Introduction To Computers: Prepared by

Introduction to Computers
Prepared By
Anupam Jamatia
National Institute of Technology,Agartala
Computer Science & Engineering Department
anupamjamatia@gmail.com
February 17, 2015
Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)
Introduction to Programming
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Introduction
A computer is an electronic machine, devised for performing calculations and controlling operations that can be expressed either in logical
or numerical terms.
It covers a huge area of applications including education, industries,
government, medicine, scientific research, law, and even music and
arts.
Computers are one of the most influential forces available in modern
times. Millions of complex calculations can be done in mere fraction
of time; difficult decisions can be made with unerring accuracy for
comparatively little cost.
Computers have left such an impression on modern civilization that we
call this era as the information age.
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Characteristics of Computers
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Evolution of Computers
Sand Tables: It is known as
the earliest device for computation. A sand table consists
of three grooves in the sand
with a maximum of 10 pebbles
in each groove. To increase
the count by one, a pebble
has to be added in the right
hand groove. When ten pebbles were collected in the right
groove, they were removed
and one pebble was added to
the adjacent left groove.
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Evolution of Computers...Cont.
Abacus: The word abacus was derived from Arabic word abaq which
means dust. An abacus consists of sliding beads arranged on a rack,
which has two parts: The upper part contains two beads and lower part
contains five beads per wire. In the lower part, a raised bead stands for
1 and a lowered bead for 0. The arithmetic operations like addition and
subtraction can be performed by positioning the beads appropriately.
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Napier Bones: This was a small instrument made of 10 rods on which

the multiplication table was engraved. It was made of the strips of
ivory bones, and so the name Napier bones. This device enabled the
multiplication in a fast manner.
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Slide Rule: It was jointly devised by two British mathematicians, Edmund Gunter and William Oughtred. It was based on the principle
that actual distances from the starting point of the rule is directly
proportional to the logarithm of the numbers printed on the rule.
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Pascaline: In AD 1642, French mathematician, scientist, and philosopher, Blaise Pascal, invented the first functional automatic calculator.
It had a complex arrangement of wheels, gears, and windows for displaying numbers. It was operated by a series of dials attached to wheels
that had the numbers zero to nine on their circumference. The usage
of this device was limited to addition and subtraction only.
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Stepped Reckoner: German mathematician Gottfried Wilhem von
Leibniz extended the Pascals design to perform multiplication,
division, and to find square root. This machine is known as Stepped
Reckoner. It was the first mass-produced calculating device, to
perform multiplication by repeated addition. However, it lacked
mechanical precision in its construction and was not very reliable.
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Punch Card System: Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a power loom
with an automatic card reader in 1801. This power loom used a series
of cards with holes punched at different positions. The presence or
absence of a hole in a punched card represented the two digits of the
binary system, which is the base for all modern digital computers.
Some other computers that were developed are:

Difference Engine
Analytical Engine
Holleriths Tabulator
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Some Early Computers

MARK-I Computer
ABC Computer
COLOSSUS
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer)
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator )
UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer)
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Generations of Computers
First Generation (194056) Vacuum Tubes: These computers used
vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. The
input was based on punched cards and paper tape and the output was
in the form of printouts. First generation computers relied on binarycoded language also called machine language (language of 0s and 1s)
to perform operations and were able to solve only one problem at a
time. Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC, and UNIVAC.
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Generations of Computers...Cont.
Second Generation (195663) Transistors: Second generation computers used transistors, which were superior to vacuum tubes. A transistor is made up of semiconductor material like germanium and silicon.
It usually had three leads and performed electrical functions such as
voltage, current or power amplification with low power requirements.
However, they still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output. For example: PDP-8, IBM 1401 and IBM 7090.
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Third Generation (1964Early 1970s) Integrated Circuits: The development of the integrated circuit (IC) was the trait of the third
generation computers. It consists of a single chip (usually silicon) with
many components such as transistors and resistors fabricated on it.
Integrated circuits replaced several individually wired transistors. This
allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with
a central program that monitored the memory. Examples: NCR 395
and B6500.
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Fourth Generation (Early 1970sTill Date) Microprocessors: Fourth
generation computers led to an era of Large Scale Integration (LSI)
and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology. VLSI squeezed
hundreds of thousands of components on to a single chip. As a result,
it gave rise to the personal computer (PC) revolution. This generation also saw the development of the GUIs (Graphical User Interfaces),
mouse, and handheld devices. Examples: Apple II, Altair 8800, and
CRAY-1.
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Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence:

The starting point for the fifth generation of computers had been set
in the early 1990s. The process of developing fifth generation computers is still in the development stage. Three characteristics of the fifth
generation computers are:
Mega Chips
Parallel Processing
Artificial Intelligence
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Classification of Computers
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The Computer System
A computer can be viewed as a system, which consists of a number of

interrelated components that work together with the aim of converting data
into information. To attain information, data is entered through input
unit, processed by central processing unit (CPU), and displayed through
output unit. In addition, computers require memory to process data and
store output. All these parts (the central processing unit, input, output, and
memory unit) are referred to as the hardware of the computer.
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The Computer System...Cont.
Figure : Components of Computer System
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Applicarions of Computer System
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Basics of Computer Architecture
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Central Processing Unit

Computer architecture is defined as the science of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet
functional, performance, and cost goals.
The CPU or the microprocessor (or simply processor) is referred to
as the brain of a computer system; it is a VLSI chip inside the system,
plugged onto the motherboard.
The central processing unit consists of following three main subsystems:
Control Unit
Arithmetic/Logic Unit
Registers
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Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) contains the electronic circuitry that

executes all arithmetic and logical operations on the data made available to it.
ALU comprises two units:
Arithmetic Unit: Contains the circuitry that is responsible for performing
the actual computing and carrying out the arithmetic calculations, such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Logic Unit: Enables the CPU to make logical operations based on the
instructions provided to it. Logical operations of logic unit test for three
conditions: Equal-to , Less-than , Greater-than.
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Registers
Registers are special purpose, high-speed temporary memory units.
These are temporary storage areas for holding various types of information such as data, instructions, addresses, and the intermediate results
of calculations.
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Registers...Cont.
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Control Unit
It controls the I/O devices and transfer of data to and from the
primary storage.
It repeats a set of following basic operations: fetching , decoding ,
executing and storing
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Main Memory Unit

Memory is that part of the computer that holds data and
instructions for processing.
Memory stores program instructions or data for only as long as the
program they pertain to is in operation.
Two types of primary memory are:
Random Access Memory (RAM): Random access memory directly
provides the required information to the processor. It is volatile in nature. RAM can be further divided into two categories: Dynamic Random
Access Memory (DRAM) and Static Random Access Memory (SRAM).
Read Only Memory (ROM): CPU can only read from any location in
the ROM but cannot write. ROM stores the initial start-up instructions
and routines in BIOS (Basic Input/Output System), which can only be
read by the CPU, each time it is switched on The instructions in ROM
are built into the electronic circuits of the chip, called firmware. ROM
is also random access in nature, which means the CPU can randomly
access any location within ROM.
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Interconnection of Units
The interconnection between the CPU (CU, ALU, and registers),
memory unit, and the I/O devices, which constitute the entire
computer system is shown as:
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Interconnection of Units...Cont.
System Bus
A bus is a set of connections between two or more
components/devices, which are designed to transfer several/all bits of
a word from source to destination.
A bus consists of multiple paths, which are also termed as lines and
each line is capable of transferring one bit at a time. These lines are
broadly categorised into three functional groups:
Data Bus
Address Bus
Control Bus
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Cache Memory
A cache is a piece of very fast memory, made from high-speed static
RAM that reduces the time of accessing data. It is very expensive
and generally incorporated in the processor, where valuable data and
program segments are kept. This enables the processor to access data
quickly whenever it is needed.
The cache facilitates the system to catch up with the processors speed.
The cache fetches the frequently used data from the DRAM, and buffers
(stores) it for further processor usage.
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The Instruction Format

Each instruction is composed of two parts: the op-code and the
operand.
Instructions are usually divided as:

Data Transfer Instructions: Used to transfer or copy data from one
location to another either in the registers or in external main memory.
Arithmetic Instructions: Used to perform operations on numerical
data.
Logical Instructions: Used to perform Boolean operations on nonnumerical data.
Program Control Instructions: Used to change the sequence of program execution.
Input-output Instructions: Used to transfer data from and to I/O
devices.
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The Instruction Format...Cont.
The Instruction Cycle

The instruction cycle details the sequence of events that takes place as
an instruction is read from memory and executed.
A simple instruction cycle would consist of the following steps:
Fetch Cycle: Fetching the instruction from the memory.
Decode Cycle: Decoding the instruction.
Execute Cycle: Executing the instruction.
Store Cycle: Storing the result back to the memory.
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Figure : The instruction cycle

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Instruction Set
Processors are built with the ability to execute a limited set of basic
operations. The collections of these operations are known as the of
processors instruction set.
Two common types of architectures are:
1
2
Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
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Multiprocessor Systems
Computer systems that include more than one processor are called
multiprocessor systems or parallel systems.
In a multiprocessing system, two or more independent processors are
linked together in a coordinated manner.
Multiprocessor systems have the advantage of redundancy (faulttolerance), if one processor fails then the system keeps on functioning,
though at a slower speed.
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QnA
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Introduction to Computers

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Napier Bones: This was a small instrument made of 10 rods on which

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Some other computers that were developed are:

February 17, 2015

Some Early Computers

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence:

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

The Computer System

A computer can be viewed as a system, which consists of a number of

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

The Computer System...Cont.

Figure : Components of Computer System

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Applicarions of Computer System

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Basics of Computer Architecture

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Central Processing Unit

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)

The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) contains the electronic circuitry that

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)

February 17, 2015

Anupam Jamatia (CSE Deptt,NIT Agartala)