Styles of Translation

All translations seek to convey what was communicated in the source text, but the
translation style will depend on factors such as:
the type of text being translated
the purpose of the translation
the intended audience
Translations are often described with such terms as literal or idiomatic, formal or dynamic,
etc. Literal translations, for example, seek to follow closely the lexical and grammatical
forms of the source text, whereas idiomatic translations seek to express the meaning of
the source text in the most natural and communicative way in the receptor language.
SIL trains translators and translation teams to evaluate factors such as those listed above,
in close consultation with language communities and partner agencies. Accurate, natural,
and communicative translation is always the goal, but the style may vary.
http://www-01.sil.org/translation/trtypes.htm
Style and Stylistic Accommodation in Translation
Abstract: Accommodation in translation emerges in perspectives such as cultural accommodation,
collocation accommodation, ideological accommodation and aesthetic accommodation. (see for reference
my article entitled Accommodation in Translation atwww.accurapid.com ) This article focuses specifically on
stylistic accommodation in translation, proposing that accommodation should be oriented to style which
includes writers style, genre style and historical style.

Style
Style means all kinds o' things. Encarta English dictionary lists 11 definitions for it. Its third definition
says: way of writing or performing: the way in which something is written or performed as distinct from
the content of the writing or performance. This is where we commence our discussion. Lynch provides us
with more or less what is generally understood of style in our school days. He says that at its broadest, it
means everything about your way of presenting yourself in words, including grace, clarity, and a thousand
undefinable qualities that separate good writing from bad. (Lynch, 2001) I also remember huge amount of
stress from my teachers is placed on economy, precision and so on, plus clarity as stated by above. In a
word, style is used as a term distinguished from content in writing and it stresses form or format. In
other words, style means how whereas content refers to what.
If style comes only second in priority, it certainly stands very high in importance. It is only natural that
good form conveys the content in more sufficient and adequate way. In translation discussion faithfulness
in content has always been emphasized and treated seriously, but faithfulness in style seems to pose more
difficulties. In literature, style is the novelists choice of words and phrases, and how the novelist arranges
these words and phrases in sentences and paragraphs. Style allows the author to shape how the reader
experiences the work. For example, one writer may use simple words and straightforward sentences, while
another may use difficult vocabulary and elaborate sentence structures. Even if the themes of both works
are similar, the differences in the authors styles make the experiences of reading the two works distinct.
Without extensive reading the capture of the so-called style is really a tough challenge.

Translation
E.Nida(1984) difines translation as Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the
closest natural equivalent of the source language massage, first in terms of meaning and secondly in
terms of style. How is style transferred in the receptor language becomes a problem and challenge for
every translator or interpreter. As translators and interpreters we are mediators. The ancient Chinese
referred to the translator as a match-maker or go-between(mei) and translation as a medium through
which both parties finally understand each other, though it was not considered a highly-valued profession.
Obviously, the translator should not only have a bilingual ability but also a bi-cultural vision. Translators
mediate between cultures (including ideologies, moral systems and socio-political structures), seeking to
overcome those incompatibilities which stand in the way of transfer of meaning. What has value as a sign
in one cultural community may be devoid of significance in another and it is the translator who is uniquely
placed to identify the disparity and seek to resolve it.
But there is another sense in which translators are mediators; in a way, they are privilege readers of the
SL text. Unlike the ordinary ST or TT reader, the translator reads in order to produce, decodes in order to
re-encode. In other words, the translator uses as input to the translation process information which would
normally be the output, and therefore the end of, the reading process. Consequently, processing is likely
to be more thorough, more deliberate than that the ordinary reader; and interpretation of one portion of
text will benefit from evidence forthcoming from the processing of later sections of text. Now, each
reading of a text is a unique act, a process subject to the particular contextual constraints of the occasion,
just as much as the production of the text is. Inevitably, a translated text reflects the translators reading
and this is yet another factor which defines the translator as a non-ordinary reader: whereas the ordinary
reader can involve his or her own beliefs and values in the creative reading process, the translator has to
be more guarded. (cited from Wilss,2001)
It is widely-acknowledged nowadays that translation is interaction. The key concept here is interaction. I
suggest that interaction is a process which takes place not only between participants (the traditional
trinity in the translation process: author, translator and target reader), but also between the signs which
constitute texts and between the participants and those signs.
Armed with this complex structural outline, the translator makes choices at the level of texture in such a
way as to guide the target reader along routes envisaged by the ST producer towards a communicative
goal. That is, items selected from the lexico-grammatical resources of the TL will have to reflect the overall
rhetorical purpose and discoursal values which have been identified at any particular juncture in the text.
Ideological nuances, cultural predispositions and so on in the source text have to be relayed as closely as
possible. To achieve that end, accommodation must, more often than not, be adopted. In this case, it is
accommodation in writing style, more accurately, in rewriting style.

Stylistic Accommodation
Philosophically arguing, I believe content and style formulate a whole that can not be neatly separated.
Any content is expressed in a specific style. Yet when comparison and contrast is carried out, certain
nuances are found to exit uniquely among a group of writers, between different genres and within a
certain historical period.
Here in this article I would like to concentrate on these three aspects: writers style, genre style and
historical style.

Writers style
Writers style is the most-discussed topic in our literary course. Lecturers encourage us to read extensively
about a certain author and compare between authors so we could formulate in our mind style of a
specific author. For instance, Hemingway's economical writing style often seems simple and almost
childlike, but his method is calculated and used to complex effect. In his writing Hemingway provided
detached descriptions of action, using simple nouns and verbs to capture scenes precisely. By doing so he
avoided describing his characters' emotions and thoughts directly. Instead, in providing the reader with
the raw material of an experience and eliminating the authorial viewpoint, Hemingway made the reading

of a text approximate the actual experience as closely as possible. Hemingway was also deeply concerned
with authenticity in writing. He believed that a writer could treat a subject honestly only if the writer had
participated in or observed the subject closely. Without such knowledge the writer's work would be flawed
because the reader would sense the author's lack of expertise. In addition, Hemingway believed that an
author writing about a familiar subject is able to write sparingly and eliminate a great deal of superfluous
detail from the piece without sacrificing the voice of authority. The success of his plain style in expressing
basic, yet deeply felt, emotions contributed to the decline of the elaborate Victorian-era prose that
characterized a great deal of American writing in the early 20th century. (Encyclopedia article from
Encarta of Ernest Miller Hemingway,2004) In contrast, A complex style uses long, elaborate sentences that
contain many ideas and descriptions. The writer uses lyrical passages to create the desired mood in the
reader, whether it be one of joy, sadness, confusion, or any other emotion. American author Henry
James uses a complex style to great effect in novels such as The Wings of the Dove (1902):
The two ladies who, in advance of the Swiss season, had been warned that their design was unconsidered,
that the passes would not be clear, nor the air mild, nor the inns openthe two ladies who,
characteristically had braved a good deal of possibly interested remonstrance were finding themselves, as
their adventure turned out, wonderfully sustained.
When translating Hemingway into Chinese, it is advisable for the translator to stick to the abovementioned style, though the conventional Chinese criterion for a good piece of writing thinks highly of a
flourish style with a little too much superfluity. Those who translate Chinese into English will agree with me
readily here. This stylistic distinction calls for accommodation, by which writers style is well-preserved.
And this is especially good for Chinese literary scholars for one of their focal points of study lies in the
nuances between different writers style. If the translator, for the sake of the readership, wants to make
his/her version more acceptable and appealing, I suggest that they must always bear in mind the central
principle---style. There are several translated versions of Hemingways The Old Man and the Sea in China
and apparently all versions seek to reproduce the simple and economic style. If I were asked to judge
which is a better version, I would unhesitatingly pick the one that best reflects such a style. And when
translating Henry James, the translator must be conscious of his complex sentence structure and make
accommodation accordingly.

Genre style
Encarta English dictionary defines genre as category of artistic works: one of the categories that artistic
works of all kinds can be divided into on the basis of form, style, or subject matter. From this definition
we can see genre is also closely associated with style. Literary genres cover the following: biographies and
autobiographies, childrens literature, history writing, science writing, poetry, short stories and so forth.
For example, as history is concerned the totality of all past events, historiography should try to be the
authentic written record of what is known of human lives and societies in the past, though inevitably how
historians have attempted to understand them is also included. Of all the fields of serious study and
literary effort, history may be the hardest to define precisely, because the attempt to uncover past events
and formulate an intelligible account of them necessarily involves the use and influence of many auxiliary
disciplines and literary forms. The concern of all serious historians has been to collect and record facts
about the human past and often to discover new facts. They have known that the information they have is
incomplete, partly incorrect, or biased and requires careful attention. But the foremost characteristic of
history writing is the historians effort to write in a true-to-life way. In the translation of this genre, the
translator has to accommodate to the target language style. For instance, the Chinese refers to history
writing as shibi (literally, historical pen), which defines a style of truthfulness in stating a fact and trying to
avoid personal bias. The historian only lets his/her voice heard at the end of each chapter by clearly
stating the historian says(zhuzhe yue) When dealing with historical materials from English into Chinese,
accommodation should be made according to the traditional Chinese style in order to clarify what is the
so-called historical facts and what is the historian opinion on the subject or topic.
Another genre is letter writing which has its own stylistic features. Letter writing may be broadly divided
into business and personal letters. The following example, I hope, will demonstrate how accommodation is
made to keep the style. Here is the translation of a letter of refusal of contribution.
I received your letter yesterday. Your article is very good, but I am sorry that owing to pressure of space,
I find it too long to be published. (Ge, 1980)

Without much accommodation, the translation might be read: I received your valuable letter yesterday
and I have paid my respective reading. Your article is excellent but owing to its excessive length it is not
suitable for publication in our journal because our journal has limited space. We feel very sorry for that. I
guess a native English speaker will not regard this as a good letter, or simply, good English due to its
redundant elements and too much politeness.

Historical style
In the English literature history, there were two important movements, classic and romantic movement,
which formed their own specific styles.
Classicism, when applied generally, means clearness, elegance, symmetry, and repose produced by
attention to traditional forms. It is sometimes synonymous with excellence or artistic quality of high
distinction. More precisely, the term refers to the admiration and imitation of Greek and Roman literature,
art, and architecture. Because the principles of classicism were derived from the rules and practices of the
ancients, the term came to mean the adherence to specific academic canons.
In translating this style, the translator will have to equip him/herself with wide knowledge about Greek
and Roman literature, art, and other cultural aspects so as to preserve the archaism in the target
language and to make such stylistic accommodation easy to carry out.
Although in literature romantic elements were known much earlier, as in the Elizabethan dramas, many
critics now date English literary romanticism from the publication ofWordsworth and Coleridges Lyrical
Ballads (1798). In the preface to the second edition of that influential work (1800), Wordsworth stated his
belief that poetry results from the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings, and pressed for the use of
natural everyday diction in literary works. Coleridge emphasized the importance of the poet's imagination
and discounted adherence to arbitrary literary rules. Such English romantic poets as Byron, Shelley,
Robert Burns, Keats and some others often focused on the individual self, on the poet's personal reaction
to life.
Resulting in part from the libertarian and egalitarian ideals of the French Revolution, the romantic
movements had in common only a revolt against the prescribed rules ofclassicism. The basic aims of
romanticism were various: a return to nature and to belief in the goodness of humanity; the rediscovery of
the artist as a supremely individual creator; the development of nationalistic pride; and the exaltation of
the senses and emotions over reason and intellect. (cited from the Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia)
Chinese literature history did not have a romantic movement or anything similar to that in the western
sense until modern times. Even the modern romantic style is but a simulation of the west, or at least
influenced by the western ideas. Probably that is because realism has always been the overwhelming
mainstream. There were indeed some romantic literary figures occasionally but they were never as
popularly accepted. This is where accommodation is needed urgently in translation of this group of
authors. Translators are faced with a dilemma---too much accommodation to meet the readers reading
tradition means traitors of the original whereas inadequate accommodation simply drives the readers
away. It is the job or responsibility of the translator to find the appropriate place between these two ends.
Yet such stylistic accommodation must always occupy an important position in the translators mind.

Epilouge
It is my hope that my article on style and stylistic translation could bring about more similar research and
study so its importance in translation should be fully realized.

References
1. Lynch, Jack: 2001. Guide to Style and Grammar. www.andromeda.rutgers.edu
2. Nida,E: 1984. On Translation. Translation Publishing Corp. Beijing, China.
3. Wilss, Wolfram: 2001. The Science of Translation- Problems and Methods. Shanghai Foreign Education
Publishing House.

4. Hardy, Thomas," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2004.http://encarta.msn.com 1997-2004

Microsoft Corporation.
5. Hemingway, Ernest Miller, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2004.http://encarta.msn.com
1997-2004 Microsoft Corporation.
6. James, Henry: 1902. The Wings of the Dove. The Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
1992.
7. Romanticism and classicism. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright 2004,
Columbia University Press.

Chapter 13: Language & style - translation

In the previous three chapters on Language & Style we look at structures, words and grammar. In this, the
final chapter in this section, we look at these issues in the context of reporting and writing across different
languages, some of the challenges of translation and some of the main dangers to look out for.
__________________________________________________________
If you are a journalist working in a multilingual society, you may have to work in more than one language. Whether you
gather the information in one language and write the story in another, or whether you write a story first in one language
and then rewrite in another language, you face the task of translation. However, if you have a good command of both
languages and follow a few simple rules, translation should not be difficult.
The previous three chapters on language and style have looked at structure, words and grammar. In this, the final
chapter in this section, we provide some general guidance when working in more than one language. This is written only
in English, but the processes we describe always involves two or more languages. It is possible that English will not be
one of the languages you work in when translating. To avoid confusion, we will call the language which you are
translating from (or conducting interviews in) the source language; and we will call the language you are
translating into (or writing the final story in) the target language.

The principles of translation

The first thing to remember is that translation is the transfer of meaning from one language to another. It is not the
transfer of words from language to language. You must translate the meaning of what is being said, rather than do it
word-for-word. This is because languages are not just different words. Different languages also have different grammar,
different word orders, sometimes even words for which other languages do not have any equivalents. The English
spoken by a scientist may have words which a simple farmer cannot even start to imagine. And the farmer is likely to
have words for things the technologist never dreamed of.

Simple steps in translation

We will start by talking about the simplest form of translation - the one where you already have a story written down in
one language (the source) and you want to translate it into another language (the target). The steps to follow are:
1.

Read the whole of the original source story through from beginning to end, to make sure that you can
understand it. If you cannot understand everything that is said, you cannot translate it. If there are any words
or phrases that you do not understand, you must clarify these first. You may decide that the ideas they express
are too difficult to translate or not worth translating, but you need to know what they are before you can judge.

2.

Do a first draft translation, trying to translate all the source material. But do not translate word-for-word.
Remember that you are translating the meaning. When you have finished the first translation, you will now have
a draft story in the target language.

3.

Go back over the whole of your draft translation and polish it without looking at the source original. (You might
even like to turn the source story face down on your desk so you cannot cheat.) Make sure that your translation
reads well in the target language.

4.

Compare the final version of your translation with the source original to make sure that you have translated it
accurately. This is when you can make any detailed adjustments in individual words or phrases.

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False friends
Beware of words or phrases we call "false friends". These are words in the original source language which you retain in
your translation, often because you cannot think of the correct translation. If you cannot think of the right word, how
can you expect your reader or listener to? Of course, languages borrow from each other all the time. If a society comes
across a new idea, it may simply use the foreign word without inventing a word of its own. Remember, however, that you
are translating meaning, not words. If you come across a word in your original language which has no equivalent in the
target language, perhaps you can use a phrase (i.e. several words) instead. For example, many languages do not have a
word for "computer". Instead of retaining the English word "computer", can you translate it as "a machine which does
brain work" or something similar? Be careful, though, that you do not try to re-invent the community's language to suit
your own way of thinking. If you have problems with translating words, consult experts or ask your colleagues to see if
you can reach agreement on the correct translation. If you are a journalist working in a small language community, the
words you decide upon could become the standard usage.
Of course, some foreign words will inevitably creep into other languages. Words like "computer" are becoming widely
accepted by speakers of non-English languages and may eventually be understood by everyone. The problem arises in
the time between the foreign word being first introduced and it being understood by everyone. During such transition
periods, use the word untranslated, but follow it immediately with a translation or explanation. For example, you might
write in your target language the equivalent of:
The provincial government is to buy computers for each of its local offices. The computers are machines which will help
office staff to keep accounts, write letters and do other jobs.
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Dictionaries
You cannot translate words in isolation. Words get their meaning from how they are used in each situation - what we call
their context. You must do a contextual translation. You should use a bilingual dictionary where one is available, but be
careful when looking up translations for individual words. Dictionaries are useful, but there is very often more than one
translation for individual words. The best dictionary is one which defines the word in its various contexts. For example, a
simple English word like "skip" has several quite different meanings. It can mean any of the following, depending on the
context: to move lightly, especially by jumping from one foot to another; to omit or leave something out; to deal with
something quickly and without much thought; a large container for transporting building materials, especially waste. It
can even be short for "skipper", the captain of a ship or sports team. You can see that using the wrong translation of
"skip" could have some unfortunate results.
Listen to the little voice in your head if it tells you that a translation seems strange. It is better to ask advice than to
write something silly. You may not know all the uses for each word, especially slang words which you cannot find in
dictionaries. For example, mechanics often refer to an adjustable spanner as a "monkey wrench", when it has nothing to
do with monkeys.
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Writing style
You do not have to be an expert in linguistics to make good translations. If you know your target language well, you can
usually hear in your head whether the sentence sounds correct in your translation.
Your translation should not try to duplicate the word order or grammatical construction used in the source language
unless it is also correct in your target language. For example, some languages put the verb (the "doing word") at the
beginning of a sentence, some in the middle and some at the very end.
You do not have to use all the words from your source material for translation if your target language can cope without
them. For example, we may say in English "The ship sank lower in the water", whereas in another language the words
"in the water" may be unnecessary because the words for "sink" in relation to "ship" already includes the idea of
"water".

Also, do not be afraid of using more words in your translation than in the original. Although in journalism you should aim
to keep your sentences short and crisp, this must not be allowed to interfere with the clarity of the ideas you are trying
to communicate.
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Some other problem areas

Translation is a very big and complicated field which we cannot discuss in great detail here. However, the following are
some other problem areas you might want to keep in mind:

Understatements and euphemisms

Be aware of the cultural differences in languages. Some languages like to hide unpleasant facts beneath
understatements or euphemism. Euphemisms are mild or inoffensive words which are used in the place of harsh or
hurtful words.
Some speakers might use humour in one situation which another language would not permit. Again, you must
understand the meaning in context.

Linking words
Words such as "although", "but", "from", "even" and a host of others are usually very important in English, as they are
used to show the relationships between the words in your sentences. Getting these small words wrong can alter entirely
the sense of the sentence.

Verbs
These can sometimes cause problems in their different forms. There are, for example, quite distinct meanings for the
words "can", "may", "must" and "should". If you are not sure, it is best to avoid the construction altogether and say it a
different way.

Accuracy
Some languages are more accurate than others in certain areas. For example, many language groups in Papua New
Guinea have more than 10 different words for varieties of sweet potato. The Inuit Indians of Canada have different
words for 20 separate things which in English we just call "snow".
English is not a precise language in many areas. Be aware that a vagueness in English may not be acceptable in another
language. For example, we can say "Doctor Smith" in English, whereas in Chinese we have to know the gender of the
doctor to translate the word "doctor".

Ambiguity
Sometimes the exact meaning in the source language is left unclear (ambiguous) on purpose, in which case you should
try to keep it that way. This is especially so when reporting claims, accusations and hearsay evidence in such things as
police stories. For example, a person might be charged in English with "unlawful carnal knowledge", which usually means
a sexual offence against a person under the age of consent. You should not translate that as "rape of a child" or "sodomy
of a little boy" or any other specific sexual act unless that is part of the charge. It is better in this case to use a phrase
similar to "a sexual offence against a young person".
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Names and titles

There is still a debate about the need or otherwise of translating names from one language into another. For example,
would you retain the English title "Education Department" or translate it into something like "office for schools"? Of
course, a lot depends on how the rest of your community use the term, especially those people who are most closely
involved, such as the Education Department itself. Your newspaper, radio or television station may have a policy on this.
If not, perhaps you should get together to decide on a policy, taking into account how the community in general deals
with names and titles. Get a large, hard-bound exercise book for the newsdesk, thumb-indexed A to Z down the side.
You can call this your Translation Style Guide. Once you have agreed on the correct translation for any problem word,
enter the word with its translation on to the correct page in the book. Revise the book every so often to make sure that
all the entries are still relevant. If your newsroom computers are networked, create a common file which everyone can
access.
There are two ways people use names (or titles). The first is to identify the place or person, the second is

to describe their function. It is usual to leave untranslated names which act as signposts for people, but translate those
names which describe a function. For example, you would not translate the word "Baker" in the name "Baker Street",
because it acts as a signpost, but you would probably translate the name "Police Station".
If a language used by your community is also used elsewhere in the world, you should remain aware of how it is spoken
in other countries. For example, French may be commonly used in your society, so you need to keep up-to-date with
how French is used in other French-speaking countries. Remember that all languages change, especially in their
motherland. Constantly refresh your understanding of the way the language is developing both in your own society and
elsewhere.
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Translation during news gathering

So far, we have talked mainly about rewriting a story in one language into a story in another language. But your work
may involve interviewing in one language and writing the story itself in another language. For example, your newspaper
may be printed in English, but you have to interview a villager in his mother tongue which is not English.
The best way of doing this is to conduct the interview in the villager's language and make your notes in that language
too. You can then translate your quotes into English as you write your story. This method means that, while you are
conducting the interview, you can ask questions in the villager's language to clarify any doubtful points. You can also
check your story back with him in his language to make sure you have the facts correct.
However, some languages may have been written down only recently and so may not have a clear and easy written form
in which to make your notes. If this is so, and if you are fluent in both languages, you may be able to listen in the
villager's language while making your notes in English. You are translating as you listen and write. This may work
perfectly well, but a word of warning: Trying to translate while also concentrating on what the villager is saying may
introduce errors into your notes. Ask the villager to slow down a little so that you can make your notes, then check your
notes at the end of the interview by translating them back into the villager's language for him. Radio and television
journalists can overcome this problem by using their tape recorders, but newspaper reporters might also find a tape
recorder useful in such situations. You should still make notes, but have a tape recorder running at the same time so
that you can check later to make sure that you made the correct translation during the interview. (See Chapter 16:
Interviewing basics.)
There is one final complication of which you must be aware. This comes when you are interviewing in a source language,
writing your story in a target language and then having to translate the same story back into the source language. This
might occur if you have to produce a special language bulletin or an edition of your newspaper in the source language.
The danger is that you might not get an exact translation back into the source language, and so you might misquote
someone. When writing a story which has to be translated twice, always refer back to your original notes when writing
your second story, so that you can get the quotes exactly right.

TO SUMMARISE:
As this is the last of the four chapters on Language & Style, lets look back at the main lessons we've learned in this
section:

You must keep your language clear and simple so that your readers or listeners can understand.

Sentences should be short - no longer than 20 words or three concepts (ideas). Sentence structure
should be simple; it is best to write in the active voice.

Explain any new words whenever you use them.

Avoid jargon, unnecessary words and clichs.

Check all your work to make sure that everything you write obeys the rules of grammar and
punctuation.

When translating, translate the meaning of sentences, not the individual words.

Always keep your readers or listeners in mind whatever you write.

Translation Style
It is important not only to translate the idea raised by the original document in another language, but also
to ensure that the translation has a writing style to facilitate reading and understanding of the idea.
To succeed in acquiring a good style of writing or for the client to notice it, here are some things to keep in
mind:
* Read the original text: we must pay attention to the writing style used by the author: it is casual or
formal? Here we must identify with the author by using empathy.
* Research on the topic is essential to make full use of the Internet, encyclopedias, reference works, etc.
There are plenty of dictionaries, news sites, monographs and books. This research should be based on
trusted sources.
* Academic knowledge: specialization of the translator adds weight to his style.
* Translate the text: the translators translate into their native language. The difference between cultures
and countries is significant and professional translators make the effort to take into account differences in
language between the different regions.
When you come across the problem of a word with great ambiguity, the context alone provides the
solution. Most words have different meanings, so its important to have context.
A simple translation style is more impressive and convincing. Well-constructed short sentences are ideal.
Keep in mind that the clichs do not usually match between most languages.
If there is any expression that does not sound good in the original text, simply seek clarification with a
timely question to the customer.