3|
dptr.;
(c)-3|
What
is
from
glass
= 1.5)?
Ans.
is
(d)
the refracting power of a spherical refracting
surface of radius 20 cm. separating air (n = l)

(n'
dptr.;
dptr.
+2.5
dptr. or
2.5
dptr., according as the surface
convex or concave, respectively.

4.
If
the cornea of the eye
is
regarded as a single spheri-
mm. separating
= 1.336), what is its
(n=l)
cal refracting surface of radius 7.7
air
from the aqueous humor

power?
refracting
(n'
Ans. 43.6 dptr.
296
[Ch. VIII
Using the data of the preceding problem, find the repower of the cornea when the eye is under water
Ans. Nearly 0.78 dptr.
(n = 1.33).
6. What is the reflecting power of a concave mirror of
radius 20 cm. when the reflecting surface is in contact with
(a) air (n=l) and (6) water (n=-J)?
5.
fracting
Ans.
air
10 dptr.;
(b)
13.33 dptr.
convex spherical surface of radius 25 cm. separates

(n=l) from glass (V = 1.5). Find the refracting power
and the
reflecting
power
of the surface.
Ans. Refracting power
-8
(a)
7.
is
+2
power
dptr.; reflecting
is
dptr.
The
reflecting
air is
+2 dptr.
8.
with
power of a spherical mirror in contact

Determine the form of the mirror.
Ans.
9.
spherical mirror
fractive index n.
+2 dptr.,
If
A concave mirror of radius

is
in contact
meter.
with a liquid of re-
the reflecting power of the mirror
show that the mirror
is
a concave mirror of radius
is
n meters.
10.
What
The index
is
of refraction of
carbon bisulphide
Ans. +13.032 dptr.
25 cm. in contact with this liquid?

11.
What
is
the refracting power of a thin symmetric
convex lens made of glass of index

is 5 cm.?
1.5, if
the radius of cur-
Ans.
vature of each surface

12.
made
The
refracting
power
of
of glass of index 1.5 is
+20 dptr.
a thin plano-convex lens
20 dptr.
Find the radius of
Ans. 2.5 cm. or nearly
the curved surface.

13.
1.629.
is
the reflecting power of a concave mirror of radius
thin convex meniscus lens
is
made
inch.
of glass of in-
dex 1.5. The radius of the first surface is 10 and that of the
second surface is 25 cm. Assuming that the lens is surrounded by air (n= 1), find its refracting power.
Ans.
14. If
the lens in the preceding example were
water of index
~,
what
will
be
its
+3
dptr.
made
of
refracting power?
Ans.
+2 dptr.
Problems
Ch. VIII]
15.
the
If
first
with
surface of the lens in No. 13 were in con-
= |) and
= 1), what will be
tact with water

air (n 3
297
(fti
the second surface in contact

the refracting power?
Ans.
the
16. If
first
tact with air (fti=l)
water (n 3 = 4), what
dptr.
and the second surface in contact with

be the refracting power?
will
+4^
Ans.
17.
surface of the lens in No. 13 were in con-
dptr.
In examples 13, 14, 15 and 16 suppose the lens were
reversed so that the opposite face was turned to the inci-
dent
What would be
light.
the answers to these problems
then?
Ans.
and
14;
The same answers would be obtained
for Nos. 13
but the answers for Nos. 15 and 16 would be inter-
changed.
18.
Show
that the lateral magnification in a spherical
mirror, a spherical refracting surface or an infinitely thin lens

and U'.
is equal to the ratio of the reduced " vergences "
19.
Describe the spherometer and the lens-gauge and
explain their principles.

20.
Show how a
plane wave
is
and derive from a diagram
lens,
refracted through a thin

for this case the formula
for the refracting power.

21.
Show how a
plane wave
is
refracted through a thin
prism, and derive the formula for the deviation in terms of
the refracting angle of the prism and the relative index of

refraction.
The
made of
22.
is
If
refracting
power
of a thin lens
is
+6
dptr.
It
and surrounded by air (w=l).

surface is +10 cm., what is the
glass of index 1.5
the radius of the
first
= 50
cm.
convex lens produces on a screen 14.4 cm. from
the lens an image which is three times as large as the object.
Find the refracting power of the lens.
Ans. 27.78 dptr.
radius of the second surface?
23.
24.
dex
Ans.
r2
lens-gauge graduated in dioptries for glass of in-
1.5 is
used to measure a thin double convex lens
made
and Lenses
Mirrors, Prisms
298
[Ch. VIII
The readings on the dial give +4 for

Find the refracting power of the lens, assum-
both surfaces.
ing that
25.
its
thickness
Modern
is
Ans. +9.6 dptr.
negligible.
spectacle
glasses
are meniscus lenses with
the concave surface worn next the eye.

give the proper correction,
it is
If
the glass
very important for
it
is
adjusted at a certain measured distance from the eye.
determining this distance

" vertex
depth"
dicular distance
it
is
of the vertex
or contour of the surface.
expressed in millimeters
is
If
In
necessary to ascertain the
of the concave surface, that

(t)
to
to be
is,
from the plane
the perpenof the edge
the diameter of this contour
denoted by 2h, and
if
the refract-
ing power of the surface next the eye, expressed in dioptries,
denoted by F2 and, finally, if the index of refraction of

is denoted by n, show that the vertex depth of the
surface is approximately:
is
the glass
26.
What
lent to
is
= _ 0.0005 -^4 millimeters.

n1
the refracting power of a lem which
two thin convex
lenses of focal lengths 15
equiva-
is
and 30 cm.,
Ans. 10 dptr.
placed in contact?
concave lens of focal length 12 cm. is placed in

Find
contact with a convex lens of focal length 7.5 cm.
Ans. 5 dptr.
the refracting power of the combination.
28. The refracting power of a thin concave lens is 5 times
27.
that of a thin convex lens in contact with
length of the combination

of each of the
29.
Two
is
components.
thin lenses,
it.
If
made
15 and +3 dptr.
Ans.
of glass of indices 1.5
are fitted together with the second surface of the
coincident with the
The
first
the focal
8 cm., find the refracting power
surface of the second lens
and
1.6,
first
lens
(rz
= r 2 ).
and equal to 4, 11
Find the refracting
radii of the surfaces are all positive
and 6 cm. taken in the order named.

power of the combination.
30.
What is the
Ans. 12.5 dptr.
prismatic effect of a lens of power
decentered 0.75 cm.?
+4 dptr.
Ans. 3 prism-dioptries.
Problems
Ch. VIII]
299
Two
thin convex lenses have each a focal length of

Find
the position of the second focal point of the
1 inch.
these two lenses when they are placed with
of
combination
their axes in the same straight line: (a) when they are in
31.
when they are separated by 1.5 inches, and

when they are separated by 3 inches. Draw a diagram
each case showing the path of a beam of light coming
contact, (b)
(c)
for
from a distant
Ans.
(a)
axial object-point.
Half an inch beyond the combination;
(b)
be-
tween the lenses and 1 inch from second lens; (c) 2 inches
beyond second lens.
32. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm. and a concave
lens of focal length 5 cm. are placed 16 cm. apart. Find the
positions of the focal points of the combination.
Ans. One of the focal points is 420 cm. from the convex
and 436 cm. from the concave lens; and the other focal
lens
point
is
concave
33.
36 cm. from the convex lens and 20 cm. from the

lens.
How much
must a
lens of 5 dptr. be decentered in
order to produce a deviation of 3

34.
The
307
radius of a spherical surface
Ans. 1.22 cm.

is
spherometer and found to be 14.857 cm.

lens-gauge the reading
is
fraction of the glass for
3.5 dptr.
What
is
measured by a
Measured by a
the index of re-
which the readings on the
dial of the
Ans. 1.52.
gauge have been calculated?
35. The radii of each surface of a thin symmetric double
convex glass lens is 6 inches. The lens is supported with
its lower face in contact with the horizontal surface of still
water.
Assuming that the sun is in the zenith vertically
above the lens, and that its apparent diameter is 30', find
the position and size of the sun's image. (Take the indices
of refraction of air, glass
and water equal to
1,
f and
f,
respectively.)
Ans.
A real image
12 inches below the surface of the water,
0.0785 inch in diameter.
CHAPTER IX
ASTIGMATIC LENSES
and Refracting Power of a Normal SecCurved Refracting Surface. The refracting power
111. Curvature
tion of a
(F) of a spherical surface
(R) of the surface, that
is
is,
proportional to the curvature
F=(?i'ri)R, where n and n'
denote the indices of refraction of the media on opposite

sides of the surface ( 105).
A spherical surface has the
same curvature
power
fracting
in
is
every meridian, and hence also
its re-
uniform, so that the refracted rays in
one meridian plane are brought to the same focus as those

But the surfaces of a lens are
in another meridian plane.
( 87), and therefore, in order to ascerwhat happens when a narrow bundle of rays is incident perpendicularly on a curved reflecting or refracting
surface of any form, we must investigate the reflecting or
refracting power in different sections of the surface; and
this means that we must investigate the curvature of these
sections.
In general, this is a problem of some difficulty
and involves a more or less extensive knowledge of the
theory of curved surfaces and the methods of infinitesimal
not always spherical

tain
No attempt can be made to explain this theory

but for the student who is not already familiar with
it, certain general definitions and propositions of geometry
which have a direct bearing on the optical problems to be
geometry.
here,
treated in this chapter will be stated as succinctly as possible.
The normal to a curved surface at any point is a straight

drawn perpendicular to the tangent plane at that point.
The curved line which is traced on the surface by a plane
line
containing the normal at a point

300
of the surface
is
called
111]
Normal Sections
of
Curved Surface
301
The normal sections

a normal section through this point.
of a sphere, like the meridians of longitude of the earth (assumed to be a perfect sphere), are all great circles of the
sphere,
Fig. 143.
and
their
curvatures are equal.
Normal
sections of curved surface:

principal sections; xAP plane of oblique
But, generally,
xAy and xAz planes

normal
of
section.
the curvatures of the normal sections through a point on
a curved surface will vary from one section to the next; so

that if we imagine a plane containing the normal to be turned
around this line as axis, we shall find that for one special
azimuth of this revolving plane the curved line which it
carves out on the surface will have the greatest curvature,
and that then as the plane continues to revolve the curvature of the section decreases and reaches its least value for
an azimuth which is exactly 90 from that for which the
curvature was greatest.
Thus, for example, in a cylindri-
cal surface the curvature at
any point
zero in a normal section whose plane

of the cylinder,
and
it is
is
is
least
and equal to
parallel to the axis
greatest in a normal section
made
302
by a plane perpendicular
[111
At each point
to the axis.
of a
curved surface the normal sections of greatest and least curvatures
always in two perpendicular planes, which are called
lie
The
the planes of the principal sections of the surface at A.

lines of intersection
of these planes with each other
with the tangent plane at

of reference of a
A may
system of rectangular coordinates
Ax
and
be chosen as the axes

x, y, z
The centers of
curvature of the principal sections made by the xy-plsme
and the 2-plane will be designated by C y and C z respecwhose x-axis
is
the normal
(Fig.
143).
and the curvatures of the principal sections will be

denoted by Ry and R z so that if ry = AC y and rz = AC z
tively;
denote the principal radii of curvature of the surface at

point A,
the
Now
we must have
here
Ry = l/ry
99)
and
R2
a remarkable geometrical relation between

A and the curvatures
of the principal sections of the surface at this point which
will be stated also without giving the proof.
Let a plane
containing the normal Ax intersect the tangent plane (or
2/2-plane) in the straight line AP (Fig. 143) and put ZyAP
= 0. The center of curvature of the normal section made
by this plane lies also on the normal Ax at a point which
may be designated as Gg, so that the radius of curvature
there
is
the curvature of any normal section at
is
ACo = re, and
itself is He=lfro.
The conRe and the principal curvatures Ry and
expressed by the following formula:
Re = R y .cos 2 d+R z .sm 2 0,
the curvature
nection between
Rz
is
where
denotes the angle which the normal section makes
with the xy-pl&ne.

In a normal section at right angles to the
first
we should
have, therefore,
Re+w = Ry .cos 0+9O)+#

2
or, since
cos( (9+90)
= - sin 0,
.sin
sin(
2
(
(9+90),
0+90) =cos
2
2
#0+9O = -R y .sin 0+# z cos 0.
0,
Normal
ill]
Curved Surface
Sections of
Adding the curvatures Re and
we
Rd+<d0,
303
obtain the rela-
tion:
Rd+Re+9o=Ry+R
that
the algebraic
is,
sum
z;
of the curvatures of
any two normal
sections intersecting each other at right angles at
a curved surface has a constant value, which
sum
algebraic
is
a point on
equal
to the
of the principal curvatures at this point.
These theorems concerning the curvatures
of the
normal
sections at a point of a curved surface are due to the great
mathematician Euler (1707-1783), who made notable contributions also to the theory of optics.
Since, therefore, the curvature of a surface at the point
from one azimuth to another as has just been explained, the power of a refracting surface will vary in
exactly the same way. Accordingly, the principal sections
for which the curvature of a refracting surface has its greatest and least values (R y R z ) are also the sections at this
place of greatest and least refracting powers (Fy ,Fz ), because
Fy = (n'-n)R y
Fy =(n'-ri)R z
The refracting power at this place in an oblique normal
section which is inclined to the xy-plsaie at an angle 6 will be
varies
Fd={n ~n)Re;
and the
relation
Fy Fz
between Fe and
given by the
is
formula:
F0 = Fy .cos 2
0+F
z .sin
0;
and moreover:
Fe+Fe+90o =Fy +Fz;

that
is,
normal
the algebraic
sum
sections through
face is constant
of the refracting powers in
any two
a point on a curved refracting sur-
and equal
to the algebraic
sum
of the princi-
pal refracting powers.
For example,
in Fig.
144, let
designate a point of a
curved refracting surface, and

be represented by the straight
let
the normal at this point
line
Ax, which in accordance
with the preceding discussion
is
of a
to be taken as the z-axis
system of rectangular coordinates with
its origin
at A.
304
The
y-Sixis is
[111
represented by a straight line drawn in the
The plane of the

paper represents the plane of one of the principal sections,
plane of the paper perpendicular to Ax.
whereas the 2-plane at right angles to this plane represents
Chief ray of narrow bundle of rays normal to curved reFig. 144.

fracting surface: Principal sections xAy, xkz; tangent plane ykz.
The tangent-plane
the plane of the other principal section.

at
is
represented
by the
2/2-plane perpendicular to the
now a narrow bundle
of rays which proon the normal are incident on the

curved refracting surface at points which are all very close
may be designated also by y or by
to A. This point
z according as it is regarded as lying in the one or the other
of the two principal sections; or it may be designated also
by Me if it is to be considered as lying in an oblique normal
The
section which is inclined to the ^-plane at an angle 6.
chief ray of the bundle is the ray which coincides with the
normal to the surface at A and which proceeds therefore
into the second medium without being deviated. A plane
containing this chief ray will cut out from the bundle a pencil of rays which will be refracted at points of the surface
which lie in a normal section. The pencil of rays proceed',
ing from
y
y in the xy-pleme will be refracted to a point
while the pencil of rays proceeding from
z will be refracted
'
'; and, in general, these points
to a point
z
y and M/ will
'
be two different points on the normal Ax. Now if Uyt Uy
denote the reduced "vergences" ( 106) of the pair of conju-
normal.
Consider
ceeding from a point
gate points
if
U U
z
305
Surfaces of Revolution
112]
M My
in
M M
jugate points
dently
'
y,
one principal section; and, similarly,

'' vergences" of the pair of con-
denote the reduced
we
z,
shall
'
in the other principal section, evi-
have the following
Uy '=Uy +Fy
relations:
U '=U +F
Z
Z.
from
Similarly, also, a pencil of rays proceeding
Me
and
meeting the refracting surface at points in an oblique normal section will be refracted to a point M0' which will lie
on
Ax between
M/ and M/, so that

U0'=Ue+Fe.
If
the bundle of incident rays
the points designated
by
Uy =U =Ud=U.
then
M M
y
The
is
homocentric, that
and
M0
are
all
if
the imagery
of
peculiarity
is,
coincident,
consists in the fact that instead of obtaining a single image-
point
M'
corresponding to an object-point
of a spherical refracting surface,

ries of
we
such points lying on the segment
mal Ax.
This
will
112. Surfaces
M,
My 'M
be explained more fully in

of
as in the case
'
se-
of the nor-
113.
and Toric
Cylindrical
Revolution.
whole
find here a
The
curved reflecting and refracting surfaces

of optical mirrors and lenses are almost without exception
surfaces of revolution, that is, surfaces generated by the revoSurfaces.
lution of the arc of a plane curve
Accordingly,
it is
around an axis in
desirable to call attention to
The curve
special properties of these surfaces.
its
some
plane.
of the
traced on
by a plane containing the axis of

revolution is called a meridian section. The normals to the
generating curve are also normals to the surface; and since
the normal at any point of the surface lies in the meridian
a surface
of revolution
section which passes through that point,
normals to a surface of revolution
all
it
follows that the
intersect the axis of
revolution.
any point of a surface of

which passes through
section
meridian
revolution are the
The two
principal sections at
that point and the normal section which

to the meridian section.
The
is
perpendicular
center of curvature of the
306
latter principal section lies
on the axis of revolution at the
point where the normal crosses
Not only
112
it.
are the surfaces of mirrors
and
lenses generally
surfaces of revolution, but usually they are very simple types
A spher-
of such surfaces.
may
be considered as generated by the.

revolution of a circle
around one of its diame-
ical surface
The other
ters.
chief
forms of reflecting and reare
surfaces
fracting
indrical
and
cyl-
toric surfaces,
which are also comparatively easy to grind.
surface of
cylindrical
revolution
is
generated by
the revolution of a straight

line about
a parallel straight
line as axis, called the axis
A meridian
of the cylinder.
section of a cylinder at a
point
on
(Fig. 145) will

line
of
the
surface
be a straight
zero
curvature,
whereas the other principal

section at right angles to
Fig
145 -Refracting power of cylindrical
surface:
made by
section
where
planes
AP.
Principal
Ay and
sections
Kz; oblique
th
th
axig
be
the
arc
cylinder
of
whose curvature
r denotes the radius of the cylinder.
If
a
is
Û
Circle
R = l/r,
the
i/-axis
drawn parallel to the cylinder-axis, then R y = 0, R Z = R;

and hence according to Euler's formula given in 111,
is
the curvature in an oblique normal section AP inclined to

the axis of the cylinder at an angle 6 will be
Re=R.sm 2 6.
Cylindrical Refracting Surface
112]
This result
307
may
be obtained also independently by observAz and AP in Fig. 145 have the

99), their chords denoted by 2h and 2he are
ing that although the arcs
same
sagitta (
Now the curvaunequal in length, because h = hd.smd.

tures of two arcs having the same sagitta are inversely proportional to the squares of their chords; consequently,
he*'
and hence
Re = R.sin 2
exactly as above.
Fig. 146.
Principal sections of
dicular to the section
place of
d,
Moreover, in a normal section perpen-
AP, we
find,
toric surface.
by writing (0+90)
in
6,
R0+CjQ = R.cos 2 6;
and therefore
Re-\-Re+V0 o =R'
Accordingly, in the case of a cylindrical refracting surif the maximum refracting power is denoted by F>
face,
the refracting power in an oblique section inclined to the
308
axis at
an angle 6
will
angles to this F.cos
be F.sin 2
6.
drical refracting surface

in
The
6,
and
refracting
may,
[112
in a section at right
power
of a cylin-
therefore, be considered as
a certain sense capable of resolution into a refracting

in one oblique section and a refracting power
power F.sin 2 6
Fig. 147, a and
b.
Toric surfaces (reproduced from Prentice's Ophthalmic Lenses

and Prisms by permission
of the author)
F.cos 2 6 in a section at right angles to the
we can say
that the
F0+Fd+9O=F,
algebraic sum of
first;
the refracting
and
since
powers in
any two mutually perpendicular sections of a cylindrical refracting surface is constant and equal to the maximum refracting power.
toric or toroidal surface
(so-called
from the architect-
ural term torus applied to the molding at the base of an
Ionic column)
is
a surface shaped like an anchor-ring which
Toric Surfaces and Lenses
112]
is
309
generated by the revolution of a conic section around an
axis
which
lies in
the plane of the generating curve but does
its center.
The surface of an automobile
a toric surface, being generated by the revolution
of the circular cross-section of the tyre around an axis per-
not pass through

tyre
is
148, a and b.
Principal sections of toric lenses (reproduced from
Prentice's Ophthalmic Lenses and Prisms by permission of the author).
Fig.
pendicular to the plane of the wheel at
its center.
Toric
by the revolution
The arcs of the two prin-
refracting surfaces are generated always

of the arc of a circle (Fig. 146).
cipal sections of a toric surface of a lens bisect
at the vertex
axis of
the
of the surface, so that the
symmetry.
2/-axis
of the
If
the axis of revolution
of the generating circle,
principal section at
the normal
Ax
is
is
an
parallel to
system of rectangular coordinates, the
center of the meridian section through
Cy
each other
normal Ax
is
is
at the center
whereas the center of the other
at the point of intersection
Cz
of
with the axis of revolution.
The diagrams,
Fig. 147, a
and
(which are copied from
310
the beautiful drawings of Mr.
and
original essay
Prentice
[H3
in his valuable
on " Ophthalmic Lenses and Prisms'
'
in
the American Encyclopaedia of Opthhalmology) show the two

principal forms of toric surfaces.
some types
The
principal sections of
and b.
be considered as
a special form of toric surface by regarding the segment of
the generating straight line as the arc of a circle with an
of toric lenses are indicated in Fig. 148, a
cylindrical surface of revolution
may
infinite radius.
113. Refraction of a Narrow Bundle of Rays incident

Normally on a Cylindrical Refracting Surface. Sturm's
Conoid.
In
order to obtain a clear idea of the character
of a bundle of rays refracted at
through a thin cylindrical
lens,
a cylindrical surface or
suppose,
by way
of illustra-
Chief ray of narrow bundle meets cylindrical refracting surface

normally; astigmatic bundle of refracted rays. Principal sections xAy
and xAz.
Fig. 149.
tion, that
had
we
consider a special case of the problem which
in 111 in connection with Fig. 144,
we
namely, the case in
which a narrow homocentric bundle of incident rays, originally converging towards a point M, is intercepted before it
reaches this point by being received on a cylindrical refracting surface which is placed so that the chief ray of the bundle
meets the surface normally at a point A and proceeds, therefore, along the normal Ax (Fig. 149) without being deflected.
Astigmatic Bundle of Rays
113]
For convenience
the cylindrical surface
of delineation,
represented in the figure as the
311
first
thin piano-cylindrical lens, but the explanation
by the
sentially affected
fact that
it
is
surface of an infinitely
not
is
es-
applies to a bundle of
rays which have undergone also a second refraction at the
The bundle of incident rays is not

The point where the chief ray
designated by A. In the drawing this point
plane face of the lens.
represented in the figure.
meets the lens is

A is marked on the second or plane face of the lens, but since
the lens is supposed to be infinitely thin, this point may be
regarded also as lying on the first face. The plane of the
paper represents the meridian section of the cylindrical surface through the vertex A, and hence the axis of the cylinder
is
in this plane
Ax
ular to
is
and
in the meridian or xy-pl&ne.
Ay
perpendic-
This meridian plane
one of the principal sections at the vertex
of the cylin-
whereas the other principal section
drical surface;
is
zz-plane at right angles to the plane of the paper.
bundle of rays
is
cut
by these
the
The
principal sections in a pencil
and a pencil
(named by analogy with the so-called " sagittal
anatomy) lying in the xz-pl≠ the chief ray of
of meridian rays lying in the meridian xy-pl&ne

of sagittal rays
suture" in
the bundle being

is
common
to both of these pencils, since
it
the line of intersection of the two principal sections of the
Now
bundle.
the meridian rays traversing the infinitely
thin cylindrical lens in a section containing the axis of the
cylinder will be entirely unaffected in transit
ceed therefore to the point

of glass
had not been interposed
now
point regarded
may
also be designated
On
diagram.
pencil
meet the surface
made by
in the
way; so that
this
by
have passed through the
',
as in fact
it is
marked
the other hand, the rays of the sagittal
in the
tion
will pro-
as the point of rendezvous, so to speak,
of the meridian rays after they
lens
and
M just as though the thin piece
in points lying
on the arc
of the sec-
the zz-plane, and the rays in this plane are
refracted just as they
would be through a piano-spherical
312
lens of the
same curvature as that
113
and ac-
of the cylinder;
cordingly after passing through the lens they will be brought

to a focus at a point
on the
'
chief ray Ax,
which
in the
case here supposed will be between the lens and the point
as represented in the figure.
',
The bundle
so that
an object-point
is
no longer homocentric,
not reproduced in a cylindrical
even by a pair of image-points,

since only the meridian and sagittal image-rays intersect
lens
by
of rays after refraction is
a single image-point or
the so-called image-points
in
'
and M/,
Under such circumstances, the bundle
respectively.
of image-rays
is
said
to be astigmatic (or without focus), which, in fact,
is
the
general character of a bundle of optical rays, as will be

further explained in Chapter
Rays which
XV.
are incident on the cylindrical surface in an
made by a plane containing the normal Ax

'
be brought to a focus at a point lying between
y and
oblique section
will
',
as explained in 111.
But the two points
'
and
'
have a superior right to be regarded as the image-points of

the astigmatic bundle of rays, not only because they are
the image-points of the two principal pencils of the bundle,
but also because the so-called image-lines of the astigmatic
bundle of rays are located at these places, as we shall proceed to show.
drawn on the surface of the cylinand at a short distance from the

zy-plane, and consider the pencil of rays which meet the
Imagine a straight
der parallel to the
line
i/-axis
surface in points lying along this line; these rays after pass-
ing through the lens will meet in a point in the zz-plane a

little
of these image-points will
and the assemblage

form a very short image-line per-
to one side of the image-point
';
pendicular to the meridian section of the bundle of rays at
the point
M/;
just as
though the pencil
of meridian rays
had been rotated through a very small angle around an

.'
axis parallel to the y-a,xis and passing through
And,
z
similarly,
if
the pencil of sagittal rays
is
rotated slightly
Sturm's Conoid
113]
313
on both sides of the zz-plane around an axis parallel to the

2-axis and passing through the image-point M/, the imagepoint
'
will trace
out a
little
image-line perpendicular to
the sagittal section of the astigmatic bundle of rays.
Thus,
instead of a point-like image of a point-like object or pointto-point correspondence between object
and image, that is,

we have
instead of the so-called punctual imagery which
when
paraxial rays are reflected or refracted at a spherical
surface,
we obtain here something
in this case
essentially different; for
each point of the object
is
reproduced by two
314
[114
the lens-opening is determined by a small

a plane at right angles to the optical axis
and with its center on this axis, the transverse
optical rays.
If
circular stop in
(or rr-axis)
sections of the astigmatic bundle of refracted rays
planes perpendicular to the chief ray (that
is,
made by
parallel to
the 2/2-plane) will be ellipses with their major axes parallel
and parallel to the

These elliptical sections become
narrower and narrower as they approach either of the imagelines, at both of which places the elliptical section collapses
to the i/-axis in one part of the bundle
2-axis in the other part.
At some intermediate
two image-lines the section of the bundle
into the major-axis of the ellipse.
point between the

will
be a
circle
(the so-called " circle of least confusion").
Thin Cylindrical and Toric Lenses. Optical lenses

may now be classified in two principal groups, namely,
anastigmatic (or simply stigmatic) lenses and astigmatic lenses,
according as the imagery produced by the refraction of par114.
Concave.
es,
b,
Fig. 151,
a and
b.
Convex.
Piano-cylindrical
lenses.
punctual imagery or not ( 113).

Anastigmatic lenses are single focus lenses, whereas astigmatic lenses may be said to be double focus lenses. The
essential requirement is that the optical axis of the lens,
axial rays
through the lens
is
Cylindrical Lenses
114]
315
which
is generally an axis of symmetry, shall meet both

normally ( 87) and another condition that must
always be fulfilled in an actual lens is that the planes of the
faces
principal sections at the vertex of the first surface shall also
be the planes of the principal sections at the vertex of the

second surface. Astigmatic lenses are generally cylindrical
or toric.
Cylindrical lenses are
cylindrical
(one
Fig. 152.
Fig. 153.
Fig. 151, a
and
made
surface
in three forms,
cylindrical
Sphero-cylindrical
Sphero-cylindrical
6), cross-cylindrical
namely, piano-
and the other plane,
lens.
lens.
(both surfaces cylindrical,
the axes of the cylinders being at right angles), and spherocylindrical (one surface cylindrical
Figs. 152
modern
and
153).
and the other
All of these forms are quite
spherical,
common
in
spectacle glasses, but prior to 1860 cylindrical lenses
were hardly employed at all. The first scientific use of a

cylindrical lens seems to have been made by Fresnel
(1788-1827) in 1819 for the purpose of obtaining a luminous
line.
In 1825 Sir
George Airy
(1801-1892), afterwards the
distinguished astronomer-royal at Greenwich, employed a con-
316
114
cave sphero-cylindrical glass to correct the myopic astigma-
But
tism of one of his eyes.
it
was not
until
Donders
(1818-1889) published his treatise on astigmatism and cylindrical glasses in 1862 that their
recognized by ophthalmologists
all
importance began to be
over the world.
In a toric lens usually only one of the surfaces

(
112), while the other
Fig. 147, a
and
b,
and
is
Fig. 148
show the
is
toric
The diagrams,
plane or spherical.
principal types of
toric lenses.
i, Fy 2 and F Zi i, F Zy 2, denote the refracting powers
two surfaces of an astigmatic lens in the xy-plsaie and
zz-plane, respectively, which are the planes of the principal
Let Fy
of the
sections of the thin lens with respect to its optical center A.
Now
the total refracting power (F) of a thin lens was found
sum (F1+F2) of the

powers of the two surfaces of the lens; so that applying this
formula to an astigmatic lens, we obtain for the refracting
power in the two principal sections
(
105) to be equal to the algebraic
Fy = Fy< i-\-Fy
F =F
2,
Zt
\-\-F z
is supposed
on both sides,
is denoted by n'.
In each of the following special cases the lens

to be surrounded
by the same medium
while the index of refraction of the lens

(1)
which
Consider,
first,
(n)
itself
the case of a piano-cylindrical
lens,
in a principal section containing the axis of the cylin-
der acts, as was remarked
( 113), like
a slab of the same
material with plane parallel faces; whereas in the other principal section the effect is the
lens of the
same radius
axis of the cylinder
surface
is
is
(r)
same
as that of a piano-spherical
as that of the cylinder.
parallel to the y-axis,
and
if
If
the
the plane
supposed to be the second surface, we shall have
in this case
Fy = F
,i
y< 2
= F 2 = 0,
z<
and, consequently:
Fz = FZtl = F=(n'-n)R,
maximum refracting power
and R = l/r denotes its curvature.
Fy = 0,
where
denotes the
drical surface,
of the cylin-
Cylindrical and Toric Lenses
114]
If
317
designates the position of an object-point lying on
the optical axis (z-axis) of a thin piano-cylindrical lens, and

if
M#' designates the position of the corresponding imageby the refraction through the lens of the
point produced
rays which
in the plane of a
lie
an angle 6 to the axis
AM = u,
normal section inclined at

and if we put
of the cylinder;
AMe' = u',
U = n/u,
Ud'
= n/u e
',
then
and
for
6;
In a cross-cylindrical lens the axes of y and z are parAssuming that the cylin-
(2)
allel
Ue'= U+Fe, where Fe = F. sin 2

the two principal sections:
Uy '=U,
UZ '=U+F.
to the axes of the cylinders.
drical axis of the first surface of the lens is parallel to the

2/-axis,
we have
for a thin lens of this
Fy = Fy 2 =-(n -n)R
Fz = FZil =(n''-n)R h
form
2,
F=(n'-n)(R .sm 2 d -ft.cos 8 0);

R 2 denote the maximum curvatures
1
where R\,
of the cylinders and Fe denotes the refracting power in a section inclined at an angle 6 to the axis of the first surface.
In a thin sphero-cylindrical
(3)
lens,
if
we
suppose, for
example, that the axis of the cylindrical surface

to the
?/-axis
and that
this surface
is
is
parallel
also the first surface
of the lens, then
Fy = 0,
Fy =F 2 = F
Fy = Fy 2 =-(n -n)R 2
F = F +Fy = (n -n)(R -R 2 ),
,i
2,
z,
z,1
Fe=(n'-n)(R 1 .sm 2 d-R 2 );

where R\, R 2 denote the maximum curvatures of the cylindrical and spherical faces, respectively, and Fe denotes the
refracting power of the combination in a plane inclined at
an angle 6 to the axis of the cylinder.
(4)
may
Consider, finally, a thin toric lens, whose second face

be supposed to be spherical, so that if r 2 denotes
the radius
of
this
surface,
its
refracting
power
will
be
318
'Ft
{n' n)R
2}
R = lfr
where
Then
2.
if
Ryyh R
z ,i
115
denote
curvatures of the toric surface, the refracting
the principal
powers of the lens
will
be
Fz = {n'-n) (R z ,i-Rt),
1 -R 2 )
Fe= (n'-n) (#y ,i.cos 2 d-\-R z ,i.sin 2 0-R 2 ).
Fy =(n'-n)
(R y
115. Transposing of Cylindrical Lenses.

of a cylindrical refracting surface
is
The orientation
described
by
assigning
which the axis of the cylinder makes

In a cylindrical spectacle
with a fixed line of reference.
glass this line of reference is a horizontal line usually imagined as drawn from a point opposite the center of the patient's eye either towards his temple or towards his nose;
the value of the angle
18CT
TEMPLE
<p
0'
y
Fig. 154.
isoj
NOSE
NOSE
and the angle through which
this line has to
a vertical plane in order for it to

the cylinder
America
it
reference as
is
is
TEM.P.LE
Mode of reckoning axis of cylindrical eye-glass.

be
the angle denoted by
be rotated in
parallel to the axis of

<p.
In England and
customary to imagine the horizontal line of
drawn from
the center of the glass towards that
temple of the patient which is on the right-hand side of an observer supposed to be adjusting the glass on the patient's
eye; so that for a glass in front of either eye the radius vector
is supposed to rotate in a counter-clockwise sense from 0
to 180, as represented in Fig. 154.
recommended by
gress which met in Naples
different plan
was
the international ophthalmological conin 1909,
whereby the angle
cp
was
to be reckoned from an initial position of the radius vector
drawn horizontally from a point opposite the center

eye towards
the nose.
of the
According to this plan, the sense of
Transposing of Cylindrical Lenses
115]
319
and counter-clockwise
rotation will be clockwise for one eye
for the other eye, as represented in Fig. 155.
sphero-cylindrical glass
logical
is
described in an ophthalmo-
by giving the
component and the
prescription
the cylindrical
power P
power Q
refracting
refracting
the spherical component, together with the slope
which
axis of the cylinder, in a formula
of
of
of the
<p
usually written
is
as follows:
Q
3P
O means "combined with."
sph.
where the symbol

Opticians speak
cyl., slx.<p,
of transposing
a lens when they substi-
tute a glass of one form for an equivalent glass of another
180
180
TEMPLE
NOSE
Fig. 155.
form.
TEMPLE
NOSE
Mode of reckoning axis of cylindrical eye-glass.
All that
is
necessary for this purpose
is
to see that
the powers of the lens in the two principal sections remain
The
the same as before.

cylindrical lenses
(1)
To
may
transpose
following rules for transposing
be useful
sphero-cylindrical
another
into
lens
sphero-cylindrical lens or into a cross-cylindrical lens:
lens given
by the formula Q
sph.
cyl., ax.
<p is
equivalent to either of the following combinations

a.
Sphero-cylinder:
b.
Cross-cylinder
(P+Q)
(P+ Q)
The power
of the spherical
bination
is
sph.
C -P
OQ
cyl. , ax. <p
component
90)
cyl., ax. (<p
cyl. ax.
,
<p
90)
comand the power

the section which is
in the original
dptr. in both principal sections,
of the cylindrical
component
is
P dptr.
inclined to the line of reference at
in
an angle
(<p
the combined power in this latter section
=*=
is
90)
so that
(P+Q)
dptr.
320
116
a spherical surface of power (P+Q) dptr.

must be combined with a cylindrical surface of power
P dptr. and of axis-slope (^>=*=90). With respect to the
Accordingly,
double sign in the expression
<>==
90), the rule is to select
always that one of the two signs which
ard
of the cylinder-axis positive
lent to
+10
+ 10 dptr.
To
(2)
O +2
O 2
20 C +8
+8 dptr.
example,
sph.
dptr.
dptr. sph.
will
make
than 180.
less
ax. 20 is equiva-
cyl.',
dptr.
the slope
Thus, for
cyl.,
110 or to
ax.
dptr. cyl., ax. 110.
cyl., ax.
transpose a
cross-cylindrical
lens
a sphero-
into
cylindrical lens:
The combination
is
ax.
<p
cyl., ax.
(<>=*=
90)
equivalent to either of the following:

Sphero-cylinder:
a.
P sph. O (RP)
b. Sphero-cylinder:
Thus,
by
+2
either
-1
Q
cyl.,
80
cyl., ax.
+2
sph.
sph.
O (PR)
C +3
C +1
170
cyl., ax.
(3)
To transpose a
is
spherical lens into
sph.
cross-cylinder:
is
+5
equivalent to
cyl., ax.
90),
180.
10
cyl., ax. 100.
The
(4)
refracting powers of a toric surface in the prin-
cipal sections are
Fy =(n n)/ry
f
and
F = (n' n)/rz
z
us suppose that the axis of revolution
The
2/-axis.
F sph.
Fy sph.
z
may
toric refracting surface
sphero-cylindrical lens in either of
b.
be replaced
+3
Q cyl., ax. <p

Q cyl., ax. (<p =*=
may have any value between 0 and
equivalent to
where the angle (p

For example, +5 sph.
.a.
may
170 or
ax.
cyl.,
or
cyl., ax. <p.
cyl., ax. 80.
sph.
+5
cyl., ax. (<p =*=90),
O (F F
O P
y
(Fz
z)
cyl.,
is
Let
parallel to the
be replaced by a
two ways,
as follows:
axis parallel to y-sads.
y ) cyl., axis parallel to 2-axis.
Oculists and optomsometimes prescribe a bi-cylindrical spectacle-glass

with the axes of the cylinders crossed, not at right angles
(as in the so-called cross-cylinder) but at an acute or obtuse
angle 7; and as it is not easy to grind a lens of this form,
the optician prefers to make an equivalent sphero-cylinder
116. Obliquely Crossed Cylinders.
etrists
Obliquely Crossed Cylinders
116]
321
or a cross-cylinder, which will have precisely the
same op-
the prescribed combination of obliquely crossed
tical effect as
His problem may be stated thus

Being given the refracting powers Fi, F 2 of the two surfaces of the bi-cylindrical lens, and the angle y between
cylinders.
the directions of the axes of the cylinders,

calculate the refracting powers
and
and Q
it is
required to
of the cylindrical
spherical components, respectively, of the equivalent
sphero-cylindrical combination, together with the direction

of the axis of the cylinder; that
Fi
cyl., ax.<p
CF
is, it is
required to transpose
cyl., ax.
(<p+y)
into
OP
sph.
cyl., ax. (<p-\- a).
Simple working formula? for converting one of these lenses

into the other were developed
by Mr. Charles F.
The following
method is based on an arfirst
Prentice.
ticle "
On
cylinders"
obliquely crossed
by Professor
Thompson
Philosophical Magazine
ries 5,
S. P.
published in the
(se-
1900, pp. 316-
xlix.,
324).
In Fig.
lines
OA
parallel
156 the straight
OB
and
the
to
drawn
are
cylindrical
axes of the bi-cylindrical lens,
sothatZAOB = 7. Through
O draw
another straight line
OC, and let

noted by 6.
tion
of
angles
the
to
ZAOC
In
lens
OC
the
be de-
the
at
sec-
Fig. 156.
Axes
of obliquely crossed
cylinders.
right
total
r efracting
power
112):
2
2
Fi.cos 0+^2.cos (y
ey,
will
be
(see
322
and
in the section containing
116
OC
2
Fi.sin 0+^2.sin (7-0).
The sum
two expressions
of these
is
equal to (F1+F2); and
according to the theory of curved surfaces
sum
( 111), this
maximum and
sum
must
also be equal to the
mum
refracting powers of the equivalent sphero-cylindrical
of the
mini-
Now, obviously, (P+0) will be the maximum (or

minimum) refracting power in a section of the latter lens
lens.
at right angles to the axis of the cylinder, whereas
minimum
the
(or
maximum)
refracting
power
will
be
in the sec-
tion containing the axis of the cy Under; accordingly, first

of
all,
we
find that
we must have:
2Q+P = F +F
1
2.
a certain value of the angle 6, say, 6 = a,

the two expressions above will be a
maximum (or minimum) and the second a minimum (or
maximum) and if we can determine this angle a, the problem will practically be solved, because then we shall have:
Now
for
there
is
which the
first of
P+0 = î.cos a+F
(7- a),
Q = Fi.sin a+F2 .sin (7- a);
2
2 .cos
where (on the assumption that Q is the minimum refracting

power in the section containing the axis of the cylinder) a
denotes the angle between the cylindrical axis of the spherocylinder and the cylindrical axis of the cylinder whose refracting power is denoted by F\.
angle a,
who
is
all
we have
in order to ascertain this
to differentiate the expression

Fi.cos
with respect to
6,
0+F
and then,
2 .cos
(7-0)
after writing
a in place of
0,
Thus we obthe angle a in terms
the resultant expression equal to zero.
tain the following equation for finding

of the
any one
familiar with the elements of the differential calculus)
is, first,
to put
Now
to do (as will be obvious to
known magnitudes F h F 2 and 7

2iî.sina .cosa+2F2 .sin(7 a).cos(7 a)=0;
116]
which
may also
323
be put in the following form:
_ F2
F\
sin2(7
sin2a'
a)
Moreover, since P = (P*+Q) Q, we find:

P = Fi(cos 2 a-sin a)+F2 {cos (7~ a) sin 2 (y= Fi.cos2a+F .cos2(7 a);
2
a)}
and
if
in this
formula we substitute the value
F,
we
= -.
sin2a
sin2(7 a)
Fi,
shall find
sin27
sin2(7~ a)
*V
v*y
a*
Fig. 157.
Graphical mode of finding cylindrical component (P) of
sphero-cylinder equivalent to two obliquely crossed cylinders of powers
F\ and F2.
Hence,
sin2(7~
a)
sin2a
sin27*
324
116
which at once suggests an elegant and simple graphical

solution of the problem.
For, evidently, according to the
magnitudes denoted by F h F2 and P

may be represented in a diagram (Fig. 157) by the sides of
a triangle whose opposite angles are 2(7 a), 2a and
(180 27), respectively.
Hence the rule is as follows:
On any straight line lay off a segment AB to represent, according to a certain scale, the magnitude of the refracting
power Fi; and let X designate the position of a point on AB
produced beyond B. Construct the ZXBC equal to twice
the angle between the axes of the two given cylindrical components (ZXBC = 2 7); and along the side BC of this angle
lay off the length BC to represent the magnitude of the re-
above
relations, the
Then the straight line AC will reprepower F 2

the magnitude of the refracting power
scale
same
on
the
sent
fracting
of
the
cylindrical
member
of
the
equivalent sphero-
and the Z B AC = 2 a will be equal to twice

the angle between the cylindrical axes of the surfaces whose
powers are denoted by F\ and P. For calculating the values
of P, Q and a, we have by trigonometry the following syscylindrical lens,
tem
of formulae
P = + \/F +F 2 +2Fi.F2.cos2y,
2
Q= FM-P
1
tan2a
F 2 .sm2y
^ +F 2 .cos27'
1
which
will
the signs of
There
is,
be found to be applicable in
all cases,
whether
F h F2 are like or unlike.

to be sure, another solution also, in which the
cylindrical axis of the sphero-cylindrical lens
is
inclined to
the cylindrical axis of the cylinder of power Fi at the angle

For if the refracting power Q of the spherical
(90+ a).
member is assumed to be
minimum) refracting power
the
maximum
(instead of the
of the sphero-cylindrical
bination, then (P-f-Q) will be the
minimum power
tion at right angles to the axis of the cylinder;
com-
in a sec-
and
in this
116]
case the refracting
power of the cylindrical component will

line
in Fig. 157 which is
AC
be represented by the dotted
AC
equal to
but opposite to
in length
fact, in this case
325
the formulae for
and
In
in direction.
it
will
be as follows:
P = - VFl-]-Fi+2Fi.F2.GOs2y,
_FiIW>
n
Q
2
This result could have been obtained from the

transposing;
for,
according to
P
(P+Q) sph.
symbols P and Q denote here
equivalent to
is
the
115,
sph.
first result
OP
cyl., ax.
cyl. ax. (<=*= 90),
by
<f>
where
the powers of the
first
combination.
Moreover, since
(P+Q)
to
crossed cylinders
powers
OP
OQ
sph.
may
(P+Q) and
cyl., ax.< is
equivalent also
cyl., ax. (<=*= 90),
cyl., ax.</>
two obliquely
be replaced by a cross-cylinder of
In fact, since
Q.
(P+Q)+Q=Pi+P
(P+Q)~Q = VPi+Pi+2Pi.P
2,
it
2 .cos2
y,
follows that
(P+Q)Q=F
.F2 .sin'2 y;
so that this formula will give us the product of the powers

of the equivalent cross-cylinder,
= Fi+F2
the values of
dependently, without
The
and
since their
(P+Q) and Q may
first
sum
P+2Q
be obtained in-
finding the value of P.
following numerical example will serve to illustrate
the use of the formula;
Given a combination of obliquely crossed cylinders as

follows
+4 cyl., ax.
let
and
it
20
C -2.75
cyl., ax.
65;
be required to find the equivalent sphero-cylinder
also the equivalent cross-cylinder.
must put Pi = +4, because Pi denotes the power of

Then
is the smaller of the two.
=(65
=45.
=
these
-20)
Substituting
-2.75
and
F2
y
values, we find
a=-1716'.
P=+4.86,
Q=-1.8,
We
the cylinder whose axis-slope
326
Accordingly, the given combination
[Ch.
IX
equivalent to one of
is
the three following:
+4.85
-4.85
+3.05
7 = 90
If
P=F
-Fi,
2 44'
92 44'
cyl., ax.
2 44'
P = F -F
then
Q=F\ and
Fi
is
cyl., ax.
cyl., ax.
OC +3.05
-
1.8 sph.
sph.;
92 44'.
1.8 cyl., ax.
1
2
Q = F2 and a = 0,
a = 0; so that we can write:
cyl., ax. <
CF
cyl., ax.
or
(<90)
equivalent to
Fi sph.
or
F2 sph.
C (F -Fi)
C (F1-F2)
2
cyl., ax.
(<90)
cyl., ax.
cj>;
exactly as found in 115.
PROBLEMS
1.
The
radius of a convex cylindrical refracting surface
separating air from glass (n = 1.5)
is
8|-
cm.
What
is its
power in a normal section inclined to the axis of

Ans. +4.5 dptr.
the cylinder at an angle of 60?
2. A curved refracting surface separates air and glass
(n':n = 3: 2), and the radii of greatest and least curvature
10 cm. and r z =
at a point A on the surface are ry =
+5 cm. Find the interval between the two principal imagepoints corresponding to an object-point lying on the normal
to the surface at A in front of the surface and at a distance
Ans. 67.5 cm.
of 30 cm. from it.
refracting
3.
The
principal refracting powers of a thin astigmatic
lens surrounded
by
air are
denoted by
are designated
the lens
is
by
My
designated
and
If
z.
by A, and
Fy and F
if
The
prin-
the optical center of
we put U=l/u, where
u= AM, then
M' M' =
z.
an axial object-point
cipal image-points corresponding to
Fy~ Fz
.
Problems
Ch. IX]
4.
two
The
refracting powers of a thin astigmatic lens in the
principal sections are
made
327
and +5 dptr. The lens is

Find the radii of the two sur-
+3
faces for each of the following forms: (a) Cross-cylinder;

(6)
Sphero-cylinder;
Plano-toric.
c)
Double convex cross-cylinder, radii 10 and

16 -| cm.; (6) Double convex sphero-cylinder, radius of
sphere 16 f cm., radius of cylinder 25 cm.; or convex meAns.
(a)
niscus sphero-cylinder, radius of sphere 10 cm., radius of

(c) Radii of toric surface 10 and 16 J cm.
5 The principal refracting powers of a thin lens are +4
and 5 dptr. If the refracting power in an oblique normal
section is +2 dptr., what will be its refracting power in a
normal section at right angles to the first? and what is the
cylinder 25 cm.
angle of inclination of the
+2
-3
Ans.
6.
Two
cylinders each of
+4
section to the
section?
dptr.; 28 7' 32".
power +1.18 dptr. are com-
bined with their axes inclined to each other at an angle of

32 3' 50". Show that the combination is equivalent to
+0.18
sph.
O +2
cyl., axis
midway between
the axes of
the two given cylinders.

7.
Show
that
+2 cyl., ax. 0 C -3 cyl.,

is
ax. 53 26'
14"
equivalent to
C +4.06
C +3.25
-2.53 sph.
8.
cyl., ax.
Transpose
-1.25
cyl., ax.
20
-22
cyl., ax.
30'.
53 41' 24.25"
into the equivalent sphero-cylinder.

,
Ans.
or
9.
0.5 sph.
+ 2.5
sph.
O +3
O 3
cyl., ax. 65,

cyl., ax. 155.
Transpose
+9.5
cyl., ax.
C +10
cyl., ax.
57 40' 45"
into the equivalent sphero-cylinder.
Ans. +4.53 sph.

or
+14.96
sph.
C +10.43
C-
cyl., ax. 30,
10.43 cyl., ax. 120.
328
10.
+2 cyl, ax. 20 C +3 cyl., ax. 70.

or
+ 4.15 sph.
C+
C -3.3
3.3 cyl., ax. 51 42',

cyl., ax.
141 42'.
Transpose
-1.75
cyl., ax.
C +1.25
98
C -0.707
C -2
65
C -1.075
120
cyl., ax.
into the equivalent cross-cylinder.

30'
Ans. +0.207 cyl., ax.
12.
IX
Find the sphero-cylindrical equivalent of

Ans. +0.85 sph.
11.
[Ch.
Transpose
+4
cyl., ax.
80
135
cyl., ax.
cyl., ax.
8 30'.
120 into
the equivalent cross-cylinder.
Ans. +3.075
cyl., ax.
50'
cyl., ax.
155 50'.
CHAPTER X
THEORY
GEOMETRICAL
OF THE SYMMETRICAL
INSTRUMENT
OPTICAL
117. Graphical Method of tracing the Path of a Paraxial

Ray through a Centered System of Spherical Refracting
Surfaces.
Nearly
all
optical instruments consist of a
bination of transparent,
isotropic
com-
media, each separated
from the next by a spherical (or plane) surface; the centers

of these surfaces lying all on one and the same straight line
called the optical axis of the centered system of spherical
surfaces, which is an axis of symmetry.
In a symmetrical
optical instrument of this kind
it is
sufficient to investigate
the procedure of paraxial rays in any meridian plane containing the axis.
The
Tii, 712,
by the
indices of refraction of the

etc.,
named
in the order in
light; so that
if
media will be denoted by

which they are traversed
denotes the
number
of refracting
medium into
the mth surface
surfaces, the index of refraction of the last
which the rays emerge after refraction at

will be nm+1
The indices of refraction of the two media
which are separated by the A:th surface (where k denotes
any integer between 1 and m, inclusive) will be nk and nk+1
The vertex and center of the kth surface will be designated
.
Ak
and C k respectively; and the radius of this surface

be denoted by rk = A k C k
Moreover, if
k+ i
k
designate the positions of the points where a paraxial ray
crosses the axis before and after refraction, respectively, at
by
will
M M
,
the kth surface, these points will be a pair of conjugate axial

points with respect to this surface;
will, therefore,
and the points Mi,
M m+
be a pair of conjugate axial points with respect

329
330
to the entire centered system of
[H7
spherical refracting sur-
faces.
The accompanying diagram
a merid-
(Fig. 158) represents
ian section of an optical system of this kind.
The
MiBi represents the path of a paraxial ray in

medium (wi) which crossing the axis at Mi meets
line
in the point
surface
(i/i)
Fig. 158.
Path
marked
from the
shown by the straight
first
system of spherical re-
surface to the second surface
first
line
first
the
Similarly, the path
Bi.
of paraxial ray through centered

fracting surfaces.
of the ray
straight
the
BiB 2 which
is
M2.
shown by the broken
crosses the axis at
Thus, the entire course of the ray is

M1B1B2B3M4 which is bent in succession at each of the
line
incidence-points Bi, B2,
(supposing that
m = 3,
as repre-
sented in the diagram)
The figure shows also the path of another paraxial ray,

emanating from an object-point Qi near the optical axis but
not on it and represented here as lying perpendicularly
above Mi. This ray is the ray which leaves Qi along a straight
line which passes through the center Ci of the first refracting
surface and also through the point Q 2 which is conjugate to
Qi with respect to this surface. This point Q2 can be located by determining the point of intersection of the straight
line
Q1C1 with the straight line M2Q2 drawn perpendicuM2. Similarly, the point Q3 conjugate to
with respect to the second refracting surface will be at
lar to the axis at
Q2
Centered System of Spherical Surfaces
117]
331
the point of intersection of the straight line Q2C2 with the
drawn perpendicular
straight line
to the axis at
so on from one surface to the next.
know
is
and
we
Provided, therefore,
the path of one paraxial ray through the system,
it
easy to construct the path of a second ray.
But the best graphical method
of tracing the path of a
paraxial ray through a centered system of spherical refract-
ing surfaces consists in applying the construction described
Fig. 159.
Graphical method of tracing path of paraxial ray through cen-V

tered system of spherical refracting surfaces.
in 76, as follows: If the straight line
resenting the path of the ray in the
M1B1 (Fig. 159) repmedium meets the
first
perpendicular erected to the optical axis at the center Ci in

if on this perpendicular a second point X/
the point Xi, and
taken such that C1X1 CiXi' = n 2 n h then the straight

BiXi' will determine the path BiB 2 of the ray in the
second medium. Draw C2Y2 parallel to C1X1, and let Y 2
is
line
designate the point of intersection of the straight lines
BiB 2 and C 2 Y 2 and on C 2 Y 2 take a

;
C 2Y C 2Y = n
'
n 2 and draw the

,
the third refracting surface in

straight line
Z/
point
straight line
B and
3
Y
Y
'
such that
2 'B 2
meeting
intersecting in
Z 3 the
C 3 parallel to C2Y2. If on C Z
that C Z
C Z = n 4 n 3 then the
drawn through
'
taken such
3
3
3
3
straight line B 3 Z 3 ' will determine the path of the ray after
This process is to be rerefraction at the third surface.
a point
is
peated until the ray has been traced into the last medium.
n
332
118
118. Calculation of the Path of a Paraxial Ray through

a Centered System of Spherical Refracting Surfaces. Ob-
viously, just as in the case of a single spherical refracting
surface ( 80),
any
figure lying in a plane in the object-space
perpendicular to the optical axis of a centered system of

spherical refracting surfaces will be reproduced
of paraxial rays
by a
by means
similar figure in the image-space also
lying in a plane perpendicular to the optical axis.
Moreover,
if
we put
Ak M k = uk
the abscissa-formula
k k+ i=wk ',
for
the
kth surface
78)
(
,
may
be writ-
ten:
If also
nk+ i _ nk
uk
uk
we employ the symbol
nk+ i
rk
4 = Ak Ak+
to denote the distance of the vertex of the (k-\-l)th surface
from that
of the A;th surface or the so-called axial thickness
medium, then, evidently:

uk+ i = u k 'dk
which enables us to pass from one surface to the
of the (7c+l)th
If in these so-called recurrent formulae
we
next.
give k in suc-
= l, 2,
(ra 1), and if also in the
formula we put finally k = m, we shall obtain (2m 1)
equations; and if the constants of the system are all known,
that is, if the values of all the magnitudes denoted by n, r
and d are given, together with the initial value ui, which
cession the values k
first
denotes the abscissa of the axial object-point, these
(2m 1)
equations will enable us to determine the value of each of

the u's in succession.
The
position of the image point
M m+
have been ascerMi

tained when we have found the value of the abscissa u m '.
The secondary focal point of the system is the point F'
where a paraxial ray which is parallel to the axis in the first
medium crosses the axis in the last medium; and if we put
conjugate to the axial object-point
Ui = oo
then um ' = A m F'
will
will
be the abscissa of the second-
Lateral Magnification
118]
333
ary focal point with respect to the vertex of the last surface.
is the point F where a par-
Similarly, the primary focal point
medium if it is to
in
a
direction
parallel
to the axis.
medium
emerge in the last
=
oo
and
solve for
must
u
therefore,
we
put
In this case,
m
=
focal
abscissa
of
point F
obtain
the
the
in
order
to
ui AiF
must
axial ray
cross the axis in the first

f
with respect to the vertex of the first surface of the system.

The focal planes are the planes at right angles to the axis
at the focal points F, F'.
Moreover, if we put 2/k = k Q k then according to the

formula for the lateral magnification in a spherical refracting
surface ( 82), we can write for the kih surface:
2/k+i
if
we
give k
shall obtain
all
V.
ftk
'
n k+ \ Uk
Vk
and
integral values
from k =
to k
= m, we
equations, one for each surface, wherein the
denominator of the ratio on the left-hand side of each of

same as the numerator of the
corresponding ratio in the preceding one of the series. Hence,
these proportions will be the
we multiply
we put
if
together
y=yi,
we
all
of these equations,
y'=ym+i,
'
n = nh
n'
and
if,
finally,
= nm + h
shall obtain
y'
nui.u 2 '.
Um'
n'u\.ui.
which
may
be written also
k=
y'
_n
TV
TT
1
n' J- J-Wk
'
k=i
where the symbol IT placed in front of an expression in this
way means merely that the continued product of all terms
Thus having found the values
of that type is to be taken.
of all the u's, both primed and unprimed, we can calculate
by this formula the lateral magnification produced by the
334
entire centered
Helmholtz
119
system of spherical refracting surfaces for
any given position

Moreover,
of the object-point.
kth
the
for
surface
the
so-called
Smith-
formula ( 86) will have the form:

n k .yk 6 k = nk+ i.yk+ i. d k + h
.
= ZAk M k B k and if here also we give k all

succession from k = 1 to k = m, we shall obtain
= n m +i.y m +i. m +i;
ni.yi.di = n .y2-62=
where
in
and
values
finally:
n'.y'. 6'
where
n,
n and
y,
The
6,
y have the same meanings as above, and
6=
119.
= n.y.
0i,
6'=
m +i.
so-called Cardinal Points of
an Optical System.
been explained, although

perfectly simple in principle, involve a more or less tedious
process of tracing the path of a paraxial ray from one surface
We have now
to the next throughout the entire system.
to explain the celebrated theory of Gauss (1777-1855) which
was developed (1841) in order to avoid as much of this labor
as possible, by keeping steadily in view the fundamental re-
The methods which have
just
between the object-space and the image-space. It is

easy to show that the imagery produced by a symmetrical op-
lations
instrument in the vicinity of the axis is completely determined so soon as we know the positions of the focal points
and one pair of conjugate points on the axis, together with
tical
the ratio of the indices of refraction of the

of the system.
However,
first
and
last
media
for this purpose certain pairs of
conjugate axial points are distinguished above others on

account of their simple geometrical relations; and of these
the most important are the principal points and the nodal
These two pairs of conjugate points, together with
points.
the focal points, are sometimes called the cardinal points of
the optical system. We shall explain now how these points
are defined.
The Focal Planes and the Focal Points. In every

centered system of spherical refracting surfaces there are
(1)
Principal Planes
119]
and Principal Points
335
two (and only two) transversal planes at right angles to the

axis which are characterized by the following properties:
bundle of paraxial object-rays which
all
meet in a point
in one of these planes {called the primary focal plane) will

emerge from the system as a cylindrical bundle of parallel
image-rays; and, similarly, a cylindrical bundle of parallel

object-rays will emerge
from
the
system as a bundle of image-
meet in a point in the other one of these planes

The points in which these
{called the secondary focal plane)
rays which
all
by the axis are the primary and secondary focal points F and F', respectively.
Again,
(2) The Principal Planes and the Principal Points.
focal planes are pierced
in every
symmetrical optical system there
is
one (and only
one) pair of conjugate transversal planes characterized by

the property, that in these planes object and image are congruent; and, therefore,
any
straight line
drawn
parallel to the
axis will intersect these planes in a pair of conjugate points.
These are the so-called principal planes, one belonging to

{the primary principal plane) and the other
the object-space
belonging to the image-space
The
points H,
H' where the
{the
secondary principal plane).
optical axis crosses the prin-
cipal planes are the principal points of the system.
Atten-
was first directed to these points by Moebius in 1829,

but it was Gauss who recognized their significance for the
development of simple and convenient general formulae in
tion
the theory of optical imagery.
In
that
the principal planes the lateral magnification is unity,

is,
y'
y. (And
hence the principal planes and principal
points are called also, especially
planes and the unit points.)
by English
writers, the unit
Consider, for example, the case of
a single spherical refracting surface, for which we found
y'_f _f'+W
r
V f+u
If
we put y'=y, we
find u'
85)
'
= u = 0] which means
that the
principal points of a spherical refracting surface coincide with

saw likewise
each other at the vertex of the surface ( 81).
We
336
[H9
that these points coincided with each other at the optical

center of an infinitely thin lens
useful rule
is
( 94).
as follows:
To any ray in one region (object-space or image-space)

which goes through the focal point belonging to that region,
Nodal Planes and Nodal Points
119]
337
the ray in these two regions will intersect in a point lying in

the principal plane of that region to which the focal point in
is illustrated in the accompanying diaand at V' (Fig. 160, a and b).
grams at
Finally, in
(3) The Nodal Planes and the Nodal Points.
every centered system of spherical refracting surfaces there
question belongs; as
is
also a pair of conjugate transversal planes characterized
by the property, that
the angle between
any pair of
object-
'338
cipal plane in the point
0',then0' =
ZH'N'U'=
marked
U', so that
119
ZHNU=
if
0,
0.
Obviously, the quadrilateral
and hence H'N' = HN; that
is,
NUU'N'
the step
a parallelogram,
is
from one
of the prin-
cipal points to the corresponding nodal point is identical with

the step
from
point.
The nodal
the other principal point to its corresponding
points, therefore,
lie
side of the corresponding principal points
tances from them.
nodal
always on the same
and at equal
dis-
primary nodal point and principal

point coincide, the same will be true of the secondary nodal
= UU , =
point and principal point.
Moreover, since
HH', the interval between the nodal planes is precisely the
same as the interval between the principal planes.
If in the Smith-Helmholtz formula ( 118) we put 0' =
0, we find for the lateral magnification in the nodal planes
of a centered system of spherical refracting surfaces
If the
NN
l=
n"
where n and n' denote the indices of refraction of the first
and last media, respectively. Applying this result to the
case of a single spherical refracting surface, we obtain for
r
the nodal points N, N' the conditions u = u = r, that is,
AN' = AN = AC. Consequently, the nodal points of a spherical refracting surface coincide with each other at the center
C of the surface; as might have been inferred at once from
the fact that a central ray is not deviated by refraction at a
y
spherical surface.
(4)
Various writers on optics have distinguished other
pairs of conjugate axial points besides the principal points
and nodal
points,
but none of these can be said to have
achieved a permanent place in the literature of the subject.
We may
mention the so-called negative principal points, introduced by Toepler in 1871, which are characterized by
the fact that for this pair of points the lateral magnification is
equal to I; that is, y'=y, so that the image is inverted
and
of
same
size as object.
Professor S. P.
Thompson, hav-
Construction of Image
120]
ing this property in view, has re-named
339
them much more
happily the symmetric points of the optical system.

120. Construction of the Image-Point Q' conjugate to
Extra-axial Object-Point Q.
focal planes
If
have been determined,
it will
not be necessary
to trace the path of a ray in the interior of the system.
Fig. 162.
an
the principal planes and
Sup-
Construction of image-point Q' conjugate to object-point Q

in
pose, for example, that
an optical system.
(Fig. 162) designates the position
an object-point not on the axis; the position of the point

Q' conjugate to Q may be constructed as follows:
of
Through Q draw a straight' line QV parallel to the axis

meeting the secondary principal plane in the point marked
and also another straight line QF meeting the primary
marked W. The required point

Q' will be found at the point of intersection of the straight
principal plane in the point
line
V'F' with the straight
The
line
WQ' drawn
parallel to the
from Q, Q' on
to the axis will locate also a pair of conjugate axial points
axis.
M, M'.
feet of the perpendiculars let fall
The
construction
is
seen to be entirely similar to
that given in 71, 81 and 92.

figure
is
The
case represented in the
that of a convergent optical system, in which parallel
object rays are converged to a real focus at a point in the
secondary focal plane.
The student should draw
for
him-
340
self
121
the corresponding diagram for the case of a divergent
optical system.
121. Construction of the Nodal Points N, N\

Having determined the position of the point Q' conjugate to Q, we can
easily locate the positions of the nodal points N, N'. For
example, on the straight line WQ' (Fig. 162) take a point Z
such that ZQ' = HH', and draw the straight line QZ meeting
the primary principal plane in the point U. Draw UU' parallel
to the axis meeting the secondary principal plane in
the point U'.
Fig.
be
and the points where they
the nodal points N, N'
QU and
QTJ'
will
-Construction of nodal points (N, N'), and proof of

relation I'F' = FR.
163.
parallel,
Evidently, the straight lines
simpler
way
cross the axis will be
( 119).
of constructing the nodal points
N, N'
is
as follows
Through the primary
focal point
F draw
a straight line
FW meeting the primary principal plane in the point marked

W, and through
draw a straight line parallel to the axis

meeting the secondary focal plane in a point marked I' in
This point I' is the image-point of the infinitely
Fig. 163.
distant point I of the straight line
drawn through
I'
parallel to
FW
FW.
will
The
straight line
meet the
axis in the
secondary nodal point N' and the position of the other nodal
point
can be found immediately.
;
The diagram shows
also that
FH = N'F';
Construction of Image
121]
whence
it
341
follows ( 119) that
F'H' = NF.
Accordingly, the step from one nodal point
to the
correspond-
ing focal point is identical with the step from the other focal
point to
its
corresponding principal point.
segments of the axis FF',

half-way point.
HN' and H'N
Incidentally, another useful relation
glance in Fig. 163.
IH which
a
Let
In fact, the three

all
have a common
may
be seen at a
designate the point where the ray
passes through the primary principal point crosses
'
342
122
be at the point of intersection of the straight line H'Y'

with either of the straight lines W'Q' or V'F' shown in the
will
figure.
122.
co,
co'
The Focal Lengths
f,
Let us employ the symbols
to denote the slopes of a pair of conjugate rays which
pass through the principal points H, H'; thus, in Fig. 164
ZFHX=
rays
(see
ZF H Y = co';
/
co,
we may write
63), we have:
co
FX =
FH
and
since in the case of paraxial
andco'
in place of tanco
F^ =
F'H'
'
'
,
'
Accordingly, dividing one of these equations
and taking account
and tana/
of the fact that F'Y' =
by the
XF
other,
( 121),
we
obtain
FH
_&/
'
F'H'
co
Since the lateral magnification in the principal planes
equal to
+1, that
holtz formula
is,
is
( 119), the Smith-Helmfor the pair of conjugate points
since
118)
y''
H,H' takes the form:

n'.co'=n.co,
where n and n' denote the indices of refraction of the

and last media of the optical system.
If,
first
therefore, the focal lengths of the optical system are de-
fined as the abscissa? of the principal points with respect to their
corresponding focal points, that
is, if
we put /=FH, /' = F'H',
where /and/' denote the primary and secondary focal lengths,

respectively, then combining the relations found above so
as to eliminate the angles
co
/'
and
co',
we
find:
n'
which may be put in words as follows: The focal lengths of

a centered system of spherical refracting surfaces are proprotional to the indices of refraction of the first and last media,
and are opposite in sign; except in the single case when the
optical system includes an odd number of reflecting surfaces
f
=
Focal Lengths of Optical System
122]
in
which case
the focal lengths will have the
in this exceptional case, ///'
343
same sign (that
is,
= +w/n').
It appears, therefore, that the formula,
which was found
refracting surface
n'.f+n.f'=0,
79 and 96) to hold for a single spherical
and
for
an
infinitely thin lens, expresses,
in fact, a perfectly general relation
which
is
true of
centered system of spherical refracting surfaces.

for example, the optical
the
medium
first
is
system of the
air (n
= l) and
any
Consider,
human eye in which

medium is the
the last
To I at cc
To
E at oo-
To J'ata?
Fig. 165.
Focal lengths
so-called vitreous
1.336.
(/,/') of
an optical system.
humor whose index
In Gullstrand's
schematic
of refraction
eye
(see
is
130)
n'
the
primary focal length is found to be /=

17.055 mm.,
whence, according to the above formula, the secondary
focal length is /'= -22.785 mm.
In particular, when the media of object-space and imagespace are identical (n
= n)
the focal lengths are equal in
nitude, but opposite in sign
/'
(
= /)
This
is
mag-
the case with
most
optical systems, since they are usually surrounded by

According to the definitions of the focal lengths given
above, it follows from 121 that
air.
FH = N'F' =/,
and hence we
F'lT = NF =/';
see that the nodal points (N, N') of
with the
an
optical
medium on both sides coincide

principal points (H, H') for when n = n, then
FH=/= -/' = FN, F'H'=/' = -/=F'N'.
system surrounded by the same
344
The
95.
we can
system of spherical rebe defined also exactly as in 83

in Fig. 165 we put
0,ZH'F'V' = 0',
If
may
ZHFW=
write:
HW
tan
and
123
focal lengths of a centered
fracting surfaces
and
since
HW = FT,
H'V
'
0'
tan
H'V' = FJ, tan0 =
0,
'
tan0' =
0',
we
have:
Accordingly,
The focal
the linear
we may
also define the focal lengths as follows
length of the object-space (f) is equal to the ratio of
magnitude of an image formed in
the focal
plane
of the image-space to the apparent (or angular) magnitude of

the correspondingly infinitely distant object;
and, similarly, the
focal length of the image-space (/') is equal to the ratio of the

linear magnitude of
an
object lying in the focal
plane of the
object-space to the apparent (or angular) magnitude of its infinitely distant image.
The focal lengths may be said, therefore, to measure the

magnifying power of the optical instrument, for if the apparatus is adapted to an emmetropic eye ( 153), the image will
be formed at infinity, and the magnifying power will be determined by the
ratio of the apparent size of the
image to the
actual size of the object (see Chapter XIII).

123.
The Image-Equations in the case of a Symmetrical

The image-equations are a system of re-
Optical System.
lations
which enable us to find the position of an image-
point Q' (Fig. 162) conjugate to a given object-point Q.

position of the point Q will be given by its two co-
The
ordinates referred to a system of rectangular axes in the
object-space in the meridian plane in which the point
lies.
Naturally, the optical axis will be selected as the axis of

abscissae
and either the primary
focal point
or the primary
H as the origin. Thus, we put

HM=u,
FM = z
MQ=2/,
principal point
if
The Image-Equations
123]
the object-point
according as
Q will
we take
be the point
(x, y)
the origin at
345
or the point (u, y),
or H, respectively.
if we put
M'Q' = y',
H'M' =
Similarly, in the image-space,
<
F'M' = :r/,
f
the coordinates of Q' will be denoted by (x
according as the origin of this system of axes
y')
is
or (u
f
,
y')
at F' or H',
respectively.
a.
The
The image-equations
referred to the focal points F, F'.
following proportions are obtained from the
two pairs
FHW, FMQ and F'H'V, F'M'Q':

HW = FH M'Q^F'M'.
of similar triangles
MQ
and
HW = M'Q' =
we
FM'
H'V'
F'H''
since
find
H V' = MQ =
,
2/' f
2/,
FH=/,
F'H'=/',
immediately
x f"
y
whence the coordinates x', y' can be found in terms of the
given coordinates x, y and the focal lengths /, /'.
These formulae, which were obtained formerly for certain simple special cases ( 69, 85 and 93) are seen, therefore, to be entirely general and applicable always to any
The so-called Newtonian
symmetrical optical system.
form of the abscissa-relation, viz.,
x.x'=ff,
shows that the product of the focal-point abscissae is constant.
image-equations referred to the principal points
b. The
H,H'. Again, the following proportions are derived from
the two pairs of similar triangles FHW, QVW and F'H'V,
Q'W'V:
WV = VQ = HM VW = W^' = ITM'.
HW FH FH H'V F'H' FTT
and since WV = WH+HV = Q'M'+MQ =-(?/-?/)
'
'
V'W' = V'H'+H'W' = QM+M'Q' = (?/-?/), we

y'y _ _ u
y'-y _u
f
y'
/'*
and
find:
'
346
These relations give the following expressions
123
for the lateral
magnification
_f'+W_
y'_ f
u^
'
f+u
f'u
we obtain
f.u +f.u+u.u' = 0,
through by u.u' we have
Clearing fractions,
and dividing
',
the well-known
abscissa-relation
+4+1=0;
u u
which
may
also be obtained directly
by
substituting x =/+w,
x'=f'-\-u' in the equation x.x' =}.}'.
By means
of these formulae, the coordinates v!
be found in terms of the given coordinates
u,
f
,
may
y and the
focal lengths/,/'.
Since n'.f+n.f
( 122),
we have
also another expres-
sion for the lateral magnification, viz.,

y'
_n.u
n'.u
y
winch has likewise been obtained already in the special case
of a single spherical refracting surface ( 82).
simple and convenient method of locating the positions
of pairs of conjugate axial points
is
suggested by the ab-
scissa-relation
+4+1=0;
u
u
which
may be put in
the following form
HF
H'F'
Suppose, therefore, that the axial line segment
H'F
is
shoved
along the optical axis until the secondary principal point H'
is brought into coincidence with the primary principal point
H, and that then the optical axis

turned about H until it makes a
tical axis in
in Fig. 166.
the object-space
Through the
(x),
in the image-space (x
finite
is
angle with the op-
as represented, for example,
focal points
F and
F' draw the
The Image-Equations
123]
347
parallel to H'F' and HF, respecS designate their point of intersection. Then
any straight line drawn through S will intersect x and x' in
a pair of conjugate axial points M, M'; for if we put w =
and w' = H'M' in the equation above, the equation will
FS and F'S
straight lines
tively,
and
let
HM
Fig. 166.
Construction
axial object-point
evidently be satisfied.
HF'SF
is
of point M' conjugate to

in an optical system.
The vertex S
of the parallelogram
the center of perspective of the two point-ranges
x and x'.
c. The image-equations referred
to
any pair of conjugate
axial points 0, O'.

If the origins of the two systems of rectangular axes are
a pair of conjugate axial points 0, 0' whose distances from
the focal points F, F' are denoted by a, a', respectively, so
that
FO =a
F'O' = a'; and
OM =
if
z,
we put
0'M' = z',
then
x = a-\-z,
and
if
tions
x'
= a'-\-z';
these values of x and x' are substituted in the equa-
348
123
we obtain
y'_ f _a'+z'
Since a.a' =/./', the relation between z and z
may
be put in
the form:
^'+1=0,
Z
where the constants are now a and

Suppose,
points 0, O'
a'
instead of / and/'.
for example, that the pair of conjugate axial
identical with the pair of nodal points
is
N, N';
then
a = FO = FN = -/',
a'
image-equations referred
so
that
will
have the following forms
where
= F'O' = F'N' =
the
to
1+1-1 =
t = J-= z^l
= NM,
z-f
/'
-/;
nodal
the
points
'
2'=N'M'.
The image-equations in terms of the refracting power

reduced vergences (see 105 and 106).
The refracting power of the optical system is defined
d.
and
(
the
105)
by the
relations:
/
T
denote the indices of refraction of the first and
Similarly, the reduced vergences ( 106) with
last media.
where
n, n'
respect to the principal points are
u= nU
If,
therefore,
cipal points
two
w-%.
U
in the image-equations referred to the prin-
we
/, /' and u, u' by means of these

we obtain the image-equations in the
eliminate
pairs of formulae,
following exceedingly useful
and convenient form:
U' = U-\-F
If
U'
=
v'
the linear magnitudes are measured in terms of the meter
Magnification-Ratios
124]
349
as unit of length, the magnitudes denoted here
and
will all
be expressed in dioptries
The Magnification-Ratios and
124.
lations.
The
(a)
JJ'
Mutual Re-
their
magnification
lateral
by U,
( 107).
y.
This has
al-
ready been defined as the ratio of conjugate line-segments
The
lying in planes at right angles to the optical axis.
lowing expressions were obtained for this ratio in
_y' _f_x' _ f J'+v!

x /' J+u
y
f
whence we
_J.v! _n.u' _XJ

f'.u
n'.u
fol-
123:
.
U'''
see that the lateral magnification is a function
and that in any optical

system it may have any value from oo to
oo depending
on the position of the object.
(b)
The axial magnification or depth-ratio x. If x, x' deof the abscissa of the object-point,
note the abscissae with respect to the focal points of a pair

of conjugate axial points,
scissae of
and
-\-c' denote the abanother pair of such points immediately adjacent

if x-\-c,
to the former, then, since
x.x'=f.f = (x+c) (x'+c ),

and since moreover the product c.c' is a small magnitude of
the second order as compared with either of the small factors
c or c', and is therefore negligible, we find
f
c.x'-\-c.x
The
is
ratio
c'
= 0.
of small conjugate
segments of the axis
called the axial or depth-magnification.
denoted by the symbol

above
x, then,
If this ratio is
according to the equation
x2
'
so that, whereas the lateral magnification is inversely proportional to the abscissa x, the depth-magnification is inversely
proportional
to the
square of
In fact, the relation between
x.
the axial magnification and the lateral magnification
be expressed as follows
'
U2
may
350
The
axial magnification or
object
If,
is
" depth-elongation'
proportional to the square of
we take a
therefore,
(like
167.
Relation
between
its lateral
'
of a small
magnification.
series of ordinates, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
(Fig. 167), all of equal height
Fig.
124
and at equal
intervals apart
axial or depth-magnification
magnification.
and
lateral
a row of telegraph poles), their images will be of un-
equal heights and at unequal distances apart; but the in-
between the successive images will increase or diminish far more rapidly than the corresponding changes in
tervals
Accordingly, the image of a solid object can-
their heights.
not, in general, be similar to the object, but will be distorted,
since the dimension parallel to the axis of the optical

is
altered very
to the axis.
system
much more than the dimensions at right angles
This uneven distribution of the images of ob-
Problems
Ch. X]
351
up toward
Thompson).
the more distant objects appear to be compressed

those in front of
(Professor S. P.
The angular magnification
(c)
ratio z.
that
them "
If
if
is,
= ZFMJ,
we put
M'
where M,
= ZF'MT
0'
and image-space,
designate the points where
and secondary
by
(Fig.
0, 0',
168),
focal
and
primary
respectively,
crosses the
it
focal planes, then evidently:
tan0=
But the
convergence-
so-called
designate the points where the ray crosses the
axis in the object-space
J and
or
the slopes of conjugate rays are denoted
tan(?
lS'
'
5FF-
lengths are denned by the equations
FT
'
( 122):
FJ
J
tan0'
tan0"
and therefore
tan
= z-
tan
_x_
*~tan0~
where the
ratio
z=tan0'
= -p-
FT, we
Eliminating the intercepts FJ and

tan0_'
0'
_/
x"
/'
tan
obtain:
(or
0'
0) is
called the
angular magnification or the convergence-ratio. It is directly

proportional to the abscissa x of the object-point M.
The
by the
three magnification-ratios
jc,
y and z
are connected
following relation:
JL =1
x.z
PROBLEMS
1.
Taking the index
of
refraction
of
water = |,
show
that the sun's rays passing through a globe of water, 6 inches

in diameter, will be converged to a focus 6 inches from the
center of the sphere.
2.
A small
object
is
placed at a distance u from the nearer
side of a solid refracting sphere of radius r
and
of refractive
352
Show
index n.
[Ch.
that the distance of the image from the other
side of the sphere is
U
and
,_ 2r(u r)
n.u.r
~2(n-l)u-(n-2)r'
find the lateral magnification.
luminous point is situated at the first focal point of

symmetric double convex lens made of
The radius of
glass (of index 1.5) and surrounded by air.
each surface is 15 cm. Show that the image formed by rays
3.
an
infinitely thin
which have been twice reflected
in the interior of the lens
before emerging again into the air will be on the other side
of the lens at
a distance of 2.5 cm. from
An
is
4.
optical system
convex
lenses.
1.6202,
and the
ri
The index
composed
it.
two equal double
of
of refraction of the glass is
n=
radii, thicknesses, etc., are as follows:
=-r = 47.92243;
4
^ = ^3 = 0.2;
r3
= -r = 9.39617;
2
d 2 = 2.4287.
an incident paraxial ray crosses the axis at a distance

from the vertex of the first surface, show
that the emergent ray will cross the axis at a distance u\
33.65725 from the vertex of the last surface.
If
u\ 7.31101
A. Gleichen in his Lehrbuch der geometrischen Optik
5.
gives the following data of P. Goerz's "double anastigmat"
photographic objective, composed of three cemented lenses,

the
first
being a positive meniscus of crown glass, the second
a double concave
flint glass lens,
and the third a double con-
vex crown glass lens

Indices of refraction:
m=n
= l; n 2 = 1.5117; w 3 = 1.5478; n 4 = 1.6125
Radii:
n = - 0. 128965
r4
r2
= - 0.049597
r3
= +0. 196423
= -0.1266629
Thicknesses:
d l= +0.01277; d 2 = +0.00664; d,= +0.02114.
Show
that the second focal point of this system
is
at a dis-
tance of +1.111095 from the vertex of the last surface.
(See
Problems
Ch. X]
scheme
system
for calculation of paraxial ray
353
through a centered
of spherical refracting surfaces, 181).
Define the nodal points N, N' and show that
6.
/,
F'N' =
FN= -/',
where F, F' designate the positions of the
focal
points and /, /' denote the focal lengths of the optical system.
Under what circumstances are the nodal points
identical
with the principal points?
Derive the image-equations referred to the principal
7.
points.
Given the positions on the optical
8.
axis of the principal
points and of the focal points; construct the nodal points.

Also, construct the point Q' conjugate to a given object-
Draw diagrams
point Q.
for
convergent and divergent
systems.
Prove that
9.
n'./+w./' = 0,
where / and /' denote the focal lengths of the optical system,
and n and n' denote the indices of refraction of the first and
last
media.
10.
small cube
is
placed on the axis of a symmetrical
optical instrument with one pair of its faces perpendicular
Find the two places where the image of the cube

(Assume that the instrument is surrounded by the same medium on both sides.)
Ans. At the points for which the lateral magnification is
lor -1.
11. An object is placed 3 inches in front of the primary
to the axis.
will also
be a cube.
focal plane of a convergent optical system.
image
if
will
be one-and-a-half times as large as
a plate of glass (n =
Show
it
that the
was at
1.5) of thickness 3 inches is
first
interposed
in front of the object.

12.
Show
that the axial magnification at the nodal points
has the same value as the lateral magnification in the nodal

planes.
13.
the same
symmetrical optical instrument is surrounded by

medium on both sides. If the images of two small
354
objects
and
[Ch.
on the axis are formed at A' and
that the ratio of A'B' to
AB
is
B',
show
equal to the product of the
lateral magnifications for the pairs of conjugate points A,
and B,
14.
are
A'
B'.
Show
two
that in a symmetrical optical instrument there
pairs of conjugate points
on the axis
which an
for
displacement of the object will correspond to an equal displacement of the image and that the
infinitely small axial
focal points are
midway between
these points.
15. Show that in a symmetrical optical instrument surrounded by the same medium on both sides there are two
points on the axis where object and image will be in the same
plane; and that if a denotes the distance between the principal planes, the distance between t hese two points will be
Va(a+4f).
In a centered system of
the vertex of the &th surface
16.
m spherical refracting surfaces

is
designated
by
Ak
par-
axial ray crosses the axis before refraction at the first surface
which coincides with the primary focal point F

Before and after refraction at the
fcth surface this ray crosses the axis at
k+ i, rek and
'
spectively. If we put w k = A k
k+ i, show that
k wk = A k
at a point
Mi
of the optical system.
u 2 .u s
U\.U<i.
M
M
um
A
W m-1
where / denotes the primary focal length of the optical

system.
17. If
the symbols wk wk employed in the same sense as

a paraxial ray which is
,
in the preceding problem, refer to
incident on the
surface of the system in a direction
first
parallel to the optical axis,

71
u\.U 2
n' U2.U3.
show that
U^
Um
,_
'
U V U2
U2.U3.
^m
um
'
the system and n, n'

/, /' denote the focal lengths of
denote the indices of refraction of the first and last media.
18. Employing the formulae of No. 17, determine the focal
lengths of a hemispherical lens of glass of refractive index
where
Problems
Ch. X]
1.5;
and
355
find the positions of the principal planes
and the
focal planes.
Ans. If r denotes the radius of the curved surface, and
if
distances are measured from the vertex of this surface, the

distances of the focal points are
2r
distances of the principal points are
length
is
and +7r/3, and the

and +r/3. The focal
twice the length of the radius.
a paraxial ray, proceeding originally in a direction

parallel to the axis of a centered system of spherical refract19. If
ing surfaces (as in No. 17), crosses the axis in the
index nk at a point
the kih surface
is
Vc7k-i+/'k-i
Fk
of
Fhk = Fhk-i (U k +Fk )

where
medium
whose distance from the vertex of

wk = A k k (Uk = nk /u k ), show that
k
denotes the refracting power of the
nk-),
I
A;th surface,
power of the system of surfaces

bounded by the 1st and kth. inclusive {F\,\ = Fi and Fi, = 0),
and dk _i = A k _i A k denotes the axial thickness between the
surfaces bounding the medium of index nk
Fi,k denotes the refracting
CHAPTER XI
COMPOUND SYSTEMS.
THICK LENSES AND COMBINATIONS

OF LENSES AND MIRRORS
Two Optical Systems

terms of the Focal Lengths. Suppose that the optical
system consists of two parts I and II, each composed of
a centered system of spherical refracting surfaces with their
125. Formulae for Combination of
in
optical axes in the

parallel to this
(Fig. 169),
same
common
which we
straight line.
shall
points with respect to the
On
optical axis take
a straight line
two points P, P'
assume to be a pair
compound system
of conjugate
(I +11);
and
Vi'
X'
Combination
125]
of
Two
Optical Systems
357
the primary focal point of system I and select also the posi;
and H 2 H 2 of systems
Through Fi draw the straight line
tions of the principal points Hi, Hi'

I
and
II, respectively.
'
PWi
meeting the primary principal plane of system I in the

Wi; take Hi'Wi' = HiWi, and draw the straight line
Wi'G 2 parallel to the axis meeting the primary principal
plane of system II in the point G 2 take H 2 'G 2 = H 2 G 2 and
draw the straight line G 2 P which must necessarily cross
the optical axis at the secondary focal point F 2 ' of system II.
Let the straight line drawn through P parallel to the oppoint
'
meet the primary and secondary principal planes

system I in the points designated by Vi and Vi', respectively; and select a point on the optical axis for the position
of the secondary focal point F/ of system I.
Through Fi'
draw the straight line V/Fi' meeting the primary principal
plane of system II in L 2 take H 2 'L 2 ' = H 2 L 2 and draw the
straight line L 2 'P', which will cross the optical axis in the
secondary focal point F' of the compound system.
Let the straight line drawn through P' parallel to the optical axis meet the primary and secondary principal planes
of system II in the points K 2 and K 2 ', respectively and let
tical axis
of
designate the point of intersection of the pair of straight
lines
W/G
and
V/L 2
The point where the
straight line
primary
II.
Let the straight line K 2 F 2 meet
plane of system I in the point T/,
then the straight line PTi will cross
primary focal point F of the com-
crosses the optical axis will be the position of the

focal point
F2
system
of
the secondary principal
and take HiTi = Hi'T/;

the optical axis at the
pound system.
The diagram constructed according to the above directions represents a perfectly general case. The focal lengths
of the component systems are: /i = FiHi, /i = Fi H/ and
/2 = F 2 H 2 /2 =F 2 H 2 and the focal lengths of the compound
system are: /=FH, /'=F'H'. The step from the secondary
/
focal point of the first
system to the primary focal point of

A = Fi'F2
the system will be denoted by the symbolA; thus,
Mirrors, Prisms
358
Now
we know the
and Lenses
125
on the optical axis of the

two component systems,
together with the values of the focal lengths fh // and /2 /2 ',
if
focal points Fi, Fi'and
positions
F 2 F2
,
'
of the
easy to calculate the positions of the focal points F, F'

and the values of the focal lengths /, /' of the compound
system; as will now be shown.
it is
The
position of the primary focal point
of the
compound
be found from the fact that F and F 2 are a pair

of conjugate axial points with respect to system I, and hence
system
may
(123, a);
FiF. FiTi-A/i'.
And,
similarly, the position of the secondary focal point F'
may be found from
the fact that Fi' and F' are a pair of con-
jugate points with respect to system

77* T7I /
i*
F/"EV
2 r .r 2 r i
2
=J
II, so
J*
.J 2
that
/
.
Accordingly, the positions of the focal points F, F' with respect to the known points Fi, F 2 ', respectively, are given by
the following f ormulse
125]
Combination
Two
of
Optical Systems
359
and hence:
F H=g|.FH,
Now FH =FF +F H
F 2 H '=F 2 F
and
=-^+/ =-(/ '-A);

1
-A.
FH=/, F 2 H 2 =/2 we
-fFi
Accordingly, putting
'=/1
obtain:
}~
whereby the primary
>h
/i
~a~'
compound system
focal length of the
may
be calculated.
Similarly, from the figure we obtain the relations:
FTT _ IFF
F
and
since
H ~H L
,
FH
H/Vi' ^ F/H/
H 2 L 2 ~ Fi'H 2
'
F^H/ =//,
F'H' =/',
/
,_
-FF,'+F, H,'-^+/ -^(/+A)

/
F/H 2 = Fi F 2 -r-F 2 H 2 =/2 -f-A,

we obtain an analogous expression for the secondary
length of the compound system, as follows
J
focal
'
varying the interval A, which is the common denominator of all these expressions, it is obvious that it is possible
with two given component systems to obtain combinations
By
of
widely different optical
Fi' coincides with
F2
effects.
focal points F, F' will be situated
the focal lengths
In particular,
so that the interval
/, /' will
be
both at
infinite also.
for example, with the optical instrument
scope; and, accordingly,
any
when
vanishes, the
infinity, so
This
known
is
that
the case,
as the tele-
optical system which trans-
forms a cylindrical bundle of parallel rays into another

cylindrical bundle of parallel rays is called a telescopic (or
The simplest illustration of such a system
afocal) system.
is afforded by a single plane refracting surface or by a plane
mirror.
360
Two
126. Formulae for Combination of
terms of the Refracting Powers.
in
126
Optical Systems
Although the formulae
derived in the preceding section are very simple and convenient, Gullstrand's system of formulae in terms of the
refracting powers possesses certain advantages
more
useful.
The
may
latter formulae
ately from the former, as will
and
is
even
be derived immedi-
now be shown.
In Gullstrand's system the interval between the two

component optical sj^stems is expressed, not by A, but by
( 104) c of the primary principal point
system II from the secondary principal point H/ of
system I. Thus, if n h n 2 and n 2 n^ denote the indices of
refraction of the first and last media of systems I and II,
the reduced distance
of
respectively, then
c
H/H
2
.
n2
The connection between the two magnitudes
and
is
easily obtained; for since
F
we
=F
H/+H H +H F
,
2,
find immediately:
A=/i'+n2 .c-/2
Now
let
us introduce the following symbols:
/i
/i
where F\, F 2 denote, therefore, the refracting powers of the

component systems and F denotes the refracting power of
the compound system ( 105 and 123, d). Hence, since
/l==
we may
Now
if
~Fi
/2=
write:
this value of
A is
~
substituted in either of the formulae
"A"
"
'
Combination
126]
and
if
Two
of
Optical Systems
361
the focal lengths are expressed in terms of the refract-
ing powers,
we
find
F=F l +F 2 -c.F l .F2

Gullstrand's formula for the refracting power
of the compound system in terms of the refracting powers
of the two component systems and of the interval c between
;
which
is
them.
Likewise,
if
in the formulae
-p -p
_ /i*/i
we
eliminate
/i,
_ h-h
A
F
put A= n
-p /-p/
2
'
// and f2 // and
,
2 ri
we ob-
\.t 2
FiF and F 2 F the following

/
tain for the reduced steps
ex-
pressions:
FVF =
FiF = J^_
m ~F.Fi
The positions of the focal

tem with respect to Hi,
"
7i3
F.F 2
compound
points F, F' of the
sys-
respectively are obtained as
2 ',
follows
H F = H1F1+F1F = FiF - m/Fi,

= H F +F F =F 'F +n />
X
H
and
and
if
if
2 'F'
herein the values of

also
are substituted,
we note that
F-F
F-F^F^l-c.Fi),
we
FiF and F 2 'F'

2
=Fi(l-c.F 2 ),
obtain finally:
HiF
l-c.F2
H 'F'
1-c.ffi
'
'
Moreover, since
H H = H F+FH = HiF+m/F,
= H 'F'+F'H' = WF'+rh/F,
1
'H'
the
Gullstrand system
two
optical systems
of formulae for the combination of
may be
HiH = F 2
~W
written as follows
F=F +F
l
Accordingly,
if
H H
F\
~^~ = ~F X
C}
~F'
2
-c.F l .F 2
'
the positions of the principal points Hi,
H/
362
127
and H 2 H 2 of the two component systems, the refracting

powers F\y F 2 and the indices of refraction m, n 2 and n 3 are
known, we can calculate the reduced interval c and find the
refracting power F of the compound system and the positions of the principal points H, H'. We shall see numerous
'
applications of these formulae in the succeeding sections of

this chapter.
Thick Lenses Bounded by Spherical Surfaces.

When a centered system of spherical refracting surfaces consists of two surfaces, it constitutes a spherical lens involving
127.
medium
medium comprised between
three media, viz., the
of the incident rays (ni), the
two spherical
the
surfaces,
sometimes called the lens-medium (n 2 ), and the medium of

the emergent rays (n 3 ), which is generally but not necessarily
the same as that of the incident rays.
Usually, a lens
is
de-
by assigning the values of the three indices of refraction and the positions of the centers Ci, C 2 and the vertices Ai, A 2 on the optical axis; the usual data being the
radii ri=AiCi, r 2 = A 2 C 2 and the thickness d=A\A 2
The
lens may be regarded, therefore, as a combination of two
spherical refracting surfaces whose refracting powers Fi, F2
are given by the formulae ( 105)
scribed
rv \ =
fh-ni
,
r2=
n 3 -n 2
.
r2
Since the principal points of a spherical refracting surface

coincide with each other at the vertex of the surface ( 81
and
119), the interval
c=
-=
-
n2
c=
n2
*
,
and therefore
n
2
Accordingly,
special
if,
by way
of abbreviation,
we introduce the
symbol
N=n
(n 2 -ny)r 2
-(n 2 -n3 )ri}+(n 2 -n3 )(n 2 -ni)d
to denote a constant of the lens,
we
obtain,
by
substituting
Thick Lens Formulae
127]
the values of
F h F2 and
the formula
c in
363
F=Fi+F2 c.Fi.F2
F
the following expression for the refracting power
of a lens:
n2.r1.r2
where the value of F will be given in dioptries in case the

distances n, r 2 and d are all measured in meters ( 107).
The
positions of the principal points (H, H') of a lens are
determined in the same way by the formulae
and the
n 2 -n 3
^7 n.d,
AiH =
H'
n 2 -ni
^r r 2 .d;
may
positions of the focal points (F, F')
likewise be
calculated from the following expressions:
F'
-^{712.7-24
= 2 \n 2 .r\ (712 n{) d
713
When, as is usually the case, the lens is surrounded by

same medium on both sides, we may put
m = n3 = n, n 2 =n';
the
and then the above formulae become
N = (n' - n)
n' (r 2
F=
AiH =
n
n'
- r 1) + (n' - n) d
N
n
.n.r2
Tf- n.d,
H'
=
n
- n-1rf-n r
2 .d;
A 2 F' r 2
AiF
ft
NJ
f
NJ
=~\ n'.n- {n'n)
^
n'.r 2 +(n -n)d\,
- n\
n
n
N
N{
The nodal points (N, N ) of a lens surrounded by the same
,
medium on both
sides coincide with the principal points
( 122).
The
positions of the focal points
and principal points
may
be exhibited in the case of a thick convergent lens in

the following manner, as described in Grimsehl's Handbuch
der Physik:
Two
thin piano-lenses, each 4 cm. in diameter, are ce-
mented with Canada balsam
to the opposite faces of a glass
128]
"Vertex Refraction" of Lens
365
cube of edge 4 cm. and made of the same glass, so as to form

a thick symmetric double convex lens, as represented in
Fig. 170, a, b and c. A diaphragm with three parallel horizon-
path of a cylindrical beam of parallel

into three smaller beams, and the
lens is adjusted so that the middle beam proceeds along
the axis of the lens. The paths of the rays in air can be
rendered visible by tobacco-smoke and may be photographed. In this way figures will be obtained similar to
those shown in the diagrams. The position of the secondary focal point F' is shown by the point of convergence of
the rays on emergence (Fig. 170, a). A point in the second
tal slits is placed in the
rays so as to separate
it
principal plane of the lens
may
be located by rinding the
point of intersection of an incident ray parallel to the axis
with the corresponding emergent ray
( 119),
as indicated
by the dotted lines in the figure; and the second principal

point H' will be at the foot of the perpendicular dropped
from
this point
on to the
axis.
If
the rays are sent through
the lens from the opposite side (that
from right to left in

on emergence
in the primary focal point F; and the position of the primary
principal point H may be found in exactly the same way
as above. The two diagrams Figs. 170, a and b, are combined in one in Fig. 170, c. In Fig. 170, d, the lens is concave towards the incident light and convex when viewed
from the other side; and this figure shows very clearly how
the focal points F, F' and the principal points H, H' may be
both unsymmetrically placed with respect to the lens, although here also we have, as before, FH = H'F'.
128. So-called " Vertex Refraction " of a Thick Lens
The step from the second vertex (A 2 ) of a lens to the second
focal point (F'), which may be denoted by v, is sometimes
called the "back focus" of the lens; that is, v=A 2 ~F'.
If
the lens is surrounded by the same medium (n) on both
sides, then v/n = (l c.Fi)/F, where F denotes the refracting power of the lens, F\ denotes the refracting power of
the drawing, Fig. 170,
6),
they
is,
will intersect
366
the
first
The
surface,
fracting
and c=d\n' denotes the reduced thickness.

magnitude v/n is called the vertex re-
power
is
= VJ
and
its
relation to the re-
given by the formula:
is
V=
F
129
reciprocal of this
fraction of the lens
If
F
1-c.Fi
n'n d
n
ri
given in dioptries, the values of d and
must be
ex-
pressed in meters; and then the expression above will give
V in
The importance of this function

modern spectacle lenses has been pointed
out by Von Rohr; it is measured from the second face of the
the value of
dioptries.
in the theory of
lens because that
is
the side next the eye.
(with spherical surfaces)
reversed
is
When
by turning
it
a lens
through
180 around any line perpendicular to its axis, the refracting

power F remains the same, whereas the vertex refraction V
will be different unless the lens is a symmetric lens or infinitely thin, in which latter case d =
and VF.
Thus,
whereas the refracting power of a lens is the same whether
the light traverses it from one side or the other, the vertex
refraction depends essentially on which side of the lens is
presented to the incident rays.
Combination of Two Lenses. Let us take the simand suppose that the system is composed of two
Let
infinitely thin co-axial lenses, each surrounded by air.
Ai and A 2 designate the points where the optical axis meets
the two lenses, and let the interval between them be denoted
by c; that is, put c = AiA 2 Since the principal points of
129.
plest case,
an
infinitely
thin
lens
coincide with each
other
at
the
where the axis crosses the lens, and since the intervening medium is assumed to be air of index unity, this
distance c has here the same meaning as the reduced interval c = Hi'H 2 /n 2 in the general formulae of 126. Accordingly, we may write immediately the following system
of formulae for a combination of two thin lenses of refracting
point
Combination
129]
powers Fi,
of
Two
surrounded on both sides by
2,
rated by the distance
These formulae
and/2
1-c.Fo
may
also
J2
The
.F 2
A.F""
'
"^
be expressed in terms of the focal
as follows:
Jf
AM-U
and sepa-
A2H'= -^-;
AiH=-^r>
AiF=-
air
c:
F=Fl +F2 - c .F
lengths /i
367
Lenses
Mi
/1+/2-C'
A&U A
lF
=-^p^,
/l
positions of the focal points F, F'
F-^p).
/l
J2
and the
princi-
Combination of two thin lenses. Graphical method

a.
of determining the positions of the first focal point (F) and
principal point (H) Case when both lenses are convex.
Fig. 171,
pal points
H, H'
lenses surrounded
as follows
of a
by
combination of two infinitely thin
air
may
be constructed geometrically
368
Draw
a straight
pair of thin lenses,
the
common
and mark the points Ai and
axis of the
2
(Fig. 171,
where the axis crosses the lenses, and also the

positions of the primary focal points Fi and F 2
Through
F 2 draw a straight line perpendicular to the axis, and take
on it a point K such that F 2 K = F 2 A 2 =/2; this point K lying
a, b,
and
line to represent
[129
c)
Combination of two thin lenses. Graphical method

b.
of determining the positions of the first focal point (F) and
principal point (H) Case when first lens is concave and second
Fig. 171,
lens convex.
above or below the axis according as the second lens is convex or concave, respectively. Through K draw a straight
line parallel to the axis and through Ai a straight line perpendicular to the axis; and let L designate the point where
Moreover, let P designate the
these two lines intersect.
point of intersection of the pair of straight lines LFi and KAi.
The foot of the perpendicular let fall from P on to the axis
F of the compound system;

be equal to the primary focal length
f of the compound system; and hence if the quadrant of a
be the primary
and the ordinate FP
will
focal point
will
Combination
129]
circle is
described around
of
Two
369
Lenses
as center with radius FP,
cut the axis at the primary principal point H, which

the right or
left of
according as the point
falls
it will
lies
to
above or
below the axis.

are
According to this construction, the points P and
a pair of conjugate extra-axial points with respect to the
Combination of two thin lenses. Graphical method of dec.

termining the positions of the first focal point (F) and principal point
(H) Case when first lens is convex and second lens concave.
Fig. 171,
:
first lens;
so that the construction really consists in locating
the object-point
point K.
which
is
imaged by the
first
lens in the
This will help the student to remember the con-
struction.
In order to show that the construction
is
correct, let J
designate the point of intersection of the pair of straight

lines FP and LK. Then since JP and FP are corresponding
PLK and PFiAi, we

+A F ^ c-/
AiA
=
altitudes of the similar triangles
JP = L
AiF 2
2,
FP"FiArFiAi" FiAi
Now JP=JF+FP=KF 2 +FP = FP-/
FP-/2 c-/2
FP
/i
/i
and
therefore:
'
and
if
this equation
is
solved for FP,
we
FP
/,
/1+/2-C
find
have:
370
in
Moreover
agreement with the formula found above.

AiFP and AiF 2 K,
130
in
the similar triangles
AiF = AxF2
and
since
which
is
AiF 2 = c-/2
FP ~F 2 K
F 2 K=/2 FP=/, we
find:
likewise in agreement with the formula found above.
Similarly,
mark the
F/ and F 2 and
positions of the secondary focal points
F/ draw a straight line perpendicand take on it a point O such that

Fi'O = F/Ai =//. Through O draw the straight line OR parallel to the axis, and through A 2 a straight line perpendicular
to the axis; and let R designate the point where these two
',
through
ular to the optical axis,
lines intersect.
Then
if
tion of the straight lines
designates the point of intersec-
F 2 'R and A 2 0,
that
is,
if
is
the
image of O in the second lens, the secondary focal point F' of

the combination will be at the foot of the perpendicular
drawn from Q to the optical axis, and the secondary principal point H' will lie on the axis at a distance F'H^F'Q.
This construction may be proved in a manner entirely analogous to the proof given above.
130. Optical Constants of Gullstrand's Schematic
As a
Eye.
further illustration of the use of the formulae for the
CORNEA
^^
AQUEOUS
"3
Fig. 172.
CORE
txA
\VITREOUS
tic,
Schematic eye.
combination of two optical systems,
let
us apply them to
the calculations of the refracting power (F) of the human

eye, together with the positions of the principal points (H,H')
Constants of Schematic Eye
130]
and the
focal points (F, F').
For
this
purpose we shall use
the data of Gullstrand's schematic eye

state,
accommodation
in the third edition of
gischen Optik, Bd. I
and 301, as follows
relaxed)
entirely
(in its
which are
Helmholtz's Handbuch
(Hamburg
371
passive
given
der physiolo-
u. Leipzig, 1909),
pages 300
(see Fig. 172)
Indices of refraction:
n 2 = 1.376
Cornea
Aqueous and vitreous humors n 3 = n 7 = 1.336
n 4 = n 6 = 1 .386
Lens
n 5 = 1.406
Lens-core
Position of ssurfaces:
Posterior surface of cornea
mm.
372
Hence,
if
Fn
130
denotes the refracting power of the cornea-
system, where
Fi2=Fi+F 2 C1.F1.F2,
we
find:
F12
The
= +43.053
dptr.
positions of the principal points of the cornea-system
by the
are given
formulae:
AiHi2 _ Ci.Fa
Fu
Hi 2
n3
'
g.Fi
'
Fn
'
whence we find:
A1H12 = - 0.0496 mm.,
AiHi 2 = - 0.0506 mm.
The lens-system is composed of four refracting surfaces.
The first two surfaces form the so-called anterior cortex and
the last two surfaces the posterior cortex. The refracting
power of the anterior surface of the lens is
'
ft .*=*.. +5 dptr.;
and that
of the anterior surface of the lens-core
F J*Zl** +2.528
is
dptr.
r4
The reduced
interval between these
two surfaces
A3A4 0.000546
~ ru ^
~ 1.386
denotes the refracting power
is
C3
'
Hence,
F 34
if
tion, that
of the
combina-
is, if
Fs^=F3 +F4 C3.F3.F4,

we
find:
If
by
F 34 =4-7.523
dptr.
the principal points of the anterior cortex are designated
H34,
34 ',
then
A3H34
A H 34
C3.F4
F34
'
whence we obtain:
AiH 34 = +3.777 mm.,
nh
C3.F3
34
'
A1H34' = +3.778
mm.
so that the principal points of the anterior cortex are coin-
cident with each other,
Constants of Schematic Eye
130]
way with
Proceeding in the same
373
the posterior cortex,
we
have:
=^^- = +3.472
5
dptr.,
=^^- = +8.333
6
_ A 5 A 6 _ 0.000635
~ n
1.386
C5
and hence
we
find
'
if
F 66 = F 5 +F 6 ~C& .F 5 .F
F b6 = + 1 1 .792 dptr.
dptr.,
r&
rb
6)
Moreover, since
we have
'
FbQ
rib
Fb&
rn
finally for the positions of the principal points of
the posterior cortex:
AiH 56 = +7.0202 mm., AiH 56 = +7.0198 mm.

H 56 and H 56 may also be regarded as coincident.
'
so that
'
the refracting power of the lens-system as a whole
If
is
denoted by L, then
L =7^34+^56^5.^34-^56,
where
S
and
if
_ H 84 H 56
~ rib
__
0.0032422
""1.406
P, P' designate the principal points of the lens-system,
then
B^jJF^
Accordingly,
we
Hse'P' ^
7i3
5.^34
ni
find:
L= +19.110 dptr.;
AiP= +5.6780 mm.,
AiP' = +5.8070
Lastly, combining the cornea-system
we obtain for the

tem of the eye
refracting
power
F=F +L-c.F
l2
of the entire optical sys-
12 .L,
where
Hi2
C
==
mm.
and the lens-system,
P ^ 0.0057285
1.336
'
374
131
Also,
Hi2H = cX
_c.Fi 2
'
where H, H' designate the positions of the principal points of

Thus, we find
the eye.
F =+58.64 dptr.;
AiH= +1.348 mm., AiH' = +1.602 mm.
If
the focal lengths of the eye are denoted
since
The
by / and
/',
then,
f= rii/F and /' = - n 7/F, we obtain

/= +17.055 mm.,
/' = -22.785 mm.
focal points F, F' are located as follows
AiF = -
15.707 mm.,
AiF' = +24.387 mm.
In Gullstrand's schematic eye the length of the eyeball
is taken as 24 mm., and therefore the second focal point F'
is not on the retina but 0.387 mm. beyond it; so that the
schematic eye
not emmetropic but hypermetropic (see
is
153) to the extent of 1 dptr.
It is fre131. Combination of Three Optical Systems.

quently the case, especially in problems connected with
physiological optics, that we desire to find the resultant of
three co-axial optical systems of
Fi Fi and
9
known
separated by given intervals

Ci
H2
= Hi
c2
refracting powers
c h c2 ,
where
Ho H3
,
component systems being desigand H 3 H 3 '. The indices of refraction of the first and last media of system I are denoted
by nit n 2 f system II by ti 2 ^3,' and of system III by n 3 n 4
Here let us employ the symbol D to denote the refracting
power of the compound system (I +11), and the letters G, G'
the principal points of the
nated by Hi, Hi';
H H
2,
2 ';
to designate the positions of the principal points of this partial
combination.
derived in
126,
write:
D=F +F -c .F .F
H G^ c1.F1
D
D
2
HiG = c F2
Til
according to the formulae
Evidently,
we may
'
713
'
Combination
131]
Now
let
of systems
of
Three Optical Systems
and
II
III,
and
H, H' designate the
let
the reduced interval between
if
k,
that
375
denote the refracting power of the combination

I,
tions of the principal points of this
by
posi-
compound system. Then
(I
+11) and III
is
denoted
is, if
k=
G'H 3
nz
then also
F = D+F -k.D.F
z
GH
k.F 3
3,
H 'K'
k.D
'
"
Since
Gr
H3
we
H2
H2
Cj
nz
nz
nz
find:
k=
If
and
now
c 1 .F 1 +c2 .D
these equations are combined so as to eliminate
the following system of formulae for the combination of

three optical systems will be obtained finally
k,
F=Fi(l - c 2 .F 3 ) +F 2 (1 - c1.F1)
HiH
H H
/
1-ci.Fi
/
=_
7i4
In the special
rical with respect
and
c2
-c
2 F,)
+F
C2.F3-C1.F1
ci
(1
8 (1
- C1.F1)
F(l-ci.Fi)'
c2
c 2.F3-c1.F1
I-C2.F3
F(1-C2.F3)
'
case when the compound system is symmetto system II, that is, when n 3 = n 2 and n = n\
= ci = c and
=Fi, the formulae above
will
be simpli-
fied as follows:
F=(l-c.F0 (2Fi+F 2 -c.Fi.F2 ),
HiH = HTV =
ni
n\
c
1
- c.Fi
Thus, if an optical system is symmetrical with respect to

a middle component part of the system, the principal
points (H, H') will be symmetrically placed, and their positions will be independent of the refracting power F 2 of the
376
132
middle system. These latter formulae should be compared

with the formulae for a " thick mirror" to be developed in
the following section.
132. " Thick Mirror."
The general formulae which have

been derived in this chapter are applicable also when
the centered system of spherical surfaces includes one or
more reflecting surfaces, provided that reflection is treated
as a special case of refraction, according to the method explained in 75. Thus, for example, if the rays are reflected
at the kth surface of the system, we must put nk+1 = -nk
;
and, consequently,
if
the reflecting power of this surface
is
denoted by Fk we shall have Fk = nk /fk =nk /f k in accordance with the characteristic requirement that the focal
lengths of a spherical mirror are identical, that is, /=/'
,
(see 77).
special case of
occurs
when
much
interest
and
practical importance
the last surface of the system acts as
a mirror,
the rays of light arriving there being reflected back through

the system as so to emerge finally at the
the
medium
ample, this
happens always
mirror which
first
surface into
For exan ordinary glass
of index n\ where they originated.
is
in the case of
silvered at the back.
The rays
return into
the air in front of a mirror of this kind after having twice

traversed the thickness of the glass, and the failure to take
account of the refractions from air to glass and from glass
sometimes responsible for serious errors in the

measurement of the focal length of a glass mirror silvered
at the back. The image produced by rays which have been
partially reflected from the second surface of an ordinary
lens is often very disturbing, although the intensity of the
reflected fight is usually comparatively feeble unless the
second surface of the lens has been silvered.
The name "thick mirror" has been applied by Dr. Searle*
to any combination of centered spherical refracting surfaces
to air
is
* G. F. C. Searle:
mirror.
The determination
of the focal length of a thick
Proc. Cambr. Phil. Soc, xviii, Part
iii,
1915, 115-126.
" Thick Mirror
132]
377
wherein the rays are supposed to be reflected at the last surand to return through the system #in the opposite sense.
face
may
It
easily be
shown that a " thick mirror"
as thus de-
fined acts exactly like a single spherical reflecting surface

(or
"thin mirror," as we
may
having in mind a
calhit,
cer-
and mirrors),
whose vertex and center have perfectly definite and calculable positions depending on the constants of the "thick
mirror." This is proved by Dr. Searle in a simple manner
tain analogy which exists here between lenses
as follows
In Fig. 173 the system
represented as consisting of
is
three spherical surfaces, the
first
two forming a thick
LENS
Fig. 173.
and the
MIRROR
Diagram of "thick mirror" system.
last surface being
at a point
lens
on the
a spherical mirror with
axis of the lens.
Draw
its
vertex
the straight line
QV parallel to the axis of the system to represent the path of

an incident ray; which
and being
again emerge from the lens and
after traversing the lens
reflected at the mirror will
cross the axis at the secondary focal point (F') of the system.
V designates the point of intersection of the inray QV and the corresponding emergent ray VF',
The point
cident
and hence
this point
plane of the system
must
( 119).
from
ondary principal point H'.
perpendicular
let fall
in the secondary principal

Consequently, the foot of the
lie
on to the axis
But by the
will
be the
sec-
principle of the re-
378
versibility of the light-path ( 29),
regarded as an incident ray, then
if
VQ
the straight line

will
132
F'V
is
be the path of the
corresponding emergent ray, and since in this case the emergent ray
is
parallel to the axis, the corresponding incident
ray F'V must cross the axis at the primary focal point F,
so that the two focal points F and F' will be coincident.
Moreover, the point V must lie in the primary principal

and hence the two principal planes are coincident.
But these are the characteristics of a spherical mirror, and
it is evident that the " thick mirror" is equivalent to a "thin
plane,
(or IF) and its center at a point

mirror" with its vertex at
such that HK=2HF.
The four images of Puekinje are the catoptric images
by
and posterior
which are of
fundamental importance in determining the curvatures and
positions of the refracting surfaces in the optical system of
the eye. The first image is produced by direct reflection at
the anterior surface of the cornea, but the optical systems
which give rise to the three other images are more or less
complicated. However, according to the above explanation,
each of these systems may be reduced to a single reflecting
formed
in the eye
reflection at the anterior
surfaces of the cornea
and the
crystalline lens;
surface of appropriate radius with its center at a certain

definite place to
problem.
One
be ascertained by the conditions of the
of these cases will be investigated presently,
as soon as the formulae for a thick mirror have been devel-
oped.
The
radius and positions of the vertex and center of the
equivalent "thin mirror"
may
easily be calculated
by means
which were obtained in the preceding section for a combination of three optical systems. Here
the first system (I) of refracting power F\ may be regarded
as composed of the entire lens-system lying in front of the
reflecting surface; while the mirror itself of reflecting power
F 2 may be regarded as the second system (II). In this case
the third system (III) will be the lens-system reversed, and
of the general formulae
"
" Thick Mirror
132]
379
power will be the same as that of system I,

Fz = F 2 but the principal points 3 and H 3 of system
III will coincide with the principal points HY and Hi, reAbove all we must impose here
spectively, of system I.
its
refracting
that
is,
'
the conditions that

ft 4 = fti= ft,
where n denotes the index of refraction of the medium of
the object-space and n' denotes the index of refraction ofthe medium in contact with the reflecting surface. These
conditions take account of the fundamental fact that the
7i 3
= ri2=n
sense of propagation of the light
The
principal points
other at
H H
2,
'
reversed by the mirror.
vertex which will be designated here
its
If therefore Ci, Oi
letter A'.
is
of the mirror coincide with each
by the
denote the reduced intervals
between the first system and the mirror and between the
mirror and the third system, we have
A'H 3 Hi'A'
H/A'
Ci
c2
and hence
ci
Moreover,
by
r',
2n'
F = .
then
= c 2 = c,
say.
the radius of the reflecting surface
if
is
denoted
Introducing these relations in the
general formulae for the combination of three optical sys-
tems
( 131),
the reflecting
points H13,
we
obtain the following expressions for finding
power (F u ) and
Hi 3
'
the positions of the principal
of a "thick mirror":
Fi 3 = (l-c.F 1 ) (2F 1 +F 2 -c.F 1 .F 2 )
= a-c.F1){2F1 -'^-(l-c.F1 )};
H,H 13 H^,/
ft
ft
c
1
c.Fi
we see not only that the principal points of

a " thick mirror" are coincident with each other, but that
"
the position of the vertex Hi 3 of the equivalent "thin mirror
is entirely independent of the power F 2 or the curvature of
Accordingly,
Mirrors, Prisms, and Lenses
380
132
the actual mirror. The position of Hi 3 does depend on the

position of the vertex A' of the actual mirror; but for any
mirror placed at A' the vertex of the equivalent " thin mir-
ror" will be at the same point
Hi 3
It
may
be noted that
the formula for the reflecting power of a " thick mirror" is

identical in form with the expression for the refracting power
of a
compound system which

member (see end of
a middle
If
is
symmetric with respect to
131).
the center of the equivalent "thin mirror"
by K, then
its
is
designated
radius will be
2n
H K
13
and hence
c.F 2 -2
HiK _
n
If
2F1+F2-C.F1.F2'
the surface of the mirror
(II) is plane,
then F2 =0, and

"thin mirror"
in this case the formulae for the equivalent
become
F1,=2F1 (l-c.F1),
The
distinguishing
spherical mirror
is
Mi! = Sl5il =
is
H 1K = _1
1-c.Fi
characteristic
of
Fi
the imagery in a
that a pair of conjugate axial points
harmonically separated by the vertex
of the mirror, that
(KHMM') = -1(
is,
ing special case occurs
when
When
infinite distance from
it,
68).
power
An
or
lies
interest-
is at
of the mirror
the center of the mirror
the mirror
M, M'
and the center
one of the points
infinity; for in that case the reflecting
vanishes (F=0).
is
at
an
midway between
(MH = HM')
and the lateral magnifica=

is the case of an ordinary
which
tion is equal to +1
y);
hand, if the mirror itself
other
on
the
mirror.
But,
plane
center K remains in the
while
the
distance,
an
infinite
is at
object and image
(y'
region of finite space,
is,
MK
it is
the center of the mirror in this
always midway between object and image, that

= KM', and now the lateral magnification will be
case that
equal to
is
1,
that
is,
the image will be of the same size as
" Thick Mirror"
132]
381
Both of these special

the object but inverted {y =y).
cases may be realized by a "thick mirror"; for the condition that the reflecting
shall vanish
(Fu=0)
power
of the equivalent "thin
mirror"
requires that either
2^1+^2-0.^1.^2=0,
or
1-0.^1=0.
In the former case the center of the mirror (K)
and
is
at infinity,
in the latter case the vertex of the mirror (Hi 3 ) is at
If therefore the distance between the anterior lenssystem and the final reflecting surface of a "thick mirror"
is c = l/F h the system will produce an inverted image of the
same size as the object, no matter where the object is placed.
As an illustration of the use of the formulae for a "thick
mirror," consider the optical system in the eye which produces the third of the so-called Purkinje images, to which
allusion was made earlier in this section.
The third image is
formed by rays which coming from an external source enter
the eye, and after having traversed the cornea system and
the aqueous humor are reflected at the anterior surface of the
crystalline lens; whence returning through the same media
in the reverse order they issue again into the air.
In order
to find the "thin mirror" which is equivalent to this system,
we shall employ the constants of Gullstrand's schematic
eye as given in 130. The vertex of the anterior surface of
the cornea will be designated by A x and the principal points
of the cornea-system by Hi and H/. We found that AiHi =
-0.0496 mm. and AiH/= -0.0506 mm.; also, Fi = +43.05
dptr., where F\ denotes the refracting power of the corneasystem. The reflecting power of the anterior surface of the
infinity.
lens
is
given by the formula:
r3
where n 3 = 1.336 and
r3
= +0.010 m.; accordingly, we
F2 = ~ 267.2
dptr.
find:
382
The reduced
first
132
distance between the cornea-system and the
surface of the lens
is
H/A
3
,
nz
where
0.00036 m.
the vertex of
designates
surface;
this
AiA3 =
Thus, we obtain
c= 0.0027325.
Substituting these numerical values in the system of for-
mulae for a "thick mirror, "
we
find for the reflecting
power
of
the equivalent "thin mirror" in this case:
F
and
13
=~ 132.062 dptr.;
for the positions of its vertex
HiH 13 = +3.0968 mm.,
Hi and
3
its
center
K:
HiK= +18.2412 mm.
Accordingly, the system that produces the third of the
Purkinje images
is
in
Gullstrand's passive schematic eye
equivalent to a convex mirror of radius 15.14
its
vertex at a distance of 3.047
mm. from
mm.
with
the vertex of the
anterior surface of the cornea.
Formulas for calculating the reflecting power Fu of a

may also be obtained in terms of different
data from those employed in the expressions which have
"thick mirror"
been deduced above.
Suppose, for example, that
we
are
given the refracting power (F) of a centered system of

spherical refracting surfaces, the positions of the principal
points of the system (H, H')> and the indices of refraction
and last media (n, n'); together with the radius

and the position of the vertex (A') of the last surface;
of the first
(r')
and that
it is
required to determine in terms of these data the
characteristics of the
imagery produced by
light
ceeding from the object-space through the system
which prois
partially
and again partially refracted at

the first surface into the original medium. In order to solve
this problem in the simplest way, it is convenient to employ
a mathematical artifice which will be found to be serviceable
The refracting power of an inin other optical problems.
finitely thin concentric lens is equal to zero, and it is easy to
reflected at the last surface
" Thick Mirror"
132]
383
lens may be inserted anywhere in an optisystem without affecting at all the resultant imagery
(see 90). Let us suppose, therefore, that the given optical
system is terminated by an infinitely thin layer of material of
show that such a

cal
bounded by two concentric spherical surfaces, the

which coincides with the last surface of the given
system. Under these circumstances the resultant system may
be considered as compounded of three component systems,
namely, (1) the given system of refracting power Fi = F,
index
first
(2)
n',
of
a mirror of reflecting power
system reversed (F3 = F).
F2 =
Hence,
2n'
,
and
(3)
the given
if
H'A'
the following formulae will be obtained in the same
way
as
above
Fîl-c.F) 2F- 5.(1- c.F)

HH13 HHi,/
n
l-c.F
'
which are similar in form to the previous expressions, but

meaning and F denotes the refracting
power of the entire lens-system and not merely of that part
of the system which is in front of the reflecting surface.
A problem of considerable interest, especially in connection with the optical system of the human eye, is the investigation of the procedure of the light which after being partially reflected at the last surface of the system (as in the
c here has a different
case above)
is
also partially reflected at the first surface, so
emerges finally into the last medium of index n' The

imagery in this case may be determined by adding a second
infinitely thin concentric lens, which is assumed to be made
that
it
of material of index
with that of the
now we
n and whose second surface
first
surface of the system.
shall have five systems in

systems whose reflecting power
all,
Fu
coincides
Accordingly,
namely, the first three

was obtained above,
384
and Lenses
Mirrors, Prisms
a fourth system consisting of the
[Ch.
XI
surface of the lens-
first
system acting as a mirror, whose reflecting power
F4 =
2n
is
where
denotes the radius of this surface, and a
of refracting
power
fifth
system
F = F. The entire system, whose refract&
may be denoted by Fu, and whose principal points

may be designated by H i5 Hi may, therefore, be considered
ing power
5 ',
as
compounded
of 3 systems of
arated by the intervals

vertex of the
first
Ci
and
surface of the lens-system)
AH
ci=
Accordingly,
of
F2 and F
,
by
powers Fu, 2n/r and F, sepwhere (if A designates the
c2 ,
13
c2
substituting
in place of
Fu
AH
.
in place of
combination of three optical systems,
Fn=F u
(1- C2 .F)+^
Fh
we obtain
c2.F-c1.Fu
1-ci.Fn
Fu(l-ci.Fi3)
ITHil = ___C2_
1-C2.F
here:
(l-c.F)+F (1-d.Fu);
(I-C1.F13)
H13H15
n'
2n/r in place
in the formulae of 131 for the
'
c^.F-d.Fu
+ Fn(l-C2.F)'
n, n', r, r', and F

and the positions of the points designated by A, A' and H, H',
and having found by means of the previous formulae the
magnitude denoted by Fu and the position of the point
designated by Hi 3 (or Hi/), we can introduce these data and
results in the expressions above and thus determine the refracting power Fit and the distances AH15, A'His' of the principal points H15, Hi 5 from the vertices A, A' of the first and
Being given the magnitudes denoted by
'
last surfaces, respectively.
PROBLEMS
1.
Find the refracting power and the positions of the focal
points and principal points of each of the following glass

lenses surrounded
by
air (n = l, n'
= 1.5); and make an
ac-
Problems
Ch. XI]
385
curate sketch of each lens, marking the positions of the

points mentioned.
(a)
Double convex
lens of radii 10 cm.
and 15 cm. and
of
thickness 3 cm.
Double concave lens with same data as above.

Meniscus lens for which ri=+5cm., r2 =+10cm.,
and d=+3 cm.
(d) Meniscus lens for which ri=+6 cm., r2 =+3 cm., and
d=+2.52 cm.
(e) A plano-convex lens with its curved surface, of radius
5 cm., turned towards the incident light; d = +0.5 cm.
(/) Symmetric convex lens, the radius of each surface
being 5 cm.; d = +0.5 cm.
(g) Symmetric concave lens with same data as above.
(h) A meniscus lens with radii ri=+5cm., r2 =+8cm.,
and thickness d=+0.5 cm.
(i) A meniscus lens with radii ri=+8cm., r2 = +5cm.,
and thickness d= +0.5 cm.
(j) A meniscus lens with radii ri = +8cm., r2 =+7cm.,
and thickness d= +3 cm.
(k) A plano-convex lens with its curved surface, of radius
5 cm., turned towards the incident light; d=+5 cm.
Answers
(&)
(c)
F
in clptr.
'
386
same medium (index
on both
n)
sides,
[Ch.
XI
show that we have
the following sj^stem of formulae:
N=( n -n)
AiF A
=
,
N
F=
r
n'r*
(n'-n) d-2n'.r
F'
r\
AiH__A H
3.
If
the
is
lens
denoted by
And
if
r,
n'n
n'
F=
n'n
TT
plane, and
show that
If either face of
is
is
the radius of
n'n
'
AiH=0;
a lens
if
A2F
plane,
is
A
H' = d
lens
is
the second face of the lens
AiF_
n
face of
first
the curved face
_ n'-n
(
= \ (n'n)
dn'
-.; etc.
plane, the refracting
equal to that of the curved surface and
dependent of the thickness of the
lens; and,
power
is
of the
entirely in-
moreover, one
of the principal points coincides with the vertex of the curved

face.
4. If the radii n and r 2 of the two surfaces of a lens are
both positive, and if r 2 is greater than n, show that the lens
is convergent, provided the lens-medium is more highly refracting than the surrounding medium.
5. A "lens of zero-curvature" is a crescent-shaped meniscus for which r 2 = ri=r. Show that such a lens is always
convergent unless it is infinitely thin; and that this is the
case whether the lens-medium is more or less highly refracting than the surrounding medium.
6. Show that a meniscus lens for which
ri>r 2 >0 and n'>n

is
divergent provided
its
thickness
n'(rir 2 )
n'
is less
than
Problems
Ch. XI]
387
Show that in any meniscus lens surrounded by air at

one of the principal points must lie outside the lens.
8. A so-called concentric lens is one for which the centers
of curvature of the two faces are coincident (d = r\ r 2 ). It
may be double convex or meniscus. Show that the refracting power of a concentric lens surrounded by the same medium on both sides is
7.
least
w _ n(n'-n) (l _1_\
n'
\n rj'
and that the principal points coincide at the common center
of the two surfaces.
9. Find the refracting power and the positions of the focal
points and principal points of each of the following concentric
glass lenses (ft' = 1.5) surrounded by air (ft = l); and draw
accurate sketch of each lens showing the positions of the
named
points
(a)
(b)
Double convex lens with radii n. = + 10 cm., r 2 = 2 cm.

Meniscus lens with radii n = +5 cm., r 2 = +2 cm.
Ans.
F=+20 dptr., AiF=+5cm., A 2 F=+3 cm.,

A H' = -2 cm.; (b) F=-10 dptr., A]F =
A F'=-8 cm., AiH = +5 cm., A H'=+2 cm.
(a)
AiH = +10
+15
cm.,
cm.,
Find the focal length and the positions of the principal points of a concentric glass lens surrounded by air
(ft = l, n' = 1.5), with radii ri=+8 cm., r 2 = +5 cm.
Ans. /= 40 cm., AiH = +8 cm., A 2 H'=+5 cm.
11. What is the refracting power of a concentric glass
meniscus lens surrounded by air (n = l, ft' = 1.5), the radii
being 5 cm. and 3 cm.?
Ans. F= 4.44 dptr.
12. The radius of the second surface of a concentric glass
lens surrounded by air (ft = l, ft' = 1.5) is +3 cm., and its refracting power is
2 dptr. Determine its thickness.
Ans. 6.59 mm. If it were not too heavy, this would
be a fairly good form of spectacle glass for a near-sighted
10.
person.
13. If
the same
the two principal points of a lens surrounded by
medium on both
sides coincide with each other at
388
[Ch.
a point midway between the two vertices, what

Ans.
of the lens?
is
XI
the form
solid sphere.
The refracting power of a symmetric glass lens surrounded by air (n = l, w' = 1.5) is +10 dptr., and its thick14.
ness
is
Determine the radius
0.5 cm.
of the first surface.
Ans. +9.916 cm.
15.
radius
solid sphere
is
denoted by
is
a symmetric concentric
r (r
If
the
= AiC), show that we have the
fol-
lens.
lowing system of formulae for a solid sphere surrounded by

the same medium (ri) on both sides
2n(n'-n)
H 'A -r
A,F'
FA,
S 2n ~ n '>
the plane surface of a glass hemisphere, of index n'

and surrounded on both sides by a medium of index n, is
turned towards the incident light, and if r denotes the radius
16. If
of the curved surface,
F=- n'n
show that
n.r
TT
AiH=
.
A
An
TT ,
H' = 0,
A
=
AiF
n 2r
n'in' -n)
'
n.r
2
F'
n'-n
placed in front of the plane surface of

a glass hemisphere, of index 1.5 and radius 3 inches, at a
distance of 10 inches from this surface. Find the position,
17.
object
is
nature and size of the image.

Ans. A real, inverted image, of same size as object, will
be formed at a distance of 25 inches from the object.
the refracting power of a glass sphere (n' =
16| cm. in diameter, (a) surrounded by air (w=l),
What
18.
1.5),
and
is
surrounded by water (n=|)?

Ans. (a) +8 dptr.; (b) +3| dptr.
The radius of each surface of a symmetric convex
(b)
19.
glass lens (n'

is
ness
= 1.5)
mm. What
is
neglected,
is
The
when the thickness is taken into

(a) +10 dptr.; (b) +9|| dptr.
glass lens (n' = 1.5)
meniscus
a convex
and
(6)
Ans.
account?
20.
10 cm., and the thickness of the lens

its refracting power (a) when the thickis
radii of
Problems
Ch. XI]
389
= l) are 2.5 cm. and 5 cm. (a) If the

what is its refracting power? (6) If
the thickness of the lens is 1 cm., what is its refracting power?
Ans. (a)F=+10dptr.; (6) F=+ll dptr.
21. Determine the focal length (/) of a glass lens of index 1.5 surrounded by air for which n=+10, r 2 =+9,
(1) when thickness d = 0, and (2) when thickness d= +1.
surrounded by
lens
is
air (n
infinitely thin,
Ans.
22.
plane object
is
/=-180;
(1)
(2)
f=-270.
placed at right angles to the axis of
a plano-convex lens at a distance of 8.77 cm. in front of its

curved surface. The lens is made of glass of index 1.52,
and the thickness

curved surface
infinity,
and
is
of the lens
0.5 cm.
is
Show
4.56 cm.
The
radius of the
that the image will be at
that, in order to see distinctly the
point in the object which
is
2 cm. from the
axis,
image of a
an eye be-
hind the lens must look in a direction inclined to the axis
an angle of nearly 12 51'.

power of a meniscus spectacle glass is
and r 2 =2r h d = 6 mm. The index of refraction
of the lens at
The
23.
+6
is
dptr.,
refracting
Find the
1.5.
radii
and
and the vertex
r2
refrac-
tion V.
Ans.
24.
The
ri
= +4.36 cm.,
r2
= +8.72
cm.,
thickness of a spectacle glass
the index of refraction
is
1.5.
The
is
7= +6.29
dptr.
mm., and
power of the
4.75
refracting
+15.4 dptr., and that of the second surface

Find the refracting power of the lens and its
is 9.1 dptr.
Ans. F= +6.74 dptr.; V =+7.09 dptr.
vertex refraction.
25. A paraxial ray is incident on the cornea of Gull-
first
surface
is
strand's schematic eye
( 130) in
a direction parallel to the
Trace the path of this ray through the eye and determine the position of the secondary focal point F' (see
axis.
calculation-scheme, 181)
/,
and
calculate the focal lengths
according to the formulae derived in problem No. 17
at the end of Chapter
X.
Ans. Distance of F' from the vertex of the cornea

24.387
mm.; /= +17.055 mm.,
f=
-22.785
mm.
is
390
[Ch.
XI
The reduced thickness of a symmetric spectacle glass

denoted by c. If V denotes its vertex refraction, show
26.
is
that
r
27.
V(Vl+c
hollow globe of glass
.V 2 -c.V)
'
?
is filled
with water.
The
di-
and the thickness of

the glass shell is 0.25 inch. Show -that a narrow beam of
parallel rays directed towards the center of the globe will be
converged to a point 4.68 inches from the outside surface,
the indices of refraction of glass and water being # and
ameter of the water sphere
-|,
8.5 inches
is
respectively.
28.
What
convex
is
lenses,
the focal length of a combination of two thin
each of focal length
/,
placed at a distance
Ans.
apart equal to 2//3?
An
3//4.
system is composed of two thin convex

lenses of refracting powers +10 dptr. and +6 dptr.,
the stronger lens being towards the incident light. Find
the refracting power of the combination and the positions
of the principal points and focal points when the distance between the lenses is: (a) 5 cm.; (b) 25 cm.; and
(c) 40 cm.
Ans. (a) Convergent system:
F = 1S~ dptr.; AiH =
=
=
3.75 cm. AiF
5 cm. A 2 F' = +3.75 cm.
+2.5 cm. A 2 H'
=
focal
and principal points
Telescopic system: F 0;
(b)
all at infinity; (c) Divergent system: F= 10 dptr.; AiH =
29.
optical
-26| cm.; A 2 H = +40

+30 cm.
30. An optical system
,
cm.;
AiF=-16f
cm.;
F' =
composed of two thin lenses,

namely, a front concave lens of power 10 dptr. and a rear
Find the refracting power
convex lens of power +6| dptr.
of the combination and the positions of the focal points and
principal points, when the interval between the lenses is:
(a) 2.5
Ans.
cm.;
(a)
(b)
5 cm.;
(c)
is
6.25 cm.; (d) 20 cm.
F = 1| dptr. AiH = 10 cm.

AiF =+50 cm.; A 2 F'=-75 cm.; (6) Tele-
Divergent system
A 2 H'=-15
cm.;
Problems
Ch. XI]
system: F=0, focal
scopic
infinity; (c)
^=+|
dptr.;
and
391
principal
AiH = +50
AiF= 70 cm.; A F' = +195

^=+10 dptr.; AiH = +13^
2
cm.;
points
all
A 2 H'=+75
at
cm.;
Convergent system:
cm.;
(d)
cm.;
A 2 H' = +20
cm.;
AiF =
-f3^cm.;A2F' = +30cm.
31.
Two
thin convex lenses of focal lengths /i
separated by an interval equal to 2/2

the focal length of the combination?
32.
Two
If /i
and /2 are
= 3/2 what
,
is
Ans. Convergent system of focal length 3/2 /2.

one convex and the other concave, are
lenses,
The convex
separated by an interval 2a.
lens
is
the front
and its focal length is a, while that of the concave lens

Find the focal length of the combination and the
is a.
positions of the principal points and focal points.
Ans. /=a/2; AiH = A 2 H' = -a; AiF = 3A 2 F' = -3a/2.
33. Where are the principal planes of a system of two thin
convex lenses of focal lengths 2 inches and 6 inches, separated
by an interval of 4 inches?
Ans. The principal planes coincide with the focal planes
lens,
of the stronger lens.

34. The objective of a compound microscope may be regarded as a thin convex lens of focal length 0.5. inch. The
ocular may also be regarded as a thin convex lens of focal
inch. The distance between the two lenses is 6

Where must an object be placed in order that its
image may be seen distinctly by a person whose distance of
length
inches.
distinct vision
35.
The
is
8 inches?
Ans. If inch in front of the objective.
and ocular of a com-
focal lengths of the objective
pound microscope are
0.5 inch
the distance of distinct vision
and
is
1 inch, respectively.
between the objective and ocular when the object viewed

0.75 inch from the objective.
36.
If
12 inches, find the distance

is
Ans. 2.42 inches.
thin convex lens, of focal length 5 inches,
is
placed
midway between two thin concave lenses each of focal length

10 inches. The distance between the first lens and the second
392
is
5 inches.
Find the
focal length of the
[Ch.
XI
system and the po-
sitions of the principal points.
Ans.
/=+6|
inches; the principal points are
from the outside

37. In
the
3^-
inches
lenses.
preceding
problem,
suppose that the two
outside lenses are concave, everything else remaining the
same.
Ans.
/=+6|
inches.
The
posite sides of the middle lens
principal points
and
If-
inches from
are
on op-
it.
thin convex lens, of focal length 10 inches,
is placed
a concave mirror of focal length 5 inches, the distance between them being 5 inches. The light traverses the
38.
in front of
lens, is reflected at
lens.
the mirror, and again passes through the

"
this so-called " thick mirror
Find the focal length of
and the positions

Ans.
/=+6
of the principal points.
inches; the principal points coincide with
each other at a point 5 inches behind the vertex of the mirror.

39. In the preceding problem, suppose that the lens is
concave, everything else remaining the same.
Ans.
/= +6|
inches; the
principal points
coincide with
each other at a point between the lens and the mirror and
3| inches from the former.

40. In front of each of the systems described in Nos. 35,
36, 37 and 38, an object, one inch high, is placed at a distance
from the first member of the system. Find the

and nature of the image in each case.
Ans. In No. 35: A real, inverted image, 2 inches beyond
the third lens and 0.8 in. high. In No. 36: A real, inverted
image, 30 inches beyond the third lens and 4 inches high.
In No. 37: A real, inverted image, 2 inches in front of the
lens and 0.8 in. high.
In No. 38: A real, inverted image,
30 inches in front of the lens and 4 inches high.
41. The center of a concave mirror, of radius r, coincides
with the optical center of a thin lens, of focal length /, and
the axes of lens and mirror are in the same straight line. The
light traverses the lens, is reflected at the mirror, and again
of 5 inches
position, size
Problems
Ch. XI]
Show
traverses the lens.
393
that the system
thin mirror of radius r.f/(r+f), with
is
equivalent to a
center at the
its
same
place as the center of the given mirror.

42.
centered system of lenses
a spherical mirror
(II),
mirror/' as explained in
the center
(I)
is
placed in front of
and the whole constitutes a "thick

Show that the vertex A and
132.
of the actual mirror are the
images of the vertex
and the center K, respectively, of the equivalent "thin

mirror/' which are produced by the lens-system I in the
medium of index n 2 between systems I and II.
43.
/i
"thick mirror" consists of a thin lens of focal length
and a spherical mirror
of focal length
/2 placed co-axially
so that the focal point of the mirror coincides with the optical center
Ai
of the thin lens.
the equivalent "thin mirror"

t
Show
that the focal length of
is
/l-/2
Si- ft'
and that the positions of the vertex H and the center
given by the following expressions
A 1 K=-/^4.
Al H = -A4,
/l-/ 2
/1+/2
make any difference whether the lens
are
'
Does
it
is
convex or
concave?
44.
At each
focal length
/2
a thin convex lens of

Find
/1.
of the focal points of

is
placed a thin lens of focal length
the focal length of the combination of the three lenses and
Does it make any diftwo equal outside lenses are convex or
the positions of the principal points.

ference whether the
concave?
/l/2
Ans./=-^
A XT
= XT/
AiH
H'AA
45.
thin convex lens of focal length 10 cm.
=-
/l-/2
/1-/2
Jlfl
is
front of a plane mirror at a distance of 8 cm. from
placed in
it.
Find
the radius of the equivalent "thin mirror" and the position

of its vertex H.
394
Ans. The equivalent "thin mirror"

radius 50 cm. with
46.
same
The axes
its
is
[Ch.
XI
a concave mirror of
vertex 32 cm. behind the plane mirror.
of three thin convex lenses are all in the

first and second
and the interval between the second
straight line, the interval between the
lenses being one inch
and third
lenses being half
The
an inch.
focal lengths of the
second and third lenses are f, -^ and f inch, reA plane object is placed at right angles to the
spectively.
first,
show that an inverted image
axis of the lens-system;
same
size as the object will
of the
be formed in the plane of the
object.
47.
mented
The
plano-concave
flint glass lens of
to a double convex
radii
crown
index 1.618
is
ce-
glass lens of index 1.523.
and thicknesses are as follows
r\
oo
r<i
+50.419 mm., r3 = 74.320 mm.; c?i = +2.15 mm., d2 =

+4.65 mm. Find the focal length of the combination and
the positions of the principal points.
Ans.
/= +192.552 mm.;
distances of principal points from
the plane surface, +5.466 and +7.908

48.
plano-concave
mm.
flint glass lens of
index 1.618
is
ce-
mented to a double convex crown glass lens of index 1.523.

The radii and thicknesses are as follows: r\= +22.00 mm.,
r 2 =-19.65 mm., r 3 = oo
di=+2.60 mm., d 2 = +2.00 mm.
Find the focal length of the combination and the positions of
;
the principal points.
Ans.
/= +52.26 mm.;
distances of principal points from
plane surface, 5.03 and 3.36
The
mm.
and thickness of a symmetric double convex

lens are 10 cm. and 1 cm., respectively. The lens is made of
glass of index 1.5 and surrounded by air of index unity.
A portion of the light which enters the lens will be reflected
at the second surface and partially refracted at the first
surface from glass back into the air. Find the radius, reflecting power and position of the vertex of the equivalent
49.
radii
"thin mirror."
Ans. Concave mirror of radius 53.050 mm., reflecting
Problems
Ch. XI]
power +37.7
tex of the
50.
dptr.,
first
with
its
395
vertex +6.90
mm. from
the ver-
face of the lens.
In the case of the lens in the preceding problem, as-
sume that the light is reflected internally twice in succession

and issues finally at the second face into the air. Find the
refracting power and the positions of the principal points
for the imagery produced by these rays.
Ans. Refracting power, +53.08 dptr.; distances of prin-
from vertex of first surface of the lens, +10.94

and 0.94 mm.
51. In Gullstrand's schematic eye in its state of maximum accommodation the crystalline lens consists of an outer
symmetric double convex lens of index ^ 4 = n 6 = 1.386 (see
130), enclosing an inner symmetric double convex "core"
lens of index n 5 = 1.406; the inner portion being symmetricipal points
cally
The
placed with respect to the surrounding outer part.
radii of the surfaces are as follows
Outer portion: r 3 =A 3 C 3 = +5.3333 mm.= -r 6 = C 6 A 6

Inner portion: r4 = A 4 C 4 = +2.6550 mm.= -r 5 = C 5 A 5
Moreover,
A 3 A4 = A3C5 = A 5 A 6 = C4A 6 = 0.6725 mm.;
A4A5 = C5C4 = A4C4 = C5A5 = 2.6550 mm.
The entire lens is surrounded by a medium of index n 3 =
Show (1) that the refracting power of the inner
717 = 1.336.
portion or "core" lens is F 4 b = +14.959 dptr., and that its
principal points are 1.9905 mm. from the anterior and posterior surfaces. Moreover, employing the formulae of 131,
;
show
(2)
that the refracting power of the entire lens in case
maximum accommodation is F 3Q = +33.056

A H 36 = H 36 'A 6 = +1.9449 mm.
of
dptr.
and that
52.
Using the data of the preceding problem, find the
refracting
power (F) and the positions
of the principal points
(H, H') of Gullstrand's schematic eye in
its state of maxiaccommodation: being given, according to the results

of 130, that the refracting power of the cornea system is
Fn =43.053 dptr. and that AiHi 2 = -0.0496 mm., AiH'i2 =
mum
396
0.0506 mm., aifld

AiA =+3.2 mm.
also that for
[Ch.
XI
maximum accommodation
Ans.
^=+70.575
mm.
Two thin
dptr.;
AiH = + 1.772
mm.;
AiH^
+2.086
53.
lenses of focal lengths /i
and/2 are placed on
the same axis with the second focal point (F/) of the
first
lens coincident with the first focal point (F 2 ) of the second

lens, so
form an afocal or telescopic system.

Show
is constant and equal to
as to
that the lateral magnification
/2//1, and
that the angular magnification
is
likewise con-
stant and equal to the reciprocal of the lateral magnification.

54. If (as in
Huygens's
ocular)
on the same axis with their second
show that the second
way between
this
two thin
lenses are placed
focal points in coincidence,
focal point of the combination is
common
focal point
and the second
midlens,
and that the deviation produced by the second lens is twice

that produced by the first (assuming that the angles are
small)
CHAPTER
XII
APERTURE AND FIELD OF OPTICAL SYSTEM

133. Limitation of
Ray-Bundles by Diaphragms or Stops.
The geometrical theory of optical imagery which has been

developed
in
Chapter
was based on the assumption
of
punctual correspondence between object-space and image-
whereby each point of the object is reproduced by

one point, and by one point only, in the image; and on this
hypothesis simple relations in the form of the so-called
image-equations ( 123) were obtained for determining the
position and size of the image in terms of the focal lengths
space,
When we attempted to realize the

imagery expressed by these equations, we were obliged to
confine ourselves to the so-called paraxial rays comprised
within the narrow cylindrical region immediately surroundof the optical system.
ing the axis of
tem
symmetry or
optical axis of the centered sys-
of spherical refracting or reflecting surfaces.
Based on
the same assumptions, certain rules were given for constructing the image-point Q' corresponding to a given objectpoint Q. For example, a pair of straight lines was drawn
through Q (Fig. 174), one parallel to the optical axis and
meeting the second principal plane of the system in a point
V, and the other going through the primary focal point F
and meeting the first principal plane in a point W. The
required point Q' was shown to lie at the point of intersection of the straight line V'Q',
drawn through the second

WQ' drawn parallel to
focal point F', with the straight line
the axis.
The
position of the point Q' having been located,
we were not parconcerned with inquiring whether the straight
the problem was considered as solved, and

ticularly
lines
used in the construction represented the paths of ac397
398
tual rays that formed the image at
Q\ As
133
a matter of
fact,
employed here will

generally not belong to the bundle of optical rays by which
the imagery is actually produced; and a glance at the diagram will show how the diameter of the lens and the size of
the pair of geometrical lines which
Fig. 174.
is
Effective rays as distinguished from rays used in making geometrical constructions.
the object control the selection of the rays that are really
effective in
producing the image.
In Chapter
attention was called to the fact that every
is provided with some means of cutting

of
a bundle of rays as for one reason or
portions
such
out
which is usually accomplished,
not
desirable;
are
another
in the paths of the
interposing
by
explained,
been
as has
optical instrument
rays at some convenient place a plane opaque screen at

right angles to the axis containing a circular aperture with
center on the axis. There may, indeed, be several such

diaphragms or stops disposed at various places along the
axis of the instrument. A perforated screen of this kind is
called a front stop, a rear stop or an interior stop, according
its
as
it lies
ively.
way
in front of, behind or within the system, respect-
The rims and
fastenings of the lenses act in the
same
The
stops
as the diaphragms to limit the ray-bundles.
have various duties to perform, their chief functions being
Aperture-Stop
134]
399
to cut off the view of indistinct parts of the image (limitation of the field of view)
to
mar
to cut out such rays as
would tend
the perfection of that part of the image which
is
to
be inspected (limitation of the aperture of the system), and,

finally, to nullify injurious reflections from the sides of the
tube or other parts of the instrument.
134. The Aperture-Stop and the Pupils of
To an eye looking into the instrument from
the System.
the side of the
may
be the rim of the first lens

one that will be visible directly. Any other stop or lens-rim will be seen only by means
of the real or virtual image of it that is cast by that part of
the optical system which is between it and the eye. Similarly, if the eye is directed towards the instrument from the
image-side, an interior stop or a front stop may be seen by
means of the image of it that is produced by the part of the
system that lies between it and the eye. Now these impalpable stop-images, whether visible or not, are just as effective in cutting out the rays as if they were actual material
stops; because, obviously, any ray that goes through an
object, a front stop (which
of the system) will be the only
actual stop
must
necessarily pass either really or virtually
through the corresponding point of the stop-image; whereas

a ray that is obstructed by a stop will not go through the
opening in the stop-image.
That one of the stops which by virtue of its size and position with respect to the radiating object is most effective
in cutting out the rays is distinguished as the aperture-stop
of the system ( 11), and in order to determine which of the
several stops performs this office, it is necessary, first of all,
to assign the position of the axial object-point M, without
which the aperture of the system can have no meaning. Ac-
we must suppose that the instrument is focused

on some selected point
on the axis, which is reproduced
by an image at the conjugate point M'. The transversal
planes at right angles to the axis at
and M' will be a pair
of conjugate planes, for it is assumed here that the imagery
cordingly,
400
is
and
ideal
of the
axial rays.
Now
important
role in
that hereafter
we
same character
as that produced
by
this pair of conjugate planes plays
134
par-
a very
the theory of an optical instrument, so

shall refer to the object-plane as the focus-
plane (or the plane which
is
in focus
on the screen) and to
the conjugate plane in the image-space as the screen-plane.
Now
the eye is supposed to be placed on the axis at the

and directed towards the instrument, the stop or
stop-image whose aperture subtends the smallest angle at
point
is
if
called the entrance-pupil of the system.
All the effective
rays (11) in the object-space must be directed towards

points which He within the circumference of the circular
opening of the entrance-pupil. In general, the entrancepupil is the image of the aperture-stop as seen by looking into
the instrument in the direction of the light coming from the
object; but if the aperture-stop is a front stop, it will also
be the entrance-pupil.
On the other hand, when the eye is placed on the axis at
the point M' so as to look into the instrument through the
other end, the stop or stop-image which subtends the smallest
M'
angle at
is
called the exit-pupil,
and
all
the effective rays
when they emerge from the instrument must
go, really or
through the opening of the exit-pupil. In this

statement it is tacitly assumed that M' is a real image of M;
otherwise, it would not be possible for the eye placed at M'
to look into the instrument through the end from which the
virtually,
rays emerge.
But
in
any case the
exit-pupil
is
the stop or
stop-image which subtends the smallest angle at M'.

as seen
but
if
Gen-
the exit-pupil will be the image of the aperture-stop
erally,
by looking
into the instrument from the image-side;
the aperture-stop
is
a rear stop,
it
will
be
itself
the
exit-pupil.
Since the effective rays enter the system through the

entrance-pupil in the object-space and leave
exit-pupil in the image-space,
pupil
is
the
image of
it
is
it
through the
evident that the
the entrance-pupil,
exit-
so that the pupil-
Entrance-Pupil
135]
centers,
designated
and
03-
Eye
of
401
0', are a pair of conjugate axial
points with respect to the entire system.
The apertures
of the ray-bundles in the object-space are
determined by the entrance-pupil of the system; and the

exit-pupil has a similar office in the image-space.
Each of
the pupils
is
common
the
in the region to
which
135. Illustrations.
apertures by
base of the cones of effective rays
belongs.
it
The
Abbe was
optical system of the eye.

tractile
name "pupil"
applied to these
suggested by an analogy with the
The
pupil of the eye
aperture of the colored
is
the con-
the image of which
iris,
produced by the cornea and the aqueous humor

trance-pupil of the eye corresponding to
what
is
the en-
is
popularly
called the " black of the eye," because it looks black on the
dark background of the posterior chamber of the eye. Since
the center
of the entrance-pupil
is
the image of the center
K of the iris-opening formed by rays that are refracted from

the aqueous
by the
may
humor through the cornea
into the air, then,
also regard
aqueous humor
(n'
image of O formed by rays which

(n = l) through the cornea into the
as the
are refracted from air
1.336).
The apparent
place of the eye-
and
pupil varies slightly in different individuals
individual at different ages.

is
3.03
we
principle of the reversibility of the light-path,
mm. from
If
we assume
in the
the vertex (A) of the cornea, that
put u = 0.00303 m., then
same
that the point

is, if
we
U = n/u = 330
the refracting power of the cornea
dptr. And if we take

asF = 42 dptr. ( 130),
U'=U+F, we find U' = 372 dptr. and consequently

= AK = n'/U' = 0.0036 m.; so that with these data the
plane of the iris is found to be at a distance of 3.6 mm. from
the vertex of the cornea. Thus we see that the entrancethen, since
u'
pupil of the eye
As a simple
optical system
lens,
gram
is
very nearly 0.6
mm.
in front of the
iris.
an
convex
illustration of these principles, consider
which consists of an
with a stop placed a
little in
(Fig. 175) the straight line
infinitely thin
front of
DG
it.
In the dia-
perpendicular to the
402
[135
axis of the lens represents the diameter of the lens
the meridian plane of the paper.
lies in
DG.
of
shown by the straight line BC parallel

The centers of the lens and stop are designated by
the stop-opening
to
which
The diameter
is
Screen
Plovxc
Exit Pupil
Fig. 175.
Optical
system composed of thin convex lens with front

stop.
and K,
respectively.
The
position of the focus-plane
determined by the axial object-point

is
M, which
is
in the figure
represented as lying in front of the lens beyond the pri-
mary
The
subtended at
by the
supposed to be smaller than that
subtended by the rim of the lens; that is, as here shown,
focal plane.
opening in the stop
Z AMC<Z AMG;
solid angle
is
and, consequently, the front stop acts here
both as aperture-stop and entrance-pupil, so that the center

of the aperture-stop
is
likewise the center
of the entrance-
Looking through the lens from the other side, one

0' a virtual, erect image B'C of the aperture-stop
BC, and hence this image is the exit-pupil of the system.
pupil.
will see at
The angle BMC is the aperture-angle

that come from the axial object-point
of the
cone of rays
in the focus-plane;
through the system, these rays meet at M' in

the screen-plane, the aperture-angle of the bundle of rays
after passing
Pupils of Optical System
135]
in the
image-space being
coming from a point

within
ZBQC
ZB'M'C.
The
effective
in the focus-plane are
the object-space and
in
403
rays
comprised
ZB'Q'C
in
the
he in the
focus-plane, and yet not too far from it, the opening BOC will
act as entrance-pupil for this point also. Thus, for example,
in order to construct the point R' conjugate to an objectpoint R which does not he exactly in the focus-plane, we
have merely to draw the straight lines RB, RO, RC until
they meet the lens, and connect these latter points with B',
0', C, respectively, by straight lines which will intersect in
image-space.
If
the
object-point
does
not
the image-point R'.
Again, consider a system composed of two equal thin

convex lenses whose centers are at Ai and A 2 (Fig. 176),
Fig. 176,
-Optical system composed of two equal thin convex lenses with

interior stop placed midway between the two lenses.
with a stop
of the stop
UV
is
placed
midway between them;
of the stop as seen through the
if
the center
AiK = KA 2 The image

front lens is BOC, and its
designated by K, then
image as seen by looking through the other lens in the opposite direction is B'O'C; these images being equal in size
and symmetrically situated with respect to the stop itself.
The image of the rim of each lens cast by the other lens
should also be constructed, but for the sake of simplicity
these images are not drawn in the figure, because the di-
404
136
ameters of the lenses are taken sufficiently large as compared with the diameter of the stop interposed between
them
at
to insure that the latter acts as aperture-stop
on which the inwith respect to the axial object-point

strument is supposed to be focused. Consequently, since
an angle less than that
the stop-image BC subtends at
subtended by the rim of the front lens or by the image of
the rim of the second lens, it will be the entrance-pupil of
the system; and, similarly, B'C which is the image of BC
formed by the system as a whole will be the exit-pupil.

Thus, in order to construct the image-point M' conjugate
to the axial object-point M, we have merely to draw the
and to determine the point where this line
straight line
meets the first lens; and from the latter point draw a straight
line through the point V in the edge of the stop to meet the
second lens; and, finally, draw the straight line which joins
MC
C in
this latter point with the point
the edge of the exit-
pupil; this fine will cross the axis at the required point
Similarly, drawing
in the screen-plane.
point
QB,
the three rays
QO
M'
from the object-
and QC, we can continue
the paths of these rays from the
first
lens to the second
and V, respectively, in the stopopening; and since the rays must issue from the second lens
so as to go through B', 0' and C, respectively, in the exit-
through the points U,
pupil,
their
common
point of intersection in the image-
space will be the point Q' conjugate to Q.
In the diagram
taken in the focus-plane; but the same construction will apply also to determine the position of an
image-point R' conjugate to an object-point R which does
not lie in the focus-plane.
the point
is
136. Aperture- Angle.
Pupils. The angle
at the axial object-point
pupil
is
we put
Case
OMC=t?
of
Two
(Figs. 175
or
More Entrance-
and 176) subtended
M by the radius OC of the entrance-
called the aperture-angle of the optical system.
OC = p
If
(where p is to be reckoned positive or negative according as the point C lies above or below the axis)
System with
136]
Two
405
Entrance-Pupils
and OM=2, then tsn\r)=p/z.
In like manner,
if
r)'
denotes the angle subtended at the point M' conby the corresponding radius of the exit-pupil
jugate to
then tan 77'= -p'/z'.
(0'C' = p'), and if also
Z O'M'C
O'MW,
The
pupils of an optical system
depend
essentially, as
been stated, on the position of the axial object-point
Fig. 177.
has
on
Case of two entrance-pupils.
which the instrument is focused. In the diagram (Fig. 177)

I and II represent a pair of stops or stop-images as seen
by an eye looking into the front end of the instrument. Join
one end of the diameter of one of these openings by straight
lines with both ends of the diameter of the other opening;
and let the points where the straight lines cross the axis be
designated by
and Y. The two apertures subtend equal
coangles at these points, and hence if the object-point
incides with either
or Y, the entrance-pupil of the system
may be either I or II in fact, for these two special positions
of
there will be two entrance-pupils, and, of course, also
and
lies between
two exit-pupils. If the object-point
Y, then in the case represented in the figure the opening II
than the opening I so
will subtend a smaller angle at
406
that the former will act as the entrance-pupil.
other position of the axial object-point
But
137
for any-
besides those
above mentioned the opening I will be the entrance-pupil.

137. Field of View.
The limitation of the apertures of
the bundles of effective rays

stops and lens fastenings.
functions
is
not the only
is
One
of their
office of
the
most important
to define the extent of the object that
is
to be
reproduced in the instrument as has been pointed out in

several simple illustrations in the earlier pages of this book
In the adjoining diagram
16, 73 and 98).
where the entrance-pupil of the system is represented by the opening BC, the other stops or stop-images in the
object-space act like circular windows or port-holes through
which the rays that are directed from the various parts of
the object towards points in the open space of the entrancepupil will have to pass if they are to succeed in getting
through the instrument without being intercepted on the
way. Evidently, that one of these openings which subtends
(see
9,
(Fig. 178),
the smallest angle at the center

limit the extent of the field of
opening which
of the entrance-pupil will
view in the object-space.
represented in the figure
is
by
GH
is
This
called
the entrance-port; and the material stop or lens-rim which

is
responsible for
it is
Let the straight

ities of
called the field-stop (9).
line
the diameters
CH drawn through the upper extremand GH of the entrance-pupil and
BC
entrance-port meet the optical axis in the point designated
by L and the focus-plane
by U. If
around the axis of the instru-
in the point designated
this straight line is revolved
ment, the point U will describe a circle in the focus-plane

around the axial object-point
as center; and it is obvious
that any point in this plane within the circumference of this
any object-point contained inside the

by the revolution of the straight
passing through C and H, may send rays to all parts
circle,
or,
indeed,
conical surface generated

line
of the entrance-pupil
where
which will not be intercepted anyThus, the entire aperture of the
in the instrument.
Field of
137]
entrance-pupil will be the

fective rays
View
common
407
base of the cones of
emanating from sources which
lie
ef-
within this
region of the object-space.
Entr-auce
Pupil
Fig. 178.
-Field of
view of optical system on side of object, determined
by the entrance-pupil and the entrance-port.
Again, the straight line
OH
drawn through the center
of
the entrance-pupil and the upper edge of the entrance-port

will
determine a second limiting point
which
is
farther
in the focus-plane
from the optical axis than the
first
point
U;
and Lenses
Mirrors, Prisms
408
137
and in case of object-points lying in the focus-plane between

U and V the sections of the bundles of effective rays made
by the plane of the entrance-pupil will have areas that are
comprised between the entire area of the opening of the
entrance-pupil and half that area; and this will be true likewise with respect to
all
those points in the object-space that
are contained between the
by the revolution
the axis of symmetry.

field of
two
conical surfaces generated
CH
Such points
will
and
not
view, but although they can utilize
lie
OH
around
outside the
more than
half
the opening of the entrance-pupil, they are not in a position

to take advantage of the entire opening.
Finally, the straight line
BH
drawn through the lower
edge of the entrance-pupil and the upper edge of the entranceport, which crosses the optical axis at the point marked J,
will
is
determine an extreme point
more remote from the
axis
W in the focus-plane which
than the point V; and
it is
evi-
dent from the figure that object-points in the focus-plane
which
lie
in the annular space
scribed around
between the two circles deand

are
as center with radii
MW
MV
even more unfavorably situated for sending rays into the

entrance-pupil, because they cannot utilize as
of the pupil-opening.
In
fact,
much
as half
the effective rays which come
from the farthest point

pass through the circumference
will be wholly
of the pupil, and any point lying beyond
invisible, that is, entirely outside the field of view of the
instrument.
Thus, we see that the focus-plane

three concentric circles of radii
MU,
is
divided into zones
MV and MW.
by
Object-
points lying in the interior central zone send their light
through the entrance-pupil without
let or
part of the field-stop; so that this
is
hindrance on the
the brightest part of
field.
But in the two outer zones there is a gradual fadaway of light until we reach finally the border of complete
darkness. The three regions of the field of view in the objectspace are usually defined by the angles 271, 27, and 272
the
ing
Lens and Eye
138]
409
whose vertices are on the optical axis at the points L, O and

J, respectively; so that yi = ZSLH, 7 = ZS0H and 72 =
ZSJH. If the radii of the entrance-pupil and entranceport are denoted by p=OC and 6=SH, and if the distance
of the entrance-pupil from the entrance-port is denoted by
c= SO, then
tan7i=
b+p
tan7=--, tan7 2 =
-,
-.
The field of view in the image-space is determined in like

manner. The image of the entrance-port GH with its center
at S, which is produced by the entire optical system, is the
exit-port G'H' with its center at S'; and by priming all the
letters in the expressions above a similar system of equations
will be obtained for defining the three regions, 27/, 27'
and
272', of the field of
the edge of the
ter of the pupil, that
and the angle 27'

138. Field of
and the Eye.
view in the image-space.
considered as determined
field is
by the angle 27
is,
Generally,
by the
cen-
in the object-space
in the image-space.
View
of
System Consisting
of a
Thin Lens
A simple but very instructive illustration of
the principles explained in the foregoing section
by an ordinary convex
is
afforded
lens used as a magnifying glass.
In
order to obtain a virtual, magnified image with a lens of

this kind, the distance of the glass
from the object must not

when the image
exceed the focal length of the lens, and then

is
viewed through the
glass,
the
iris
of the observer's eye
will act as
the aperture-stop of the system, no matter where
the eye
placed, provided the diameter of the pupil of the
eye
is
than that of the lens, as is practically nearly alMoreover, since the pupil of the eye is the
base of the bundles of rays which come to it from
is less
ways the
common
case.
the various parts of the image,

system, and
pupil.
If
image
the eye
the lens and

pupil will
its
is
in the glass
it is
is,
the exit-pupil of the
therefore, the entrance-
placed on the axis of the lens between
second focal point (Fig. 179), the entrancebe a virtual image of the pupil of the eye and will
its
410
lie
on the same side of the lens as the eye;
if
the eye
138
is
placed
at the second focal point of the glass, the entrance-pupil will
be at infinity
Fig. 179.
is
(see 144)
and, finally,
if,
as represented in
Field
of view of thin convex lens when the eye

between the lens and its second focal plane.
is placed at a point O' beyond the second

convex lens GH, the center of the entrancepupil will be at a point O on the same side of the lens as the
object MQ. The distance between the eye and the second
focal point of a convex lens used as a magnifying glass is
Fig. 180, the eye
focal point of the
never very great, and, consequently, the distance of the cenO of the entrance-pupil from the first focal point is relatively always quite large. The rim of the glass acts as the
ter
field-stop,
and the
and
it is
at the
same time both the entrance-port

and hence the field of view
exit-port of the system;
exposed to the eye in the image-space is entirely analogous

to the field which would be seen by an eye looking through
a circular window of the same form, dimensions and position
as the lens. Since the exit-port is represented here as being
Lens and Eye
138]
411
from the exit-pupil, the field of

appear vignetted, that is, the border will not be
sharply outlined, but the field will fade out imperceptibly
at a considerable distance
view
will
M'
412
[138
" ragged edge" of the field of view, so that only the central
portion which sends complete bundles of rays through the
instrument
is visible
to the eye.
In the Dutch telescope the ocular
may
system which
is
a divergent optical
be represented in a diagram by a con-
Ocular
system of Galileo's telescope represented in the diathin concave lens. Diagram shows how the rays, after
having passed through the object-glass, enter the .pupil of the observer's eye B'C. Inverted image of distant object in the object-glass of the
in the ocular.
telescope is formed at MQ; M'Q' is the image of
G'H' is the image of the rim of the object-glass in the ocular. B'C is
in the ocular.
the image of
Fig. 181.
gram by a
MQ
BC
is placed between the objectimage of the object in the object-glass;

as the ocular is concerned, this image is a vir-
cave lens (Fig. 181) which

glass
and the
so that so far
tual object,
The eye
real
shown
in the figure
in this case
is
by the line-segment MQ.
usually adjusted very close to the
The pupil of the eye is represented in the

lens.
by the opening B'C' with its center on the axis at 0';
image in the lens is BC. Here also, just as in the case of
concave
figure
its
a convergent ocular, the pupil of the eye will act as the exitpupil unless the diameter of the lens is so small that the
MQ
is
The image of
itself performs this office.
is inverted, and since
M'Q', which latter will be erect if
is always inverted in the simple telescope, the final
image in the Dutch telescope is erect. In the case of the
Dutch telescope the rim of the ocular lens does not limit
lens-rim
MQ
MQ
Chief Rays
139]
413
is limited by the rim of the objectwhich is the entrance-port of the telescope. Hence,
the image of the object-glass in the ocular is the exit-port.
This image (called the " eye-ring," 159) is represented in
the diagram by the opening G'H' with its center on the
the field of view, but this

glass,
axis at S'.
The
object-point Q, as
shown
in the figure,
just at the edge of the field, because the image-ray
from Q' which

pupil
made
is
is
is
coming
directed towards the center O' of the exit-
to pass through the edge of the exit-port (7' =
ZS'OTT).
139. The Chief Rays.
configuration and which
may
Every bundle of effective rays

emanating from a point of the object contains one ray which
'in a certain sense is the central or representative ray of the
the chief ray (see
therefore be distinguished as
The ray which
11).
is
entitled to this
preeminence is evidently that one which in traversing the

medium in which the aperture-stop lies passes through the
of this stop. If the optical system is free from the
center
so-called aberrations, both spherical and chromatic (as is
assumed in the present discussion), the chief ray of the
bundle
may
also be defined as that ray
space passes through the center
but the
first
definition
is
which
in the object-
of the entrance-pupil;
preferable because
it is
applicable
to actual as well as to ideal optical systems.
The
totality of the chief rays
coming from
all
parts of the
object constitute, therefore, a homocentric bundle of rays

in the
and these rays

though they had originated from a lu-
medium where
proceed exactly as
the aperture-stop
lies,
minous point at K.
very narrow, comparable, say, with
the dimensions of a pin-hole, the apertures of the bundles of
effective rays will be correspondingly small; and in the limit
when the opening in the stop may be regarded as reduced to
a mere point at its center K, the ray-bundles will have colIf
the aperture-stop
is
lapsed into mere skeletons, so to speak, each one represented
by
its chief
ray.
It is
because the chief rays are the last
414
survivors of the ray-bundles that
tant in nearly
all
it
is
[140
particularly impor-
optical problems to investigate the pro-
cedure of these more or less characteristic rays.

140. The so-called " Blur-Circles (or Circles of Diffusion) in the Screen-Plane.
Now
if
the cardinal points of
the optical system are assigned, the image-relief corresponding to a three-dimensional object
by
may
be constructed point
methods which have been exBut, as a matter of fact, the image produced by
point, according to the
plained.
Fig. 182.
Diagram showing how object-relief and image-relief are projected in focus-plane and screen-plane from entrance-pupil and exitpupil, respectively; and the "blur circles" in these planes.
an optical instrument, instead of being

floating in space,
or screen of
is
left,
as
it
were,
almost invariably received on a surface
some kind,
as,
for example, the ground-glass
plate of a photographic camera.
In case the image
is
vir-
a microscope or telescope, it is intended to be

viewed by the eye looking into the instrument, so that here
tual, as in
also in the last analysis the
image
is
projected on the sur-
face of the retina of the observing eye.

face
is
called technically the "screen,"
an explanation of the name screen-plane
This receiving sur-
which affords also

(
134) as applied
to the plane conjugate to the focus-plane.
In the diagram (Fig. 182) the screen-plane
is
placed at
"Blur-Circles"
140]
right angles to the axis at the point
conjugate to the axial object-point
M,
seen sharply focused on the screen.
415
marked M' which
is
so that this point
is
Evidently, however,
the optical system cannot be in focus for

points of the object-relief at the
screen-plane
is
the different
all
same time, because the
conjugate to only one transversal plane of
the object-space, namely, the focus-plane perpendicular to
M. Thus, for example, the reproduction of a

such as an extended view of a landscape on the
the axis at
solid object
ground-glass plate of a camera

strict optical sense of
is
not an image at
the term, inasmuch as
it is
all in
the
not con-
jugate to the entire object with respect to the photographic

objective.
Only such points
plane will be reproduced
of the object as
by sharp
lie
in the focus-
clear-cut image-points
in the screen-plane (as, for example, the point
marked
1 in
the figure); whereas object-points situated to one side or
the other of the focus-plane will be depicted more or less in-
on the screen-plane by small luminous areas which

by this plane from the cones of imagerays emanating originally from points of the object such as
those marked 2, 3 in the diagram. These little patches of
light on the screen, which are usually elliptical in form, and
whose dimensions depend on obvious geometrical factors,
such as the diameter and position of the exit-pupil, etc.,
distinctly
are sections cut out
are the so-called circles of diffusion or "blur-circles ," in
consequence of which details of the image as projected on

the screen are necessarily impaired to a greater or less
degree.
a simple matter to reconstruct the object-figure

optically conjugate to this configuration of image"
points and
blur-circles" in the screen-plane, which will
It is
which
is
obviously be a similar configuration of object-points and

"blur-circles"
all
lying in the focus-plane.
Moreover, since
conjugate to the entrance-pupil, the cones

of rays in the object-space corresponding to those in the
the exit-pupil
image-space
is
may
be easily constructed by taking the points
416
of the object-relief as vertices
common
and the entrance-pupil
The
base of these cones.
141
as the
tout ensemble of the sec-
tions of all these bundles of object-rays
made by
the focus-
plane will evidently be the figure in the object-space that
corresponds to the representation on the screen, and according to the theory of optical imagery these two plane
configurations will be similar.
the focus-plane
object-relief,
is
This " vicarious" object in

sometimes called the projected copy of the
because
it is
obtained by projecting the points
from the entrance-pupil on the focus-plane.

141. The Pupil-Centers as Centers of Perspective of
Object-Space and Image-Space. It hardly needs to be
pointed out that the " blur-circles " which arise from this
of the object
Fig. 183.
Projection of object-relief and image-relief in focus-plane and
screen-plane from the centers of entrance-pupil and exit-pupil, respectively.
mode
of reproducing a solid object
on a plane
(or curved)
surface are due to no faults of the optical system

are necessary consequences of the
having their
mode
origin, in fact, in the object-space
the process employed.
The only
possible
itself,
but
of representation,
by
way
virtue of
of diminish-
ing or eliminating the indistinctness or lack of detail in the
reproduction of parts of the object that do not
lie
in the
focus-plane consists in reducing the diameter of the aperturestop, or in " stopping
down"
the instrument, as
it is called.
Distance of Photograph
142]
417
is contracted more and more until finally

no larger than a fine pin-hole, the pupils likewise will
tend to become mere points at their centers O, O' (Fig. 183),
and the " blur-circles " both in the focus-plane and in the
screen-plane will diminish in area pari passu and ultimately
collapse also into the points where the chief rays cross this
If
the stop-opening
it is
The
pair of conjugate planes.

etc.,
where the
2, 3, etc., cross
the so-called
therefore,
points
marked
in
1,
the focus-plane, and which are the centers of

" blur-circles"
by projecting
all
in
this
obtained,
are
plane,
the points of the object from the
center of the entrance-pupil on to the focus-plane.
mode
III,
II,
I,
chief rays belonging to the object-points
of representing a three-dimensional object
no wise peculiar to the optical system
but
itself,
old familiar process of perspective reproduction
This
however,
is,
by
the
is
central
projection on a plane. Thus, the pupil-centers O, 0' are to

be regarded as the centers of perspective of the object-space
and image-space, respectively.

142. Proper Distance of Viewing a Photograph.
These
principles explain why it is necessary to view a photograph
at a certain distance from the eye in order to obtain a correct impression of the object which is depicted.
Suppose,
for example, that O, 0' (Fig. 184) designate the centers of
the pupils of a photographic lens, and that an object
NR
is
reproduced in the screen-plane by the perspective copy

M'Q' whose size is one kth. of that of the projection
of
MQ
Now
the object in the focus-plane.
if
the picture
is
to pro-
duce the same impression as was produced by the original

on an observer with his eye placed at O, the photograph must be held in front of the eye at a place P such that
itself
the visual angle
KOP
which
it
subtends at the center of
rotation of the eye shall be equal to the angle
the distance
PO
in the figure
QOM
must be equal
that
is,
to one kth. of
the distance of the center of the entrance-pupil from the

focus-plane, or
a landscape
PO = MO//c.
If (as is
usually the case with
lens) the focus-plane is at infinity,
then
PO
will
418
[142
be equal to the focal length (/) of the objective.

speaking,
we may
for viewing a
Generally
say, therefore, that the correct distance
photograph of a distant object
is
equal to the
focal length of the objective, this distance being
measured
Screen
Plane
Fig. 184.
Correct distance
of viewing photograph.
from the picture to the center of rotation

eye.
Accordingly,
if
the focal length
of the observer's
is less
than the
dis-
tance between the near point of the eye and the center of
which in the case of a normal emmetropic eye of

an adolescent is about 10 or 12 cm., it will be impossible to
see the picture distinctly with the naked eye and at the same
time under the correct visual angle. Moreover, even if the
focal length of the photographic lens were not less than this
least distance of distinct vision, the effort of accommodation
which the eye has to make in order to focus the image sharply
on the retina under the correct visual angle will superinduce
an illusion which will be different from the impression of
reality which it is the purpose of the picture to convey. In
the case of a photograph made by an objective of very short
focal length it is possible indeed to make an enlarged copy
which may be viewed at the correct distance, but this is
always more or less troublesome and expensive. Dr. Von
Rohr has invented an instrument called a verant which is
ingeniously designed to oyercome as far as possible the difficulties above mentioned; so that viewed through this ap-
rotation,
Perspective Elongation of Image
143]
paratus the photograph
is
seen
more or
less exactly as
object appeared.
is
the
Elongation of Image. If the screennot focused exactly on the image-point R' (Fig. 185),
143. Perspective
plane
419
Fig. 185.
Perspective elongation
of image.
be shown on the screen by a "blur-circle'

whose center will be at the point Q' which is the projection
of R' from the center O' of the exit-pupil.
Let e = L'M'
denote the distance of the screen-plane M'Q' from the image-
this point will
plane L'R', where L',
M'
designate the feet of the perpen-
dropped from R', Q', respectively, on the

From the diagram we obtain the proportion
diculars
M'Q' ^ 0'M' _
Q'M'
TTW'MZ ~0'M'+M'L'
which
may
where
y'
may
be written:
y'ly'^z'Kz'-e),
z' = 0'M'.
= M'Q', y" = L'R' and
Moreover, since
be regarded as small in comparison with z f we obtain
,
y'
The
axis.
difference
y" =y"
(y'
y")
is
approximately.
the measure of the perspective
elongation due to imperfect focusing.
then R'Q' will be parallel

and y = y" ; and under these circumstances, the
If the exit-pupil is at infinity,
to the axis
perspective reproduction in the screen-plane will be of the
same
size as
the image, no matter
how much it
is
out of focus.
420
144
144. Telecentric Systems.

A common laboratory use of
an optical instrument is to ascertain the size of an inaccessible or intangible object from the measured dimensions of
its image as determined by means of a scale on which the
Telecentric optical system: Case of a thin convex lens with front

stop in first focal plane. Object represented by LR; blurred image
M'Q' appears of the same size as sharp image L'R'.
Fig. 186.
image
is
projected; but, in general, unless the scale
is
exactly
same plane as the image, there will be a parallax error

in the measurement of the image due to its perspective
elongation.
However, if the chief rays in the image-space
are parallel to the axis, which may be effected by placing the
in the
aperture-stop so that the entrance-pupil
lies in
the primary
focal plane of the instrument, as illustrated in Fig. 186, the
elongation
perspective
in 143);
vanishes (y'y" = 0, as explained
and, consequently, the image y" = L'R' will ap-
pear of the same size as
whether
it lies
Similarly,
if
trance-pupil
is
in the
its
projection ?/ = M'Q', no matter
same plane
as the scale or not.
the aperture-stop
at infinity
and the
is
placed so that the en-
exit-pupil lies therefore in
the secondary focal plane, the chief rays in the object-space
then all be parallel to the optical axis.

Systems of this description in which one or other of the
two projection centers 0, 0' is at infinity are said to be
will
Keratometer
144]
421
This is the principle of nearly all systems for

telecentric.
micrometer measurements of optical images.
A simple illustration of a device of this kind that is telecentric on the side next the object is afforded by the ophthalmic instrument called a keratometer, which, as the name
implies, is intended primarily to measure the diameter of the
cornea or the apparent diameter of the eye-pupil. It is used
measure the distance of a correction-glass ( 154)

from an ametropic eye ( 153), which is an important factor
also to
in the prescription of spectacles.
The instrument
consists
narrow tube, near the middle of which

is mounted a convex lens of low power adjusted so that its
second focal point F' coincides exactly with the center of a
small aperture in a metal disk placed at the end of the tube
where the observer puts his eye. At the opposite end of the
essentially of a long
tube a scale graduated in half-millimeters
is
mounted
so that
eye of
Patient;
rî ;
Spectacle Glass
Scale
Fig. 187.
Diagram of instrument called
keratometer, as used to measure

the distance of spectacle glass from the cornea of the eye.
upper edge coincides with a horizontal diameter of the

tube at this place. The upper part of this end of the tube
is cut away in order to admit sufficient light to illuminate the
its
scale.
When
the keratometer
is
used to measure the distance
between the vertex of the cornea and the vertex of the correction-glass, it is placed with its axis at right-angles to the
the diagram
brought as near as possible to
line of sight of the patient, as represented in
(Fig.
187), the scale being

422
144
The
by
that when
the patient between his eye and the spectacle-glass.

distance
AB
to be
measured
is
projected on the scale
rays that are parallel to the axis of the lens, so
the observer looks through the instrument he can read

this distance
on the image of the
Practically the
same
principle
off
scale.
is
employed
also in
Badal's
optometer for measuring the visual acuity of the eye.
It
Badal's optometer, with second focal point (F)' of

convex lens at first nodal point of patient's eye; forming in
conjunction with the eye a telecentric system.
Fig. 188.
convex lens mounted at one end of a long

is provided with a movable carrier
which
bar
graduated
holding a test-chart of some kind. If the lens, which usually
has a refracting power of about 10 dioptries, is adjusted
about 9 cm. in front of the cornea so that its second focal
consists of a single
point F' coincides with the nodal point of the eye (Fig. 188),
a ray meeting the lens in a direction parallel to the axis will

emerge from it so as to go through the nodal point of the
Badal's optometer, with second focal point (F') of

convex lens at first focal point of patient's eye; forming in
conjunction with the eye a telescopic system.
Fig. 189.
eye and thence to the retina without change of direction.

Accordingly, just as though a narrow aperture were placed
Problems
Ch. XII]
423
image
at the nodal point of the eye, the size of the retinal

will
not be altered whether the object or chart on the bar be
far or near;
whereas the distinctness with which the details

which affords the measure of the visual
depend on the distance of the object.
of the object are seen,
acuity, will
Another method
so that
now
its
optometer is to place the

from the eye, as shown in Fig. 189,
of using this
lens about 2 cm. farther
second focal point
plane of the eye.
ray proceeding parallel to the axis
and
lies in
the anterior focal
Under these circumstances an incident

will
emerge from the lens
cross the axis at the anterior focal point of the eye, so
that after traversing the eye-media

to the axis.
it will
again be parallel
Consequently, here also the image formed on
the retina will be of the same size no matter where the object
placed on the bar in front of the lens, just as if there were
a narrow stop at the anterior focal point of the eye. In this
latter adjustment the lens and the eye together constitute
an optical system which is telecentric on both sides, that is,
is
telescopic system ( 125).
PROBLEMS
1.
is
cylindrical tube, 2 cm. in diameter
closed at one end
by a thin convex lens
and 10 cm.
long,
of focal length 4 cm.
end of the tube is pointed towards a distant object,

be the position and diameter of the entrancepupil?
Ans. 6| cm. in front of the lens; diameter, 1^ cm.
2. In the preceding problem, where would the object have
to be in order that the lens itself might act as entranceIf this
what
will
pupil?
Ans. In front of the lens, not more than 20 or less than

4 cm. away.
3. If in No. 1 the other end of the tube is closed by a thin
eye-lens whose focal length is such that when the combination is pointed at an object 24 cm. from the object-glass, the
bundles of rays issuing from the eye-lens are cylindrical, find
424
[Ch.
XII
the positions of the pupils of the system and the focal length
of the eye-lens.
6| cm.
Ans. Entrance-pupil
front
in
of
object-glass;
exit-pupil coincides with eye-glass; focal length of eye-glass,

5.2 cm.
In the preceding problem what
4.
the supposition that the object
is
will
be the answers on
12 cm. from the object-
glass?
Ans. Entrance-pupil
coincides with object-glass; exitbeyond

cm.
eye-glass; focal length of eye6|
glass, 4 cm.
5. A real inverted image of an extended object is formed
by the object-glass of a simple astronomical telescope in the
primary focal plane of the eye-glass. The focal lengths of
pupil
is
the object-glass and eye-glass are 2 feet and 1.5 inches, re-
and
spectively,
glass
240
is
their diameters are 6 inches
If the distance of
respectively.
feet, find
and
inch,
the object from the object-
the position and diameter of the en-
trance-port and the diameter of the portion of the object
that
completely visible through the telescope.
is
Ans. Entrance-port
its
diameter
ject,
6.
is
is
30.21 feet from object-glass,
and
1.175 feet; diameter of visible portion of ob-
5.865 feet.
4 cm.
and diameter
an eye adapted for
placed at a distance of 5 cm. from the lens,
thin convex lens of focal length 10 cm.
is
used as a magnifying
parallel rays is
glass.
If
what
will be the diameter of the portion of the object that

can be seen distinctly?
Ans. 8 cm.
7. The diameter of a thin convex lens is 1 inch, and its
focal length is 10 inches. The lens is placed midway between
the eye and a plane object which is 10 inches from the eye.
How much
of the object
is
visible
through the lens?

Ans. 1| inch.
CHAPTER
XIII
POWER
OPTICAL SYSTEM OF THE EYE. MAGNIFYING

OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
The Human Eye.
145.
The organ of vision
of the eye-ball, wherein the visual impulses are
is composed
produced by
the impact of light; the optic nerve which transmits these

excitations to the brain; and the visual center in the brain
where the sensation of vision comes to consciousness.

The eye-ball (Fig. 190) lying in a bony socket on a cushion
of fat and connective tissue, in which it is free to turn in all
directions with little or no friction, consists of an almost
spherical dark chamber, filled with transparent optical media
The
which form the optical system of the eye
(Fig. 191).
outer protecting envelope of the eye-ball
the tough, white
membrane
called,
popularly
known
from
its
is
hardness, the sclerotic coat or sclera,
as the " white of the eye."
This opaque
membrane is continued in front by a round opening or window called, on account of its horny texture, the cornea. The
cornea
is
beautifully transparent,
and
its
mirror-like surface
forms a slight protuberance shaped something like a watchIn the interior of the eye the
glass or a prolate spheroid.
sclerotic coat is overlaid with the dark-colored choroid which
contains the blood-vessels that nourish the eye and also a
layer of brown pigment acting to protect the dark chamber
of the eye
from diffused
light.
Behind the cornea
with transparent fluid
lies
the
the
chamber filled
This anterior chamber is limited behind the
in
which,
rich
blood-vessels, imparts to the eye its chariris,
This is an opaque screen or curtain which
acteristic color.
anterior
called
aqueous humor.
contains a central hole, the pupil, which
human
eye.
The aperture
is
circular in the
of a bundle of rays entering the
425
426
145
eye from a luminous point, in proportion to the dimensions
enormous as compared, for example, with the

same magnitude in a telescope; and the office of the pupil is
of the eye, is
to stop
down
this aperture to suitable proportions.
pupil contracts or dilates involuntarily
quantity of light that

ture of the
iris
is
The
and regulates the
admitted to the eye.
In the struc-
there are two sets of fibers, the circular and
Human Eye
145]
when the circular fibers

and when the radiating fibers
427
the radiating;
contract, the pupil
contracts,
contract, the pupil
In the front part of the eye the choroid lining is

dilates.
bordered at the edge of the cornea by a kind of folded drapery
the so-called ciliary body, which is hidden from without be-
428
145
iris and which contains the delicate system of

muscles which control the mechanism of accommodation.
hind the
The
is
composed
lens
crystalline
substance
band which surrounds the edge

which
is
of
a perfectly transparent
indirectly attached to the ciliary
disposed in radial folds somewhat after
This band
of a neck-frill.
is
body by a
and
the manner
of the lens like a ring
the suspensory ligament or zonule
The lens itself is double convex, the posterior surbeing more strongly curved than the anterior surface.
of Zinn.
face
The substance
of the lens consists of layers of different in-
dices of refraction increasing towards the center or core of the

lens.
The
entire space behind the lens
is filled
with a trans-
parent jelly-like substance called the vitreous humor, which
has the same index of refraction as the aqueous humor,
namely, 1.336.
The
is
light-sensitive retina lying
on the inside of the choroid
exceedingly delicate and transparent.
In spite of
its
which nowhere exceeds 0.4 mm., the structure of the retina is very complicated, and no less than ten
layers have been distinguished (Fig. 192).
The layer next
the vitreous humor is composed of nerve-fibres spreading
out radially from the optic nerve. This layer is connected
slight thickness
with the following layer containing the large ganglion or
and this in turn is connected by an apparatus

and cells with the peculiar light-sensitive elements
of the retina, the so-called visual cells which form the "bacillary layer."
These visual cells consist of characteristic
elongated bodies which are distinguished as rods and cones.
nerve-cells,
of fibers
The rods are slender cylinders, while the cones

somewhat thicker and flask-shaped. They are
or bulbs are
all
disposed
perpendicularly to the surface of the retina, closely packed

together, so as to form a mosaic layer at the back of the
retina.
Near the center
of the retina at the
to the temporal side,
where the visual
is
cells
back of the eye, a
little
located the yellow spot or macula lutea,

are
composed mostly
of cones.
This
Human Eye
145]
is
429
the most sensitive part of the retina, especially the minute
pit or depression at the center of this area, called the fovea

centralis,
which consists entirely of cones densely crowded
together.
As compared with an
artificial
2.
&nu
optical instrument, the
<**** >*****
^flfe J &***** Store J*y
7
-
J'wWw^ J^
A WVu*.
Fig. 192.
field of
3l&>*
**-(
*<^8-r
Structure of the retina of the human eye.
view of the immobile eye
is
very extensive, amounting

The diameter
to about 150 laterally and 120 vertically.
of the fovea centralis corresponds in the field of vision of the
eye to an angular space which may be covered by the nail

of the fore finger extended at arm's length. In this part of
the
field vision is so
acute that details of an object can be
430
145
distinguished as separate provided their angular distance
not
of
less
than one minute of arc
an object
is
so small that its
(cf.
If
10).
is
the apparent size
image formed on the retina at
the fovea centralis covers only a single visual cell, the object
ceases to have any apparent size at all and cannot be distinguished from a point.
The
size of the retinal
image corre-
sponding to an object whose apparent size is one minute of

arc is found by calculation from the known optical constants
Anatomical measurements
of the eye to be 0.00487 mm.
give a similar value for the diameter of a visual cell.
The inverted image cast on the retina of the eye has been
compared to a sketch which is roughly outlined in the outer
parts, but which is more and more finely executed in towards
the center, until at the fovea centralis
exquisitely
finished.
Thus,
itself
the details are
only a comparatively small
portion of an external object can be seen distinctly
by the
eye at any one moment. If all the parts of the field of view
were portrayed with equal vividness at the same time and
came
would be comand unable to concentrate his attention
to consciousness at once, the spectator
pletely bewildered
on a particular spot or phase of the object.

The ends of the rods next the choroid contain a coloring
matter which is sensitive to light, the so-called visual purple,
which is bleached white by exposure to bright light, but
which is renewed in darkness by the layer of cells lying between the choroid and the retina. The light-disturbance
arriving at the retina penetrates
layer of rods
and
cones,
it
as far as the bacillary
and the stimulus
is
transmitted back
through the interposed apparatus to the layer of nervefibers and thence conducted to the optic nerve in communication with the brain.
Not far from the center of the retina, a little to the nasal
side, the optic nerve pierces the eye-ball through the sclera
and choroid. Here the retina is interrupted, so that any light

which falls on the optic nerve itself cannot be perceived.
This
is
the place of the so-called blind-spot (punctum ccecum)
Optical Constants of
146]
Eye
431
Corresponding to the area of the blind spot,

field of vision of the eye amounting to
about 6 horizontally and 8 vertically. The dimensions of
the blind spot are great enough to contain the retinal imof the eye.
there
is
a gap in the
The optic
ages of eleven full moons placed side by side.
nerve leaves the eyeball through a bony canal and passes
thence to the visual center of the brain.
The mobility
four recti
of the eye is produced by

and the two oblique muscles (Fig.
six muscles, the
190).
The
recti
and are attached

so as to move the eye up or
originate in the posterior part of the socket
by
their tendons to the sclera
down and
muscles
to the right or
left.
more complicated.
is
The procedure of the oblique

The superior oblique, which
also arises in the posterior part of the socket, passes in the
front of the eye through a loop or kind of pulley lying
on
the upper nasal side of the socket and then turns downwards
The inferior oblique muscle has

on the front lower nasal side of the eye-socket,
to attach itself to the sclera.

its origin
and passes to the posterior surface of the eye-ball, being attached to the sclera on the temporal side. The superior oblique turns the eye downwards and outwards, and the inferior
oblique turns it upwards and outwards.
The motor muscles of the two eyes act together so that
both eyes turn always in the same sense, to the right or to
the left, up or down. It is impossible to turn one eye up
and the other down at same time, so as to look up to the
sky with one eye and down at the earth with the other.
The optical axis of the

be defined as the normal to the anterior surface of
the cornea which goes through the center of the pupil. This
146. Optical Constants of the Eye.
eye
may
line passes
approximately through the centers of curvature
of the refracting surfaces.
The
schematic eye (see 130)
is
a centered system of spherical refracting surfaces symmetric

with respect to the optical axis. The point where the optical
axis
meets the anterior surface of the cornea
cornea vertex or anterior pole of the eye and
is
is
called the
designated
432
by
is
A and
;
the point where the optical axis meets the retina
called the posterior pole of the eye
and
is
designated by B.
In Gullstrand's schematic eye the distance from

is
146
equal to 24 mm., therefore somewhat
The motor muscles
of the eye ( 145)
to
than an inch.
less
acting in pairs, turn
the eye-ball around axes of rotation which
all
pass through
a fixed point or pivot called the center of rotation of the eye
and designated by
humor about
13 or 14
may
This point
Z.
lying also on the optical axis in the
mm. from
be considered as
medium
of the vitreous
the vertex of the cornea or
mm
behind the pupil. All the excursions of the

about 10.5
eye are performed around this point.
The object-point which is sharply imaged on the retina at
the fovea centralis
145)
is
called the point of fixation,
and the
straight line which joins the point of fixation with the centre
of rotation
is
called the line of fixation.
the direction in which the eye
is
This
looking.
line indicates
The field
of fixa-
measured by the greatest angular distance through

which the line of fixation can be turned; which amounts to
about a right angle both vertically and horizontally.
In Gullstrand's schematic eye, as was shown in 130,
the primary focal point F lies in front of the eye at a distance of 15.707 mm. from the anterior vertex of the cornea,
while the secondary focal point F' lies on the other side of
tion is
the cornea at a distance of 24.387
mm. The
principal points
aqueous humor slightly beyond the cornea system at distances AH = +1.348 mm., AH' = +1.602
mm. Thus the focal lengths are: /= +17.055 mm. /' =
22.785 mm.; the ratio between them being equal to 1.336,
which is therefore the value of the index of refraction (n')
Accordingly, the refracting power
of the vitreous humor.
(H, H')
of
lie
in the
Gullstrand's schematic eye
nodal points (N, N')

crystalline lens,
lie
F= 58.64
is
dptr.
The
close to the posterior vertex of the
on opposite
sides of
it,
AN'= +7.332 mm. The
straight line
at the following dis-
AN = +7.078 mm.,
which joins the point
tances from the vertex of the cornea:
Accommodation
147]
of the
Eye
433
of fixation with the anterior nodal point of the eye
the visual axis.
It is parallel to the straight line
the posterior nodal point with the fovea centralis.
nodal points are so close together, for

nected with the eye they
that then the visual axis
is
called
which joins
Since the
many problems
con-
may be regarded as coincident; so

may be defined as the line drawn
from the point of fixation to the fovea centralis. The visual

axis meets the cornea a little to the nasal side of the anterior
vertex and slightly above it, forming with the optical axis an
angle between 3 and 5.
The above values are all given for the passive, unaccommoBy the act of accommodation the positions of
dated eye.
the focal points, principal points and nodal points are all displaced, and accordingly the focal lengths and the refracting
power of the eye can be varied within certain limits depending on the power of accommodation, as will be explained in
the following section.
Accommodation of the Eye. When the eye is at rest,

when one gazes pensively into space, it is adapted for far
147.
as
Accommodation of the human eye;

Fig. 193.
indicating how the crystalline lens is changed
from far vision to near vision.
vision, so that in order to see distinctly objects
at hand, an effort has to be
made which
which are
will
close
be greater in
434
proportion as the object fixed
whereby the normal eye
ess
is
is
nearer to the eye.
148
This proc-
enabled to focus on the retina
images of objects at different distances

and it is this marvelous adaptability of the human eye, together with its mobility, which
perhaps more than any other quality entitles it to superior-
in succession sharp
is
accommodation,
called
most perfectly constructed artificial optical inof accommodation is achieved by

the form of the crystalline lens, consisting chiefly
ity over the
struments.
changes in
The power
change in the convexity of the anterior surface, produced

through the mechanism of the ciliary muscle. According
to the generally accepted theory, so long as the eye is passive,
in a
the elastic substance of the lens
is
held flattened in front
by
the suspensory ligament; but in the act of accommodation

the ciliary muscle contracts, and this
is
accompanied by a
relaxation of the ligament of the lens, which
permitted to bulge forward by virtue of

(Fig. 193).
which
is
when the
is
thereby
elasticity
and Near Point of the Eye. The far point

{punctum remotum) is that point (R) on the axis
148. Far Point

of the eye
is
own
its
sharply focused at the posterior pole of the eye

crystalline lens has its least refracting power; it
the point which
is
seen distinctly
is entirely relaxed.
On
punctum proximum)
is
when the accommodation
the other hand, the near point (or
that point (P) on the axis which
is
seen distinctly when the crystalline lens has its greatest refracting power, that is, when the accommodation is exerted
to the utmost. The region of distinct vision within which an
must lie in order that its image can be sharply focused on the retina of the naked eye is comprised between
two concentric spherical surfaces, the far point sphere and
object
the near point sphere, described around the center of rotation of the eye (Z) with radii equal to
ZR
and ZP,
re-
spectively. If the far point lies at infinity, as is the case in the
normal eye, the
far point sphere is identical with the infinitely
distant plane of space
{cf.
83), as represented in Fig. 194;
Presbyopia
149]
435
whereas the near point sphere will be real and at a finite

distance in front of the eye. In such a case the eye can be
directed towards any point in the field of fixation ( 146)
lying on or beyond the near point sphere and accommodate
Neat-
Point
Sphere
Fig. 194.
itself
Region of accommodation of emmetropic eye.
to see this point distinctly.
far point
and near point are
In a near-sighted eye both
real points lying at finite dis-
tances in front of the eye; but the far point of a far-sighted
eye
is
a " virtual" point lying at a
finite
distance behind the
and hence an unaided far-sighted eye cannot see distinctly a real object without exerting its accommodation to
eye,
a greater or
less degree.
Decrease of the Power of Accommodation with

Increasing Age. The faculty of accommodation is greatest
in youth and diminishes rapidly with advancing years.
The near point of the eye gradually recedes farther and farther away, which is commonly supposed to be due to a pro149.
gressive diminution of the elasticity of the crystalline lens.
Thus, at the ages of 10, 20 and 40 years the punctum proxiof a normal eye, according to Donders, is in front of
the eye at distances from the primary principal point equal
mum
to 7.1, 10 and 22.2 cm., respectively.
When
the near point
it is no longer
do "near work" conveniently
has retreated to a distance of 22 cm., so that

possible to read or write or
without the aid of spectacles, the condition of presbyopia

or old-age vision has begun to set
in.
Meantime, while the
436
power
of
accommodation
150
of the eye thus continually dimin-
ishes as the near point recedes farther
and farther away,
the position of the far point remains practically fixed until

well after middle
years
it
life;
but between the ages of 55 and 60
too begins to separate farther from the eye, and
and the far point travel outwards along the axis of the eye, the former, however, constantly gaining on the latter; until at last in extreme old age
the near point actually overtakes the far point, and from
that time until death they remain together, the power of
accommodation having been entirely lost. Both points are
displaced along the axis always in the same direction, that is,
opposite to that of the incident light. For example, the far
point of a normal eye is infinitely distant up to about 55
thereafter both the near point
years of age, whereas ten years later, according to Donders,
be about 133 cm. behind the eye, having

infinity, so to speak, and approached
through
moved out
behind.
At the sanie age, namely, 65 years,
from
the eye
will
also
be behind the eye at a distance of
point
the near
of
years
age the two points will be together
At
75
400 cm.
behind the eye. Various theories
57.1
of
cm.
at a distance
account
for the senile recession of
advanced
to
been
have
is
probably
due to a combinaIt
point
the
of
eye.
the far
this point will
tion of causes, partly to a change in the form of the lens pro-
duced by the increased resistance of the enveloping coat of

the eye-ball and the decreased pressure of the surrounding
tissue, and partly also to senile changes in the lens-substance
itself whereby the " total index" of the lens is lowered in
value.
150.
It
Change
of Refracting
was remarked above
Power
in
Accommodation.
146) that the positions of the car-
dinal points of the optical system of the eye are
all
altered
in the act of accommodation. Thus, for example, in Gullstrand's schematic eye, which is calculated for an adolescent youth, the near point is at a distance AP = 10.23 cm.
from the vertex of the cornea; and for this state of maxi-

Amplitude
151]
mum
of
Accommodation
accommodation the positions
437
of the focal points
and
principal points are found to be as follows
AF
- 12.397 mm., AF = +21.016 mm.,

1.772 mm., AH' = + 2.086 mm.;
'
AH = +
and, accordingly, the focal lengths and the refracting power

are:
F= +70.57 dptr.
be observed that, whereas the focal points have undergone considerable displacements from their positions in
i=+14.169mm., /'= -18.930 mm.,
It will
the passive eye, the corresponding displacements of the

principal points are less than half a millimeter; and since in
most physiological measurements half a millimeter is within
the limit of error,
we can
usually afford to neglect altogether
the accommodative displacement of the principal points of

the eye, that
is,
we may regard
the positions of the princi-
H, H' as practically fixed and independent of

This is one reason, among
the state of accommodation.
others, why the principal points of the eye have superpal points
seded the other cardinal points as points of reference.

proximity to the cornea
is
Their
another advantage, inasmuch as
measurements referred to them are easily related to an exand tangible point of the eye. In the socalled "reduced eye," which consists of a single spherical
refracting surface separating the outside air from the vitreous humor and so placed that its vertex lies at the primary
principal point of the schematic eye, the two principal points
are, in fact, coincident with each other on the surface of this
ternal, visible
simplified cornea.
Accommodation. The far point disand the near point distance (b) are the distances of
the far point and near point, respectively, measured from
the primary principal point of the eye; thus, a = HR, b =
HP; it being tacitly assumed here that the position of the
point H remains sensibly stationary during accommodation,
as was explained above.
Each of these distances is to be
151. Amplitude of
tance(a)
reckoned negative or positive according as the point in ques-
438
tion lies in front of the eye or behind
it,
The
respectively.
reciprocals of these magnitudes, namely,
151
A = l/a, B = l/b,
are termed the static refraction (A), or the refraction of the
eye when the accommodation
is completely relaxed, and the

dynamic refraction (B), or the refraction of the eye when
the accommodation is exerted to the highest degree. If the
distances a and b are given in meters, the reciprocal magni-
tudes will be expressed in dioptries, as
The range
is
generally the case.
denned to be the distance

of the near point from the far point, that is, RP = b a;
whereas the amplitude of accommodation is the value obtained
by subtracting algebraically the magnitude of the dynamic
refraction from that of the static refraction, thus:
Amplitude of Accommodation = A B.
Imagine a thin convex lens placed in the primary principal
plane of the eye with its axis in the same line as the optical
axis of the eye, and of such strength that it produces at the
far point of the eye an image of the near point; according to
the above definition, the amplitude of accommodation of
the eye is equal to the refracting power of this lens. For example, in the normal eye at 30 years of age, a= oo, b =
14.3 cm., so that the amplitude of accommodation in this
case amounts to 7 dptr.; whereas at 60 years of age a =
+200 cm., b =200 cm., and hence the amplitude of accommodation will have been reduced to 1 dptr.
The distance from the secondary principal point (H') to
the posterior pole (B) where the optical axis meets the retina
may be regarded as a measure of the length of the eye-axis,
of accommodation
is
H' is sensibly independent

accommodation, as has been explained, ( 150).
'=
If this distance is denoted by a', that is, if we put a'
=
H'B, and if also we put A! n'/a' where n' denotes the
index of refraction of the vitreous humor, then we may write
especially since the position of
of the state of
'
',
A'=A+F,
where
denotes here the refracting power of the passive,
unaccommodated
eye.
Similarly,
if
the symbol
Fa
is
em-
Emmetropia and Ametropia
153]
439
ployed to denote the refracting power of the eye in

of
maximum accommodation, we
A' =
shall
B+F&
its
state
have:
Consequently, we
may
dation (A B)
equal to the difference (F^ F) between
is
also say that the
power
of
accommo-
the greatest and least values of the refracting power of the

eye.
152. Various Expressions for the Refraction of the Eye.
The
refraction of the eye in a given state of
accommoda-
measured by the reciprocal of the distance from the

for which the eye is accomeye of the axial object-point
modated. Thus, if w=HM, x =
denote the distances of
from the primary principal point and the primary focal
= l/x,
point, respectively, the magnitudes U = l/u and
usually expressed in dioptries, are the measures of the prinThe
cipal point refraction and the focal point refraction.
relation between U and
may be given in terms of the refracting power of the eye (F) when it is accommodated for
tion
is
FM
the object-point
M,
as follows:
F.X
U_
TJ
v _ F.U
F+U'
~F-X'
an arbitrary point
on the axis of the eye is selected

= 2, the refracas the point of reference, and if we put
tion of the eye, referred to the point O, will be measured by
Z = 1/z. If the distances of the points H and F from are
denoted by b and g, that is, if 6 = OH, g = OF, then since
z = u+b = x+g, we can obtain also the following useful reand Z in terms of b and g:
lations between U,
If
OM
Z
l-b.Z
x= Z
1-g.Z
U
1+b.U
153.
X
l-(b-g)X'
u
l+(b-g)U'
X
1+g.X'
Emmetropia and Ametropia.
fraction of the eye
is
When
the static re-
equal to zero (A=0), that
is,
when
440
the far point (R)

emmetropic.
If
153
infinitely distant, the eye is said to
is
be
A'=A+F, we put ^4 = 0,
which therefore may be said to be the
in the equation
we obtain A' = F,
condition of emmetropia.
power
of the eye
Here
denotes the refracting
when accommodation
is
entirely relaxed.
In emmetropia, therefore, the second focal point (F') of

the passive eye
lies
on the retina at the posterior pole (B)
To Rat co
Fig. 195.
so that in a passive
Diagram of emmetropic eye.

emmetropic eye incident
parallel rays
are converged to a focus on the retina, as represented in

Fig.
195,
and the length
of the eye-axis
is
a'
/'. The
normal position of the far point is to be regarded as at infinity; and in this sense an emmetropic eye is a normal eye,
although, strictly speaking, an emmetropic eye may at the
same time be abnormal in various ways.
On
the other hand,
different
if
the static refraction of the eye
from zero (AÔ), that
is,
when the
is
far point (R)
not infinitely distant, the eye is said to be ametropic

Thus, the condition of ametropia may be said to be charac-
is
by the fact that the refracting power (F) of the

unaccommodated eye is not equal to A' which is equivaterized
lent to saying that the length of the eye-axis (a')

ically different
(/').
from the value of the second
is
numer-
focal length
In other words, the second focal point (F') of an
ametropic eye in a state of repose does not fall on the retina.

Two general divisions of ametropia are distinguished depending, on whether the far point (R) lies on one side or the
Myopia and Hypermetropia
153]
other of the primary principal point (H).
that
is, if
the far point
lies
441
Thus,
if
A<Q,
at a finite distance in front of the
eye, the ametropia in this case
is
called
myopia
(Fig. 196).
In a myopic eye in a state of repose the second focal point
Fig. 196.
Ametropic eye:
myopia.
(F') lies in front of the retina (in the vitreous
humor), so
that parallel incident rays will be brought to a focus before reaching the retina.
On the other hand, if A>0, the
far point will lie at a finite distance
Fig. 197.
and
Ametropic eye:
beyond
(or
behind) the
hypermetropia.
form of ametropia is known as hypermetropia

In a hypermetropic eye in a state of repose the
second focal point (F') falls beyond the retina, so that incident parallel rays arrive at the retina before coming to a
eye,
this
(Fig. 197).
A myopic eye cannot focus for a distant object without the aid of a glass, and it lacks therefore an important
part of the capacity of an emmetropic eye. On the other
focus.
hand, a hypermetropic eye must
modation each time
make an
in order to focus
effort of accomon the retina the image
442
153
which frequently produces various troubles,

sometimes very annoying.
Accordingly, both conditions
included under the general name of ametropia are disadvantageous for practical vision.
Theoretically, ametropia may be considered as due to
some abnormality in the values of one or of both of the magnitudes denoted by A' and F' on which the value of the
static refraction (^4) depends; so that the following cases
of a real object;
are possible:
(1)
(axial
The length of the eye-ball (a') may be too great

myopia, a > /') or too small (axial hypermetropia,
f
a' < /'), whereas the refracting power (F) is normal.

This,
by far the most common, type is known as axial ametropia.
(2)
may
may
On the other hand, while the length of the eye-ball

be normal, the magnitude of the refracting power (F)
be abnormally great or small.
ametropia, which
is
In general, this form of
comparatively rare,
is
due to abnormal
curvatures of the refracting surfaces {curvature ametropia).
Or the
indices of refraction of the eye-media
normal values
(indicial ametropia).
tioned the condition
known
Here
also
may have abmay be men-
as aphakia produced
by the
extraction of the crystalline lens in the operation for cataract.

(3)
Finally,
it
may happen
that the refracting power and
the length of the eye-ball are both abnormal.
two anomalies might
In
fact, these
exist together in exactly the degree
necessary to counteract each other, so that, in spite of
its
abnormalities, the eye in such a case would be emmetropic.
In the case of axial ametropia, the relation between the

static refraction
(A)
and the length
given by the following formula:
<= AB =
and
if
AH+
(I)
of the eye-ball is
the values for Gullstrand's schematic eye
are substituted in this formula,

1
it
= 1.602+
^4 +58.64
may
146)
be written as follows:
millimeters.
Correction Eye-Glasses
154]
443
According to this formula, the length of the eye varies from

21.07 mm. in extreme axial hypermetropia (A =
about
+ 10
dptr.) to
about 36.18
mm.
in case of the highest degree
myopia (A =20 dptr.). The length of an axially

emmetropic eye (.4=0) is 24,38 mm. The length of Gullof axial
tnttt
444
principal points of the lens are designated
and
if
[154
by Hi and
Hi',
we put
tH
= 1/Ui = HiM,
Mi'
= 1/Ui' = Hi'R,
then
Ui'-U+Fh
where F\ denotes the refracting power of the lens. Let the
distance of the primary principal point (H) of the eye from
the secondary principal point (Hi ) of the lens be denoted
by c, that is, c = Hi'H; then since a = ui'c, where a de7
notes the far point distance of the eye, the following expression for the static refraction (A
= l/a)
may
be derived
immediately:
Ui+Ft
l-c(Ui+Fi)
In case the axial object-point

lens
is
is
'
infinitely far
away, the
called a correction-glass, because it enables the pas-
very distant object

on the axis of the lens, so that to this extent the lens interposed in front of the eye endows it with the characteristic
faculty of an unaccommodated, naked, emmetropic eye.
shall be infinitely distant is Ui = 0;
The condition that
and hence the relation between the static refraction of the
eye and the refracting power of a correction-glass is given as
sive ametropic eye to see distinctly a
follows
a.*
Fl=
1-c.Fi
A
,
1+c.A
If the distance c between the correction-glass and the eye is

neglected entirely, then Fi = A, that is, the power of the
correction-glass is approximately equal to the static refracThe distance c, which must be expressed
tion of the eye.
magnitudes denoted by F\ and A are
in
the
case
in meters
always a comparatively small magniis
given in dioptries,
glasses is comprised between
spectacle
in
actual
tude, which
0.008 and 0.016 m.; so that
if,
without neglecting
c entirely,
Vertex Refraction of Spectacle Lens
154]
we
445
and higher powers thereof, the

be written in the following convenient
neglect only the second
formulae above
may
approximate forms:
A=F
which
FÂil-cA);
(l+c.F 1 ),
for nearly all practical purposes will
be found to be
sufficiently accurate.
f^
Fig. 199.
The
Correction
of
myopia with concave
spectacle-glass.
condition that a spectacle-lens shall be a correction-
may
be expressed simply by saying that the second focal

point (Fi ) of the glass must coincide with the far point (R) of
Thus, in case of a myopic eye the correction-glass
the eye.
glass
Fig. 200.
Correction of hypermetropia with convex spectacle-glass.
will be concave (Fig. 199) and in case of a hypermetropic

eye it will be convex (Fig. 200).
Instead of describing the power of a spectacle glass by
means of its refracting power, it is really more convenient
and
terms of
logical to express it in
as defined in 128.
the eye
is
the glass
designated
is
its vertex refraction
If the vertex of the lens
by
denoted by
L,
and
k,
since the points designated
if
that
by
which
lies
(V),
next
the distance of the eye from

is,
Fi'
if
and
= LH,
we put
fc
R must
be coincident,
then,
446
v
= a+k, where a denotes the "back focus"

v=l/7 = LF/ = LR; and hence:
155
of the lens, that
is,
v
l-k.V
v- A
1+k.A'
or approximately:
A = V(l+k.V),
V=A(l-kA).
be seen from the above formulae how the power of a
correction-glass depends essentially on the location of the
It
may
The
glass in front of the eye.
distance
tangible, external point of the glass,
than the interval denoted by

155. Visual Angle.
was explained
which
is
it
k,
being referred to a
more
easily
measured
c.
The apparent
size of an object, as
measured by the visual angle co
in 10, is
subtends at the eye; thus,
designated by
is
and
if
?/
if
the vertex of this angle
= MQ denotes a diameter
of the
object at right angles to the line of vision, the apparent size

of the object in the direction of this dimension
Accordingly,
noted by
if
is
co
= Z MOQ.
the distance of the object from the eye
is
de-
= 0M,
then tana? =y/z. As the immobile eye looking in a fixed direction can see distinctly
only that comparatively small portion of the object whose
image
z,
falls
that
is, if
on the sensitive part of the retina
in the
immedi-
ate vicinity of the fovea centralis ( 145), the rays concerned
image in this so-called case

be regarded as paraxial rays. Accordingly, the value of the angle co in radians may be sub-
in the production of the retinal

of " indirect vision"
may
stituted here for the tanco, so that

cc
where
Z = l/z.
On
we may
the assumption that y
positive, a negative value of the angle
object
eye
is
is
real
write:
= y/z = y.Z,
and therefore
co
is
reckoned as
indicates that the
in front of the point
where the
supposed to be.
The exact meaning
to be attached to the visual angle
co
depend, of course, on the precise location with respect

to the eye of the vertex of this angle. To be sure, so long as
the object is quite remote from the eye, as is often the case,
will
Visual Angle
155]
it will
not generally be necessary to define particularly the
position of the vertex
to take a
the
447
moon
of the visual angle.
somewhat extreme
will
For example,
instance, the apparent size of
not be sensibly altered by removing the vermuch as a mile or more away from
tex of the visual angle as
And,
the eye.
provided the object
in general,
is
not
less
be sufficient to know that

the vertex of the visual angle is in the eye without specifying
its position more exactly.
On the other hand, especially
than, say, 10 meters away,
it will
power of accommodation in
a matter of much
sometimes
order to focus the object, it is
importance to define the visual angle with the utmost precision.
In such a case several meanings of this term are to
be specially distinguished. For example, when the vertex
of the visual angle is at the primary principal point of the
when the eye has
to exert its
called the principal point angle (coh =
eye,
it is
that
we may
^MHQ),
so
write
cc H = ij!u = y.U,
where w=l/[/=HM denotes the distance of the object from
the primary principal point. Similarly, the so-called focal
point angle (co F = ZMFQ) is the angle subtended by the
object at the primary focal point of the eye; and hence:
u F = y/x = y.X,
PM
where x=l/I =
denotes the distance of the object from
the primary focal point of the eye.
According to the definitions of these angles and the relations between the magnitudes denoted by X, U and Z, as
given in
152,
we may write
therefore:
=Z U X
= 1 :(l+b.U) :(l+g.X)
= (1-6.Z) :1 :(1-X/F)
= (l-g.Z):(l+U/F):l;
where F denotes here the refracting power of the eye when
it is accommodated for the point M.
The apparent size of an object may be measured also at
co
cor-
co F
other points of the eye, for example, at the center of the
448
156
entrance-pupil, at the anterior nodal point, at the center of

rotation, etc.
The
center of rotation or eye-pivot
is
the
point of reference in the estimate of the apparent size of an

object in the case of ordinary so-called "direct vision" with
the mobile eye,
when the gaze
is
directed in quick succession
to the different parts of an extended object.
Especially, in
viewing an image through an optical instrument, it is nearly

always desirable, if practicable, to adjust the eye in such a
position that the center of rotation coincides with the center
of the exit-pupil of the instrument, so as to
an extent of the
command
as
view of the image-space as

possible. Anyone who has ever tried to look through a keyhole in a door will realize how the field of view would have
been widened if the eye could have been placed in the hole
large
field of
itself.
156. Size of Retinal Image.
If the
eye
is
accommodated
an object y situated at a distance u ( = 1/U) from its

primary principal point, the size of the image (y ) formed on
to see
the retina
is
given by the relation:
y.U=y'.A',
where A' = n'/a' denotes the reciprocal of the reduced length

of the eye-axis measured from the secondary principal point
of the eye.
Since 2/.J7=co H (155), the above equation
may be put in the following form
'
co
n'
Since the positions of the principal points remain sensibly

stationary in the act of accommodation
length of the eye-axis (a'jn

in the
same
individual.
And
( 150),
the reduced
may
be considered as constant
hence the peculiar significance
of the principal point angle consists in the fact that, ac-
cording to this formula, this angle
a measure of the
size of
(co H
the retinal image
may
{y')
be taken as
which is in-
dependent of the state of accommodation of the eye. Thus,

which have the same ap-
for a given individual, all objects
Apparent Size
157]
of
Image
449
parent size as measured at the principal point of the eye will
produce retinal images of equal size.

On the other hand, since y'.F=y.X=ai F
155),
it
ap-
pears that, for a given value of the refracting power (F),
the size of the image on the retina of the eye

to the focal point angle.
And
is
proportional
since the variations of the re-
fracting power are, generally speaking, independent of axial

ametropia ( 153), the focal point angle will be particularly
useful in comparing the apparent size of an object as seen
by different individuals under the same external conditions.
157. Apparent Size of an Object seen Through an Optical Instrument.
Let the principal points of the optical
instrument be designated by H, IT (Fig. 201); and for the
Fig. 201.
Apparent
size of object seen
through an optical
instrument.
sake of simplicity,
rounded by
let
us assume that the instrument
air so that the straight lines
HQ, H'Q'
is
sur-
joining
the principal points with corresponding points of object and

image will be parallel; and let ?/ = MQ, ?/' = M'Q' denote the
linear
magnitudes of object and image, respectively.
Let
the distance of the image from the eye be denoted by z=

O'M', where O' designates the position of the eye on the
Then the apparent
axis.
size of the
image
will
be
co=2/'.Z,
where
The
co
= ZM'0'Q' (expressed here in radians) andZ = l/z.

co may be increased by reducing the distance be-
angle
Mirrors, Prisms
450
and Lenses
157
tween the image and the eye, that is, by increasing Z; but
this distance cannot be diminished below the near point
distance of the eye, because then distinct vision would not
be possible for the naked eye.
If the distances of object and image from the principal
points are denoted by u and u', that is, if w=HM, w' = H'M',
then
y'.U'=y.U,
where U=l/u, U' = l/u'; and hence
In general (except when the rays undergo an odd number

of reflections) the sign of Z as here defined will be negative,
,
and therefore the

ratio
same
sign of
co
Accordingly,
U'.
will
if
depend on the sign of the

lie on the
object and image
side of their corresponding principal points, the sign
be negative, that is, the image will be erect.

Let the distance of the eye from the instrument be de/
noted by c = H'0 then since u' = c+z, we may write:
of
co
will
U' =
Accordingly,
if
1+c.Z
the refracting power
denoted by F, so that
of the instrument is
U=U F,we may write also:

f
F-Z(l-c.F)
1+c.Z
we obtain
therefore the fol-
Introducing these expressions,
lowing formula for the apparent size of the image:
a>=-y\F-Za-c.F)\
Thus, we see that the apparent size of the image may be

varied in one of two ways, either by changing the position
of the eye (that is, by varying c) or else by displacing the
object so that Z is varied. There are two cases of special
practical importance, namely: (1) When the eye is adjusted
so that l
c.F = 0,
Z = 0.
and
(2)
When
the object
is
focused so
In both cases the second term inside the large

The condition
brackets vanishes, and hence oo = y.F.
that
Apparent Size
157]
= l/F means
that the eye
is
of
Image
451
placed at the second focal
point (F') of the instrument (which might easily be practicable
if
the optical system were convergent)
so that under
such circumstances the apparent size of the image would be

the same for
all
positions of the object, because evidently
lie on the
which crosses the axis at the second focal point
On the other hand, the
at the constant angle 6= y.F.
the highest point (Q') of the image will always

straight line
Z=
condition
first focal
means simply that the object
plane of the instrument.
Now
lies
in the
this is the natural
adjustment for a normal, unaccommodated, emmetropic

eye, because then the rays flow into the eye in cylindrical
This is the reason why the image produced by
bundles.
the object-glass of a telescope or microscope is usually focused in the primary focal plane of the eye-piece or ocular.
Accordingly, when Z = 0, the apparent size of the image
will
be independent of the position of the eye.
An
experienced observer
who
wishes to obtain the best
an optical instrument will ordinarily adjust it

to his eye in such a way that the image can be seen distinctly
without his having to make an effort of accommodation.
This will be the case if the image is formed at the far point
results with
(R) of the eye
( 148).
of the eye is denoted
point O' in Fig. 201
is
by
If,
therefore, the static refraction
(151), then (assuming that the

coincident with the anterior principal
we may put Z = A; and hence the apparent

size of an object as seen in an optical instrument by an eye
with relaxed accommodation is given by the expression:
point of the eye)
co
Thus,
it is
K =-y\F-A(l-c.F)\
evident
how
the apparent size of the image de-
pends not only on the refracting power of the instrument,

but essentially also on the adjustment and idiosyncrasies
of the eye of the individual who looks through it.
It may be remarked that these formulae have been derived
on the tacit assumption that the eye is at rest, and consequently only a small portion of the external field is sharply
452
in focus at the sensitive part of the retina.
158
Otherwise,
we
should have had to write tanco instead of co; nor should we

have been justified in assuming that the effective rays were
If the eye turns in its socket to inspect the image,
the apparent size of the image will depend essentially on
the angular movement of the eye, and in this case the visual
paraxial.
angle must be measured at the center of rotation of the eye.

These are considerations that are too often overlooked in
discussions of this kind.
158. Magnifying
Power
of
in Conjunction with the Eye.
an Optical Instrument Used
An object may be so remote
are indistinguishable, or, on the other hand,

be so close to the eye that not even by the greatest
effort of accommodation can a sharp image of it be focused
on the retina. Under such circumstances one has recourse
to the aid of a suitable optical instrument whereby the ob-
that
it
its details
may
such an extent that the parts of it which

were obscure or entirely invisible to the naked eye will be
revealed to view. The magnifying power is usually expressed
by an abstract number M, which in the case of an optical
instrument on the order of a microscope is defined to be the
ratio of the apparent size of the image as seen in the instrument
to the apparent size of the object as it would appear at the soThis latter term is a
called "distance of distinct vision."
ject is magnified to
somewhat unfortunate form
of expression for several rea-
sons, not only because the distance at
which an object
ordinarily placed in order to be seen distinctly

for different persons,
is
is
different
but because the same person, accord-
ing to the extent of his power of accommodation, usually

possesses the ability of seeing distinctly objects at widely
expression appears to have arisen
different distances.
The
from a confusion of
ideas,
and
may
many
its origin
traced to the fact that even nowadays
probably be
people have
the eye can be " focused for

infinity," although, indeed, as has been explained, that is
to be regarded as the natural state of the normal eye in redifficulty in
conceiving
how
158]
Magnifying Power
of Optical
Instrument
453
However, the phrase has become too deeply rooted

be eradicated, and no harm will
be done by continuing to use it, provided it is not taken
literally, but is considered merely as the designation of a
pose.
in optical literature ever to
more or
is
if
denoted by
conventional
arbitrary
less
Accordingly,
I,
projection-distance.
the so-called " distance of distinct vision"

the apparent size of the object (y) as seen
and hence if the
at this distance from the eye will be y/l,
apparent
co,
size of the
image
in the
instrument
is
denoted by
the magnifying power, as above defined, will be:
The
actual value of this conventional distance
is
usually
taken as 10 inches or 25 centimeters, which is large enough

for the convenient accommodation of most human beings
who
life and yet not so

image on the retina differs much
from its greatest dimensions. If distances are all measured
in meters, the conventional value of the magnifying power
are not already past the prime of
large that the size of the
will
be given, therefore, by the formula:
M=
The explanation
is
of the
to be found in the
which, as
"
minus sign
mode
in front of the fraction
of reckoning the visual angle
we have pointed out
157),
is
co,
negative in case
the image of the object y is erect, as, for example, with an

ordinary convex lens used as a magnifying glass.
Thus,
according to the above formula, a positive value of the magmeans magnification without inversion. Or-
nifying power
meant by the magnifying power of an opis the value of this abstract number M;
which gives the ratio of the sizes of the retinal images when
an emmetropic eye views one and the same object, first, in the
instrument without effort of accommodation, and then without the instrument with an accommodation of four dioptries.
If the expression for the visual angle co which was obdinarily,
tical
what
is
instrument
454
158
tained in 157 is introduced here, we shall derive, therefore,

the following formula for the magnifying power (M) in terms
power (F) of the instrument, the distance

from the instrument, and the distance (2=
f
the image (y ) from the eye:
of the refracting
of the eye
(c)
1/Z) of
M = l\F-Z(l-c.F)\.
This expression
really a
is
nifying power, since
it
measure of the individual mag-
involves not merely the instrument
but the characteristic peculiarities of the eye of the

In order to obtain a measure of the absolute magpower
of the instrument, the second term inside the
nifying
large brackets must be made to vanish. Thus, if the object
is placed in the primary focal plane, so that the image is
= l.F denotes the
infinitely distant, then Z = 0, and now
absolute magnifying power. If 1 = 0.25 meter, then F = 4M;
and usually, therefore, when we say that the magnifying
power of a lens or microscope is M, this means simply that
itself
observer.
refracting
its
If
power
is
equal to
of distinct vision"
(I),
distance
ally small in
neglected.
(c)
is
dioptries.
formed at the " distance
then Z=l/l. and
M=
The
4M
the image in the instrument
+ (l-c)F.
between the instrument and the eye
comparison with
so that
I,
Assuming that (lc)
is
it is
positive,
is
usu-
often entirely
we may say
that in a convergent optical system (F>0), the object will
appear magnified (M>1); whereas in a divergent optical

system (F<0), the object appears to be diminished in size
(M<1).
In order to avoid the use of an arbitrary projectiondistance, (Z), Abbe proposed to define the magnifying power
as the ratio of the apparent size
ment
00)
of the
image in
the instru-
to the actual size (y) of the object (compare with
definition of focal length, 122)
so that
noted by P, then
^
CO
p=--.
y
if
Abbe's
this ratio
is
de-
Magnifying Power
159]
of
455
Telescope
This measure of the magnifying power is not an abstract

like M, but a quantity of the same physical dimen-
number
sions as the refracting
power of the instrument.
definitions are connected
by the simple
M=
so that
if
we put
by multiplying
= 0.25
M by the
example, in the case of a
used as a magnifying
The two
relation
Z.P;
P will be obtained
number four (P = 4M). Thus, for
convex lens of refracting power F
m., the value of
glass,
if
the object
is
we have P = F.
Magnifying Power
focal plane,
placed in the
first
In the case of
of a Telescope.
159.
a telescope, which is an instrument for magnifying the apparent size of a distant object, neither of the definitions of
magnifying power given in the foregoing section is applicable.
An
infinitely distant object (like the
moon,
for ex-
ample) can be seen distinctly by an emmetropic eye without

any effort of accommodation, but its apparent size may be
so minute that the distinguishing features cannot be made
out by the naked eye.
through a telescope
This same eye looking at the object
will see
an
infinitely distant
image of
but presented to the eye under a larger visual angle, so

that it appears magnified. Essentially, a telescope may be
regarded as a combination of two optical systems, one of
which the part pointed towards the object is a conit,
vergent system, generally of relatively long focus and large

aperture (so as to intercept a large quantity of light), called
composed
the object-glass; while the other,
of the lenses
next the eye, and called therefore the ocular or eye-piece,

may be a convergent or divergent system depending on the
The object-glass which is at one end of

type of telescope.
a large tube forms a real inverted image of the object in its
and
image
second focal plane or not far from
it;
spected through the ocular, which
usually fixed in a smaller
tube inserted
in the larger
this
is
in-
one so that the focus can be ad-
justed to suit different eyes
is
simple schematic telescope
and
may
different circumstances.
be regarded as composed
456
159
two thin lenses, one of which, of focal length /i (refracting

power Fi) acts as the object-glass while the other, of focal
length f2 (refracting power F 2 ) performs the part of the ocular.
When the telescope is adjusted for an emmetropic,
of
unaccommodated
eye, the second focal point (F/) of the ob-
ject-glass coincides with the first focal point
and hence the
(/=
or
oo
(125).
focal length of the entire
F = 0),
that
is,
the system
In this case the telescope
is
is
(F 2 ) of
system
the ocular;
is infinite
afocal or telescopic
said to be in
normal
adjustment.
The
first telescope appears to have been invented by one

two Dutch spectacle-makers named Zacharias Jansen
and Franz Lippershey (circa 1608).
Galileo (15641642), having heard of this Dutch toy, was led to experiment
of
To J at oc
To J'atco
Fig. 202.
Diagram of simple Dutch or Galilean telescope.
with a combination of two lenses and he soon succeeded

(1609) in making a telescope with which he made a number
of renowned astronomical discoveries.
The so-called Dutch
or Galilean telescope, represented schematically in Fig. 202,
consists of a large convex object-glass (Ai) combined with
a small concave eye-piece (A2), which intercepts the converging rays before they come to a focus and adapts them to
suit the eye of the observer.
(Fig. 203) is
composed
of
The
other type of telescope
two convex
lenses.
It is called the
astronomical telescope or Kepler telescope, because the idea
Magnifying Power
159]
of Telescope
457
John Kepler (1611); but the first instruwas made by the celebrated Jesuit father,
Christian Scheiner (1615), who also conceived the idea
occurred
ment
first
to
of this kind
of using a third lens to erect the
image as
is
done
in the so-
called terrestrial telescope.

If
the telescope
is
in
normal adjustment, then from each
point J of the infinitely distant object there will issue a bundle
Fig. 203.
of parallel rays
Diagram of simple astronomical telescope.
whose inclination to the
axis of the telescope
may
be denoted by 6.
Falling on the object-glass, these
rays are converged to a focus at a point P lying in the com-
mon
focal plane of object-glass
and eye-piece; and conse-
quently they will emerge from the eye-piece and enter the
eye as a bundle of parallel rays proceeding from the infinitely distant image-point J' in a direction
which makes an
with the axis. The slope-angles 6 and 6' have

a constant relation to each other, as may easily be shown;
for from the right triangles F/AiP and F 2 A 2 P (Figs. 202
angle
6'
and 203), where AiF/ = AiF 2 =/i, ZFi'AiP = 0, and

Fi'A 2 =/2 ZF 2 A 2 P= 6', we obtain immediately:
,
tan
0'
= /i
-=
tan Q
j2
constant.
F2 A 2 =
458
Now

the angles denoted here
by
159
6 and 6 are the measures
of the apparent sizes of corresponding portions of the infinitely distant object
and image, and the
angles (or of their tangents)
power of
we
is
ratio of these
defined to be the magnifying
the telescope; so that if this ratio is
denoted by
M,
shall have:
h
Accordingly, the magnifying power of a telescope focused
on an
distant object and adjusted for distinct

an unaccommodated, emmetropic (or corrected
ametropic) eye is measured by the ratio of the focal lengths
of the objective and ocular.
In the astronomical telescope
and
are
both
positive,
and
consequently the ratio
is
/i
/2
negative, which means that the image is inverted whereas in
the Dutch telescope /i is positive and f2 is negative, and
hence *M is positive, that is, the final image is erect.
Another convenient expression for the magnifying power
infinitely
vision for
of a telescope, as defined above,
may
easily be obtained.
on the object-glass will after

transmission through the instrument pass through a certain
All the effective rays
which
fall
circular aperture called the eye-ring
which
object-glass
scope
is
(or
Ramsden
the image of the object-glass in the ocular.
is
is
brightly illuminated (for example,
if
circle),
If
the
the tele-
pointed towards the bright sky), this image appears
as a luminous disk floating in the air not far
and can
easily be perceived
from the ocular
by placing the eye
at a suitable
In the astronomical telescope the eye-ring is a
real image which can be received on a screen, and in this
distance.
instrument
it
case of the
Dutch
usually acts as the exit-pupil

telescope the eye-ring
is
( 134).
In the
a virtual image
on the other side of the ocular from the eye; and generally
to limit the field of view in the image-space, that
is, its office is that of the exit-port of the system ( 137,
Now if the telescope is in normal adjustment, then
138).
the distance of the ocular from the object-glass is equal to
its effect is
Magnifying Power
159]
the algebraic
sum
components and
;
M_
of Telescope
459
(/1+/2) of the focal lengths of the
it
two
may easily be shown that

/1 _ diameter of object-glass
diameter of eye-ring
form of expression is to be
found in the fact that even if the telescope is not in normal
adjustment, it may still be considered in a certain sense as
a measure of the magnifying power of the instrument. SupJ2
The advantage
of this latter
pose, for example, that the optical system
is
not telescopic,
so that the interval between the second focal point (Fi') of
the object-glass and the

is
focal point (F 2 ) of the ocular
first
not negligible, as frequently happens in focusing the eye-
piece to suit the eye of the individual, especially
if
the object
Consider a ray which is directed originally from the extremity of the object towards
itself is
not infinitely distant.
a point
on the axis
of the telescope
and which emerges
so as to enter the eye at the conjugate point O'.
If
the angles
which the ray makes with the axis at O and O' are denoted
by 6 and 6' respectively, then the ratio tan#' tan# will
be a measure of the magnifying power of the telescope for
this adjustment and position of the eye. But according to
the Smith-Helmholtz formula ( 86 and 118), since the
telescope is surrounded by the same medium on both sides,
we shall have here
tan#' tand = y y',
where y and y' denote the linear magnitudes of an object and
its image in conjugate transversal planes at O and O' (the
',
Now if the point O' is at the center

O will lie at the center of the object-
planes of the pupils).
of the eye-ring, the point
and the ratio y y' will be equal to the ratio of the

diameters of object-glass and eye-ring.
Hence, provided
glass,
the eye is placed at the eye-ring,
the magnifying power of the
telescope will be
lvr
_ diameter
of object-glass
diameter of eye-ring
In an astronomical telescope the best adjustment for com-
460
manding a wide extent

with
its
of the field of
view
[159
to place the eye
is
center of rotation at the center of the eye-ring, but
in a
Dutch
ring
is
telescope this
is
not practicable, because the eye-
not accessible.
In order to obtain a general formula for the magnifying
power
image
If
of
a telescope,
of the object
u=l/U
glass
and
let
us
which
fix
our attention on the inverted
is
formed by the object-glass.
denotes the distance of the object from the objectif
q denotes the linear size of the image, the appar-
ent size of the object as seen from the center of the objectglass will be
tan0 =q(U+Fi),
where F\ denotes the refracting power of the object-glass.
On the other hand, according to the formula deduced in
157, the apparent size of the image seen in the telescope
will be
,
ttmd'=-q{F2 -Z(l-c.F2 )}
where
F2
denotes the refracting power of the ocular,
z\\Z
denotes the distance of the image in the ocular from the eye,
and
(or
denotes the distance of the eye from the ocular
from
its
second principal point).
Accordingly,
we
itself
obtain
the following expression for the magnifying power of the

telescope:
tanfl^
tanfl
which
is
applicable to
distant, then 7
andM=-F /Fi.
2
all cases.
= 0; and
ment, then the image
F -Z(\-c.F
U+Fi
is
if
2)
If the object is infinitely
the telescope
is
in
normal adjust-
also infinitely distant, that
is,
Z = 0,
Problems
Ch. XIII]
461
PROBLEMS
1.
is
If
+10
the refracting power of a correction spectacle-glass
and
dptr.,
if
the distance of the anterior principal
point of the eye from the second principal point of the glass
is
12
mm.,
2.
Take the
find the static refraction of the eye.
Ans. +11.36 dptr.

refracting power of the eye equal to 58.64 dptr.,
the distances of the principal points from the vertex of the
cornea as 1.348 and 1.602 mm., and the index of refraction

of the vitreous
humor equal
is
14
mm. from
+ 5.37
26.5
3.
dptr.,
If the refracting power

whose second principal point
to 1.336.
of a correction spectacle-glass,
the anterior principal point of the eye,
show that the
total length of the eye-ball
is
is
mm.
In Gtjllstrand's schematic eye, with accommodation
relaxed, the distance
from the vertex
of the cornea to the
point where the optical axis meets the retina
is
24
mm. The
other data are the same as those given in No. 2 above.
Find
the position of the far point and determine the static refraction.
The far point is 99.34 cm. from the vertex of the

and the static refraction is + 1 .008 dptr.
4. In Gullstrand's schematic eye in its state of maximum accommodation the distances of the principal points
from the vertex of the cornea are 1.7719 and 2.0857 mm., and
the refracting power is 70.5747 dptr. The length of the eyeball is 24 mm., as stated in No. 3. Find the position of the
near point and determine the dynamic refraction of the
Ans.
cornea,
eye.
Ans.
The near point
is
10.23 cm. from the vertex of the
cornea; the dynamic refraction
is
9.609
dptr.
with the aid of the result obtained in No.
3,
Accordingly,
we
obtain for
the amplitude of accommodation 10.62 dptr.
Taking the refracting power of the eye as equal to

59 dptr., show that the size of the retinal image of an object
5.
Mirrors, Prisms
462
1
and Lenses
[Ch.
meter high at a distance of 10 meters from the eye
XIII
will
be
mm.
1.7
size of a distant air-ship is one minute of

Taking the refracting power of the eye as equal to
58.64 dptr., show that the size of the image on the retina
The apparent
6.
arc.
will
be 0.00495
What
7.
mm.
the magnifying power of a convex lens of focal
is
Ans.
length 5 cm.?
A myope
5.
convex lens of focal length

5 cm. as a magnifying glass. Find the individual magnifying power, neglecting the distance of the eye from the glass.
Ans. 7|.
8.
of 10 dptr. uses a
9. In the preceding example, what will be the individual

magnifying power of the same glass in the case of an hyperAns. 2.
metrope of 10 dptr.?
10. A certain person cannot see distinctly objects which
are nearer his eye than 20 cm. or farther than 60 cm. Within
from his eye must a concave mirror

cm. be placed in order that he may be able
to focus sharply the image of his eye as seen in the mirror?
Ans. In order to see a real image of his eye, the distance
of the mirror must be between 43.23 cm. and 78.54 cm.; in
what
limits of distance
of focal length 15
order to see a virtual image, the distance of the mirror must

be between 6.97 cm. and 11.46 cm.
11. The magnifying power of a telescope 12 inches long
equal to 8: determine the focal lengths of object-glass
is
and eye-glass
(2)
when
Ans.
/2 =
it is
(1)
ly
(1)
when
it is
an astronomical telescope and
a Galileo's telescope.
/i =
+10|,
/2 =+l|
inches;
(2)/i=+13|,
inches.
12. The focal lengths of the object-glass and eye-glass of

an astronomical telescope are /1 and /2) and their diameters
Show that the radius of the
are 2hi and 2h 2) respectively.
stop which will cut off the " ragged edge" ( 138) is equal to
M2M1
Problems
Ch. XIII]
463
telescope
is
pointed at an infinitely distant object,
and the eye-piece
is
focused so that the image
13.
the distance
of distinct vision of the eye.
the eye from the eye-piece

nifying power
is
is
neglected,
M= /i(7+/
2 )/Z./2
focal lengths of the object-glass

14.
A Ramsden
is
formed at
the distance of
show that the mag-
where
and
If
/i,
f2 denote the
eye-glass.
ocular consists of
two thin convex
lenses
each of focal length a separated by an interval equal to 2a/3.

Show that the magnifying power of an astronomical telescope furnished with a
Ramsden
ocular
is
4/i/3a,
where
/i
denotes the focal length of the object-glass.
The
an astronomical telescope has a

and the focal length of each lens
The distance between
of the Ramsden ocular is 2 inches.
Show that the disthe two lenses in the ocular is ^ inch.
tance between the object-glass and the first lens of the ocular is 50.5 inches, and that the magnifying power is equal
15.
object-glass of
focal length of 50 inches,
to
r-
a Galileo's telescope is in normal adjustment,

show that the angular diameter of the field of the image as
measured at the vertex of the concave eye-glass is 2tanY' =
16. If
2/ii/(/i+/
and
/i,
2 ), where hi denotes the radius of the object-glass

denote
the focal lengths of object-glass and eye/2
glass.
17. The focal length of the object-glass and eye-glass of
an astronomical telescope are 36 and 9 inches, respectively.
If the object is infinitely distant and if the eye is placed in
the eye-ring at a distance of 9 inches from the image, show
that the magnifying power is equal to 3.
18. 'The magnifying power of a simple astronomical telescope in normal adjustment is M, and the focal length of the
object-glass is /i. Show that if the eye-glass is pushed in a
distance x and the eye placed in the eye-ring, the magnifying
power
19.
and a
will
An
be diminished by x.M/fi.
astronomical telescope
real
image
of the
sun
is
is
pointed towards the sun,
obtained on a screen placed
464
[Ch. XIII
beyond the eye-lens at a distance d from it. If the diameter

of this image is denoted by 26, and if the apparent diameter
of the sun is denoted by 2 6, show that the magnifying power
= 6. cot 6/d.
of the telescope is
20. The eye is placed at a distance c from the eye-glass of
a Galileo's telescope in normal adjustment. The length
of the telescope as measured from the object-glass to the
eye-glass
is
denoted by
noted by g
denoted by
the radius of the object-glass
d,
is
and the radius of the pupil of the eye is debeing assumed that g is less than the radius of
hi,
(it
the eye-glass).
Show
that the semi-angular diameters of
the three portions of the
field of
view on the image-side are
given by the following expressions
hi gM
where
hx+gM
M denotes the magnifying power of the telescope.
CHAPTER XIV
DISPERSION AND ACHROMATISM
When a beam of sunlight is

160. Dispersion by a Prism.
admitted into a dark chamber through a small circular hole A
(Fig. 204) in the window shutter, a round spot of white light
will be formed on a vertical wall or screen opposite the window, which will be, indeed, an image of the sun of the same
kind as would be produced by a pinhole camera ( 3) its
;
Fig. 204.
Prism dispersion:
Newton's experiment.
angular diameter, therefore, being equal to that of the sun,
namely, about half a degree.
Newton
In the track of such a
beam
inserted a prism with its refracting edge horizontal
and at right angles to the direction of the incident light;

whereupon the white spot on the screen vanished and in its
stead at a certain vertical distance above or below the place
that was first illuminated there was displayed an elongated
465
466
vertical
bow
in
band
160
or spectrum, exhibiting the colors of the rain-
an endless variety of
tints
shading into each other by
This spectrum was rounded at

vertical dimension, depending on how the
imperceptible gradations.
the ends and
its
prism was tilted, was about 4 or 5 times as great as its horizontal dimension, the latter being equal to the diameter of
the spot of white light that was formed on the screen before
the interposition of the prism.
tion,
Newton
For convenience
of descrip-
distinguished seven principal or " primary"
colors arranged in the following order from one end of the

spectrum to the other, namely, red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo,* and violet; of which the violet portion of the
spectrum is the longest and the orange the shortest. The
red end of the spectrum was the part of the image on the
screen that was least displaced
by the
interposition of the
prism.
This phenomenon was explained by Newton on the assumption that ordinary sunlight is composite and consists
in reality of an innumerable variety of colors all blended
together; and that the index of refraction (n) of the prism,
instead of having a definite value, has in fact a different
value for light of each color, being greatest for violet and
least for red light and varying between these limits for light
of other colors.
The resolution of white light into its constituent colors

by refraction is called dispersion. If a puff of tobacco-smoke
is blown across the beam of light where it issues from the
prism, only the outer parts of the beam will show any very
pronounced
color,
* There has been
because the central parts at this place
much
discussion as to
will
what Newton understood
which he named " indigo" and which lies somewhere between the blue and the violet. Indigo, as we understand it, is more
nearly an inky blue rather than a violet blue, more like green than like
violet; and hence it has been suggested that Newton's color vision
may have been slightly abnormal. In this connection see article entitled "Newton and the Colours of the Spectrum" by Dr. R. A. Houstoun, Science Progress, Oct. 1917.
by the
color

Monochromatic Light
160]
467
not have been sufficiently dispersed to exhibit their individual effects.
At some
entire section of the
little
beam
distance
will
away from the prism the
be brilliantly colored.
Having pierced a small hole through the screen at that

it where the spectrum was formed (Fig. 205) Newton
was able by rotating the prism around an axis parallel to
part of
Newton's experiment with two prisms; showing that light of

Fig, 205.
a definite color traverses the second prism without further dispersion.
its
edge to transmit rays of each color in succession through
the opening to a second prism placed with

to that of the
first
its
edge parallel
prism; and, agreeably to his expectations,
he found that while these rays were again deviated in traversing the second prism, there was no further dispersion of
This experiment demonstrated that the single
the light.
colors of the spectrum were irreducible or elementary and
not a mixture of still simpler colors, and that the light which
had been separated in this fashion from the beam of sunlight was monochromatic light.
If all the various components of the incident light which
has been resolved by the prism are re-united again, the effect
will be the same as that of the light before its dispersion.
468
The
way
simplest
to achieve this result
is
160
to cause the rays
to traverse a second prism precisely equal to the
first,
but
inverted so that the dihedral angle between the planes of
the adjacent faces of the two prisms
equal to 180, the
is
if the two prisms

were placed in contact in this way, they would form a slab
of the same material throughout with a pair of plane parallel
faces, for which the resultant dispersion is zero; because the
colored rays would all emerge in a direction parallel to that
of the incident ray which was the common path of all these
edges of the prisms being parallel.
Indeed,
Light is not dispersed in traversing a plate with

plane parallel faces surrounded by same medium on both
Fig. 206.
sides.
by
rays before they were separated
refraction at the first
face of the plate (Fig. 206).
Another and essentially

colored rays
is
to converge
different
them
way
of re-uniting the
to a single point
by means
of a so-called achromatic lens, as represented diagrammati-
accompanying drawing (Fig. 207); so that the

C where the colored rays meet is the same
as that of light from the source. Beyond C the rays separate again, so that if they are received on a screen the same
cally in the
effect at the focus
succession of colors will be exhibited as before, only in the

reverse order.
If
some
of the rays are intercepted before
arriving at C, the color at
the residual rays.
will
be the resultant effect of

are separated
The point B where the rays
on entering the prism and the point
where they are
re-
united by the lens are a pair of conjugate points with respect to the prism-lens system.
Spectrum
160]
The
solar
spectrum which
469
Newton
obtained in his cele-
brated prism-experiments, described in 1672, had one serious

defect,
due to the fact that the colors
in it
were not
in reality
pure but consisted of a blending of two or more simple colors.

When the light passes through a round hole before falling
on the prism, the spectrum on the screen will be composed

one overlapping the one next
to it. The colors, therefore, are partly superposed on each
other, and the eye is so constituted with respect to color
vision that it cannot distinguish the separate effects and
of a series of colored disks, each
Fig. 207.
Achromatic lens used to
re-unite the colored light after
has
it
been dispersed by prism.
analyze them but obtains only a general resultant impression

of the whole.
Wollaston's experiments
in
1802
differed
essentially
from Newton's only in the form and dimensions of the beam

of sunlight that was dispersed by the prism, but this simple
modification represented a distinct advance in the mode of
investigation of the spectrum.
Wollaston admitted the
sunlight through a narrow slit * whose length was parallel to
* Dr.
Houstoun,
in the article already referred to, calls attention
some
to the fact that in
of his prism-experiments
Newton
also
em-
ployed an opening in the form of a narrow slit, and was aware of its
advantages with respect to the purity of the spectrum; for Newton
states that "instead of the circular hole," "it is better to substitute
oblong hole shaped

to the Prism.
For
if
an
a long Parallelogram with its length Parallel

this hole be an Inch or two long, and but a tenth
like
470
160
more the
di-
vergence of the incident beam, a screen with a second
slit
the prism-edge; and in order to diminish

parallel to the first
was interposed
still
in front of the prism, as
represented in the accompanying diagram (Fig. 208).
The
spectrum formed in this way is far purer than that obtained

with a round opening in the shutter. But a difficulty that
Fig. 208.
Pure spectrum obtained by causing sunlight to pass through two

narrow
slits
before traversing prism.
methods arises from the fact that the image

formed by a prism is always virtual, and therefore a homocentric bundle of monochromatic divergent rays will necessarily be divergent after traversing a prism, so that if
they are received on a screen they will illuminate a certain
area on it which is the cross-section of the ray-bundle and
not in any strict sense an optical image of the original source.
inheres in both
or twentieth part of an Inch broad or narrower; the Light of the Image,

or spectrum, will be as Simple as before or simpler,
become much broader, and therefore more

tried in its Light
cover the
than before."
Fraunhofer
The
fit
fact that
lines of the solar
and the Image
will
to have Experiments
Newton
spectrum
161)
did not disis
probably
on the supposition that his prisms were of an inferior

quality of glass and that possibly also the surfaces were not as highly
polished as they might have been.
to be explained
Spectrum
160]
Consequently,
if
471
the source sends out light of different colors,
the effect on the screen will correspond to the sections of all

the bundles of colored rays, and since these sections will
overlap each other to a greater or less extent, the spectrum

will not be pure. The narrower the apertures of the bundles
of rays
and the farther the screen
is
from the prism, the
less
prism and achromatic
lens.
s
Fig. 209.
will
Pure
spectrum obtained by
slit,
be the overlapping of the adjacent colors, and therefore
the purer the spectrum; but on the other hand, the less also
will
be the illumination.
A much more satisfactory method

matic convex
making these
by means of an achroFig. 209; whereby the
consists in
divergent bundles of rays convergent

lens, as represented in
blue rays proceeding apparently from a virtual focus at
are brought to a real focus on the screen at B', and, similarly,
the red rays are united at
R\
The plane
of the diagram
The
represents a principal section of the prism.
inates in a luminous line or narrow illuminated

allel to
light orig-
slit
at S par-
the prism-edge, and the spectrum R'B' on the screen
consists of a series of colored images of this
proximately pure, except in so far as the
slit
slit
must
and
is
ap-
necessarily
have a certain width. Moreover, in the case of a very narrow slit, there are certain so-called diffraction-effects ( 7)
which are indeed of very great importance in any thorough
scientific discussion of
spectrum.
the condition of the purity of the
472
161.
Dark Lines
of the
Solar Spectrum.
Wollaston
himself observed that the spectrum of sunlight

solutely continuous, but that there were certain
or dark bands in
it
parallel to the
slit.
162
was not abnarrow gaps
Fraunhofer (1787-
1826), with his rare acumen and experimental skill, was able
to obtain spectra of far higher purity than any of his predecessors, and he discovered, independently, that the solar spectrum was crossed by a very great number of dark lines, the
so-called Fraunhofer lines, from which he argued that sunFraunhofer
light was deficient in light of certain colors.
counted more than 600 of these lines, but there are now
known
One great advantage of this

which Fraunhofer was quick to
to be several thousand.
remarkable discovery,
realize,
consists in the fact that these lines are especially
suitable
and convenient
for enabling us to specify particular
regions or colors of the spectrum, because each of
them
cor-
responds to a certain degree of refrangibility, that is, to a

perfectly definite color of light. An explanation of the origin
spectrum may be found in

on physics and physical optics.
The dark lines are distributed very irregularly over the enIn some cases they are
tire extent of the solar spectrum.
sharp and fine and isolated; some of them are exceedingly
close together so as to be hardly distinguishable apart; others
In order to describe
again are quite broad and distinct.
their positions with respect to each other, Fraunhofer selected eight prominent lines distributed in the different
regions of the spectrum, which he designated by the capital
of the dark lines of the solar
treatises
letters
(dark red),
(green),
notation
(bright red),
(dark blue),
is still
in use,
(indigo),
and has
(orange),
and
(yellow),
(violet).
since been extended
This
beyond
the limits of the visible spectrum.

162. Relation between the Color of the Light and the
Frequency of Vibration of the Light- Waves.According to
the undulatory theory of light, a luminous body sets up
disturbances or " vibrations'' in the ether which are prop-
Light-Waves and Color
162]
agated in waves in
The
all
directions with prodigious velocities.
velocity of light in the free ether
meters per second.
473
When
is
about 300 million
a train of light-waves traverses
a rectilinear row of ether-particles all lying in the same medium, the distance between one particle and the nearest one
to it that is in precisely the same phase of vibration is called
the wave-length; and the
number
of
waves which pass a
given point in one second or the frequency of the undulation

will
be equal to the velocity of propagation of the wave
divided by the wave-length.
The
reciprocal of the frequency
be the time taken by a single wave in passing a given

If the
point, which is called the period of the vibration.
will
wave-length
by
v,
is
denoted by
X, the velocity of
the frequency by N, and the period by
between these magnitudes
relations
propagation
T=l/N,
expressed
is
the
as fol-
lows:
\ = v /N = v.T.
When
ether- waves fall on the retina of the eye, they
may
excite a sensation of light provided their frequencies are
neither too small nor too great, the limits of visibility being
confined to waves whose frequencies
and 757
lie
between about 392
billions of vibrations per second.
Just as the pitch
determined by its frequency, so also the

sensation which we call color appears to be more or less inexplicably associated with the frequency of the vibrations
of the luminiferous ether; so that to each frequency between
the limits named there corresponds a perfectly definite kind
of a musical note
of light or color.
is
Absolutely monochromatic light due to
ether-waves of one single frequency of vibration

to obtain.
In general, the light which
is
is difficult
emitted by a lumi-
nous body is more or less complex, and the sensation which

The
it produces in the eye is due to a variety of impulses.
yellow light which is characteristic of the flame of a Bunsen
burner when a trace of common salt is burned in it is a sensation excited by the impact of two kinds of ether-waves
corresponding to the double D-line of the solar spectrum
Mirrors, Prisms
474
and Lenses
which have frequencies of about 509 and 511

brations per second.
and
Red
162
billions of vi-
light corresponds to the lowest
violet light to the highest frequency.
known that the velocity of light of a given color depends on the medium in which the light is propagated; and
It is
has also been established that the velocity of light in a given

medium depends on the color of the light. However, apparently light of all colors is transmitted with equal velocities
it
air, on account of its slight dispersion,

no difference in the velocity of propaga-
in vacuo; and also in

there
is
practically
tion of light of different colors.*
One reason
vibrations
*
is
for inferring that the
frequency of the ether-
the physical explanation of the
"When white light
enters a transparent
phenomenon
of
medium, the long red waves
forge ahead of the green ones, which in their turn get ahead of the blue.
If we imagine an instantaneous flash of white light traversing a refracting
medium, we must conceive
spectrum in the medium, that
is,
as drawn out into a sort of linear

the red waves lead the train, the
it
orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet following in succession. The

length of this train will increase with the length of the medium traversed.
On
emerging again into the free ether the train will move on without
any further
alteration of its length.
"We
can form some idea of the actual magnitudes involved in the

following way. Suppose we have a block of perfectly transparent glass
Red light will traverse
(of ref. index 1.52) twelve miles in thickness.
it in 1/10000 of a second, and on emerging will be about 1.8 miles in
advance of the blue light which entered at the same time. If white
light were to traverse this mass of glass, the time elapsing between the
arrival of the first red and the first blue light at the eye will be less than
Michelson's determination of the velocity of light

showed that the red rays gained on the blue in
through the tube of liquid. The absence of any change of
1/6000 of a second.
in carbon bisulphide
their transit
color in the variable star Algol furnished direct evidence that the blue
and red rays traverse space with same velocity. In this case the distance is so vast, and the time of transit so long, that the white light
coming from the star during one of its periodic increases in brilliancy
would arrive at the earth with its red component so far in advance of
the blue that the fact could easily be established by the spectrophotometer or even by the eye."R. W. Wood: Physical Optics,
Second Edition (New York, 1911), page 101.
Wave-Lengths
162]
of Light
475
is found in the fact that the color of monochromatic

remains unaltered when the light passes from one medium into another; and since the vibrations in the second
color
light
medium
it
is
and forced by those
are excited
in the first
medium,
natural to suppose that the vibration-frequency
same
in
is
the
both media.
Accordingly,
it is
the ratio
that remains constant in the transmission of monochromatic
through different media. And hence if the velocities of

two media are denoted by v, v' and if the wave-lengths
in these two media are denoted by X, X', then v/\ = v'/\'
or X/X' = ^/V/ that is, the wave-length of light of a given color
light
light in
varies
from medium
locity of
to
propagation
medium, and
is
proportional
of light of that color
in the
to the ve-
medium in
Thus, the wave-length of yellow light is shorter

than it is in air, because light travels more slowly in
glass than in air.
Generally, therefore, when we speak of the wave-length of
a given kind of light, w e mean its wave-length measured in
vacuo. The lengths of waves of light are all relatively very
short, the longest, corresponding to the extreme red end of
question.
in glass
the spectrum, being less than one 13-thousandth of a centimeter, and the shortest, belonging to the extreme violet end
of the visible spectrum, being less than one 25-thousandth
These magnitudes are usually expressed in

terms of a special unit called a " tenth-meter" which is one
10-billionth part of a meter (10~ 10 meter) or in terms of a
of a centimeter.
"micromillimeter" which
is
equal to the millionth part of
a millimeter and for which the symbol fxfji is employed

(l/x/x = lCT 6 mm.).
Thus, the wave-lengths of light corresponding to the red and violet ends of the visible spectrum
are about 767/x/x
hofer
line
and
A is a broad,
397/^/x,
respectively.
The Fraun-
indistinct line at the beginning of the
red part of the spectrum, wave-length 759.4
fifi;
the B-line
476
in the red part corresponds to light of
163
wave-length 686.7/x/x;
the C-line in the orange corresponds to light of wave-length

656.3/x/x; the
D-line in
the yellow
is
a double
line,
cor-
responding to light of wave-lengths 589.6/x/a and 589.0/x/a;

the E-line in
the
corresponds to
green
of
light
wave-
length 527. OfJLfx; the F-line in the blue corresponds to light

of wave-length
486.1^/a; the G-line in the
indigo corre-
sponds to light of wave-length 430.8ju/x; and the H-line,

consisting of two broad lines in the violet, corresponds to
wave-lengths 396.8/x/x and 393.3/a/x.
Index of Refraction as a Function of the WaveLength. Now according to the wave-theory of light, the
light of
163.
absolute index of refraction (n) of a

definite
color
is
in vacuo (V) to
(33); that
medium
for light of
equal to the ratio of the velocity of light

its
velocity
(y)
in the
medium
in question
is,
n=
Strictly speaking, therefore, the index of refraction of a
me-
dium, without further qualification, is a perfectly vague expression, because each medium has as many indices of refraction as there are different kinds of monochromatic light.
When the term is used by itself, it is generally understood
to
mean
the index of refraction corresponding to the D-line
which is
sodium vapor.
in the bright yellow part of the solar spectrum,
characteristic of the light of incandescent
Hence,
nD =
velocity of yellow light in vacuo
velocity of yellow light in the
medium in question
wave-length of jêllow light in vacuo
wave-length of yellow light in the given
medium
In the following table the values of the indices of refraction

of several transparent liquids are given for light correspond-
ing to the
Fraunhofer
lines
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H.
164]
Irrationality of Dispersion
477
478
[164
For example, the dispersion of glass is greater than that of

water, and the dispersion of so-called flint glass is higher
that of so-called crown glass. In Fig. 210 are exhibited the
relative lengths of the different regions of the solar spectra
cast on the same screen under precisely the same circumstances by prisms of equal refracting angles made of
water, crown glass and flint glass. The length of the spectrum may be increased by shifting the screen farther from
asassa
Fig. 211.
Irrationality of dispersion.
the prism, and Fig. 211 shows the relative positions of the
Fraunhofer lines B, C, D, E, F, G and H, when the lengths
crown glass prism and the water prism

have been elongated in this manner until their lengths are
both equal to the length of the spectrum of the flint glass
prism for the interval between the Fraunhofer lines B and
H. The other lines in the three spectra do not coincide at all.
Moreover, it appears that the dispersion of water for the
colors towards the red end of the spectrum is relatively high,
whereas the dispersion of the flint glass is relatively high
towards the blue end. In the spectrum of flint glass the interval between G and H, and in the spectrum of water the interval between B and F, is greater than it is in either of the
other spectra. If the law of the variation of the index of reof the' spectra of the
Power
Dispersive
165]
479
fraction with the color of the light has been found empirically
for one substance, this will not afford any clue to the corresponding law in the case of another substance. Diamond, for
example,
little
very highly refracting but shows comparatively
is
dispersion, whereas flint glass
index of refraction gives a
much
which has a much lower
higher dispersion; on the
other hand, fluorite has a low index of refraction and at the
same time a low
This phenomenon which
dispersion.
characteristic of refraction-spectra
is
known
ality of dispersion.
165. Dispersive Power of a

prism of small refracting angle
fi
In
nF and nQ denote the

eP
in
is
given
colors,
by
Let
60.
and
let
indices of refraction of the prism-
substance for these colors.
denoted by
the case of a
the deviation
= (n 1)/3, as was explained

P and Q be used to designate two
the formula
the letters
Medium.
is
as the irration-
and q then
If
eQ
the angles of deviation are
e F = (nQ
F )/3, and, con-
sequently, for a thin prism the angular magnitude of the

interval in the spectrurn between the colors
P and Q
is
pro-
portional to the difference of the values of the indices of re-
This difference (wq nF ) is called the partial dispersion of the substance for the spectrum-interval P, Q.
fraction.
Thus, in the brightest part of the spectrum comprised between the Fratjnhofer lines C and F, the partial dispersion
is (n F n c ).
The deviation of a prism of small refracting
angle /3 for light corresponding to the D-line which lies
between C and F is D = (n D 1)/3, and since e F c =
(n F nc ) fi, we obtain
f~ e c n F n c
n D -l
d
This ratio of the angular dispersion of two colors to their
mean
dispersion
is
called the dispersive
dispersion of the substance for the
two
power or the relative

which are usu-
colors,
and blue (F); so that the dispersive power of

an optical medium with respect to the visible spectrum may
be* defined to be the quotient of the difference (n F nc)
ally red (C)
Mirrors, Prisms
480
and Lenses
165
between the indices of refraction for red and blue light by

(n D 1), where n D denotes the index of refraction for yellow
The values of the dispersive powers of the various
light.
kinds of optical glass that are of chief practical importance
in the construction of optical instruments vary from about
to about ~; although there are compositions of glass
with values of the dispersive power not comprised within
these limits.
Instead of assigning the value of the dispersive
power of a substance, it is more convenient to adopt Abbe's

method and employ the reciprocal of this function, which is
denoted by the Greek letter v, and which is known, therefore, as
the i>-value of the substance; thus,
n?-nc
If
the rvalue of one substance
is less
than that of another,
the dispersive power of the former will be correspondingly

greater than that of the latter.
It is this
constant v that
is
the essential factor to be con-
sidered in the selection of different kinds of glass suitable to
be used in making a so-called achromatic combination of

Curiously enough, Newton persisted in
maintaining that the dispersion of a substance was propor-
lenses or prisms.
tional to the refraction,
the dispersive powers of
which
all
is
equivalent to saying that
optical
media are equal; and,
consequently, he despaired of constructing an achromatic
combination of lenses which would refract the rays without

same time dispersing the constituent colors. This
at the
is an essential requirement in the objectand it was just because Newton and his
followers believed that a lens of this kind was in the nature
of things unattainable that they expended their efforts in
the direction of perfecting the reflecting telescope in which
the convex lens was replaced by a concave mirror. On the
other hand, from the assumption that the optical system of
the human eye is free from color-faults (which is by no means
true), it was argued, notably by James Gregory in England
condition, however,
glass of a telescope,
481
Optical Glass
166]
(about 1670) and long afterwards by

(1747), that
Newton's
Euler
in
Germany
conclusions as to the impossibility
an achromatic combination of refracting media were erIn fact, an English gentleman named Hall succeeded in 1733 in constructing telescopes which yielded
images free from serious color faults. Klingenstierna in
Sweden in 1754 demonstrated the feasibility of combining
a pair of prisms of different kinds of glass and of different refracting angles so as to obtain, in one case, deviation without
dispersion and, in another case, dispersion without deviation.
But in its practical results the most important advance
along this line was achieved by the painstaking and original
work of the English optician John Dollond. Impressed
by the force of Klingenstierna's demonstration, he carefully repeated Newton's crucial experiment in which a glass
prism was inclosed in a water prism of variable refracting
angle; and having found that the results of this experiment
were exactly contrary to those stated by Newton, he was
of
roneous.
led also to the opposite conclusion.
ance
Dollond had succeeded by 1757
After
in
much
persever-
making achromatic
combinations of several different types, which produced a

or less colorless image of a point-source on the axis of
more
the system.
In
its original
form the combination consisted
of a double convex " crown glass" lens cemented to a double
concave " flint glass"
lens.
As a
rule,
the focus of the blue
rays will be nearer a convex lens and farther from a concave
and hence by combining

a convex crown glass lens of relatively lower refractive index
(shorter focus) and less dispersive power with a concave flint
lens than the focus of the red rays;
glass lens of higher refractive index
power, a resultant system
a certain
finite focal
may
and higher dispersive
be obtained which
still
has
length and in which at the same time
the opposed color-dispersions for two colors, say, red and

blue, are
compensated.
Glass.Newton's error in supposing that for

substances the dispersion was proportional to the index
166. Optical
all
Mirrors, Prisms
482
and Lenses
166
development of technical optics

Although Dollond's achievement,
mentioned above, was one of far-reaching importance for the
of refraction retarded the

for a long time to come.
practical construction of optical instruments, the great
culty in the
way
of utilizing
and applying the
principle
diffi-
was
to be found in the fact that the actual varieties of optical

glass at the disposal of the optician
were exceedingly limited
number; although from time to time systematic efforts

were made, notably by Fraunhofer (about 1812) in Germany and by Faraday (1824), Harcourt (1834) and Stokes
(about 1870) in England, to remedy this deficiency, by discovering and manufacturing new compositions of glass suitFor a long time after Fraunable for optical purposes.
hofer' s epoch the art of making optical glass was confined
almost exclusively to France and England. It was a for-
in
tunate coincidence that just about the time when E. Abbe

had reached the conclusion that no further progress in optical construction could be expected unless totally new varieties of optical
glass
were forthcoming, 0. Schott was

new chemical combina-
already beginning to experiment with
and processes of manufacture in his glass works at Jena.

Thanks to the systematic and indefatigable efforts of these
two collaborators, who were also encouraged by the Prussian government, the obstacle which had stood so long in the
way of the improvement and development of optical instruments was at length triumphantly overcome by the successful
tions
production of an entire
new
series of varieties of optical glass
with properties in some instances almost beyond the highest

expectations.
The
first
catalogue of the
Glastechnisches
Laboratorium at Jena was issued in 1885; which marked

the beginning of the manufacture of the renowned Jena glass,
to which more than to any other single factor the remarkable
development of modern optical instruments is due. From

that time to the present the great province of applied optics
may almost be said to have become a German territory.
The earlier so-called " ordinary" varieties of optical
Jena Glass
166]
483
which the basic constituents were

(flint glass) combined with soda
(Na 2 C0 3 ) or potash (K 2 C0 3 ) or both. The newer kinds of
optical glass have been produced by employing a much
were
glass
silicates
in
lime (crown glass) or lead
greater variety of chemical substances, including, in addi-
named above, hydrated oxide of aluminum

,H 2 0), barium nitrate (BaN 2 6 ), zinc oxide (ZnO),
and boric acid (H3 B0 3) or phosphoric acid which to a
tion to those
(A1 2
etc.,
greater or less extent replace the silica (Si0 2 ) in the older

types.
have
Some
of the
new compounds have been found
slight durability,
and
for this
and other reasons
to
cer-
tain products formerly listed in the Jena glass catalogue

have been discontinued. At present, besides the old " ordinary" silicate crown and flint, the chief varieties are barium and zinc silicate crown, boro-silicate crown, dense
baryta crown, baryta flint, antimony flint, borate glass and
phosphate glass. The table on the following page contains
a list of certain varieties of Jena glass arranged in the order
of their ^-values.
In the Jena glass catalogue the values of
the dispersion are given also for the spectrum-intervals
^d â'> n F~ %>> nG'nF (where A' and G' are the lines
corresponding to the wave-lengths 768 and 434yuju, respectively)
together with the values of the so-called relative
partial dispersions obtained
bers
by the value
It has
glass
of (nF
by dividing each
of these
num-
c ).
recently been proposed to describe an optical
by means
by an oblique
of
line.
two numbers
The
first
of 3 digits each, separated
number
gives the
figures after the decimal point in the value of
nD
first
,
three
.while the
second number is equal to 10 times the value of v.

Thus, for example, the second glass in the table would be
described as crown glass No. 559/669.
484
SELECTED VARIETIES OF JENA GLASS
166
-Manufacture of Optical Glass
166]
485
that any essential changes in the optical properties of glass

are to be obtained
ready been
tried.
by the use
The index
of materials that
have not
al-
of refraction of all glasses at
present available are comprised between 1.45 and 1.96.
mineral fluorite (calcium fluoride), which
is
The
used in the best
modern microscope objectives, has an index of refraction of

1.4338 and a rvalue of 95.4, so that in both respects it
lies beyond the limits attainable with glass.
Other crystalline
transparent minerals, notably rock crystal or quartz,
have already been employed in lens-systems, and any essential improvement in the range of optical instruments
in the future is more likely to come from an adaptation of
these mineral substances than from the production of new
kinds of glass.
The
difficulties
involved in the manufacture of high-grade
optical glass are very great,
and the utmost care has to be
exercised throughout every stage of the process.
Not only
must the raw materials themselves be free from impurities as

far as possible, but the physical and chemical nature of the
fireclays used in the pots or crucibles also requires the most
painstaking care and preparation.
The empty crucible is
dried slowly and then heated gradually for several days until
Fragments of glass left over
it comes to a bright red glow.
from a previous melting and of the same chemical composition as the glass which is in process of making are introduced
into the pot and melted. The raw materials, pulverized and
mixed in definite proportions, are placed in the pot in layers
little by little at a time, and the pot, which is covered to
protect the contents from the furnace gases is maintained
at a sufficiently high temperature (between about 800 and
1000 C.) until the contents are all melted together.
The
molten mass is usually full of bubbles of all sizes, and the
temperature must be raised until these are all gotten rid
of as far as possible.
This entire process takes a longer or
shorter time depending on circumstances, say, from 24 to
36 hours or more.
After skimming off the impurities on the
486
166
allowed to cool gradually, and at the

kept constantly stirred in order to make the
same time
glass as homogeneous as possible. This part of the process
surface, the mixture
is
it is
requires constant care.
come quite
When
viscous, so that
tinue the stirring,
it
is
the glass in cooling has be-
it is
no longer possible to con-
allowed to cool very slowly over a
period of days or even weeks.
Usually at the end of the
cooling process the solid contents of the pot will be found

to be broken into irregular fragments of optical glass in the
its manufacture.
These fragments are careexamined to see whether they are homogeneous and
above all free from striae; but the broken surfaces are so
stage of
first
fully
irregular that this preliminary examination
is
necessarily
which pass muster in this way

are selected for molding and annealing. The lumps of glass
are placed in suitable molds made of iron or fireclay and
heated until the glass becomes soft like wax, so that it takes
the form of the mold usually with the aid of external pressThe molded pieces are then annealed by being cooled
ure.
gradually for a week or longer. They are in the form of
disks or rectangular blocks of approximately the right size
for being made into lenses and prisms.
At this stage the
glass has to be subjected to the most rigid testing to see if
very imperfect.
it is
The
pieces
really suitable for optical purposes.
Two
opposite faces
on the narrow sides are ground flat and parallel and polished
so that the slab can be inspected in the direction of its greatest
If any striae or other imperfections are found, the
have to be rejected and melted over again. Even
in case there are no directly visible defects, there may be internal strains which will be revealed by examination with
polarized light. Slight strains are not always serious, but even
these will impair the image in a large prism or lens. These
strains can be gotten rid of by heating the glass to a temperature between 350 and 480 C, depending on the composition,
and then cooling very slowly and uniformly over a period of
about six weeks. It is very difficult to obtain pieces of op-
diameter.
piece will
Achromatism
167]
487
tical glass which do not contain minute bubbles, and indeed

they are often to be found in the best kinds of glass.
Of course, the process as above described varies
in details
according to the special nature of the glass, but enough has
been said to enable the reader to form some idea of the paand skill which are required in the manufacture of
optical glass. A yield of 20 per cent, of the total quantity of
The glass to be used for
glass melted is considered good.
photographic lenses has to fulfill the most exact requirements
and must be of the highest quality.
167. Chromatic Aberration and Achromatism.
Since the
index of refraction varies with the color of the light, and since
this function enters in one form or another in all optical caltience
culations,
it
is
obvious, for example, that the positions of
the cardinal points of a lens-system
will, in general,
be
differ-
ent for light of different colors; and that there will be a whole
images of a given object depending on the

it radiates, these images being all
separated from each other and of varying sizes.
series of colored
nature of the light which
more
or less
This phenomenon
it is
is
called chromatic aberration,
and unless
at least partially corrected, the definition of the resultant
image is very seriously impaired. In an optical system which

was absolutely free from chromatic aberration all these
colored images would coalesce into a single composite image
which, so far as the quality of the light was concerned, would
be a faithful reproduction of the object. But nothing at all
comparable to this ideal condition of achromatism can be
achieved in the case of any actual lens-system.
term achromatism by
In
fact,
the
and without any further explanation is entirely vague, for an optical system may be achromatic in one sense without being at all so in other senses. For
itself
may
example, the images corresponding to different colors

all
be formed in the same plane and yet be of different
or vice versa.
Fortunately, however, the fact that
not such a serious
it is
im-
more than a partial achromatism

matter after all. The kind of achromat-
possible to achieve at best

is
sizes,
Mirrors, Prisms
488
and Lenses
167
ism which is adapted for one type of optical instrument may

be entirely unsuited to another type. Thus, it is absolutely
essential that the colored images formed by the object-glass
of a telescope or microscope shall be produced as nearly as
possible at one and the same place (achromatism with respect to the location of the image), whereas, since the images
in this case do not extend far from the axis, the unequal
On
color-magnifications are comparatively unimportant.
the other hand, in the case of the ocular systems of the same
instruments, the main consideration will be a partial achromatism with respect to the magnification or the apparent
The object-glass of a telescope
sizes of the colored images.
must be achromatic with respect to the position of its focal

point, and the ocular must be achromatic with respect to its
focal length.
An
system which produces the same definite effect

different wave-lengths, no matter what that
special effect may be, is to that extent an achromatic system.
A combination which is achromatic, even in its limited sense,
optical
for light of
two
for a certain prescribed distance of the object will, in general,
not be achromatic when the object

distance.
No
lens
composed
of
is
placed at a different
two kinds
of glass only
can
be achromatic for light of all different colors. It can be constructed, for example, so that it will bring the red and violet
rays accurately to the same focus at a prescribed point on
the axis; but then the yellow, green and blue rays will, in
general, all have different foci, some of which will be nearer
the lens than the point of reunion of the red and violet light
while others will lie farther away. Accordingly, when achro-
matism has been attained in the case of two chosen colors,

there will usually remain an uncorrected residual dispersion
or so-called secondary spectrum, which under certain circumstances
may
impair the definition of the image to such a
degree as to be very injurious and annoying. It is necessary to abolish the secondary spectrum in the object-glass of
a microscope.
This
may
be done by using more than two
Optical and Actinic
16S]
kinds of glass.
489
is
also the possibility of diminishing the
try
employing two kinds of glass whose
There
secondary spectrum
Achromatism
relative partial dispersions ( 166) are very nearly the

for all the spectrum-intervals; and, in fact,
cipal items in the
same
one of the prin-
Abbe-Schott programme for the manuwas the production of various pairs
facture of optical glass
and crown
of flint
glass suitable for such combinations, so
that the dispersions in the different regions of the spectrum
should be, for each pair, as nearly as possible proportional.
This purpose was satisfactorily accomplished, and we have

now achromatic lenses of a far more perfect kind than could
be made out of the older kinds of glass. This higher degree
of
achromatism
is
photographic lens
called apochromatism.
is
An
apochromatic
absolutely essential in the three-color
process of photography in which the three images taken

light-filters on a plate of medium or large size must
be superposed as exactly as possible. In most ordinary optical systems, however, the secondary spectrum is relatively
unimportant, and achromatism with respect to two prin-
through
cipal colors will usually be
found to be
sufficient.
Achromatism " and " Actinic AchromatThe character and extent of the secondary spectrum
168. " Optical
ism."
(
167) of an achromatic combination of lenses will evidently
depend essentially on the choice of the two principal colors for

which the achromatism is to be achieved. This choice will
be determined by the purpose for which the instrument is
intended and the mode of using it. Thus, if the system is
to be an optical instrument in the strict literal sense of the
word, that is, if it is constructed to be used subjectively in
conjunction with the eye,
we
shall
be concerned primarily
with the physiological action of the rays on the retina of the
human
is
is
eye; whereas in the case of a photographic lens which
used to focus an image on a prepared sensitized plate, it

important to have achromatism with respect to the so-
called actinic rays corresponding
to the violet
and
ultra-
violet regions of the spectrum, because these are the rays
490
168
which are most active on the ordinary bromo-silver gelatine

plate.
human eye is most sensitive to the kind

which is comprised within, the interval between the
lines C and F, with a distinct maximum of visual effect corresponding to wave-lengths lying somewhere between the
lines D and E. Accordingly, in an optical instrument which
The
retina of the
of light
is
to be applied to the eye,
it is
usually desirable to unite the
red and blue rays as nearly as possible at the focus of the
yellow rays.
for example, the
If,
system
is
assumed to be
a convergent combination of two thin lenses in contact (as

in the case of the object-glass of a telescope),
it
will
be found
that the focal points corresponding to the colors (say, green
and yellow) between
C and F
will lie nearer the lens
focal points corresponding to the other colors
dark blue and violet)
and the
(dark red,
than the comand F. Moreover, the residual color-error or secondary spectrum in this
case will be least for some color very nearly corresponding to
the D-line, which is a favorable circumstance, since, as above
mon
stated, this
spectrum.
I
is
from
it
principal colors
will lie farther
focal point of the
two
the region of the brightest part of the visible
Achromatism with respect

)
is
sometimes called
to the colors
C and F
optical achr<omatism.
riF-nc/
On
the other hand, in the construction of a photographic
lens a kind of
compromise must be effected between the con-
vergence of the visual rays and the so-called actinic rays,
because the image has to be focused

plate
by the eye and afterwards
sensitized plate or film
camera
which
is
first
on the ground glass
has to be received on the

inserted for exposure in the
it
in the place of the translucent focusing screen.
Ac-
cordingly, for ordinary photographic practice an exact co-
incidence of the
manded.
Here
"optical" and " actinic" images
is
de-
found that the best results are obtained

by uniting the colors corresponding to the D-line and the
violet band in the spectrum of hydrogen, which, since it is
it is
Achromatic Prism
169]
491
may be designated by G' (434^/0sometimes called actinic or photographic achromatism for which the function v has a special value, namely
_
= flD-1
not far from the G-line,
This
is
riG'-nj)
the photographic lens
If
lenses in contact,
which
is
is a combination of two thin

and
achromatic for the colors
G', the focus of the rays corresponding to the blue-green
region of the spectrum will be nearer the lens than the com-
mon
focus of the two principal colors
and the focus of the

In an achro-
bright red rays will be farther from the lens.
of this kind the residual dispersion will usually be quite
mat
and the "actinic" image, but

most practical purposes the definition of the image in
either case is good enough. In astrophotography the focus
of the camera is determined once for all, and a lens for stellar
photography is usually designed to have an entirely actinic
achromatism, the two principal colors in this case corresponding to the F-line (486/f/x) and the violet line in the mercuryspectrum (405 fifi). The rays belonging in these two colors
large for both the " optical"

for
are
made
to unite as nearly as possible at the fociis of the
rays corresponding to the G'-line, which
the place of
achromat
rays will
maximum
of this kind the foci
lie
beyond the
approximately
actinic focus in the order
prisms of different substances
named.
Two Thin Prisms.

may be combined so as
169. Achromatic Combination of
Two
is
In a photographic
of the green, yellow and red
actinic action.
to obtain achromatism in the sense that rays of light cor-
responding to a definite pair of colors will issue from the

system in parallel directions, as represented in Fig. 212.
When an object is viewed through the combination, the red
be fused or superposed and

the residual color-effect will be comparatively slight. By
employing a greater number of prisms a more perfect union
of colors could be obtained, but usually two prisms are suf-
and blue
ficient.
rays, for example, will
Mirrors, Prisms
492
and Lenses
169
by assuming that the refracting

by /3 and 7, are both
that the deviation produced by each prism may be
The problem
is
simplified
angles of the prisms, denoted here

small; so
considered as proportional to
its
refracting angle, accord-
ing to the approximate formula deduced in
Fig. 212.
Usually,
60.
Achromatic combination of two thin prisms.
the two prisms are cemented together with their edges parallel
but oppositely turned, as shown in the diagram, so that
the thicker portions of one prism are adjacent to the thinner

portions of the other; accordingly, the total deviation (e)
be equal to the arithmetical difference of the deviations

produced by each prism separately.
Let P, Q and R designate three elementary colors, the
color Q being supposed to lie between P and R in the spectrum; and let the indices of refraction for these three colors
be denoted by n P ', Uq and n R ' for the first prism and by
n ~p", n Q f and n R " for the second prism. The total devia-
will
tions for the three colors will be:

P =
(V - 1) - (V -1)7,
j8
eQ
= (V -1)0- (
V-
1)
y,
R =(n R '-l)i3-(n R "-l)7.
Now
if
colors
the system
is
to be achromatic with respect to the
P and
fore, is
R, the condition is that

equivalent to the following
/3_ n R
7
that
is,
eP
eR ,
which, there-
"-y
n R '-n F
'
'
the refracting angles of the prisms must be inversely
Direct Vision Prism
170]
493
proportional to the partial dispersions of the two media for
the two given colors.
Moreover, the deviation of the rays of the intermediate

Q will be
/
_ n Q//"-l) PQ = (W R -Wp )
color
V-l
'
WR -Wp
ftR'-ttp'
Actually the colors P,
and
'
are usually chosen to cor-
D and F, respectively,
which case the combination will be achromatic with reThus, the fractions inside the
spect to C (red) and F (blue)
large brackets are the ^-values of the two kinds of glass.
Accordingly, for an achromatic combination of two thin
prisms for which the deviation D has a finite value, whereas
the dispersion ( ec p ) is abolished, we have the following
respond to the
Fraunhofer
lines C,
in
formulae
l= n *"7 nc
7
"
riF-nc
D= (nF'-nc ') {v>-v")P.
Consider, for example, a combination of two kinds of Jena

glass as follows:
Light Phosphate
Borate Flint
Crown
nD
n F uq
1.5159
0.007 37
70.0
1.5503
0.009 96
55.2
Assuming that the angle of the crown glass prism is (3 = 20,

we find: 7 = 14.8, D = 2.18. Generally speaking, those
pairs of glasses in which the partial dispersions are more
nearly equal will be .found to be best adapted for achromatic
combinations.
170. Direct Vision
Combination
of
Two Thin
Prisms.
In the case of an ordinary prism-spectroscope the rays are

deflected in passing through the system, so that in order to
view the spectrum the eye has to be pointed not directly

towards the luminous source, but in some oblique direction;
which is sometimes inconvenient, especially in astrophysical observations.
Accordingly, various prism-systems have
been proposed which are designed so that rays corresponding
to some definite standard color are finally bent back into
494
Mirrors, Prisms
and Lenses
their original direction, with the result that there
sion without deviation, which

to that
which
is
is
170
disper-
an effect precisely opposite

obtained with an achromatic prism. In
is
these so-called direct vision prisms (prismes a vision directe)
Fig. 213.
Direct vision prism combination (dispersion without deviation).
slit will be seen in the same

The condition that the light corresponding, say, to the Fraunhofer D-line shall emerge
from the system in the same direction as it entered is D = 0.
the spectrum of an illuminated

direction as the
slit itself.
Assuming that the combination is composed, as before, of

two thin prisms juxtaposed in the same way (Fig. 213), and
employing the same symbols ( 169), we derive immediately the following f ormulse
jg_ nD "-l
nW-l
CO" f=Od'-1)
'
\y--)
'
Consider, for example, the following combination
nD
Light Phosphate Crown
1.5159
70.0
Heavy
1.9626
19.7
Silicate Flint
the difference of the ^-values here being very great.
we put
= 20, we
find:
7 = 10.72,
eF
If
= 22.56'.
be profitable for the student to satisfy himself by

two kinds of glass which are best
adapted for a direct vision prism combination are on the
It will
several examples that
Direct Vision Prism
171]
495
contrary not very suitable for an achromatic prism, and vice

versa; as
might naturally be expected, since the
opposite in the two cases.
effects are
Generally speaking, the two kinds
of glass used for a direct vision prism should
have very
dif-
ferent ^-values, as in the illustration given above.
In the case of prisms of large refracting angles, the formula?

here and in
169 are hardly to be considered as even ap-
proximate.
171. Calculation of Amici Prism with Finite Angles.

Accurate formulae for the calculation of an achromatic or
direct vision prism-system
Fig. 214.
may
easily
Direct vision prism combination.

of so-called
be derived when the
Diagram represents one-half
Amici direct vision prism.
system consists of only two prisms.
As an
illustration of
the method in the case of a direct vision prism,
let
us em-
ploy here the symbols n\ and ni to denote the indices of refraction of the crown glass prism and the flint glass prism,
some standard wave-length; and

and y denote their refracting angles. We shall suppose also that the two prisms are cemented along a common
A ray of the given waveface, as represented in Fig. 214.
length is incident on the crown glass prism at an angle d
and is refracted into this medium at the angle 0', so that
respectively, for light of

let
j8
tti.sin
If the angles of incidence
0'=sin
6.
(1)
and refraction at the surface
of
Mirrors, Prisms
496
and Lenses
[171
separation of two kinds of glass are denoted by
and ^',
then
ni.sin^ = 7i2.sin^
(2)
= $-+;
0'
the angles here being
(3)
reckoned as positive.
all
If, finally, it
assumed that the ray meets the second face of the second
prism normally and issues again into the air in the same direction as it had originally, then also
= 7,
and d=/3-y.
(5)
(4)
The problem consists in determining the angle of one of the
is
prisms when the angle of the other is given. Suppose, for

example, that an arbitrary value is assigned to the acute
angle 7, and it is required to find the magnitude of the
angle
fi.
Substituting in (1) the values of
in (3)
and
(5),
we
6,
d'
as given
obtain:
tti.sin(/3-^)=sin(/3- 7),
whence we derive:
a
p=
tan
Eliminating ^' from
(2)
fti.sin^
-.
and
(4),
sin 7
.
we
find:
ni.sin ^=712. sin 7,
and consequently
also:
Tii. cos
^ = \Zn\ nl.sui'y.
Accordingly, the value of
/5
in
terms of m, ni and
is
given
by the formula:
tMn
(.-!)
p.
-y/nl
JE T
n^sin 7 - cos 7
2
If, on the other hand, the value of the angle /3 has been
chosen arbitrarily, the calculation of 7 will be found to be
trigonometrically a
ercise for the
_
fanT
7
little
difficult.
2
^2-1+ V^(tt 2 -l) + (n i-l)
2
(ri
If it is desired
allel
more
It is left as
an ex-
studen t to show that

2
(n 2 -^)tan
^ tsing
-nDtan 2 /3+(n 2 -l) 2
that the emergent ray shall not only be par-
to the incident ray but that its path shall be along the

Direct Vision Prism
172]
497
straight line, it is necessary to add to the above another

combination identical with it and placed so that the two
flint glass prisms constitute in reality one single prism of re-
same
fracting angle
27
Fig. 215.
in fact, this
is
two equal crown glass

as shown in Fig. 215; and,
inserted between
prisms each of refracting angle
Amici
j8,
direct vision prism.
the actual construction of the
common form
Amici prism. Suppose, for example, that the angle

7=45 and that the two kinds of glass are those described
in the Jena catalogue as " light phosphate crown" and
"heavy silicate flint" with indices ni = 1.5159 and n 2 = 1.9626
corresponding to the D-line; then we find that the angle /? =
of the
98
7.4'.
172. Kessler Direct Vision
Quadrilateral Prism.
of the principal objections to a train of prisms

light
by
reflection at the various surfaces
and
sorption in traversing the successive media.
view to diminishing these
losses
and partly
is
One
the loss of
also
by ab-
Partly with a
also
on account
been proposed
many forms of direct vision prism have

which are made of one piece of glass with four
more plane
faces; in all of which, however, the principle
of other advantages,
or
by means of a series of total internal

bend the rays corresponding to some standard
intermediate color back finally into their original direction.
is
the same, namely,
reflections to
The
simplest of
ABCD
all
these devices
is
the four-faced prism
proposed by Kessler, a principal section

of which has the form of a quadrilateral with perpendicular
diagonals. The ray of standard wave-length enters the prism
(Fig. 216)

498
and leaves
it
in a direction parallel to the diagonal
totally reflected twice, first at the face
face
AD,
BA
172
BD;
it is
and again at the
the path of the ray between these reflections being
parallel to its direction at entrance
and emergence.
More-
A
Kessler
Fig. 216.
direct vision prism.
symmetry of the prism, the path of the

be a continuation of the rectilinear path of
the incident ray. If the angles at A, B and C are denoted by
a, $ and 7, respectively, then
a+2/3+7 = 360 o
(1)
over, in virtue of the
emergent ray
will
and
if
the angles of incidence and refraction at the face
are denoted
by
6,
6',
o-\,
and, finally,
if
0'=|-<s;
the index of refraction

n.sin0'
is
and
(3),
we
denoted by
if
of equations (1)
of a
6,
6'
by means
of
(4)
/? and 7 is chosen
two angles can be determined by means
the value of one of the angles a,
arbitrarily, the other
If
n,
(3)
obtain:
n.sin(-^-/3)=sim|
so that
(2)
= sin0.
Consequently, eliminating the angles

(2)
BC
then
and
(4).
the principal section of a
rhombus
Kessler prism has the form
(Fig. 217), parallel incident rays
may
be
re-
173]
Achromatic System of Lenses
499
A
Fig. 217.
Rhomboidal form of Kessler prism.
BA and BC. In this case the angles

a and y are equal, and hence /3+7 = 180, and therefore
ceived on both faces
=|
0'
= ^-18O,
so that
7i.sin(^-180)=sin^,
whence we obtain
sm^ = cos
V
V 4n
\n
2
2
For example, if n = 1.64, we find = 36 24', 7 = 143 36'.
173. Achromatic Combination of Two Thin Lenses.
The positions of the principal and focal points of a lenssj'stem vary for light of different colors, and if the system is
to be used as a magnifying glass or as the so-called ocular

of a microscope or telescope, a chief consideration will be
that the apparent sizes of the colored virtual images which

are presented to the eye shall
all
be the same, that
is,
that
the red and blue images, for example, shall subtend the
same angle at the

and positions are
eye,
no matter whether
different or not.
of
size
image of an object lying in the

the lens-system is measured by the
of the infinitely distant
primary focal plane
their actual sizes
But the apparent
500
refracting
power
of the system ( 122)
tion of achromatism in this case
is
173
and hence the condi-
that the refracting powers
system shall be equal for the two

(Achromatism with respect to the focal
(or focal lengths) of the
colors in question.
length; see 167.)
Let us assume that the system is composed of two thin

whose refracting powers for light of a certain definite
wave-length X are denoted by Fx and F 2 ; then the refracting power of the combination will be F=Fi+F 2 c.Fi.F 2)
where c denotes the air-interval between the two lenses.
For a second color of wave-length X+AX (where AX denotes a small variation in the value of X), the refracting
powers of the lenses will be slightly different, and the relenses
fracting
power
of the combination for this color will be:
F +AF=(F1 +AF1)+(F2 +AF2)-c(F1 +AF1
(F 2 +AF2 ).
Subtracting these two equations, at the same time neglecting the term which involves the product of the small variations A,Pi
and
AF we
2,
obtain
AF=AF +AF - (F
X
.AFi+Fi.AF 2 )c.
Evidently, the condition that the system shall be achromatic

with respect to its refracting power is AF=0; which, therefore, is
equivalent to the following:

C
_
~
F .AFi+F AF
AFi+AF
2
lm
2
'
Now
if
light of
n\ denotes the index of refraction of the
first
lens for
wave-length X, then
ft-(m-l)Ki,
where Ki denotes a constant whose value depends simply on
the form of the infinitely thin lens, that is, on the curvatures
of its surfaces.
Similarly, for light of wave-length
we have:
Fi+AFi=(m+Ani-l)Ki;
and hence
AFx = Ki.Am=Fi-
fti 1
X+AX,
Achromatic Lens-System
173]
But Am/(nil)=l/Pi
is
the expression for the dispersive
power of the material of the
we may
501
first
lens ( 165),
and accordingly
write
and, analogously, for the second lens:
v2
Introducing these expressions for

tion above,
we
find, therefore, as
AFi and
AF
in the equa-
the condition that a pair of
thin lenses shall be achromatic with respect to the refracting
Fig. 218.
Hutgens's
ocular.
power of the system, the requirement that the distance between the two thin lenses shall satisfy the following equation:
c
v 2 .Fi+vi.F 2
(Vl+V2)Fl-F 2
'
or
where
lenses.
fi
_^l./l + ^2-A
j
= l/Fi and f2 = l/F 2 denote the
focal lengths of the
502
If both lenses are
made
of the
same
glass,
174
then v 1 = v 2 so
,
that in this case the condition of achromatism becomes

c
=./1+/2
Thus, for example, Huygens's ocular (Fig. 218) is composed

of two plano-convex lenses made of the same kind of glass,
the curved face of each lens being turned
eye and towards the incident

the
"
The
light.
and the second lens is

combination /1 = 2/2 (although
Fig. 219.
condition
3/2/2, or
is
called
in actual
systems this
ocular.
usually only approximately satisfied) and c =
is
f2
Ramsden's
lens
called the " eye-lens."
field-lens"
In this
away from the
first
:c :/i
= 2 :3 4. Ramsden's ocular (Fig. 219)

two plano-convex lenses of the same kind
:
consists likewise of
of glass,
but with their curved faces turned towards each
Both of these
other and in this combination f 1 =f2 =f=c.
types satisfy, therefore, the above condition of achromatism
and yield images that are
free
from
the center but at the border of the

174. Achromatic
Contact.
If
color-faults not only in
field.
Combination of
Two Thin Lenses
the two lenses are in contact
(c
in
= 0), the con-
dition of achromatism, as found in the preceding section,
becomes
Vifi+V2 .f2==0,
or
^+^ =0.
The quotient
of the refracting
power
of a lens
by the
dis-
Achromatic Lens-System
174]
503
persive power of the glass of which it is made, namely, the

magnitude F/v, is sometimes called the dispersive strength
of the lens; so that according to the above equation we may
say that the condition of achromatism of a combination of
two thin lenses in contact is that the algebraic sum of their
dispersive strengths shall vanish.
Accordingly,
it
appears
that such a system can be achromatic only in case the sub-
made are different. Moremust be convex and the other

actual forms are of no consequence so far as
stances of which the
two
lenses are
over, while one of the lenses
concave, their
the mere correction of the chromatic aberration
is
concerned.
be remarked also that in an achromatic lens of negthickness achromatism with respect to the focal lengths
It is to
ligible
implies also achromatism with respect to the positions of
the focal points and principal points, so that such a lens will
be achromatic for
If
all
distances of the object.
denotes the prescribed refracting power of the com-
bination then, since,
^ = ^1+^2,
we
find:
Fi=^-F,
Vi-V
F =--^F.
2
Vi-V 2
power F will have the same sign as
which has the greater r-value; for example,
2
The
total refracting
that of the lens
the combination will act like a convex lens provided the

v-value of the positive element exceeds that of the negative element.
Thus, being given the values of F, v x and v 2} we can employ the above relations to determine the required values
of F\ and F 2
Moreover, if Ki denotes the algebraic differ.
ence of the curvatures of the two faces of the

similarly,
if
first lens,
and,
denotes the corresponding magnitude for
the second lens, then
ni-1
where n h n 2 denote the indices
n 2 -l
two kinds

504
of glass for
which
is
[174
some standard wave-length, as already
stated,
Fraunhofer
magnitudes denoted by Ki and K 2
usually light corresponding to the
Thus, while the

the actual curvatures or radii of the lenscomputed,
may be
so that there are still two
indeterminate;
remain
surfaces
D-line.
Fig.
Herschel's
Fig. 223.
telescope objective.
221.
Fraun-
hofer's telescope
objective, No. 1.
Dollond's
Fig. 220.
Fig. 224. Barlow's

Fig.
222.
Fraun-
hofer's telescope
objective, No. 2.
Gauss's
Fig. 225.
may be imposed on an achromatic

combination of this kind. For example, in some cases it
may be conventient to cement the two components together,
and then one of the conditions will be that the curvatures of
the two surfaces in contact shall be equal. Usually, however, a more important requirement will be the abolition of
other conditions which
two
of the so-called spherical errors
due to the fact that the
Problems
Ch. XIV]
505
rays are not paraxial, so that the image will be sharp and
distinct, especially at the center.
Some
achromatic object-glasses of a telaccompanying diagrams. Dol(Fig.

doublet
220) consisted of a double
lond's achromatic
with a double concave flint
combined
lens
glass
convex crown
constructions show a comFraunhofer's
whereas
glass lens;
bination of a double convex and a plano-concave lens (Fig.
historic types of
escope are illustrated in the
221) and of a double convex

J.
Herschel's form (1821)
and a meniscus lens (Fig. 222).

shown in Fig. 223, Barlow's
is
(1827) in Fig. 224; and, finally, the
Gauss type made by
Steinheil in 1860 is exhibited in Fig. 225. The newer varieties of Jena glass make it possible to construct an achromatic objective of two lenses which is far superior in achromatism to any of the older types above mentioned.
PROBLEMS
1. Find the values of the reciprocals of the dispersive
powers ( 165) of alcohol and water, using data given in
Ans. Alcohol, 60.5; water, 55.7.
table in 163.
2. The indices of refraction of rock salt for the Fraunhofer lines C, D and F are 1.5404, 1.5441 and 1.5531, re-
spectively.
Calculate the value of the reciprocal of the dis-
Ans. 42.84.
persive power.
from a luminous point on the

axis of a thin lens. If the yellow rays are brought to a focus
at a point whose distance from the lens is denoted by u',
show that the distance between the foci of the red and blue
rays is approximately equal to 2 F.u'/v, where F denotes the
refracting power of the lens for yellow light and v denotes
the reciprocal of the dispersive power of the lens-medium.
4. A lens is made of borate flint glass for which ^ = 55.2.
The focal length of the lens for sodium light is 30 inches.
Find the distance between the red and blue images of the
3.
White
light is emitted
sun formed by the
lens.
Ans. 0.54
in.
506
[Ch.
XIV
crown glass prism of refracting angle 20 is to be

combined with a flint glass prism so that the combination
will be achromatic for the Fraunhofer lines C and F. The
5.
indices of refraction are as follows
Crown
nc
n-D
1.526 849
1.529 587
nF
1.536 052
Flint
1.629 681
1.635 036
1.648 260
Using the approximate formulae for thin prisms, show that
the refracting angle of the flint prism will be 9 54' 11", and
that the deviation of the rays corresponding to the D-line

will be 4 18' 7".
6.
direct vision prism combination
is
to be
made with
the same kinds of glass as in the preceding problem; so that

rays corresponding to the D-line are to emerge without deviation.
20,
If
the refracting angle of the crown glass prism
show that the
is
refracting angle of the flint glass prism
be 16 40' 48", and that the angular dispersion between

and F will be 9' 33".
will
7. An Amici direct vision prism ( 171) is to be made of

crown glass and flint glass whose indices of refraction for
the D-line are 1.5159 and 1.9626, respectively. If the refracting angles of the two equal crown glass prisms are each
equal to 45, show that the refracting angle of the middle
flint glass prism will be 98 7.4'.
8. A Kessler prism ( 172) in the form of a rhombus is
made of glass of index n D = 1.6138. Find the angles of the
prism.
Ans. 35 5' and 144 55'.
9. A thin lens is made of crown glass for which z>i = 60.2.
Another thin lens is made of flint glass for which 2 = 36.2.
When the two lenses are placed in contact they form an
achromatic combination of focal length 10 cm. Find the
focal length of each lens.
Ans. /i =3.99 cm. /2 = 6.63 cm.
10. An achromatic doublet is to be made of two thin
lenses cemented together, and the focal length of the combination for the D-line is to be 25 cm. The first lens is a
symmetric convex lens of barium silicate glass and the other
*>
Ch. XIV]
Problems
lens is a concave lens of
sodium lead
507
glass.
The
indices of
refraction are:
Barium silicate
Sodium lead
Find the
radii of the surfaces
corresponding to the lines
Ans. The radii of the
and 22.65 cm.,
^D
Up Tie
1.6112
0.01747
1.5205
0.01956
on the supposition that the rays

and F are united.
and
first
last surfaces are
A symmetric double convex lens

which n c = 1.5404 and n F = 1.5531.
11.
for
of the lens
if
+14.60
respectively.
the focal lengths for
is
made
of rock salt
Find the thickness

the colors C and F are equal.
Ans. d = 3.4363. r, where r denotes the radius of the
first
surface of the lens.
Two
12.
thin lenses of the
same kind
of glass,
one convex
of focal length 9 inches, the other concave of focal length
4 inches, are separated by an interval of 20 inches. A small

white object is placed 36 inches in front of the convex lens.
Show that the various colored images are all formed at the
same
place.
Two thin lenses of the same kind of glass, one convex

and the other concave, and both of focal length 4 inches, are
adjusted on the same axis until the colored images of a white
object placed 12 inches in front of the convex lens are formed
at the same place. Show that the interval between the lenses
must be twelve inches.
14. A lens-system surrounded by air is composed of m
spherical refracting surfaces. Assuming that the total thickness of the system is negligible, show that the condition of
achromatism is
k=m
2 (#k_i-i4) Snk = 0,
13.
where
Rk
k=2
denotes the curvature of the kth surface and 8n k
denotes the dispersion of the

(k
l)th and
compensated.
medium
included between the
kih surfaces for light of the two colors to be
CHAPTER XV
SPHERICAL ABERRATION,
RAYS OF FINITE SLOPE.
ASTIGMATISM OF OBLIQUE BUNDLES, ETC.
The
theory of the symmetrical optical instrument, as it has been developed in the preceding
chapters, is based on the assumption that the rays concerned
175. Introduction.
image are entirely confined to the

so-called paraxial rays ( 63) whose paths throughout the
system are contained within an exceedingly narrow cylindrical region of space immediately surrounding the axis. With
this fundamental restriction it was found that there was
perfect collinear correspondence between object-space and
image-space; so that a train of spherical waves emanating
from an object-point was transformed by the optical system
into another train of spherical waves accurately converging
to or diverging from a corresponding center called the imagepoint; and so that, in general, a plane object at right angles
to the axis was reproduced point by point by a similar plane
image. As a matter of fact, these ideal conditions are never
realized in any actual optical system except in the case of a
plane mirror or combination of plane mirrors. Moreover,
according to the wave-theory of light, a mere homocentric
in the formation of the
convergence of the rays
is
not sufficient for obtaining a point-
image of a point-source for this theory lays particular stress

on the further essential requirement that the effective portion of the wave-surface which contributes to the production of the image shall be relatively large in comparison with
the radius of the surface, if the light-effect is to be concentrated as nearly as possible at a single point and not spread
over some considerable area in the vicinity of the point. This
condition implies, therefore, that the aperture of the bundle
;
508
Young's Construction
176]
of effective rays
other words
we
509
must not be below a certain finite limit, in

by a practical necessity, wholly
are compelled
aside from the principles at the basis of geometrical optics, to

employ more or less wide-angle bundles of rays. Moreover,
if
a wide-angle bundle of rays
clear-cut image,
it is
is
a requirement of a distinct,
also equally essential for a bright image.
Thus, on both theoretical and practical grounds,
it is
found
necessary to extend the limits of the effective rays beyond

the paraxial region.
Instead, therefore, of the ideal case of collinear correspond-
ence of object-space and image-space, the theory of optical

instruments
is
complicated by numerous practical and, for
the most part irreconcilable
difficulties,
due
chiefly to the
so-called aberrations or failure of the rays to arrive at the
places
where they might be expected according to the
theory of collineation or point-to-point correspondence (punctual imagery). In the preceding chapter

simple
brief reference was made to the chromatic aberrations arising

from the differences in the color of the light; but now we
have to deal with the monochromatic aberrations of rays of
light of one definite wave-length which are caused by the peculiarities of the curved surfaces at which the rays are reflected and refracted.
These surfaces are nearly always
spherical in form, and hence the aberrations of this latter
kind are usually called spherical aberrations.
treatment of this intricate subject

scope of this volume.
of the so-called spherical errors.
how
complete
wholly outside the

it must suffice
more important
however, we must
In the present chapter
to point out the general nature of
see
lies
some
of the
First,
to trace the path of a single ray through a centered
system of spherical surfaces before we are in a position to

study a bundle of rays.
176. Construction of a Ray Refracted at a Spherical
Surface. In 34 a method was explained for constructing
the path of a ray refracted from one medium into another,
which is always applicable to a refracting surface of any form.
510
[176
The following elegant and useful construction of the path of

a ray refracted at a spherical surface was published in 1807
by Thomas Young (1773-1829.)
Fig. 226.
Construction of ray refracted at convex spherical surface (n'>ri).
In the accompanying diagrams (Figs. 226 to 229) the

ZZ is designated
center of the spherical refracting surface
by C.
The
point
ray lying in the
Fig. 227.
R is
first
Construction
any point on the path
medium
of the incident
of refractive index n.
of ray refracted at
The point
concave spherical surface (w'>n).
where the ray meets the spherical refracting surface is marked

B.
The plane of the paper which contains the incident ray
RB and the incidence-normal BC is the plane of incidence.
Young's Construction
176]
511
The index
of refraction of the second medium is denoted by

and the radius of the spherical refracting surface by r.
Around C as center and with radii equal to n'.r/n and n.rjn'
n'
Fig. 228.
Construction of ray refracted at convex spherical surface (n'<n).
k and k',
and let S designate the point where the straight
RB, produced if necessary, meets the arc k. Draw the
describe, in the plane of incidence, the circular arcs
respectively;
line
straight line
Fig. 229.
CS
ntersecting the arc k' in the point
Construction
the straight line
of ray refracted at
BT
drawn from
the path of the refracted ray.

care
must be taken to
S'.
Then
concave spherical surface (n'<n).
through S'
will represent
In making this construction,
select for the point
S that one of the
512
177
two points in which the straight line RB cuts the circle k

which will make the segments BS and BS' both fall on the
same side of the incidence-normal, since the angles of incidence and refraction are described always in the same
sense,
both clockwise or both counter-clockwise.
The proof of the construction is simple.

r = BC is a mean proportional between the
and S'C=n.r/n
/
,
that
is,
Z BS'C.
radii
SC=n'.r/n
since
CS :CB = CB :CS'-n'
the triangles
Since the radius
CBS and CBS' are

CBS
similar,
:n,
and hence Z CBS =
In the triangle
sinZCBS sinZBSC = CS
:
CB=n'
n.
law of refraction: n.sma=n'.sma', where a =

Consequently, ZBSC = ZCBS'= a', so that the
straight line BS' is the path of the refracted ray.
This construction can be employed to trace the path of
a ray graphically from one surface to the next through a
By the
ZCBS.
centered system of spherical refracting surfaces.

177.
face.
The
Aplanatic Points of a Spherical Refracting Sur-
Incidentally,
struction, attention
in connection
is
with the preceding con-
directed to the singular character of
by the intersectwo concentric auxiliary spherical surfaces with

any straight line drawn from their common center C. To
points such as S, S' determined
all pairs of
tions of the
every incident ray directed towards the point S there will

correspond a refracted ray which will pass ("really" or
" virtually") through the other point
special case
S';
so that in this
we obtain a homocentric bundle
of refracted
rays from a homocentric bundle of incident rays, for

values of the aperture-angle of the bundle.
from the center
are
all
S' is
The distances of S and

connected by the invariant-relation:
point-image of the object-point

S'
Thus,
S.
w'.CS'=w.CS.
That pair
especially
of these points
which
distinguished and
lies
called
on the optical axis
is
the pair of aplanatic
Spherical Aberration
178]
513
points of the spherical refracting surface; they are designated
by
J, J' (Fig. 230).
CJ
Thus, we have:
:AC=AC
:CJ'=n'
:n,
or
CJ.CJ' = r 2
The
n.CJ=rc'.CJ'.
aplanatic points, therefore, he always on the
same
side
Fig. 230.
Aplanatic points of spherical refracting surface.
of the center C so that whereas the rays must pass "really"

through one of them, they will pass " virtually'' through
the other. In geometrical language the pdints J, J' are said
to be harmonically separated ( 67) by the extremities of
the axial diameter of the refracting sphere.
However, in
178. Spherical Aberration Along the Axis.
general, a homocentric bundle of rays incident on a spherical refracting surface will not be homocentric after refraction. The diagram (Fig. 231) represents the case of a meridian section of a bundle of incident rays which are all parallel
to the axis of a convex spherical refracting surface for which
n >n.
be seen that, whereas the paraxial rays after

axis at the second focal point F', the
outermost or edge rays cross the axis at a point L' between
It will
refraction
the vertex
meet on the
and the
focal point F';
and the intermediate
rays cross the axis at points lying between F' and I/.
segment F'L'
is
The
the measure of the spherical aberration along
514
the axis or
[17S
the axial aberration of the edge ray of a direct
(By a " direct" bundle

emanating from a point on
the axis.) In the figure this segment is negative, that is, measured in the sense opposite to that of the incident light; and
cylindrical bundle of incident rays.
of rays
is
meant a bundle
Fig. 231.
this effect
is
of rays
Spherical aberration.
usually described
by saying that a convex
which
spheri-
from air to
glass is spherically under-corrected; whereas, under the same
circumstances, a concave spherical refracting surface will be
found to be spherically over-corrected, that is, the segment
F'L' in this case will be positive. In fact, the points of incal refracting surface at
light is refracted
tersection of pairs of consecutive rays lying in the plane of
a meridian section of a spherical refracting surface form a

curved line lying symmetrically above and below the axis,
if the bundle of incident rays is symmetric with respect to
the axis; and this plane curve is the so-called caustic curve
of the meridian rays.
The two branches on opposite
sides
of the axis unite in a double point or cusp at the point
on
the axis where the paraxial rays intersect, so that the axis
is
tangent to both branches at this point, which in the figure
Spherical Zones
179]
is
the point F'.
The system
is
515
said to be spherically over-
is turned
towards the incident light (<) or away from it (>), respectively; on the supposition that the incident rays are parallel
to the axis. Each refracted ray in the meridian plane touches
the caustic curve, and hence this curve is said to be the geometrical envelope of the meridian section of the bundle of
corrected or under-corrected according as the cusp
refracted rays.
If
arc
the entire figure
ZZ
will generate
is
revolved around the optical axis the
a zone of the spherical refracting sur-
face containing the vertex
A; and each incident ray pro-
ceeding parallel to the axis will generate a cylindrical surface,
and
all
rays which
the refracted rays corresponding to the incident
on the surface of one of these cylinders will

on the axis between F' and L'.
The revolution of the caustic curve will generate a caustic
surface, which will be the enveloping surface of the bundle of
lie
intersect in one point lying
refracted rays (see
The
187.)
caustic curve terminates at the point
H' where the
edge ray intersects the next consecutive ray in the meridian

section.
If
a plane screen erected at right angles to the axis
so as to catch the light transmitted
rays
is
by the bundle
of refracted
placed initially in the transversal plane that passes
through the extreme point H' and then gradually shifted

parallel to the axis towards the second focal plane, there will
appear on the screen at first a circular patch of light surrounded on its outer edge by a brighter ring, which will grad-.
ually contract as the screen approaches L'.
Between L'
and F' there will be seen at the center of the circular patch
an increasingly bright spot. For a certain position

G' where the distance of the screen from F' is about threefourths of the length of F'L' the cross-section of the bundle
of refracted rays will have its narrowest contraction. This
section is sometimes called the least circle of aberration.
Since, in general, it is not possible
179. Spherical Zones.
aberration
of a single spherical reto abolish the spherical
of light
and Lenses
Mirrors, Prisms
516
fracting surface, the only
means
available
is
180
to try to ac-
complish this result by distributing the duty of refracting

the rays over a series of surfaces whose curvatures and distances apart are so nicely adjusted with respect to each other
that
when the rays
focus on the axis.
finally
emerge they
will all unite in
Thus, for example,
if
one
the incident rays
are supposed to be parallel to the axis of the system,
and
if
the system has been designed so as to be spherically corrected
Fig. 232.
Graphical representation
for the edge ray
h from the
of the spherical zones of a lens.
which meets the
axis, it is
first
surface at the distance
conceivable that
>
all
>
the intermediate
might perchance
emerge from the system along paths which all likewise passed
through the focal point F'; but practically this never happens. If the edge ray intersects the axis at F', an intermedirays of incidence-heights z (where h
0)
ate ray of incidence-height z will cross the axis at
point I/, and the segment F'L'

tion of the zone of radius z or
spherical zones of a lens
is
some other
called the spherical aberra-
simply the spherical zone
may
z.
The
be exhibited graphically by
whose abscissae are the values of F'L' and

whose ordinates are the corresponding values of z, as repre-
plotting a curve
sented in Fig. 232.

180. Trigonometrical Calculation of a Ray Refracted at
The diagram (Fig. 233) represents a
a Spherical Surface.
meridian section ZZ of a spherical refracting surface of radius
(=AC)
ray
separating two media of indices of refraction n, n'
RB
incident on the surface at
at an angle
<x
Z NBR = Z CBL crosses the axis at L at a slope-angle 6 =

= ZBCA,
ZALB. If the central angle is denoted by
</>
Calculation of Refracted
180]
and
is
if
Ray
517
L with respect to the center C

= CL, then in the triangle CBL,
the abscissa of the point
denoted by
we have
c,
that
is, if
the relations:
a=d + 4>,
The path
c.sin#
= r.sina.
of the corresponding refracted ray
straight line
BT
is
shown by the
which crosses the axis at the point L'; and
518
180
responding refracted rays cross the axis. This is the analytical statement of the fact of spherical aberration ( 178).
The formulae for calculating the path of a ray reflected at
a spherical mirror
n'=n
we
( 75) in
may
be derived immediately by putting
the preceding system of equations.
Thus
find:
sina =
sin 0,
a'=
a,
0'=
0 2a,
Incidentally, a
number
points
L and
=r
if
sm(0-2a)
of other useful relations
For example,
obtained from Fig. 233.
c'
may be
the distances of the
L' where the ray crosses the axis before and
measured from the incidence-point B are

denoted by I and V, respectively, that is, if l = BL, Z' = BL',
where I and V are to be reckoned positive or negative according as these lengths are measured in the same direction
as the light traverses the ray or in the opposite direction,
respectively; then
after refraction
= Z.sin0;
Z'.sin0'
and, since
by the law
of refraction,
n'.c'.sin 0'=ft.c.sin 0,
we
obtain the useful invariant relation

n'.c'
_n.c
T'
Moreover, by projecting the two sides c and I of the triangle

CBL on the third side r, the following formula is obtained
r
which
may
= Lcosa c.cos0,
be written
c_
I
r
coscj)
Similarly, in the triangle
c'_
n'
If
CBL'
r
/cosa/_l\
first of these equations by n and the second

and equating the resulting expressions, we find
/cos a
,/cosa'
1\
1\
Multiplying the
by
/cosa_l\
\
Path
181]
may
which
Ray through Centered System
of
519
also be written
n'
a' ft.cosa
n'. cos
V~T
=0(say);
or finally:
L'
L = n/l, L = n'll
r
where
= L+D,
f
.
is a paraxial ray, we may put cos a = cos o! = 1

and now if we write u, v! in place of I, V respectively,
the formula above will reduce to the abscissa-equation for
If
the ray
( 63)
the refraction of a paraxial ray at a spherical surface
Moreover,
in the last
if
formula we put
ft'
= ft
( 78).
we
( 75),
find the corresponding relation for the reflection of a ray at
a spherical mirror, namely:

1
1
181.
ical
Path
of
_ 2cos a
1
+ P~~r~'
Ray through a Centered System
of Spher-
Numerical Calculation.
Refracting Surfaces.
the same system of notation as in
we may
118,
Using
write the
formula for the refraction of a paraxial ray at the kth surface of a centered system of spherical refracting surfaces,
as follows
W = U +F
k
k,
where
Uk = nk /uk Uk =wk +i/%', and Fk = (n k +i-nk )/rk

= A k M k +i,
k =A k M k
7k = A k C k
And if dk = A kA k .f then also:
'
ft
i,
i/^k +i = i/t/'k-4K+i.
we have
the
following system of formulae for the refraction at the
A;th
According to the relations given in
180,
surface of a ray whose slope-angles before
have the
finite
and
= Z A k L k B k and
values 6 k
after refraction
+i = Z A k L k+ iB k
respectively
ak =
ck
.sin
#k + i=
#k+
sin
sin
k,
ak
ck
ak
ft k
=-r k
.sin
sin
ak
ak
sin
520
where
= C k L k and c k = C k L k+ Moreover,
= dk +rk rk
ak = C k C k
'
ck
i.
_}_i
if
181
we put
then
ck
_j_i
= ck ak
In order to exhibit the methods of calculations by means of

these formulae, a comparatively simple numerical illustration
The
appended.
is
given by Dr.
actual example here chosen
is
one
Max Lange in his paper entitled " Vereinfachte
Formeln fiir die trigonometrische Durchrechnung optischer

Systeme" (Leipzig, 1909), pages 24, foil. The optical system is a two-lens object-glass of a telescope for which the
data were published by Dr. R. Steinheil in the Zeitschrift
fiir
Instrumentenkunde, xvii (1897),
p. 389, as follows:
Indices of refraction (for D-line)
= n3 = Ub= l
ni
(air);
n 2 = 1.614 400
n 4 =1.518 564
(flint);
(crown)
Thicknesses:
di
= 2;
d 2 = 0.01; d 3 = 5.
Radii:
ri=+ 420;
The
r2
= +181.995;
r3
= +178.710;
r4
= 40
133.8.
incident rays are parallel to the axis, so that

1
The
calculation
= O,
is
ui
= ci=
oo
(C/i
= 0).
divided into two parts, namely: (1) the

and (2) the trigonometric
calculation of the paraxial ray,
calculation of the edge ray which meets the
the object-glass at the height hi
C\=
oo
we
find sinai
data, gives lg sin a\
= /ii/ri,
=33 above
first
surface of
the axis.
When
which, according to the above
= 1.5185139.
This
is
the starting point
of the calculation of the edge ray.
Each
vertical
column contains the calculation
spherical refracting surface.
for
one
The sign written after a logthe number to which the loga-
arithm indicates the sign of

rithm belongs. Generally the calculations do not have to be
performed to the degree of accuracy to which they are carried
here.
181]
Scheme
of
1.
Numerical Calculation
PARAXIAL RAY
521
522
ai
ai'
==+
=-a = -
= O, ai'-ai=
c 4'
2 47' 22.69"
r4
1 43'
8 41' 40.45" -i* 4 '=
'
41.00" F'L 5 =
31.28"
19' 13.26"
-10
36' 22.98"
a 3'= +
9 22' 26.69"
=-
1 13' 56.29"
= +
1 16'
45.13"
2'
48.84"
1 56'
33.95"
+
-
=-
992.55
0.12
50.28"
- a3= -14
a 4 '=
182
= +41126.23
= -40133.80
0.55"A 4 L = + 992.43
4 30' 23.24"
- 10 24'
a 2 = + 14 T
03 = + 3 42'
-a
1 53' 45.11"
Thus, we see that this object-glass has a slight spherical

aberration of 0.12, that is, it is a little under-corrected
( 178).
182.
The Sine-Condition
or Condition of Aplanatism.
Suppose that for a certain object-point
(Fig. 234)
on the
axis of a symmetrical optical instrument the spherical aber-
ration has been abolished for all the zones of the system, so
that rays proceeding from this point will
all
be accurately
On a straight
focused at the conjugate image-point M'.
point
take
a
the
axis
at
line perpendicular to
Q very close
M; and let
object = MQ
= M'Q'
size of the image of the

central zone, that is,
produced
by
the
2/
though
.the system is sphereven
by the paraxial rays. Now
pair
axial points M, M',
the
of
with
respect
to
ically corrected
from Q will all
emanating
follows
rays
that
it by no means
Q'.
the case, the
this
shall
be
that
in
In
order
meet again
for
all
the zones
equal
to
must
be
magnification-ratio
y'/y
to
of the system.
?/'
which
is
Draw
sponding image-ray
denote the
the object-ray
B 2M';
if
MBi
and the
corre-
the slopes of these rays are

Sine-Condition
182]
523
denoted by 6 and 0', it may be shown that for the zone

corresponding to the incidence-point Bi the magnificationratio
is
equal to n.sin d/n'.s'n
and
6';
if
this is equal to y'jy,
then the image formed by rays belonging to this zone will
be of the same
size as
the image y'
Fig. 234.
made by
the paraxial rays.
Sine-condition.
Thus, in order that with the employment of wide-angle

bundles of rays a symmetrical optical instrument may produce a sharp image of a little plane element perpendicular
to the axis of the instrument, not only
must the system be
spherically corrected for the pair of conjugate axial points
M, M', but
it
must
also satisfy the so-called Sine-Condition,
namely,
n.sin 6
_y _
n'. sin d'

y
This celebrated principle was clearly formulated by Abbe
in 1873, but it had already been recognized by Seidel, and
it
may be deduced from a general law of radiant energy which
was
first
The proof
given by Clausius (1864).
omitted here.
may
It
be stated
of it must be
words as follows: The
in
necessary and sufficient condition that
all
the zones of a
spherically corrected system shall produce images of equal

size at the point
M'
conjugate to the axial point
slope-angles
6,
of each
6'
and emergent rays
shall
sin d
sin
is
from M, the ratio of the sines
for all rays proceeding
tt.
pair of corresponding incident
be constant that
;
n'
= y = constant,
wm
that,
of the
is,
524
The
182
sine-condition
n.y. sin 6
= n'.y
sin 0'
from the Smith-Helmholtz law for

paraxial rays (see 88 and 118), namely, n.?/.tan0 =
although when the angles 6, 6' are small, both
n'.i/'.tan 6
conditions may be expressed by the equation n.y. d = n .y 6
If the optical system is spherically corrected for the pair
of axial points M, M', and if at the same time the sine-condi-
is
essentially different
f
tion
is satisfied,
the points
M, M'
are called the aplanatic
may
be demonstrated that
no optical system can have more than one pair of such aplapair of points of the system.
natic points.
face the
center
It
In the case of a single spherical refracting sur-
two points
whose distances from the
J, J' ( 177)
are such that
CJ.CJ' = r 2
n.CJ=n'.CJ',
are a pair of aplanatic points as above defined; for they are
from spherical aberration and if they are joined by

any point B on the spherical refracting surface, and if we put 6 = Z CJB, d' = Z CJ'B, we
have sin 0/sin d' = nfn' = constant. This property of the
points J, J' of a refracting sphere has been ingeniously util-
free
straight lines BJ, BJ' with
ized in the construction of the objective of the
compound
microscope.
If in Fig.
234 we put
= BiM,
then
smd=h/l, where h
denotes the height of the point Bi above the axis.

the sine-condition
may
Hence,
be written
I.
or since ( 124)
where
/,
denote the focal lengths of the system and x dewith respect to the primary focal
notes the abscissa of

point
F (x = FM), we
obtain also:
h
sin 6'
_lf
x
Suppose now that the object-point
= l
is
infinitely distant so
then for a ray parallel to the axis meeting the

surface at the height h, we shall have:
that x
first
525
Caustic Surfaces
183]
oo
sin 0'
Thus,
if
the aplanatic points are the infinitely distant point
of the axis
center
'
we
and the second
focal point F',
and
if
describe a sphere of radius equal to
around F' as
/',
the parallel
object-rays will meet their corresponding image-rays on the

surface of this sphere; whereas in the case of collinear imagery
with paraxial rays the points of intersection of the incident
and emergent rays under the same circumstances will all lie
in the secondary principal plane ( 119), which touches the
sphere above mentioned at the point where the axis crosses it.
If therefore we put h/sin 6' = e, the sine-condition for an
infinitely distant object is e+f=0.
For example, in the
case of the telescope objective calculated in 181:
lg hi
= 1.5185139 +
05=1 .4803948lge =2.9989087-
clg sin
e= -997.490
/ = +997.5 85
e+f= +
Accordingly, the sine-condition
is
very nearly
0.095
satisfied in
the
case of this object-glass.
The characteristic geometrical

183. Caustic Surfaces.
property of a bundle of light-rays emanating originally from
by Maltjs in
be stated in terms of the undulatory
theory of light as follows The rays of light are always normal
to the wave-surfaces. In fact, what is meant by a wave-sura point-source
1808
( 39),
is
expressed in a law announced
which
may
any surface which cuts the rays orthogonally. In

normal sections at any point of
from
one azimuth to another; but,
curved
surface
will
vary
a
according to Euler's theorem ( 111), the normal sections of
greatest and least curvature, called the principal sections of
face
is
general, the curvatures of the
526
Mirrors, Prisms
and Lenses
184
the surface at the point in question, are always at right

angles to each other.
any point
to
of a
It is well
known that
curved surface
will
the normal drawn
not meet the normal at
a consecutive point taken arbitrarily. But if the consecutive

point is taken in the direction of either of the principal secthe two consecutive normals will intersect.
tions,
Thus,
along each normal to a curved surface there are two points
where contwo principal sections intersect.
called the principal centers of curvature ( 111),
secutive normals lying in the
if we regard a bundle of rays of light as a sysnormals to the wave-surface, we may say that each
Accordingly,
tem
of
ray determines two principal sections of the bundle, and that,
be two points on the ray, the so-called

where contiguous rays in each of the
two principal sections intersect the ray in question. The assemblage of these pairs of image-points on all the rays of a
wide-angle bundle of rays emanating originally from a
in general, there will
image-points
(cf.
113),
point-source form a surface of two sheets called the caustic

surface
(cf.
42).
Each ray
of the bundle is tangent to
both
In the special case when the
symmetrical about an axis, one sheet of
sheets of the caustic surface.
bundle of rays
is
the caustic surface will be a surface of revolution, whereas

the other sheet will be a portion of the axis of symmetry (see
178).
Meridian and Sagittal Sections of a Narrow Bundle

Rays before and after Refraction at a Spherical Surface
The apertures of the bundles of effective rays which are
184.
of
transmitted through a symmetrical optical instrument are

all
limited
stop
by the
( 134).
position and dimensions of the apertureFor the present it will be assumed that the
diameter of the stop
is
very small.
lying in the field of view
is
Each point
of the object
the source of a narrow bundle of
rays which contains one ray, called the chief ray
which
in traversing the
medium where
passes through the center of the stop.
the stop
is
( 140),
placed,
Accordingly, the chief
ray will he in the meridian plane determined by the object-
Astigmatism
184]
of Oblique
Bundle
point where the bundle of rays originates.
527
The path
of this
may
be traced geometrically by Young's construction ( 176) or it may be calculated trigonometrically by

means of the system of formula? given in 181. We have
now to investigate the positions on this chief ray of the two
image-points produced by the intersections of this ray with
chief ray
the rays immediately adjacent to
it
lying in the
two
prin-
bundle as determined by its chief ray

Whenever a narrow bundle of rays has two such
( 183).
Practically, this is
image-points, it is said to be a tigmatic.
always the case if the chief ray is incident on a refracting
cipal sections of the
surface at an angle a which is not vanishingly small. Under

such conditions the bundle of refracted rays will be astig-
matic, and
we have the
case which
matism by incidence" but which
some
is
writers call " astig-
better described as the
astigmatism of an oblique bundle of rays, as distinguished from
Fig. 235.
Meridian section of narrow bundle of rays refracted at spherical

surface.
the astigmatism produced by direct (normal) incidence on
an astigmatic refracting surface or surface of double curvature (Chapter IX).
In the diagrams (Figs. 235, 236) which show the meridian

ZZ of a spherical refracting surface whose center is at
,
section
C and vertex at A
(Fig. 235), the point designated
represents an object-point which
is
by P
(or
Q)
the source of a narrow
528
homocentric bundle of rays whose chief ray

incident on the surface at the point
dence
a.
184
PB
(or
QB)
is
at the angle of inci-
This ray crosses the axis at the point marked L

and the corresponding refracted ray crosses the
in Fig. 235
Fig. 236.
Sagittal section of narrow bundle
of rays refracted at spherical
surface.
axis at I/.
One
of the principal sections of the bundle of in-
cident rays will be the meridian section ( 112, 113)

the plane containing the optical axis and the vertex
of the bundle, that is the plane of the paper;
made by
P (or Q)
whereas the
other principal section, called the sagittal section (Fig. 236),

made by a plane which intersects the meridian plane
is
at right angles along the chief ray of the bundle.
The
point
on the spherical refracting surface in

meridian
the
section, taken exceedingly close to the point B.
Likewise, the point D (Fig. 236) lies on the spherical refracting surface very near to B but it is contained in the sagittal
section and is represented in the diagram as lying slightly
above the plane of the paper. The ray PG (Fig. 235) after
refraction meets the chief refracted ray at the image-point
P' of the narrow pencil of refracted meridian rays. Similarly,
the ray QD (Fig. 236) after refraction will meet the chief
refracted ray at the image-point Q' where the straight line
QC intersects this ray, as will be immediately obvious by
(Fig. 235) is a point
Sagittal Section of
185]
supposing that the triangle

central line
QQ'
Narrow Bundle
QBQ'
is
529
revolved around the
as axis through a small angle out from the
Thus, whereas the meridian section of

is contained in the same plane as
the meridian section of the bundle of incident rays, the sagit-
plane of the paper.
the bundle of refracted rays

tal sections are in
two
different planes
BDQ and BDQ'
(Fig.
236) which intersect each other in a straight line perpendicular to the meridian plane at the point B, that
BD,
which, since the point
regarded as a straight
185.
Formula
is,
in the line
D is infinitely near to B, may be
line.
for Locating the Position of the
Image-
Point Q' of a Pencil of Sagittal Rays Refracted at a SpherAs was explained ( 184), the image-point Q'
ical Surface.
(Fig. 236) in the sagittal section
point
is
corresponding to the object-
at the point of intersection of the straight line
with the chief ray of the bundle of refracted rays.

struction suggests at once a
ical relation
line
method
connecting the points
QQ' is regarded
for the
of obtaining
QC
This con-
an analyt-
Q and Q'; for if the straight
time being as the axis of the spher-
and if we put g = BQ, q' = BQ' (where

the distances denoted by q, q' are to be reckoned positive or
negative according as they are measured from the incidencepoint B in the same direction as the light takes along the
chief ray or in the opposite direction, respectively), we have
ical refracting surface,
merely to write q, q in place of the symbols I, V in the formula

derived in 180 in order to obtain the desired relation,
namely,
q'
where the function denoted here by D is a constant for a

given chief ray and is defined by the following expression:
n _w'.cosa/ n.cosa_n.sin(a
r
Thus having ascertained the path
a')
r.sin a'
of the chief ray,
ing the position of the object-point Q, that
is,
and know-
being given
530
the value of
q,
we may
calculate the value of
q'
186
by means
of
the above formula and thus locate the position of the imagepoint Q' of the sagittal section of the bundle of refracted rays.
186. Position of the Image-Point P' of a Pencil of
ridian
Rays Refracted
at a Spherical Surface.
Me-
The angles
and refraction of the chief ray are denoted by

Moreover, let 6, d (Fig. 235) denote the angles which the chief ray makes with the axis of
the spherical refracting surface before and after refraction,
respectively; and also let the central angle BCA be denoted
by 4>. Then for a contiguous ray in the meridian section
which is incident at the point G very close to the point B,
these angles may be denoted by a+da, a'+da'; d+dd,
B'+dd'; and <j)+d<j), where da, da', etc., denote the
little increments in the magnitudes of the angles a, a', etc.,
in passing from the chief ray to an adjacent ray in the meridian section. Now since for the rays PB and PG these angles
of incidence
a,
a',
respectively.
are connected
a=
we obtain by
by the formulae
( 180);
a+da=
d+4>,
d+dd+ct>+d<j),
subtraction:
da = dd+d<f).
and with radius equal to PB describe the
which subtends ZBPG = <i0; so that we may
Around P
as center
small arc
BU
write:
,
au
arc
BU
,
V
where p = BP denotes the distance of the object-point
P from
the incidence-point B, being reckoned positive or negative

exactly in the
little
same way as
curvilinear triangle
q in 185.
to the degree of approximation with
at present,
and
Now
the sides of the
BGU may be considered as straight

which we are concerned
since the sides of the angle
GBU
are per-
pendicular to the sides of the angle of incidence a, so that
Z GBU =
a,
we
obtain
arc
BU = arc GB.cosa.
Meridian Section of Narrow Bundle
186]
Combining
fore
531
with the one above, we have there-
this relation
in = arc GB. cos a

dd
V
Moreover, since
Z GCB = dcf>,
,
d<f>
and, therefore,
by adding
GB
= arc
-;
this equation to the last
and taking
account of the relation above, we find
da- g-2!^. aw OB.
(1)
BP' and
which BP' =
Similarly, for the corresponding refracted rays
GP' which intersect at the image-point

p', we can derive the analogous relation
P', for
da'=g-^).awGB.
Now
according to the law of refraction,
ft.sina
and
we
if
(2)
= ft'.sina',
n.sin(a+da)
da and da'
cosd a = cosd a' = 1,
as
ness of these angles,
sin(a+<ia) and sm(a'+da')
in the expansions of
write
= n''.sin( a' +d a')
in place of
sinda and sinda' and put
permissible on account of the small-
is
we may
derive the following relation
between d a and d a'
nxosa.da = n'.cosa'.da'.
(3)
(1) by n.cosa and equation
Hence, multiplying equation
by
(2)
and equating the two expressions thus obtained,

according to equation (3), we find, after removing the comn'.cos a',
mon
factor, arc
GB, the
following formula connecting the
ray-intercepts p and p'

,
n.cosa
which
may
/cos a'
(
/cos
=n.cosa(
r!
1\
-)
rl
also be written thus:

n'. cos
where the symbol

If
\\
a/_ft.cos 2 a
~
_u
'
D has the same meaning as before in
we introduce Abbe's
differential notation
185.
and use the
532
operator
186
placed in front of a symbol to denote the differ-
ence in the value of the magnitude denoted by the symbol

before and after refraction, that is, for example, if z = z' z;
then we
may
two formulae
write the
p and q in the
for
following abbreviated form:
\n
q~
The
of a
may
A^-cos
a_ n
position of the image-point P' of the meridian section
narrow bundle
of rays refracted at a spherical surface
also be quickly ascertained
Fig. 237.
by a simple geometrical
Construction
of center of perspective (K) with respect to a given

ray refracted at a spherical surface.
construction which depends on finding a point
called the
which bears precisely the same relation
center of perspective,
to the pair of points P, P' as the center
of the spherical
surface bears to the pair of points Q, Q' ( 184) ; that is, just
as the straight line QQ' must pass through C, so also the
straight line
this point
PP' must pass through K.
The
existence of
K was first recognized by Thomas Young
(1801).
In the diagram (Fig. 237) the chief incident ray is represented

by the straight fine RB and the chief refracted ray, constructed by the method given in 175, is represented by the
straight fine
BT.
perpendicular to
From
RB
and
the center
C draw CY and CY'
BT at Y and Y',
respectively.
The
point
533
Astigmatic Difference
187]
K will be found to lie at the point of intersection of the

YY' and
straight lines
SS';
and hence if P designates the

anywhere on the chief in-
position of an object-point lying
cident ray, the corresponding image-point P' in the meridian

section will
at the point
lie
the chief refracted ray.
where the straight
PK meets
line
This beautiful construction
ex-
is
ceedingly useful in graphical methods of investigating the
imagery
in the
The
meridian section along a particular ray.
proof of the construction
is
not at
all difficult,
but
it
cannot
be conveniently given here.

187. Measure of the Astigmatism of a Narrow Bundle of
Rays. We have seen that, in general, a narrow homocentric
bundle of rays falling obliquely on a spherical refracting
surface
is
transformed into an astigmatic bundle of refracted
rays, so that corresponding to a given object-point
there will be
two
so-called image-points P'
(or
Q)
and Q' lying on
the refracted chief ray at the points of intersection of the
The
rays of the meridian and sagittal sections, respectively.

interval between these image-points, that
P'Q'
is
= q' p'
is
is,
called the astigmatic difference.
the segment
However,
more convenient to measure the astigmatism by the
it
dif-
ference between the reciprocals of the linear magnitudes p'
and
q'.
If,
for example, according to the
introduced in
106,
n/p=P,
system of notation
we put
rt/p'=P',
n/q = Q,
n'jq'^Q',
may be written
Q'-Q = P'.cos 2 a'-P.cos 2 a = D;
the formulae derived in 185, 186
as follows:
where, on the assumption that the meter
is taken as the unit

magnitudes denoted by the capital letters will
all be expressed in terms of the dioptry.
The astigmatism
of the bundle of refracted rays is measured by (P Q )
If
the bundle of incident rays is homocentric (Q = P), the astigmatism of the bundle of refracted rays will be
of length, the
P'-Q'= P'.sin 2 a' - P.sin

Accordingly,
we
a.
see that the astigmatism of a bundle of
rays refracted at a spherical surface will vanish provided
534
Q = P and
P'.sin 2 a'
P.sin
a = 0; which
188
may happen
in
two ways, as follows:

(1) If a' = a = 0, that is, if the chief ray of the narrow
bundle meets the refracting surface normally, as, for example, when it is directed along the axis, then no matter
where the object-point may lie, the two image-points will
In fact, in case of the axial ray
coincide.
P=U,
Q'
=P
=U D = F,
f
we may put Q =
so that the formulae for the
and sagittal sections both reduce

fundamental equation for the refraction
ridian
of paraxial rays at
a spherical surface, namely, U' = U+F.

(2) But for any value of a, we shall have P' Q'
that
is,
n'.p'
= n.p.
= P.sin 2 a,
P'.sin 2 a'
me-
in this case to the
= 0,
P7n' 2 = P/n 2 or
case the points designated by P, P'
In this
(or Q, Q') are identical
provided
with the points
226 to
S, S' in Figs.
the vertex of the homocentric bundle of incident rays

lies at any point S on the surface of the sphere described
around C as center with radius equal to n'.rjn, the bundle
229.
If
of refracted rays will likewise
be homocentric with
its
ver-
tex at the corresponding point S' on the surface of the concentric sphere of radius n.r/n' (see 177).
188.
Image-Lines
(or Focal Lines)
matic Bundle of Rays.
In
all
of
a Narrow Astig-
the preceding discussion of
the properties of an astigmatic bundle of rays,
it
cannot have
escaped notice that only such rays have been considered as

are contained in the two principal sections of the bundle. If
there were no other rays to be taken into account besides
these,
we might say
there corresponded
that to each point of the object
two image-points P' and
Q'.
But
(or
Q)
this is
by no means a complete or even approximately complete

statement of the image-phenomenon in this case; for, indeed,
the rays which he in neither of the two principal sections do,
as a matter of fact, constitute by far the greater portion of
the total number of rays of the bundle. According to the
theorem of Sturm (1803-1855), the constitution of a narrow
bundle of rays
is
exhibited in the accompanying diagram

Sturm's Conoid
188]
535
All the rays of the

(Fig. 238) called Sturm's conoid ( 113).
bundle pass through two very short focal lines or image-lines
and YY which are both perpendicular to the chief ray.
which goes through the point of intersecThe image-line
XX
XX
tion P' of the meridian rays lies in the plane of the sagittal
YY
which goes through

section; and, similarly, the image-line
the point of intersection Q' of the sagittal rays lies in the
Fig. 238.
Sturm's conoid.
plane of the meridian section.
rem can be regarded
Strictly speaking, this theo-
as representing the actual facts only on
the assumption that the bundle of rays
is
infinitely thin ;
and
assumption the entire bundle may be conceived as

generated by a slight rotation either of the meridian section
around the image-line YY as axis, whereby the point P' will
trace the image-line XX, or of the sagittal section around
the image-line
as axis, whereby the point Q' will trace
on
this
XX
the image-line
YY.
with an object-point
infinitely
Thus, according to Sturm's theorem,

(or Q) lying on the chief ray of an
narrow bundle of incident rays there are associated
two exceedingly tiny image-lines lying
in the principal sec-
tions of the bundle of refracted rays at right angles to the

chief ray.
Not only
as to the orientation of the image-lines
Sturm, but as to their practical, nay, even as to their

mathematical existence, there has been much controversy,
but we cannot enter into this discussion here. In spite of
its limitations and admittedly imperfect representation,
Sturm's conoid remains a very useful preliminary mode of
conception of the character of a narrow astigmatic bundle
of
536
The only proper way
of rays.
of arriving at a
[189
more accurate
knowledge of the constitution of a bundle of light-rays is by

the aid of the powerful methods of the infinitesimal geomMathematical investigations of this kind have been
etry.
pursued with great skill by Gullstrand whose writings contained in a series of published papers and treatises dating
from about 1890 have extended the domain of theoretical
optics far beyond the narrow limits imposed upon it by
Gauss and the earlier writers on this subject.
189. The Astigmatic Image-Surfaces. Thus, the effect
of astigmatism is that the rays of a narrow oblique bundle,
instead of being brought to a focus at a single point, pass
through two small focal lines at right angles to the path of
ccv
oo
oc-
cc-
Fig. 239.
Astigmatic image-surfaces.
the chief ray in the image-space.
If
the chief rays proceeding
from the various object-points lying in a meridian plane of a

symmetrical optical instrument are constructed, and if along
each of these rays the positions of the image-points P', Q' of
the pencils of meridian and sagittal rays are determined, the
be two curved lines, both symmetriwhich touch each other at their

In the diagram (Fig. 239) the
axis.
object is supposed to be infinitely distant, as, for example,
The continin the case of a landscape photographic lens.
loci of these points will
with respect to the

common vertex on the
cal
axis,
Astigmatic Image-Surfaces
189]
uous curved
537
line represents the locus of the points of inter-
section of the sagittal rays, whereas the dotted curve repre-
sents the locus of the points of intersection of the meridian
These curved lines are the traces in the meridian plane

two astigmatic image surfaces which are generated by
revolving the figure around the axis of symmetry. The two
rays.
of the
image-surfaces which correspond to a definite transversal
plane in the object-space, and which are the
loci of
the most
sharply defined images of object-points lying in this plane, are
not to be confused with the two sheets of the caustic surface

of a wide-angle bundle of rays emanating from a single point
The focal lines of the narrow pencils of

on one of these surfaces and the focal lines
of the narrow pencils of sagittal rays lie on the other surface.
The positions and forms of the image-surfaces will depend
essentially on the place of the stop; for it is evident that if
the stop is shifted to a different place, the chief ray of each
bundle ( 140, 184) will be a different ray, and the points
P' and Q' will all occupy entirely different positions. If a
curved screen could be exactly adjusted to fit one of the
image-surfaces, a fairly sharp image of the object might be
focused on it, but not only would the image be curved instead of flat, but there would also be a certain astigmatic
deformation due to the fact that each point of the object
would be reproduced not by a point but by a little focal line,
as has been explained. Between the two image-points P' and
Q' on each chief ray there lies a certain approximately circular cross-section of the narrow astigmatic bundle known
( 113) as the "circle of least confusion," and the locus of
the centers of these circles will lie on a third surface intermediate between the other two, which is sometimes taken as a
kind of average or compromise image-surface.
There can be no doubt that astigmatism of oblique bundles
is responsible for serious defects in the image produced by
an optical instrument, and much pains has been bestowed on
of an object ( 183).
meridian rays
lie
trying to remedy this fault as far as possible.
Fortunately,
538
189
the possibility of abolishing astigmatism of this kind, that

of
is,
making the two image-surfaces coincide in a single

is afforded by the fact that the astigmatic difference
surface,
opposite in sign according as the refracting surface
187)
is
convergent or divergent.
is
For example,
shows
Fig. 240
graphically the opposite
a convergent
effects of
and a divergent
spheri-
surface
refracting
cal
under
otherwise
equal
The
two
conditions.
curves on the left-hand

side
+2
-5
Fig.
240.
Astigmatism of
convergent
spherical refracting surface (plotted
on the left) and astigmatism of divergent spherical refracting surface (plotted
on the
relate
to the con-
vergent system, and the
two Curves On the right-,

,,
nana siae relate tO tUe
divergent System
and
,
-,
right).
we
,1
-,
see that not only are
the curvatures opposite in the two cases, but the relative

positions of the curves are different.
to understand that
it
may
It will
not be
difficult
be possible, by suitable choice of
the radii of the refracting surfaces and of their distances
apart and also of the position of the stop, to design a system
which
will
be free from astigmatism at any rate for a certain

we may not be able to
zone of the lens; so that, although
make
the two astigmatic image-curves coincide absolutely

throughout their entire extent, we may contrive so that the
two curves are nowhere very far apart, while at one point,
corresponding to the corrected zone, they actually intersect
each other.
190. Curvature of the
Image
Now
let
us suppose that
the astigmatism of oblique bundles has been completely

abolished for a certain angular extent of the field of view, so
is strict point-to-point correspondence by
means of narrow bundles of rays between object and image.
The two image-surfaces have thus been merged into one, and
that at last there
Curvature of Image
190]
539
over this surface, within the assigned limits, the definition

of the
image
is
clear-cut
and
distinct.
There
still
remains,
however, another trouble due to the fact that the image is

curved and not flat; consequently, if the image is received
on a plane focusing screen, only those parts of the stigmatic

image which lie in the plane of the screen will be in focus
(Fig. 241), whereas the. rest of the image on the screen will
be blurred.
Now
this error of the curvature of the
image cannot be
Stigmatic
Surtax
Focus
ScrcU
Fig. 241.
Curvature
of stigmatic image.
overcome by employing methods similar to those above described for the abolition of astigmatism. For the correction
of the latter error the particular kinds of glass of which the
lenses were made were not essential; whereas with unsuitable
kinds of glass there is no choice of the radii, thicknesses, etc.,
which will yield an image which is at the same time stigmatic and flat. This fact was well known to Petzval (18071891). Petzval's formula (published in 1843) for the abolition of the curvature of a stigmatic image produced by a
system of infinitely thin lenses in contact with each other is
540
where Fj denotes the refracting power and n
191
denotes the
index of refraction of the ith lens of the system. This

formula is equivalent also to the following statement: The
curvature of the stigmatic image of an infinitely distant

object in a system of lenses whose total thickness
gible
is
negli-
is
equal to
-2
n
(refracting
powers of
all
lenses of index n)
The general principal of this equation was discovered by Airy

and was given by Coddington in his treatise published in
1829. Seidel pointed out that the two faults of astigmatism
and curvature could not both be corrected at the same time
unless some of the convex lenses of the system were made of
more highly refracting glass than the con-
Now
cave lenses.
pf
with the varieties of
which were available before the

production of the modern Jena glass,
this requirement was directly opposed to
the condition of achromatism, and as the
glass
latter error
was considered more
serious
than the curvature-error, the earlier lensFf

designers made no attempt to obtain a
stigmatic g a ^ stigmatic image.
Fig. 242.
But with the new
..
_
_
image in trans- .
.,
versai focal plane kinds of glass now at our disposal, It IS
for a given zone possible to design the optical system so
that not only is the astigmatism corrected
for a certain zone, as explained in 189, but the point of in-
tersection of the
two image-lines
lies in
the same transversal
plane as the axial point where the two image-lines touch

each other (Fig. 242). Accordingly, we may say that for
zone the image is both flat and stigmatic. The construcmodern photographic lenses which are practically
free from these spherical errors is an almost unsurpassed
this
tion of
triumph of human ingenuity.

191. Coma. Astigmatism implies that the bundles of
rays concerned in producing the image are very narrow, and
Symmetry
191]
this
541
in Sagittal Section
means that the diameter
of the stop
is
But
very small.
the validity of the assumptions which are at the foundation

of geometrical optics begins to be caUed in question in the
case of narrow bundles of rays, as
was pointed out
in 175;
we must be careful here not to push our conclusions

too far. As a matter of fact, in various optical instruments
and particularly in some modern types of photographic
lenses, the diameter of the stop is by no means small and the
so that
Fig. 243.
field of
view
is
Symmetrical character
extensive.
The
of sagittal section.
spherical aberrations which
are encountered in an optical system of this kind are of an
exceedingly complicated nature which cannot be described
here in detail.
A bundle
of rays of finite aperture
outside the optical axis will
emanating from a point

of a general
show aberrations
character similar to the aberrations along the axis of a direct
bundle of rays
( 178).
But the
effects in the
two
principal
from each other;

section, being sym-
sections of the bundle will be very different
because, whereas the rays in the sagittal
metrically situated on opposite sides of the meridian plane,

are therefore symmetrical with respect to the chief ray, as
represented in Fig. 243, there
will, in
general, be a complete
absence of symmetry in the meridian section (Fig. 244)
image
(if
indeed
we may continue
The
to use this term) of
an
extra-axial object-point under such circumstances will be
at best an element of one or other of the
caustic surface.
Usually, however,
what
two sheets
of the
called the
image
is
542
is
[191
the light-effect as obtained on a focusing screen placed at
right angles to the axis at the place
the object are best delineated.
may
where the central parts of
The appearance on the
be described as a kind of balloon-shaped
Fig. 244.
screen
flare of light,
-Unsymmetrical character of meridian section, giving

coma.
with a bright nucleus growing fainter as

cases towards, in other cases
it
expands
away from, the
axis.
in
rise
to
some
This de-
image is known to practical opticians as side-flare

coma (from the Greek word meaning "hair" from which
the word "comet" is likewise indirectly derived). The deffect of the
or
inition in the outer parts of the field of the object-glass of
telescope depends on the removal of this error;

plies also to
only
this
way
and
this ap-
the case of a wide-angle photographic lens.
The
to obtain a really clear and accurate conception of
important spherical aberration
is
the two sheets of the caustic surface.
we may say
to study the forms of
Generally speaking,
that the convergence of wide-angle bundles of
rays will be better in the case of an optical system which has
been corrected for astigmatism, but even then there will be

lack of symmetry in all the sections of a bundle of rays except in the sagittal section. If the slope of the chief ray is
comparatively slight, although not negligible, the condition
of a sharp focus is equivalent to Abbe's sine-condition ( 182).
But
for greater inclinations of the chief rays, it will generally
be necessary to resort to the exact methods of trigonometri-
543
Distortion
192]
cal calculation of the ray-paths in order to
nature and degree of the convergence.

192. Distortion; Condition of Orthoscopy.
determine the
Let us assume
that the system has been corrected for both astigmatism and
curvature of the image, in the sense explained in
190; so
that by
means
image
obtained of a plane object placed at right angles to
is
of
narrow bundles
The next question
of rays a flat stigmatic
be to inquire whether the

is a faithful reproduction of the object or whether it is
distorted.
If the image in the " screen-plane " ( 134) is
geometrically similar to the object-relief projected from the
center of the entrance-pupil on the " focus-plane " ( 141),
the axis.
will
image
we may say that
then
free
from
the optical system
is
orthoscopic or
distortion.
dissimilarity which may exist between an object and

image is a fault of an essentially different kind from those
which have been previously considered, and there is no in-
The
its
Screen- Plane
Focus Piano
-
Fig. 245.
Condition of orthoscopy (freedom from distortion)
timate connection between this defect and the others. Here

are not concerned so much with the quality and defini-
we
tion of the image on the screen as with the positions of the
points where the chief rays cross the screen-plane.

sitions of these representative points will
The po-
not be altered by
reducing the stop-opening ( 141, 142); and accordingly the

in the screen-plane is to be regarded merely as a cen-
image
on this plane along the chief rays proceeding

from the center of the exit-pupil.
tral projection
544
[192
In the diagram (Fig. 245) the centers of the entrance-pupil

and exit-pupil of the optical system are designated by
and
0'. The straight lines PO, P'O' represent the path of a chief
ray which crosses the focus-plane in the object-space at the
point P and the screen-plane in the image-space at the point
If ?/ = MP, s/' = M'P' denote the distances of P, P' from
P'.
the axis, then the condition that the image in the screenplane shall be similar to the projected object in the focus-
t
Fig. 246.
-Object (a) reproduced by image (b) barrel-shaped distortion

or by image (c) cushion-shaped distortion.
plane, that
distortion)
is,
is
the condition of orthoscopy (freedom from
that the ratio y'/y shall have a constant value
for all values of y within the limits of the field of view.
on the contrary,
this is
not the case, and
if
If,
the ratio y'/y
is
variable for different values of y, then the image will be distorted and this distortion will be one of two kinds according
;
as the ratio y'/y increases or decreases with increase of y.

is in the form of a square, as shown
on the supposition that y'/y decreases
as y increases the image of the diagonal will be shortened
relatively more than the image of a side of the square, and
the square will be reproduced by a curvilinear figure with
convex sides as shown in Fig. 246, b; this is the case of barrel-
For example,
if
the object
in Fig. 246, a, then,
shay ed
distortion, as it is called.
On
the other hand,
ratio y'/y increases in proportion as the object-point
we have
farther
and farther from the
known
as cushion-shaped distortion (Fig. 246,
If in
Fig.
245 we put
axis,
OM =
z,
is
if
the
taken
the opposite type

c).
0'M' = z',
ZMOP = w,
Airy's Tangent-Condition
193]
Z M'O'P' =
a/,
the condition of orthoscopy
545
may be expressed
as follows
y'
z'.tano/
= constant:
=
2. tana;
and
if
we assume,
as has been tacitly assumed in the pre-
ceding discussion, that the chief rays
all
pass through the
pupil-centers O, O', so that the abscissae denoted
the same values for

the axis, then
we
all
by
z, z'
distances of the object-point
have
from
derive at once Airy's tangent-condition of
tan co = constant. But although

a chief ray must pass through the center of the aperturestop ( 140), it will not pass through the centers of the pupils
orthoscopy, namely, tana/
unless the latter are free from spherical aberration.
constancy of the tangent-ratio by
itself is
The
not a sufficient
condition for orthoscopy; in addition, the spherical aberration
must be abolished with respect
to the centers of the
pupils.
symmetrical with respect to an inbe immediately satisfied, because on account of the symmetry of the
two halves of the system, every chief ray will issue in exactly
If
the optical system
is
terior aperture-stop, the tangent-condition will
the same direction as
it had on entering, and therefore

tan0: tan0' = l.
Accordingly, if a "symmetric doublet"
of this kind is spherically corrected with respect to the center
of the aperture-stop, it will give an image which will be free
from distortion.
193. SeidePs Theory of the Five Aberrations.
In the
theory of optical imagery which was developed according to
general laws first by Gauss ( 119) in his famous Dioptrische
Untersuchungen published in 1841, the fundamental assumption is that the effective rays are all comprised within a narrow cylindrical region of space immediately surrounding the
optical axis; this region being
condition that a paraxial ray
more
is
explicitly defined
by the
one for which the angle of
incidence (a) and the slope-angle
),
in the case of
refraction or reflection, are both relatively so
each
minute that the
546
193
powers of these angles higher than the first can be neglected

Evidently, therefore, Gauss's theory is applicable
( 63).
only to optical systems of exceedingly small aperture and
limited extent of field of view. But with the development
of modern optical instruments and especially with the increase of both aperture and field demanded for certain types
of photographic lenses, it became necessary to take account
of rays which lie far beyond the narrow confines of the central
or paraxial rays. Long prior to the time of Gauss important
contributions to the theory of spherical aberrations had been
made in connection with certain more or less special problems
but the first successful attempt to extend Gauss's theory in
a general way by taking account of the terms of higher orders
of smallness was made by Seidel (1821-1896) in a remarkable series of papers published between the years 1852
and 1856 in the Astronomische Nachrichten.
Seidel's
method consisted in tracing the path of the ray through the
centered system of spherical refracting surfaces and in developing the trigonometrical expressions in series of ascending powers which were finally simplified
by neglecting
all
terms above the third order. If the ray-parameters are regarded as magnitudes of the first order of smallness, it is
easy to show that on account of the symmetry around the
optical axis these series-developments can contain only terms
of the
odd orders
of smallness; so that in Seidel's theory
the terms neglected are of the
fifth
and higher
orders.
It is
impossible to describe here in detail the elegant mathematical
treatment by which Seidel was enabled to arrive at

he obtained a sys-
his final results; suffice it to say, that
tem
of formulae
from which
it
influence both of the aperture
perfection of the image.

rations of the ray, that
is,
was possible to ascertain the

and the field of view on the
In Seidel's formulae the aberits
deviations from the path pre-
by Gauss's theory, are expressed by five different

sums, denoted by Si, $2, S3, S i} and S 5 which depend only on
the constants of the optical system and the position of the
scribed
object-point,
and which
are, in fact,
various terms in the equations.

shall
Sums
Seidel's Five
193]
shall vanish simultaneously, that
the coefficients of the
The
be no aberration demands that
547
condition that there

all
of these five
sums
is,
oi = 02 = 03 = 04 = 05 = 0.
on the other hand, these conditions are not satisfied, the
image yielded by the lens-system will not be faultless; and
therefore it will not be without interest to inquire more particularly into the separate influence of each of these five expressions which occur in Seidel's formulae.
Thus, for example, if the optical system is designed so that
Si = 0, then there will be no spherical aberration at the center
If,
of the field ( 178) for the given position of the axial object-
And if not only $1 = but also $2 = 0, then there

be no coma ( 191). The condition S 2 = means also
that Abbe's sine-condition ( 182) will also be satisfied, so
point.
will
that the image of the parts of the object in the immediate

vicinity of the axis
is
sharply defined.
0*1 = 0*2 = 0, the optical system

be affected by astigmatism of oblique
rays ( 184), so that an object-point lying at some little distance from the axis will not be reproduced by an image-point
But even when we have
will, in general, still
but at best by two short focal lines at different distances

from the lens-system and directed approximately at right
angles to each other. Moreover if the distance of the objectpoint from the axis is varied, the positions of these two focal
lines will vary also both with respect to their distance from
the lens-system and with respect to their mutual distance
apart. In other words, when both Si and $2 vanish, then, in
general, there is no unique image of a transversal objectplane, but this latter may be said to be reproduced by two
so-called image-surfaces ( 189) which are surfaces of revolution around the optical axis and which unite and touch each
other at the point where the axis crosses them. The expressions for the curvatures of these surfaces at this
point of tangency are given
common
by Seidel's sums 3 and
Mirrors, Prisms
548
St; so that
coalesce
denned, that
curved.
$3 #4 = 0,
also
if
and now the image
But
is,
if
and Lenses
the two image surfaces will
of the plane object will be sharply
stigmatic, although
also
[193
S 3 = Si = 0,
it
will usually still
be
the image will be both plane
and stigmatic. However, it may still show unequal magniftoward the margin, which means that there is dis-
ications
This
be abolished provided
be said to be ideal inasmuch
as it is flat and sharply defined not only in the center but
out .toward the edges and is at the same time a faithful retortion ( 192).
aS 5
= 0; and now
last error will
the image
may
production of the plane object.
To attempt
to derive Seidel's actual formula? or even
to discuss the equations
Fig. 247.
would be entirely beyond the scope
Diagram representing the l)th and ith lenses of a system of

(i
infinitely thin lenses.
of this volume.
But it may be convenient to insert here
without proof the expressions of Seidel's five sums for
the comparatively simple case of an optical system considered

as composed of a series of
infinitely thin lenses
each sur-
rounded by air.
Let Ai (Fig. 247) designate the point where the optical axis
crosses the ith lens of the system, the symbol i being employed
to denote any integer from 1 to m; and let us consider two
paraxial rays which traverse the optical system, one of which
emanating from the axial object-point Mi (AiMi=Wi) and
meeting the first lens at a point Bi such that A]Bi = /ii,
crosses the axis after passing through the (i l)th lens at a
= w ) and meets the ith lens at a point B
point Mi (A
i
System
193]
of
Thin Lenses
549
such that AiBi = h whereas the other ray, which emanates

from an extra-axial object-point and which in the objectspace passes through the center Oi of the entrance-pupil
( 139) of the system (AiOi = si) and meets the first lens at
a point Gi such that gfi = AiGi, crosses the axis after passing
through the (i l)th lens at a point Oi AiOi = Si) and meets
the ith lens at a point Gj such that AiGi = g^ Then if we put
Y
Ui =
it
may
easily
9i(S
where
if ft;
i=l/si,
l/ui,
be shown that
+F )=gi+ i.Si+1
i
Now
denotes the refracting power of the ith lens.
denotes the index of refraction of the ith lens and
denotes the curvature of the
surface of this lens;
first
further, for the sake of brevity, the
symbols
i}
B-lf
if
R[
and
if,
C D
l}
and E{ are introduced to denote the following functions

nu Fh R v U\ and Si, namely:
Ai =
n
J+?
Fi R\-
(4(^+0^
m
{
n
ji
\m-l'
m-l
m-l
m-l
m
m
2^+1
FiUisi+ -^
m+ î
m
m2
Fi
% + (JH-Yf\;
\m-l/
F
+ J*
m-l
Ci =
3(i 2)
_ (6^+1)
+ i Fi m+
m
m-l
^^
2{3n
'
+2
3(2^+1)
FiRi
W+ -^ f&
3
Wi
m-l
\m-i/
i}
of
>
550
t^L^ (Ui+Sd +^~ F
Di = '2-LZ Fi R\-
ni
^?
+ m-l
193
FiRi+^FiUi
?2i-l
rii
?ii
?2i-
Si+ (3_)V?;
Vm-l/
Wi
\ni-l/
rzi-1
?2i 1
then Seidel's formulae for the spherical errors of a sys-
tem
of
infinitely thin lenses
i==m
may
/7>-\ 4
^(fi.Â;
S3=I(|i.^)ci;
i=i V/ii
be expressed as follows:
i=m /h\ s n-
i=i
fifi/
\/ii
0i/
i=ihi\gi/
The
greatest practical value of these formulae
is
to guide
the optician to a correct basis for the design of his instrument
and to supply him, so to speak, with a starting point
for
trigonometrical calculation of the optical system which he
aims to achieve.
But the reader who wishes
subject further will find
vanced
treatises
it
on applied
to pursue this
necessary to consult the more adoptics.
Problems
Ch. XV]
551
PROBLEMS
1.
If L,
L' designate the points where a ray crosses the
axis of a spherical refracting surface before

tion, respectively,
face,
and
if
and
after refrac-
designates the center of the sur-
show that
0+0'
n
n cos
a -|-
a'
cos-
where c = CL, c' = CL', a, a' denote the angles of incidence

and refraction, 6, 6 r denote the slope-angles of the ray
before and after refraction, r denotes the radius of the surAlso, show
face, and n, n' denote the indices of refraction.
that
a'
c
+r
c+r
+6'
sin 0cos-
Ql
a+
sin o cos-
2
2.
ray parallel to the axis meets the
first
surface of a
above the
axis, and
from the lens crosses the axis at a point I/.
The thickness of the lens is 1 cm. Determine the aberration
F'L', where F' designates the position of the second focal
glass lens (index 1.5) at a height of 5 cm.
after emerging
point, for each of the following cases: (a) First surface of

lens is plane and radius of curved surface is 50 cm.; (6)
Second surface of lens is plane and radius of curved surface
is 50 cm.; and (c) Lens is symmetric, radius of each surface
being 100 cm.
Ans. (a)/=100cm.,F'L'=q=1.13 cm.; (6)/==*= 100cm.,

cm.; (c) /=== 100.17 cm., F'L'==f0.42 cm.;
W=^f0.29
where
in
each case the upper signs apply to positive lens and
the lower signs apply to negative lens.

3.
An
incident ray crosses the axis of a lens at an angle 6\
and meets the

dence being
first
surface at a point Bi, the angle of inci-
en; the slope of the refracted
ray
BiB 2j which

552
[Ch.
XV
meets the second surface at the point B 2 is 2 and the angle

If the radii of the surfaces
of incidence at this surface is a 2
are denoted by ri and r 2 show that
r 2 .sin(ci2 #2) ri.sin(ai 00
,
-D1-D2 =
sin
4.
The
chief ray of a
5
C/ 2
narrow bundle of
parallel rays is in-
cident on a spherical mirror of radius 32 cm. at an angle of

60.
Find the distance between the two image-points P'
Ans. 24 cm.
and Q' of the bundle of reflected rays.
5. The chief ray of a narrow bundle of parallel rays is incident on a spherical mirror of radius r at a point B, the angle
of incidence being 60. Determine the positions of the imageAns. BP' = r/4, BQ' = r.
points P' and Q'.
6. A narrow bundle of parallel rays in air is refracted at
a spherical surface of radius r into a medium whose index of
refraction
is
-y/s.
If
the angle of incidence
positions of the image-points P'
and
is
60, find the
Q'.
Ans. p' = 3rV3/4, g'=r\/3.

parallel
rays is incident on a spherinarrow
bundle
of
7. A
60. If the meridian rays
an
angle
surface
of
refracting
at
cal
are converged to a focus at a point P' lying on the surface of
the sphere, show that the angle of refraction of the chief ray
is
equal to the complement of the critical angle of the two
media.
8.
The
radius of each of the
thin double convex lens
is
two surfaces
of
an
infinitely
8 inches, and the index of refrac-
The
narrow bundle of
an angle of 60 passes
through the optical center of the lens. Find the positions of
the foci of the meridian and sagittal rays.
Ans. The focal point of the meridian rays is 1 inch and
that of the sagittal rays is 4 inches from the optical center.
9. If in Young's construction of a ray refracted at a spherical surface ( 176) a semi-circle is described on the incidenceradius BC as diameter intersecting the incident and refracted
rays in the points Y, Y', respectively, show that the straight
tion
is
equal to \/S.
chief ray of a
parallel rays inclined to the axis at
Ch.
XV]
line
YY'
Problems
is
553
The point
perpendicular to the straight line CS.
where the straight
lines
YY' and CS meet
is
the center of
perspective of the range of object-points lying on the inci-
dent ray and the corresponding range of meridian image-
Show
points lying on the refracted ray (see 186).
that
2
n.r.sin a
nTr
0K _
w>
and that
tanZBKC = tana+tana'.
10. If the chief
rays
ray of a narrow homocentric bundle of
incident on a plane refracting surface at a point B,
is
and if a,
show that
a'
denote the angles of incidence and refraction,
BP' = Hl^Jl
n cos 2 a
where
(or
BP,
BQ' = - BQ,
.
Q) designates the position of the vertex of the
incident rays and P' and Q' designate the positions of the
image-points of the meridian and sagittal rays, respectively.

11.
QQ'
is
12.
In the preceding problem show that the straight line

perpendicular to the plane refracting surface.
The
position of the image-point P' of a pencil of
ridian rays refracted at a plane surface
as follows:
Through the object-point P
may
(or
me-
be constructed
Q) draw PQ' per-
pendicular to the refracting plane and meeting the chief reand Q'Y perfracted ray in Q'; and from P and Q' draw
PX
pendicular to the incidence-normal at
X and Y, respectively.
Draw XG perpendicular to the chief incident ray at G and

YG' perpendicular to the corresponding refracted ray at G'.
Then the straight line PP' drawn parallel to GG' will intersect the chief refracted ray in the required point P'.
Using
the result of No. 10 above, show that this construction
is
correct.
13. The chief ray RB of a narrow pencil of sagittal rays
meets a spherical refracting surface at the point B and is re-
fracted in the direction
BT. Through the
center
C draw CV
Mirrors, Prisms
554
parallel to
ing
BT
in
and Lenses
[Ch.
XV
BT meeting BR in V and CV parallel to BR meetV.
If Q,
Q' designate the positions of the points
and after
show that
of intersection of the sagittal rays before
respectively,
and
if
BQ = g, BQ,' = q',
BV BV
refraction,
+ =1,
,
and that
VQ.V'Q' = VB.V'B.
(Compare
this last result
with the Newtonian formula for
refraction of paraxial rays at a spherical surface, viz., x.x'
14. The chief ray RB of a narrow pencil of meridian rays

meets a spherical refracting surface at the point B, and is re-
fracted in the direction

tive
BT.
Through the
center of perspec-
K (see 186; see also problem No. 9 above) draw KU par-
allel to BT meeting BR in U and KU' parallel to BR meeting

BT in U\ If the positions of the points of intersection of the
meridian rays before and after refraction are designated by

and P', respectively, and if BP = p, BP' = p', show that
BU
BU'
and that
UP.U'P' = UB.U'B.
(Compare
this result
15. If J, J'
with that of the preceding problem.)
designate the positions of the aplanatic points
and if 6, 6' denote the

and refracted rays BJ, BJ', respec-
of a spherical refracting surface,
slopes of the incident

tively,
show that
sin
_ n'
'
s!nT'~n
Vi
where y denotes the magnification-ratio for paraxial rays.

16.
of
A.
Steinheil's so-called "periscope" photographic
composed of two equal simple meniscus lenses, both

crown glass, separated from each other with a small stop
lens
is
midway between.
The data
of the system, as given in
Von
"
Ch.
Problems
XV]
555
Rohr's Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objektivs

(Berlin, 1899), p. 288, are as follows:
ni=nz=ns = l; ^2=^4= 1.5233

r 4 = +17.5 mm.; r2= r 3 = +20.8 mm.
Thicknesses: di = d z +1.3 mm.; d 2 = 12.6 mm.
Indices:
Radii: r\ =
Distance of center of stop from second vertex of
mm. diameter
lens = 11.32 mm.
+6.3
= 2.38 mm.
of stop
Employing the above data, determine

size of the entrance-pupil, (2) the
(3)
(1)
first
lens
diameter of each
the position and
angular extent of the
the position of the second focal point F'; and
field,
(4)
the
point where an edge-ray directed towards a point in the
circumference of the entrance-pupil and parallel to the axis

crosses the axis after emerging
Ans.
vertex of
pupil
first
2.53
is
nearly 90
+90.946
tance
from the system.
Distance of center of entrance-pupil from second
(1)
lens
mm.
(2)
+6.45 mm.; diameter of entrance-
The angular
extent of the field
Distance of F' from last surface
(3)
is
mm.
(4)
The edge-ray
is
is
A4F' =
crosses the axis at a dis-
A L = +90.432 nun.
4
The
M M k+
i where a parsystem of m spherical

refracting surfaces before and after refraction at the &th surIf the ray
face are denoted by u k = A k k w k ' = A k k+ i.
17.
abscissae of the points
k,
axial ray crosses the axis of a centered
proceeds in the
first
medium
of index n\ in a direction par-
to the axis, it may be shown (cf. problems Nos. 16 and

end of Chapter X) that the primary focal length of the
system is given by the formula
allel
17,
_ U2- Us
-w.u
Um
'...u m
(TT
" (Ul
_
-n \h
where Uk = n k /u k Uk ' = n k+ i ju k
Having calculated the
path of the paraxial ray in the preceding problem, employ the above formula to determine the focal length of
Steinheil's "periscope."
Ans. /= +98.696 mm.
18. The path of a chief ray which in traversing the airspace between the two lenses of Steinheil's " periscope
,
No.
16) goes
'
two parts
such a ray we must have
Ca= ci,
c4
a 4 = a/,
= ci,
= 30
ct3=
2,
be sym-
will
c3
a 3 /= a 2
a-2,
6i=
XV
of the optical system,
C3=c
a/=ai,
0$= 6
Show
[Ch.
through the center of the stop
metrical with respect to the

so that for
'
and Lenses
Mirrors, Prisms
556
(see
';
Si.
which goes through the

3
stop-center, the ray must have been directed initially at a
slope-angle di= 28 2' 54 .43" towards a point Li on the
axis whose distance from the second vertex of the first lens is
A 2 Li = +6.563 mm.
19. The astigmatism of a narrow bundle of rays refracted
through a centered system of spherical surfaces may be computed logarithmically by means of the following recurrent
that
if
for a ray
formulae
Dt = w k .sin(a k
rk .sm
/i k
= rk .sin(a k
k ),
')
ak
*k
+1
wk+ i.sin0 k +i
Sagittal Section
Qk
=Qk+D k
Qk +1 =
l-fc.Qk'
Meridian Section
2
p ,_ Pk .eos a k +D k
cos 2 ak
Pk
1-ikA
'
where the symbols a, a', 0, n and r have their usual meanings and where P, P' and Q, Q' and D are the magnitudes defined in 186 and 184. The calculations according to these
formulae will be considerably simplified in the case of a chief
ray which traverses a system like Steinheil's " periscope"
(see No. 16) which is symmetric with respect to the stopcenter. For example, for this particular system we can write
for a chief ray:
Ch.
XV]
Problems
557
D = D 2 h= hi, hz = h 2 h = ti;
= (oi 0.4), o 2 o 2 = (a.3 a ')>
a 2 6 2 = 0,3 Q\= Oz
ai B\= a/ 6 a- # 4
Di = D\,
0.1 Oi
'
Oz.
Apply the above formulae to the optical system of problem

No. 16 to calculate the astigmatic difference ( 186) of a narrow bundle of emergent rays whose chief ray is the ray whose
path was determined in problem No. 18; assuming that the
bundle of incident rays was cylindrical, that is, Pi = Qi = 0.
Ans. p 4 ' 5/= +4.849 mm.
20. Using Seidel's formulae as given in 193, show that
the condition that an infinitely thin lens surrounded by air,
and provided with a rear stop, shall yield a punctual or
stigmatic image of a plane object placed in the primary focal
plane of the lens,
\n-l
where
as follows:
n(n-l) 2
is
{n-iy
n{n-l)
denotes the refracting power of the lens,
F2
denotes
the refracting power of the second surface, 1/S denotes the

distance of the stop, and n denotes the index of refraction
of the lens.
If
the stop
is
a rear stop at a distance of 30
mm.
and if n = 1.52, show that the maximum value

of the refracting power of a convex lens which will give a
punctual image of a plane object placed in the primary focal
from the
plane
is
lens,
F = + 14.87
dptr.
Using Seidel's formulae as given in 193, show

that the condition that an infinitely thin lens surrounded by
air, and provided with a rear stop, shall give a punctual or
stigmatic image of an infinitely distant object, is:
21.
fcV+ c )
n 1
where n denotes the index of refraction of the
lens,
denotes
power, Ri denotes the curvature of the first

surface of the lens, and C = SF, the magnitude S being
its refracting
equal to the reciprocal of the stop-distance.
INDEX
The numbers
refer to the pages
Abbe, E.: Porro prism system, 50; refract ometer, 128; definition of
focal length, 344; pupils, 401; magnifying power, 454; v-value of
optical medium, 480; optical glass, 482, 489; sine-condition, 523,
542, 547; differential notation, 531.
Aberration, Chromatic: see Chromatic Aberration, Achromatism, etc.

Aberration, Least circle
of,
515.
Aberration, Spherical: see Spherical Aberration.

Aberrations, Chromatic and monochromatic, 509; Seidel's five sums,
545-550, 557.
Abney's formula
for diameter of aperture of pinhole camera, 5, 26.
Abscissa formula for plane refracting surface, 97, 191, 269; spherical
mirror, 154, 155, 191, 276, 285; spherical refracting surface, 191,
193, 200, 274, 285; infinitely thin lens, 228, 229, 279, 285; centered
system, 332, 519. See also Image Equations.
Absorption of
light, 2.
Accommodation
of eye, 433-439; amplitude, 437-439; range, 438;

diminishes with age, 435, 436; effected by changes in crystalline
lens, 434; refracting power of eye in accommodation, 436, 437.

Achromatic combinations: Prisms, 480, 481, 491-493; lenses, 480, 481,
499-505.
Achromatic system, 488.

Achromatic telescope, 480, 481, 505.
Achromatism, 480, 481, 487 and foil.; optical and actinic or photographic, 489-491.
Airy, Sir G. B.: Cylindrical
lens,
315; tangent-condition of orthoscopy,
545; curvature of image, 540.
Ametropia, 439 and foil.; axial, curvature and indicial ametropia, 442.
Ametropic eye, 440 and foil.; distance of correction-glass, 445, 446.
Amici, G. B.: Direct vision prism system, 495, 497, 506.
Amplitude of accommodation, 437-439.
Anastigmatic (or stigmatic) lenses, 314.
Angle, Central, 152, 516.
559
560
Index
Angle, Critical: see Critical Angle, Total Reflection.

Angle, Slope, 151, 334, 516.
Angle, Visual: see Visual Angle, Apparent Size.
Angle of deviation, in case of inclined mirrors, 43; in case of refraction,
78; in prism, 50, 51, 125; in lens, 293. See also Prism, Thin prism,
Prism-dioptry, Prismatic power of lens.
Angles of incidence, reflection and refraction, 30, 31, 65.
Angles,
Measurement
Angstrom
of,
by mirror and
scale, 56.
unit of wave-length, 10; see also
Angular magnification
'i
enth-meter.
(or convergence-ratio), 351.
Anterior chamber of eye, 425.

Anterior and posterior poles of eye, 431, 432.
Aperture-angle, 404.
Aphakia, 213, 442.

Aplanatic points of optical system, 524; of spherical refracting surface
(J,
J'),
512, 513, 554.
Aplanatism, 524.
See Sine-Condition.
Apochromatism, 489.
Apparent place and direction of point-source, 15-18.
Apparent place of object viewed through plate of glass,
102, 103, 105,
106.
Apparent size, 20-22, 446 and foil.;

Aqueous humor, 213, 371, 425.
in optical instrument, 449
and
foil.
Astigmatic bundle of rays, 25, 310-314, 526-538, 552 and foil.; imagelines, 100, 312, 313, 534-536, 547; image-points, 312, 526, 527,
See also Meridian rays,
529-534; principal sections, 311, 528.

Sagittal
rays,
Image-points,
Image-lines,
Sturm's conoid, Astig-
matism.
Astigmatic difference, 533.
Astigmatic image-surfaces, 536-538, 547.
Astigmatic lenses, Chap. IX, 300 and
foil.;
314.
Astigmatism by incidence, 527.

Astigmatism, Measure of, 533.
Astigmatism of oblique bundles of rays, 527, 547.
Astigmatism, Sturm's theory, 313, 534.
Astronomical telescope, 411, 456; field of view, 411, 412; magnifying
power, 454-460.
Axial ametropia, 442; static refraction and length of eye-ball, 442, 443.
Axial (or depth) magnification 351.
Axis of collineation, 243.

Axis of lens, 217; spherical refracting surface, 149.
axis.
Axis, Visual, 433.
See also Optical
Index
561
B
Back focus
of lens, 365.
Badal's optometer, 422, 423.

Barlow's achromatic object-glass, 504, 505.
Barrel-shaped distortion, 544.
Bending of
lens,
284.
Blind spot of eye, 430, 431.

Blur-circles, 414-417, 419.
Brewster, Sir D.: Kaleidoscope, 47.

Bundle of rays, Character of, 24, 25, 508, 509, 525; "direct," 514;
homocentric (or monocentric), 25, limitation by means of stops,
See also Astigmatic bundle of rays.
397-399.
Bunsen
burner,
Burnett,
S.
66,
473.
M.: Prism-dioptry, 135.
Calculation of path of ray: refracted at spherical surface, 516-519;

reflected at spherical mirror, 518; refracted
through prism, 124,
125; refracted through centered system, 332, 519-522; numerical
example in case of paraxial and edge

Camera: see Pinhole camera.
rays, 520-522.
Cardinal points of optical system, 334-339.

Cataract: see 'Aphakia.
Caustic curve, 514.
Caustic surface, in general, 526; by refraction at plane surface, 98, 99;
by
refraction at spherical surface, 515.
Center: Of collineation, 243; of curvature, 260, 526; of perspective (K),

532, 554; of rotation of eye, 432, 434, 448, 452.
Centered system of spherical refracting surfaces: Optical axis, 329;

construction of paraxial ray, 330, 331; calculation of path of paraxial ray, 332; conjugate axial points (M, M'), 346, 347; extra-axial
conjugate points (Q, Q'), 339-342; lateral magnification, 333, 349;
Smith-Helmholtz formula, 334; focal planes, 333-335; focal
points, 332-335; ray of finite slope, 519-522.
Centers of perspective of object-space and image-space, 416, 417.
Centrad, 134, 294.
Central angle (<p), 152, 516.
Central collineation, 242-247.
Central ray, 243.

Chief rays, 24, 413, 420, 526.
Choroid, 425.
i
562
Index
Chromatic aberration, 487-489, 509.

Ciliary body, 427; mechanism of accommodation, 434.
Circle of aberration, Least, 515.
Circle
curvature,
of
260.
Circle of least confusion, 314, 537.

Circles of diffusion: see Blur-circles.
Clausius, R.: Sine-condition, 523.

Coddington, H. Curvature of image, 540.
Collineation Central, 242-247; center of, 243; axis
:
of,
243; invariant
246.
of,
See also Punctual imagery.

Color and frequency of vibration, 472-476; and wave-length, 475.
Color of a body, 2.
Collinear correspondence, 242, 508.
Colors of spectrum, 466.
Coma,
542, 547.
Combination of three optical systems, 374-376.

Combination of two lenses, 366-370; achromatic, 499 and foil.
Combination of two optical systems, 356-362; focal lengths, 359;
and principal points, 358, 361; refracting power, 361.
Complete quadrilateral, 162.
Compound optical systems: Chap. XI, 356, foil.
Concave: Lens, 221; surface, 150.
Concentric
focal
lens, 221, 232, 387, 388.
Cones and rods of retina, 428, 429.

Conjugate planes, 172, 194, 236.
Conjugate points on axis (M, M'): Centered system
fracting surfaces,
346,
of spherical re-
347; infinitely thin lens, 227-229, 232;
plane refracting surface, 97; plate with parallel faces, 105; spherical
mirror, 154, 164; spherical refracting surface, 181, 183.
Conjugate points
Centered system of spherical refract339-342; infinitely thin lens, 234-236; spherical

mirror, 171-175; spherical refracting surface, 193-196.
off axis (Q, Q')
ing surfaces,
Conoid, Sturm's, 313, 314, 535.

Convergence-ratio: see Angular Magnification.
Convergent and divergent optical systems, 186, 339, 340.

Convergent lens, 221.
Convex: Lens, 221; surface, 150.
Cornea of human eye, 425; optical constants, 371, 372, 401; vertex,
431.
Correction-glass:
Refracting power and vertex-refraction,
distance from eye measured
by keratometer,
focal point of glass at far point of eye, 445.
Crew, H.:
''dioptric," 287.
443-446;
421, 422; second
Index
563
Critical angle of refraction, 80.
Cross-cylindrical lens, 315, 317, 319, 320, 325.
CrystaUine lens of
human
eye, 213, 371, 372, 373, 378, 381, 395, 428;
accommodation,
optical constants, 371-373, 395, 434; changes in
See also Aphakia.

Culmann, P.: Smith-Helmholtz formula, 202.
395, 434; "total index," 436.
Curvature of arc:
radius
of,
total,
260; sign
258; mean, 259; center

of,
of,
260; circle
of,
260;
260; measure, 260-264.
Curvature of image, 538-540, 547, 548.

Curvature of normal sections of surface, 300-303; principal sections,
302, 303, 525.
Curvature, Unit
of, dioptry, 286-288.

Curvature ametropia, 442.
Curvature-method in geometrical optics, 282.
Cushion-shaped distortion, 544.
Cylindrical lenses, 217, 310, 314-317; types, 315-317; combinations,
318-326; transposition, 318-320.
Cylindrical surface, 265, 305-308, 310-313; refracting power, 307, 308,
Dennett: Centrad,
134.
Depth-magnification, 351.
Descartes, R:
Law
of refraction, 67.
Deviation of ray See Angle of deviation, Minimum deviation.

Deviation without dispersion, 481, 491-493.
:
Diamond, 70, 479.

Diaphragms or stops
for cutting out rays, 397-399.
Diffraction-effects, 14.
Dioptry, 286-288; "dioptrie," "dioptre," "diopter,"

millidoptry, Hectodioptry,
etc.,
286," 287;
and Kilodioptry, 287.
bundle of rays, 514.

"Direct vision," 448.
Direct vision prism-systems, 493-499.
" Direct'
'
Direction of ray or straight line: See Positive direction.

Direction of source from observer's eye, 15-18.
Dispersion, Chromatic: Chap.
XIV, 465 and
foil.;
anomalous, 477;
irrationality of, 477-479; partial, 479, 483; relative, 479, 483.
Dispersion without deviation, 481, 493-499.

Dispersive power (or strength), 479-481; dispersive strength of lens,
503.
Distinct vision, Distance

Distortion, 543-545.
of,
452, 453.
Index
564
Divergent
lens,
221; divergent and convergent optical systems, 339,
340.
Dollond, J.: Achromatic object-glass, 481, 482, 504, 505.

Donders's "reduced eye," 214; astigmatism of eye corrected by cylindrical glasses, 316; loss of accommodation with increasing age,
435, 436.
Double concave lens, 219.

Double convex lens, 217.
Double ratio (or cross ratio), 156-164.
Drysdale, C. V., 287.
Dutch
telescope, 456; field of view, 412, 413; "eye-ring," 413, 458;
magnifying power, 455-460.
Dynamic
refraction of eye, 438.
E
Effective rays, 23.
Emergent rays, 24.

Emmetropia and ametropia, 439-443.
Emmetropic eye, 440.
Entrance-port, 406-409, 410, 413.
Entrance-pupil, 43, 179, 400 and foil., 543; two or more entrance-pupils,
405, 406; entrance-pupil of eye, 401, 448.
Ether, Light transmitted through, 10, 472-476.
Euler,
L.:
Exit-port,
Theory
409,
of curved surfaces, 303, 306, 525; achromatism,481.
413.
410,
Exit-pupil, 400-405, 411-413, 415, 417, 419, 420, 448, 543.
Eye: Accommodation, 433-439; anterior chamber, 425; aqueous humor, 371, 425; bacillary layer of rods and cones, 428; "black of the
eye," 401; blind spot, 430; center of rotation, 432, 434, 448, 452;
change of refracting power in accommodation, 436, 437; choroid,

425; ciliary body, 427; cornea, 371, 372,401,425; cornea- vertex, 431;
crystalline lens, 371-373, 428; decrease of
power
of
accommodation
with age, 435, 436 description of human eye, 425-43 1 entrance-pupil,

;
401, 448; expressions for refraction of eye, 439; far point
and near
point, 434, 435; field of fixation, 432, 435; focal lengths, 343, 374,
389, 432; focal lengths in case of
maximum accommodation,
437;
focal points, 374, 389, 423, 432; fovea centralis, 429, 432, 433, 446;
iris,
401, 425; line of fixation, 432;
motor muscles, 431, 432; nodal
points, 422, 432; optical axis, 431; optic nerve, 430; point of fixa-
maximum accommodation, 437; posterior pole, 432, 438; principal points, 374, 432;
pupil, 23, 401, 409-413, 421, 425; refracting power, 374, 432;
tion, 432; positions of cardinal points in state of
Index
565
retina, 428; static and dynamic refraction, 438 and foil.; suspensory ligament (zonule of Zinn), 428, 434; variation of principal
points in accommodation, 437; visual axis, 433; visual purple, 430;
white of the eye, 425, yellow spot {macula lutea), 428.

Eye: see also Schematic eye, Ametropic eye, Emmetropic
metropic eye,
Eye-axis, Length
Myopic
of,
eye,
eye,
Hyper-
"Reduced eye."
438, 440-443, 448.
Eye-ring of telescope, 413, 458, 459.

Eye-glasses: See Correction-glass, Astigmatic
Ophthalmic prisms,
lenses,
Cylindrical lenses,
etc.
Faraday, M.: Optical glass, 482.

Far point, 434, 438, 440, 442; far point sphere, 434;
senile recession,
436; coincides with second focal point of correction-glass, 445;

in case of schematic eye, 461.
Far point distance, 437, 444.

Far-sighted eye, 435.
Fermat,
See Hypermetropia.
P.: Principle of least time, 86.
Field of fixation of eye, 432, 435.

Field of view, 18, 19, 406-409, 448; of plane mirror, 40-43; of spherical
mirror,
Dutch
176-179; of infinitely thin lens, 247-249,
409-411; of
telescope, 412, 413; of astronomical telescope, 411, 412;
"ragged edge," 412.

Field-stop, 19, 178, 249, 406, 410.
" Fish-eye camera," 81.

Fixation: field
of,
432, 435; line of, 432; point of, 432.
Flat image, 539, 540, 548.

Fluorite, 479, 485.
Focal lengths of schematic eye, 343, 374, 389, 432 in case of

;
maximum
accommodation, 437.
Focal lengths of spherical mirror, 167; of spherical refracting surface,
191, 192, 193, 199, 281; of infinitely thin lens, 229, 240-242; of
compound system, 359;

lens,
of
combination of two
lenses, 367; of thick
363; of optical system in general, 342-344.
Focal planes of spherical refracting surface, 197-199; of infinitely thin

lens,
232; of optical system, 334, 335, 341; of centered system of
spherical refracting surfaces, 333.
Focal point angle, 447; as measure of size of retinal image, 449.

Focal points of spherical mirror, 166, 189; of spherical refracting surface, 186-189; of infinitely thin lens, 229-232; of centered system
of spherical refracting surfaces, 332, 333; of optical system, 334,
Index
566
compound system,
335; of
358, 361; of thick lens, 363; of
com-
bination of two lenses, 367.
Focal points of schematic eye, 374, 389, 423, 432.

Focus plane, 400, 402-404, 406-408, 414-417, 543.
Fovea
centralis, 429, 432, 433, 446.
Fraunhofer,
J.: 145, 479, 493, 494,
notation of dark
lines,
506; dark lines of solar spectrum,
measurement
of index of refraction, 129;

472 production of optical glass, 482 achro-
470, 472, 475, 476, 477;
matic object-glass, 504, 505.
Frequency of vibration and
color,
472-476; connection with wave-
length, 475.
Fresnel, A.
J.: Principle of interference, 14;
use of cylindrical lens, 315.
Galileo: Telescope and astronomical discoveries, 456, 462, 463, 464.

Gauss, K. F.: Reduced distance, 279, 280; theory of optical imagery,
334, 536, 545, 546; principal points, 335; achromatic object-glass,
504, 505.
Glass, Optical: see Optical Glass.
Gleichen, A.: Lehrbuch der geometrischen Optik, 352.

Goerz, P.: "Double anastigmat" photographic lens, 352.
Graphical methods: Paraxial ray diagrams, 168-171; path of paraxial
ray through centered system, 331; Young's construction, 509-511.
Gregory, J., achromatism, 480.
Grimsehl, E., Lehrbuch der Physik, 363.
Gullstrand, A.: Reduced distance, 280; schematic eye, 343, 370, 371,
374, 381, 382, 389, 395, 432, 436, 442, 443, 461; formulae for com-
pound systems,
260, 361; schematic eye in state of
maximum
accommodation, 395, 436, 461; writings, 536.
H
Hadley's sextant, 58-60.
Hall, C. M.: Achromatic telescope, 481.
Harcourt, W. V.: Optical glass, 482.
Harmonic range of points, 161-164.
Heliostat,
54,
Helmholtz,
55.
H.
Von:
Ophthalmometer,
103;
Smith-Helmholtz
Handbuch der
equation, 201, 202, 214, 215, 334, 338, 342, 459, 524;
physiologischen Optik, 371.
Hero
of
Alexandria,
Herschel,
Sir J. F.
87.
W.: Achromatic
object-glass of telescope, 504, 505.
Index
Homocentric bundle of
567
rays, 25.
Houstoun, R. A.: Newton and colors of spectrum, 466, 469.

Huygens, C: Construction of wave-front in general, 10-13,
123; in
case of reflection at plane mirror, 33-37, 61; in case of refraction
Huygens 's
at plane surface, 70-72;
Hypermetropia, 441, 443, 445.

Hypermetropic eye, 441; correction
ocular, 396, 501, 502.
glass, 445.
Image, 5, 17, 18, 25; ideal, 25, 506, 548; real and virtual,
Image, Rectification of, by successive reflections, 50, 51.
Image, Size of retinal, 448, 449.
17, 18.
Images in inclined mirrors, 43-51.

Image-equations of optical system: Referred to focal points, 345;
referred to principal points, 345-347; referred to pair of conjugate
points in general, 347, 348; referred to nodal points, 348; in terms
of refracting power and reduced "vergences," 348.
Image-equations of spherical refracting surface, 200, 201.
Image-lines of narrow astigmatic bundle of rays, 100, 312, 313, 534-
536, 547.
Image-lines of narrow astigmatic bundle of rays refracted at plane

surface,
100.
Image-point, 25.
Image-points of narrow astigmatic bundle of rays, 312, 526, 527, 529534.
Image-rays, 24.
Image-space and object-space, 242, 243.

Image-surfaces, Astigmatic,
Incidence: Angle
of,
536-538, 547.
30; height, 151; normal, 30; plane of, 30.
Incident rays, 24, 30.

Inclined mirrors, 43-51.
Index of refraction: Absolute, 74; limiting value
measurement
of,
106,
107,
128,
of,
70; relative, 66;
129; function of wave-length,
476, 477.
Indicial ametropia, 442.
"Indirect vision," 446.

Infinitely distant plane of space, 197, 434.
Infinitely distant point of straight line, 158.
Rays: 217-257, 276-279, 285; abscissaformula, 226-229, 285; character of imagery, 237-240; conjugate
Infinitely thin lens, Paraxial
axial points, 227-229, 232-234; construction of image, 236; extraaxial conjugate points, 234-236; field of view, 247-249, 409-411;
Index
568
focal lengths, 229, 240-242; focal planes, 232; focal points,
229-
232; lateral magnification, 236, 237; principal planes, 239; prismatic power, 291-295; refracting power, 283, 284.
Infinitely thin lens, Central Collineation, 246.
Infinitely thin lens,
Conventional representation, 226.
Infinitely thin lens, Refraction of spherical
wave through, 276-279.
Infinitely thin lens-system, 289-291; formulae for spherical aberrations,
548-550.
See also Achromatic combinations.
Invariant: Of refraction, 76; of central collineation, 246; in case of

refraction of paraxial rays at spherical surface, 191.
Iris of eye,
Isotropic
401, 425.
medium,
3, 4.
Jack son, Professor: New optical glass, 484.

Jansen, Z.: Reputed inventor of telescope, 456.
Jena glass, 482-485, 540.
K
Kaleidoscope, 47.
Kepler,
J.: Astronomical telescope, 455, 456,

Keratometer, 421, 422.
sagitta, 202.
Kessler, F. Direct vision prism, 497, 498, 499, 506.

Klingenstierna, S.: Achromatic combination of prisms, 481.
:
Kohlrausch,
F.
Measurement
of index of refraction, 128.
Lagrange, J. 1^.: Smith-Helmholtz formula,

Landolt, E.: Physiological Optics, 287.
Lange, M.: Calculation-system, 520.
202.
Lateral magnification: Centered system, 333, 349; infinitely thin lens,

236, 237; spherical mirror, 176; spherical refracting surface, 196.
Law: Of independence
3, 4; of reflection,
of rays of light, 15; of rectilinear propagation,
31; of refraction, 66; of
Least circle of aberration, 515.

Least confusion, Circle of, 314.
Least deviation: see Prism.
Least time, Principle of, 86-89.
Malus, 89-91,
525.
Index
Lens: see Astigmatic
lens,
Toric lens,
etc.
lens,
569
Cylindrical lens,
Thick
Infinitely thin lens,
Lens: Axis, 217; bending of, 284; concentric, 221, 232, 387, 388; concave
and convex, 222; convergent or positive and divergent or negative,
223; definition, 217; dispersive strength, 503; double convex and
double concave, 217, 219; meniscus, 219, 226, 385, 386, 387; of
zero curvature, 221, 386; optical center, 223-226; plano-convex
and plano-concave, 219; refracting power, 283, 363; symmetric,
217, 385, 388; thickness, 219.
Lens, Crystalline: see Crystalline lens.
Lens-gauge, 263-265, 288, 289.

Lenses, Forms of, 217-223.
Lens-system: see Combination of two lenses.

Lens-system, Thin: 289-291; achromatic combination, 502-505.
Light: Rectilinear propagation, see Chap. I; wave-theory,
and
foil.;
9,
10,
472
velocity, 10, 72, 75, 474, 475.
Line of fixation,
432.
Lippershey, F.: Reputed inventor of telescope, 456.

Listing, J. B.: " Reduced eye," 214; nodal points, 337.
Luminous
Luminous
bodies,
1.
point, Direction
and
location, 15-18.
M
Macula
lutea or yellow spot, 428.

Magnification: see Angular magnification, Axial magnification, Lateral
magnification, Magnification-ratios, Magnifying power.
Magnification-ratios, 349-351.
Magnifying power, 199, 344, 452 and

absolute,
454; individual,
foil.;
Abbe's
definition,
454;
454.
Magnifying power of magnifying
453; of microscope, 454; of
glass,
telescope, 455-460.
Malus, E. L.: Law, 89-91, 525.

Medium: see Optical medium.
Meniscus lens, 219, 226, 385, 386, 387.
Meridian rays, 311. See Meridian section of narrow bundle of rays.
Meridian section of narrow bundle of rays, 311, 528, 530-533, 535, 552,
553, 554, 556; lack of
symmetry
in,
541.
Meridian section of surface of revolution, 305.
Michelson, A. A.: Velocity
Minimum
of light, 474.
deviation of prism: see Prism.
Mirror: see Plane mirror, Spherical mirror, "Thick mirror,"

mirror," Inclined mirrors, etc.
(l
Thin
Index
570
Mirror and scale for angular measurement, 56-58.

Moebius, A. F.: Principal points, 335.
Monocentric bundle of rays, 25.
Monochromatic aberrations, 509. See Spherical aberration.
Monochromatic light, 66, 467, 473-477.
Monoyer, F.: "dioptrie," 286.

Moser, C: Nodal points, 337.
Muscles, Motor, of eye, 431, 432.
Myopia, 441, 443, 445.
Myopic
eye, 441; correction-glass, 445.
N
Near
point, 434, 435, 438; near point sphere, 434, 435; near point recedes from eye with increase of age, 435, 436; in case of schematic
eye, 436, 461.
Near point
distance, 437.
See Myopic
Negative lens, 223.
Negative principal points, 338.
Near-sighted eye, 435.
eye.
Neutralization of lenses, 291.
Newton,
Sir I.: 11;
prism experiments and dispersion, 66, 465, 466,
467, 469, 470, 480, 481.

f
Newtonian formula (x.x =ff), 168, 201, 237, 345, 554.

Nodal planes, 337.
Nodal points, 337, 338; construction, 340; relation between nodal
points and principal points, 341, 343; image-equations referred to
348; of lens, 226, 363.
Nodal points of eye, 422, 432.

Normal sections of curved surface, 300-305,
525,
526;
cylindrical
surface, 306.
Object-point, 25.
Object-rays, 24.
Object-space and image-space, 242, 243.

Obliquely crossed cylinders, 320-326.
Oculars of
Opaque
Huygens and Ramsden,
502.
bodies, 2.
Ophthalmic
glass,
lenses: See Astigmatic lenses, Cylindrical lenses, Correction'
Toric lenses, etc.
Index
571
Ophthalmic prism: Base-apex line, 135; combination of two ophthalmic prisms, 138-142; deviation, 133; power, 134; rotary prism, 141.
Ophthalmometer, 103.
Optic nerve, 430.
Optical achromatism, 489, 490.
Optical axis, axis of symmetry, 23; of centered system, 329; of lens, 217.
Optical axis of eye, 431.
Optical center of lens, 223-226.

Optical disk for verifying law of reflection, 32; refraction, 67, 68; total
reflection,
83,
84.
Optical glass, 481 and

Optical image,
5,
foil.;
process of manufacture, 485-487.
See also linage.
17, 18, 25.
Optical instrument, 23.
Optical invariant of refraction, 76.

Optical length, 89-91, 278, 279.
Optical medium, 3; media of different refractivities, 70.

Optical system, 23.
Optometer
of
Badal, 422, 423.
Origin of coordinates, 149.
Orthoscopy, Conditions
Paraxial ray,
of,
Definition,
See also Image-equations.

543-545.
152.
Paraxial rays, Diagrams showing imagery
by means
of,
168-171.
Paraxial rays: Centered system, 329-334, 519-521; infinitely thin lens,
217-257, 276-279, 285; plane refracting surface, 96-98, 191, 265269; plate with parallel faces, 105-107; spherical mirror, 153-179,
189, 274-276, 285; spherical refracting surface, 179-202, 269-274,
285, 519, 534; thin lens-system, 289-291.
Paraxial ray, Calculation
of,
519-521.
Pencil of rays, 24.
Pendlebury, C. Lenses and systems

Penumbra, 7.
:
of lenses, 280.
Period of vibration, 473.

Perspective in art, 22.
Perspective, Center
of,
159; so-called center (K), 532; pupil-centers as
centers of perspective, 416, 417.
Perspective elongation of image, 419, 420.

Perspective ranges of points, 159-161.
Perspective reproduction in screen-plane, 417.
Petzval, J.: Curvature of image, 539.

Photograph, Correct distance of viewing, 417-419.
Index
572
See also "Fish-eye" camera.

5.
Plane image, Conditions of, 538-540, 548.
Plane mirror: Conjugate points, 38; reflection of plane and spherical
waves at, 33-37; image of extended object in, 37-40; uses of, 52;
rotation of, 32, 56; field of view, 40-43; punctual imagery, 508;
reflecting power, 380, 381. See also Inclined Mirrors, Mirror and
Pinhole camera,
"Thick mirror," Sextant,
scale,
Heliostat, etc.
Plane Mirrors, Inclined, 43-51; rectangular combinations for rectifying

image, 50, 51.
Plane refracting surface: Caustic surface, 98, 99; narrow astigmatic
bundle of rays, 98-100, 553; paraxial rays, 96-98, 191, 265-269;
plane wave, 70-72; principle of least time, 87-89.
Plane wave, 13; reflection at plane mirror, 33-35; refraction at plane
surface,
70-72; refraction through prism, 123, 124; mechanical
illustration, 72, 73.
Plano-convex and plano-concave lenses, 219, 225.

Piano-cylindrical lenses, 315-317.
Plate (or slab) with plane parallel faces: Path of ray through, 101-103;
refraction of paraxial rays, 105-107; apparent position of object
viewed through plate at right angles to line of sight, 102, 103, and
inclined to line of sight, 105-107; multiple images by reflection and
refraction, 107-110; parallel plate micrometer, 103.
Point of fixation, 432.
1; apparent place and direction, 15-18.
Prism-system for rectification of image, 50, 51.
pinhole camera, 5.
Point-source of light,
Porro,
I.:
Porta 's
Porte lumiere, 53.

Ports: See Entrance-port, Exit-port.
Positive
and negative
directions along a straight line,
104; positive
direction along the axis, 149, 219.
Positive lens, 223.
Posterior pole of eye, 432, 438.
Power
of lens or prism: See Prism, Prismatic
power of
lens, Reflecting
power, Refracting power.
Power
of accommodation: See Accommodation.

Prentice, C. F.: Crossed cylinders, 321; diagrams, 308, 309, 310; power
of ophthalmic prism, 135.
Presbyopia, 435.
Principal planes, 335; of a thin lens, 239; of a spherical refracting surface,
Principal
196, 335.
point
angle,
447;
as
measure of
size of
retinal
image,
448.
Principal points, 334, 335; relation to nodal points, 341, 343; image
Index
573
345-347; of combination of two lenses, 367,

of compound system of three
members, 375; of infinitely thin lens, 239; of "thick mirror," 377equations referred
369, 370; of
to,
compound system, 361;
379, 383; of thick lens, 363.
Principal points of eye, 374, 432; of eye in state of
maximum accom-
modation, 437; as points of reference, 437.

Principal section of prism, 113.
Principal sections: Of curved surfaces, 302, 525; of surface of revolution,
305; of cylindrical surface, 306; of toric surface, 309; of toric lenses,

310; of a bundle of rays, 304, 311-314, 528, 535.
Prism, 85, 86, 113 and
and
foil.;
base-apex
line,
134; edge, 113; refracting
measurement, 55; principal section, 113. See

also Thin prism, Ophthalmic prism.
Prism, Dispersion by, 465 and foil.
Prism, Path of ray through a: Calculation, 124, 125, and construction
of, 113-116; deviation, 116; deviation away from edge, 122; "grazing" incidence and emergence, 117, 118; limiting incident ray, 118;
minimum deviation, 119-122, 128-133, normal emergence, 129;
symmetrical ray, 119-122, 129-133.
angle, 113,
its
Prism, Refraction of plane
wave through,
123, 124.
Prism-dioptry, 135, 294.
Prism-system: Achromatic combination of two thin prisms, 491-493;

direct vision prism combinations, 493 and foil.; direct vision
prism of Amici, 495-497, and of Kessler, 497-499.
Prismatic power of infinitely thin lens, 291-295.
Problems, 25-27, 60-63, 92-94, 110-112, 142-148, 203-216, 249-257,
295-299, 326-328, 351-355, 384-396, 423-424, 461-464, 505-507,
551-557.
Projected image and object, 415, 416.
Pulfrich, C: Refractometer, 128.
Punctual imagery, 313, 314, 397, 508, 509; in plane mirror, 508.
Punctum ccecum (blind spot), 430.

Punctum proximum (near point), 434,
Punctum remotum (far point), 434.
435.
Pupil of eye, 23, 401, 409-413, 421, 425.

Pupils of optical system: See Entrance-pupil, Exit-pupil.
Purity of spectrum, 469-471.
Purkinje images by
reflection in the eye, 378; calculation of equiv-
alent optical system, 381, 382.
Q
Quartz, 485.
Index
574
Radius: Of curvature, 260; of spherical reflecting or refracting surface,

150.
Ramsden
Ramsden
circle,
Range
accommodation, 438.
458.
ocular, 463, 502.
of
Rays, Chief: see Chief rays.
Chap. XV, 508, foil.

mutual independence, 15; meet wave-surface normally, 13, 14, 89-91. See also Bundle of rays, Effective rays, Emergent rays, Image rays, Incident rays, Obiect-rays, Pencil of rays, etc.
Rays
Rays
of finite slope,
of light, 9;
Ray-coordinates (or ray-parameters), 95, 517.

"Real and "virtual," 17; images, 17, 18.
Rectangular combinations of plane mirrors, 50, 51.
Rectilinear propagation of light, 3-5.
Reduced
Reduced
abscissa,
and "vergence," 284-286, 348.
distance, 279-281; reduced distance
between two optical
(c)
systems, 360.
"Reduced eye," 214, 437.

Reduced focal lengths, 281; focal point "vergences," 284-286.
"
Reflecting power of mirror, 283; plane mirror, 380, 381; "thick mirror
379.
Reflecting surface, Quality

Reflection, Angle of, 31,
Reflection, Regular
and
of, 29,
and laws
30.
of,
31.
irregular (diffuse), 28-30.
Reflection as special case of refraction, 182, 183, 189.
and refraction, Generalization of laws of, 86-89.

Refracted ray, Construction of, 76-78; deviation, 78. See also Plane
Reflection
refracting surface, Spherical refracting surface, etc.
Refracting angle of prism, 113; measurement of, 55.

Refracting power, 281-284; in normal section of refracting surface, 303;
compound system
of spherical refracting surface, 282, 300; of
two members,
361,
and
of three
members, 375;
of
of thick lens, 363; of
thin lens, 283, 284; of thin lens-system, 290; of combination of two

lenses,
367.
Refracting power of correction-glass, 444.

Refracting power of schematic eye, 374, 432; in state of
accommodation, 437, 438, 439.

Refraction of eye, 438, 439; dynamic, 438, and
maximum
static refraction, 438.
Refraction of light, 64, 65; angle of, 65; laws of, 66, and experimental
basis, 67-69; mechanical illustration of, 72, 73. See also Index of
Refraction, Total Reflection, etc.
Index
575
Resolving power of eye, 21, 22.

Resultant prism equivalent to two thin prisms, 138-142.
Retina, 428.
Retinal image, Size
of,
448, 449.
Reversibility of light-path, 69.
Rotary prism,
141.
S
Sagitta of
262.
arc,
Sagittal rays, 311.

Sagittal section of
in,
See Sagittal section of narrow bundle of rays.

narrow bundle of rays, 311-314, 528-530; symmetry
541.
Scheiner, C: Astronomical and terrestrial telescopes, 456.

Schematic eye: Far point, 461; focal lengths, 343, 374, 389, 432; focal
points, 374, 389, 423, 432; length of eye-axis, 432, 442, 443; near
point, 436, 461; optical constants, 370-374, 389, 432, 436, 437, 443,
461; in state of
Schott, O.: Optical
maximum accommodation,
395, 436, 437, 461.
glass, 482, 489.
Sclerotic coat or sclera, 425.
Screen-plane, 400, 402, 414-417, 419, 543.
Searle, G. F. C: "Thick mirror," 376, 377.

Secondary spectrum, 488.
Segments of straight line, 104, 105.
Seidel, L.
Von Theory
:
of the five spherical aberrations, 545, 546, 547,
548, 550, 557; curvature of image, 540; sine-condition, 523.
Self-conjugate point, 243.

Self-conjugate ray, 243.
Sextant, 58-60.
Shadows, 6-9.
Sine-condition, 522-525, 547.
Slab with plane parallel faces: See Plate.
Slope of ray, 151, 334, 516.

Smith, R.: Smith-Helmholtz formula, 201, 202, 214, 215, 334, 383,
312, 459, 524.
(or Snellius), W.: Law of refraction, 67, 72.
Spectrum, 466 and foil.; purity of, 469-471.
Spectrum, Solar, 466 and foil.; Newton's experiments, 465 and
Snell
Wollaston's experiments,
469, 470;
foil.
Fraunhofer's experiments,
472; dark lines, 472.

Spherical aberration, Chap.
513-516, 518, 522, 547.

"Spherical lens," 217.
XV,
509, 513
and
foil.;
along the
axis,
Index
576
Ray
Spherical Mirror,
reflected at, 518, 519.
Spherical mirror, Paraxial Rays: 153-179, 189, 274-276, 285; abscissa
formula, 154, 285; construction of conjugate axial points, 164-166

focal points, 166, 189; focal length, 167;
Newtonian formula, 168
extra-axial conjugate points, 171-173; construction of image, 173
imagery, 174, 175; lateral magnification, 176; field of view, 176179; reflecting power, 283; spherical wave reflected at spherical
mirror, 274-276. See also "Thick Mirror."
Spherical over- and under-correction, 514, 515.
(or reflecting) surface: Axis, 149; convex and
concave, 150; convergent and divergent, 186; magnifying power,
Spherical refracting
199; radius, 150; vertex, 149.
Spherical refracting surface: Aplanatic points, 512, 513, 524; calculation of refracted ray, 516-519; construction of refracted ray, 509-
512; formulae for refracted ray, 517-519.

Spherical refracting surface, Astigmatism of oblique bundle of rays,
526-534, 553, 554, 556.

Spherical refracting surface, Paraxial rays: 179-202, 269-274, 285, 519,
534;
abscissa formula,
191,
193,
285; conjugate
axial
points,
179-186, 191, 192; conjugate planes, 193, 194; construction of
image, 194-196; construction of refracted ray, 199, 200; extraaxial conjugate points, 193-196; focal lengths, 191-193, 199;
focal planes, 197-199; focal points, 186-189; image-equations, 200,
201; lateral magnification,
196; refracting power, -179-202; re-
fraction of spherical wave, 269-276.
Spherical
wave
reflected at plane mirror, 35-37; at spherical mirror,
27^-276.
wave refracted at plane surface, 265-269; at spherical surface,

269-274; through infinitely thin lens, 276-279.
Spherical
Spherical zones,
515,
516.
Sphero-cylindrical lens, 217, 315, 317.
Spherometer, 263.
Static refraction of eye, 438, 440, 441, 442, 443; connection with length
of eye-ball in case of axial ametropia, 442, 443; relation with re-
power or vertex refraction of correction-glass, 444-447.

Steinheil, A.: Data of "periscope" photographic lens, 554, 555, 556;
achromatic object-glass, 505.
fracting
Steinheil, R.: Calculation of object-glass of telescope, 520.

Stigmatic (or anastigmatic) lenses, 314.
Stokes, Sir G. G.: Optical

Stop, Effect
of,
glass, 482.
398, 399; front, rear or interior stop, 398.
Aperture-stop, Field-stop, etc.
Sturm,
J.
C. F.: Conoid, 310, 313, 534, 535.
See also
Index
577
Surface of revolution, 305; meridian section, 305; principal sections,

305.
Surfaces,
Theory
of curved, 300-303, 525, 526;
normal
sections,
300-
303, 525, 526; principal sections, 302, 525.
Suspensory ligament, 428, 434.
Symmetric
Symmetric
lens,
217, 385, 388.
points, 339.
Tangent-condition of orthoscopy, 545.

Telecentric optical system, 420-423.
Dutch
Telescope: see Astronomical telescope,
(or
Galilean)
telescope,
Terrestrial telescope.
Ramsden circle, 413, 458, 459; magnifying

power, 445-460; invention, 456, 457; object-glass and ocular, 455;
Telescope: Eye-ring or
simple schematic telescope, 455.

Telescopic imagery, 359
Telescopic system, 359.
Tenth-meter,
10, 475.
Terrestrial telescope, 457.
Thick
lens,
362-366; focal points, nodal points, principal points, and
refracting power, 363; vertex refraction, 365, 366.
"Thick mirror," 376-384, 392, 393;
principal points, 377-379, 383;
reflecting power, 379.
Thin lens: see Infinitely thin lens, Infinitely thin lens-system.

"Thin mirror," 377.
Thin prism: combination of two thin prisms, 138-142; deviatitn, 133,
134 and power, 134-138. See also Ophthalmic prism.
Thin prisms, Achromatic combination of, 491-493; and direct-vision
combination
Thompson,
of,
493-495.
S. P., 38, 135; axial (or
depth) magnification, 351; obliquely
crossed cylindrical lenses, 321; symmetric points of optical system,

338.
Toepler, A.: Negative principal points optical system, 338.

Toric lens, 310, 314, 316, 317.
Toric surface, 265, 305, 306, 308-310, 320.
Total reflection, 79-86; experimental illustrations, 83-89.

Prism.
Total reflection prism, 85, 86, 125, 127.

Translucent body, 3.
Transparent body, 2.
Transposing of cylindrical lenses, 318-320.
Tscherning, M.: Physiological
Optics, 287.
See also
Index
578
U
Umbra,
7.
Undulatory theory of light: see Wave Theory.

Unit planes and unit points of optical system, 335.
Velocity of light in different media, 72-75, 475; varies with color, 474;
in vacuo, 10, 75, 474, 476.
Verant, 418.
Vertex of spherical surface, 149; of cornea, 431.

Vertex refraction of lens, 365, 366; of correction-glass, 445, 446.
"Vertex-depth" of concave surface of meniscus lens, 298.
Vertices of lens, 219.
Vibration frequency and color, 472 and
and
foil.;
and wave-length, 473
foil.
"Virtual" and "real," 17; images,
17, 18.
Virtual image, 17, 18; in case of plane mirror, 38.

Virtual object in case of plane mirror, 38.
Vision, "Direct," 448;
and "indirect," 446.
Vision, Distance of distinct, 452, 453.
Visual angle, 20, 446 and
foil.;
principal point angle, 447, 448; focal
point angle, 447, 449.

Visual axis, 433.
Visual purple, 430.
Vitreous humor, 213, 371, 428.
Von Rohr, M.:
Abbreviation "dptr.," 287; verant, 418; Theorie und
Geschichte d. photograph. Objektivs, 555.
W
Wave-front, Plane, 13, and spherical, 11.
wave,
See also Plane wave, Spherical
Huygens, Malus.
Wave-length, in vacuo, 5, 475; wave-length and frequency, 475; wavelength and index of refraction, 476, 477; wave-length and color,
474-477.
Wave-surface, Rays normal
Wave-theory
to, 13, 14,
of light, 9, 10, 472
Wollaston, W. H.: Dark
and
89-91, 525.
foil.,
lines of solar
508.
spectrum, 472; dispersion ex-
periments, 469.
Wood, R. W.: "Fish-eye" camera,

colors, 474.
81; velocity of light of different
Index
Yellow spot
Young,
(or
macula
579
lutea), 428.
T.: center of perspective (K), 532; construction of ray re-
fracted at spherical surface, 509, 510, 511, 527, 552; principle of

interference, 14.
Z
Zinn's zonule (or suspensory ligament), 428.
Printed in the United States of America
'HE
following pages
contain
advertisements of
books by the same author or on kindred subjects
BY THE SAME AUTHOR
The
Principles
and Methods of Geo-
metrical Optics
Especially as Applied to Optical Instruments
First Edition, 1910.
Half
leather,
648 pages,
Second Edition, 1913

illustrated, 8vo,
$5.50
This complete and up-to-date treatise on the principles
and methods
of geometrical optics applies especially to the
theory of optical instruments, such as the telescope, microscope,
and photographic
objective.
use as a college text-book.
The book
It will also
is
adapted for
prove invaluable as
a book of reference for physicists, mathematicians, astronomers, opticians, oculists, and photographers, and for any
scientist
who has
occasion to study the theory of optical
instruments.

Publishers
64-66 Fifth Avenue
New
York
Light
For
Students
By EDWIN EDSER
Associate of the Royal College of Science,
Cloth,
London
574 pages, 12mo, $2.25
This book meets the requirements of students

to
who wish
obtain an accurate and comprehensive knowledge of
geometrical and physical optics.
Results of recent researches
are described in connection with important laws which they

elucidate.
cases,
The mathematical
investigations have,
in
all
been rendered as simple as possible and have been
developed so as to direct attention to the physical aspect of

the subject.
The
text contains only
enough mathematics
to express simple formula?.
Physical Optics
By ROBERT W. WOOD, LL.D.
Professor of Experimental Physics in the Johns Hopkins University
695 pages,
illustrated, 8vo,
An advanced text-book and an invaluable work
$5.25
of reference
that embodies recent advances in the science of physical

optics.
Especial stress has been laid on the experimental
side of the subject
much
of
which has been personally carried
on by the author.

Publishers
64-66 Fifth Avenue
New
York
Light, Visible
and
Invisible
By the Late SYLVANIUS
THOMPSON, London
P.
369 pages,
series of lectures delivered at the
illustrated,
12mo, $2.10
Royal Institution of
The second edition of this book in 1910 has

considerably enlarged upon the material as first presented
The treatment is clear and simple. In an
in lecture form.
Great Britain.
many years, the author has

found that such topics as the phenomena of polarization are
quite easily grasped by persons of average intelligence proexperience lasting over a good
way devoid of pedantic

terms and illustrated by appropriate models.
vided they are presented in a modern
The Theory
of Light
By the Late THOMAS PRESTON

Professor of Natural Philosophy in University College, Dublin
First Edition, 1890.
Fourth Revised Edition, 1912
606 pages,
The usefulness
illustrated, 8vo,
of this standard treatise has
increased in the fourth edition
$4-75
been materially
of an account
by the addition
phenomena in a magnetic field, a fuller

treatment of dispersion and a more complete presentation
of the radiation
of the electro-magnetic theory.
Treatise on Practical Light

By REGINALD
S.
CLAY
Principal of the Northern Polytechnic Institute,
519 pages,
This book
is
London
illustrated,
12mo, $3.50
not only an excellent text-book for advanced
students but will also prove of great value to anyone interested in the optical business or practical optics.

Publishers
64-66 Fifth Avenue
New York
Practical Exercises in Light

By REGINALD
S.
CLAY
Principal of the Northern Polytechnic Institute,
Cloth,
The apparatus which

pensive character
instructor
may
is
is
183 pages,
London
illustrated,
12mo, SI. 00
and most inex-
of the simplest
so fully described that the student or
easily prepare
it.
A System of Applied Optics

By H. DENNIS TAYLOR
Optical
Manager
of T.
Cooke
&
Sons, Ltd.,
334 pages,
London
illustrated,
Z+to,
$12.00
complete system of formulae of the second order, and
the foundation of a complete system of the third order with
examples of thin practical application.
In order to follow
the lines of reasoning employed, the student should be

familiar with the ordinary manipulations of algebra,
have a
clear
and
grasp of the Binomial Theorem, the chief
propositions of Euclid,
and the rudiments
of the Differential
Calculus.

Publishers
64-66 Fifth Avenue
New York
QC385.S7
5002 00188 2526

3James
Powell Cocke
Southall,
Mirrors, prisms and lenses; a

text-book
ASTRO

Mirrors Prisms and Lenses

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Mirrors Prisms and Lenses

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

flsWi^.

MIRRORS, PRISMS AND LENSES

BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS

MIRRORS, PRISMS AND

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Published December, 1918.

limitations of the class of students for

primarily intended and to employ, therefore,

only the simplest mathematical processes as far as possible.

I have purposely entered into much

detail in the earlier

most satisfactory with my own pupils; but I venture

Recent years have witnessed extraordinary progress in

developing into a severe scientific pursuit; and

there are certain portions of this volume which I think will

be helpful to the modern oculist and optometrist. Thus,

thorough knowledge of the theory of

In fact, in the space at my disposal

book the theory

and spherical aberrations

treated as briefly as possible; and I have given

formulae for the five spherical aberrations in the case of a

infinitely thin lenses, chiefly

because these formulae

are exceedingly useful in the preliminary design of an optical

But a complete discussion of these subjects would

perchance this book should help to stimulate the study

of optics in our colleges

would seem to be a kind of Cinderella

of physics, regarded perhaps with a certain friendly

toleration as a mathematical discipline not without value,

Germans have not ceased to cultivate this field of

certainly not without significance for us in this country

Indeed, both in England and in France,

apparently due to the exigencies of war, schools of applied

have recently been organized.

Transparent and Opaque Bodies

Shadows, Eclipses, etc

Regular and Diffuse Reflection

17. Successive Reflections

Construction of the Path of a

the Eye from a Pair of Inclined Mirrors

Passage of Light from One

Experimental Proof of the

29. Reversibility of the Light

Values of the Index of Refraction

36. Total Reflection

Experimental Illustrations of Total Reflection.

38. Generalization of the

Optical Length of the Light-Path and the

Refraction at a Plane Surface and also through a Plate

Imagery in a Plane Refracting Surface by Rays

Segments of a Straight Line

liquely Refracted at a Plane Surface

fracted Obliquely at a Plane

Ray Refracted Through a Slab with Plane

pendicular to the Line of Sight

Images in the two Parallel Faces of a Plate

The Deviation of a Ray by a Prism

Deviation away from the Edge of the Prism

55. Trigonometric Calculation of the

a Principal Section of a Prism

Total Reflection at the Second Face of the Prism.