UP 2 CH 21 E Force

21 Electrostatic Force
Amber, which is resin that oozed from trees long ago and hardened, has been admired
both for its beauty and its ability to preserve early life forms mired in it . Amber is also
scientifically important because it played a key role in the development of our knowledge
that there are only two types of electrical charge, positive and negative.
How do we know that there are only two types of charge?
The evidence is in this chapter.
Introduction
We have already learned how the forces acting on objects affect motion and we have a
short list of forces with which we are familiar. For example, we learned about the
gravitational force, an action-at-a-distance force, that objects can exert on each other
without touching. In this chapter, we will investigate a new force. It is another action-ata-distance force called the electrostatic force. Studying the electrostatic force will
provide a foundation for understanding the very important phenomenon of electricity.
Over the course of the next several chapters, we will gain insight into the fundamental
relationship between electricity and magnetism that is at the core of electric power
generation and most of our favorite electrical devices.
Learning Goals
After reading and working through this chapter you should be able to:
Describe how we know whether an object is positively charged, negatively

charged or electrically neutral. (21-1)
Connect characteristics of the structure of an atom to macroscopic charging
phenomena. (21-2)
Explain the mechanism by which electrically neutral objects are attracted to
charged objects and how one can use induction to charge a conductor. (21-3)
Use Coulombs law to calculate the electrostatic force due to one or more point
charges. (21-4)
Compare, contrast and connect the electrostatic force with other forces. (21-5)
Do you remember?
We are at the very start of our exploration of a unified collection of topics known as
electromagnetism or E&M. This is the first of thirteen chapters in which we will be
working through these materials. Because this is the first chapter, there is not much
information directly related to the topic that we might review. However, this chapter
focuses on a force. So, issues associated with dealing with vectors are again important
and you may not have thought about that for a while.
We use two representations for vectors in this book. The first is unit-vector notation and
the second is magnitude-angle notation. You will be more comfortable working through
the new material on electromagnetism if you make sure that you can still quickly and
accurately represent a vector in both ways and go back and forth between the two
representations.
In unit vector notation, we write a vector a as a = ax i + a y j + az k where the quantities
ax i + a y j and az k are vectors called the component vectors of a .

a = ax + a y + az ax i + a y j + az k.
vector
component
vectors
components and unit vectors
Remember, the symbols a and a provide alternate notations for the magnitude of a ,
and ax and ay are the x- and y-components of a , respectively. is the angle that the
vector a makes with the positive direction of the x axis.
Figure 21-1 shows vector a and its x- and y-component vectors form a right triangle.
This figure implies that if we know the components of a vector, we can find the
magnitude of the vector algebraically using the Pythagorean theorem. For example,
a a
ax2 a 2y . The magnitude of a three-dimensional vector is
a= a
ax2 a 2y az2 .
ax
ay
ay
Fig. 21-2: The relationship between a two-dimensional vector with magnitude and angle shown and the
ax components.
vectors
If we know the components of a vector, we can find the angle the vector makes with
some reference line, for example, the horizontal axis or due north, using the definition of
sine, cosine or tangent If Fig. 21-2, we see that
Tan
ay
ax
and
cos =
ax
a
and
Sin
ay
a
To specifiy a vector in magnitude angle notation we need to give both the

magnitude and the angle. What if we have these two pieces of information and what to
get the vector in unit vector notation. That is, we know magnitude and angel and what to
get the components of the vector. Again, as Fig. 21-2 implies, we can find the value of
the components of a using the sine and cosine relations. For example,
cos =
ay
ax
and sin = ,
a
a
Rearranging these relationships, we find
ax = a cos
and a y = a sin .
21-1 Discovering Charge and the Electrostatic Force

Clearly, the phenomenon of electricity plays a major role in modern life. If you lose
power for several days, just how major a role becomes even more obvious. We use
electricity all the time. But, what is it?
The early Greeks were the first to ask this question. They knew that amber, which is a
hardened tree resin that is yellow-brown in color, had strange properties. For example, if
one rubbed a piece of amber with fur it would attract bits of straw. The strength of the
attraction decreased as the distance between the amber and the straw was increased. The
strength of the attraction was also known to fade over time, especially in damp weather.
By the 1600s, it had been discovered that other materials, including glass, behave the
same way and the phenomenon was named electrification. That term is derived from the
Greek word for amber, which is electron. Here, we define an object to be electrified or
electrically charged if:
1. There is a noticeable interaction force between the object and another that is present
only after the objects have touched or have been rubbed.
2. The magnitude of this interaction force diminishes with time and is affected by humid
weather; and
3. The magnitude of the force decreases with increasing distance between the objects.
We call the interaction force between objects describe above the electrostatic force. In
the early 1700s, a French scientist, Charles DuFay was intrigued by the similarities
between electrified glass and electrified amber and did more careful studies. In 1733 he
published articles presenting evidence that:
Two amber rods stroked with fur always repel one another.
Two glass rods stroked with silk always repel one another.
A stroked amber rod attracts a stroked glass rod (Fig. 21-1).
FIGURE 21-1 Interactions between charged objects.
Not all materials can be electrically charged to any noticeable extent. But, to this day,
every material we have found that can be electrically charged behaves either like amber
or like glass. That is, any material that we can charge will either
A)
B)
act like amber, repelling charged amber and attracting charged glass. Or
act like glass, repelling charged glass and attracting charged amber.
Plastic, for example, behaves like amber. Rub a piece of plastic with fur and it will repel
other pieces of plastic that have been rubbed with fur. But, the electrically charged
plastic will attract glass that has been rubbed with silk, just like amber.
These observations imply that all materials can be sorted into just two groups based on
their electrical interactions with other material: glass like materials and amber or plastic
like materials. We cannot prove directly that there are no other types of materials.
However, the fact that no one has found a charged object that, for example, attracts both
charged glass and charged amber, leads us to believe that there is no third type of
charging.
Today, the terms we associate with these two categories of charged matter are positively
charged and negatively charged. Benjamin Franklin is responsible for assigning these
names. He introduced the following definitions:
An object that is repelled by a glass rod rubbed with silk is positively charged.
An object that is repelled by amber rubbed with fur is negatively charged.
The names given to the two varieties of charge are arbitrary. Benjamin Franklin could
just as easily have used other words, such as light and dark, to distinguish between the
two types of charged objects. However, we also observe that equal amounts of the
positive and negative charges combine to produce electrically neutral matter. That is, the
two types of charge combine algebraicallylike positive and negative numbers. So,
positive and negative are very convenient names.
DuFays observations from above combined with the observations and experiments of
others also lead us to believe that:
Two identical objects that are electrically charged using the same process, for
example rubbing with silk, repel one another.
Two different electrically charged objects will interact, but they may either repel
or attract one another.
Any two objects that have not been electrified will neither repel nor attract one
another. They interact only by means of an imperceptibly small gravitational
force.
The process by which an object becomes electrically charged, for example, rubbing with
fur, is called charging.
Provided the weather is not too humid, you may be able to confirm these observations
yourself. Grab two Styrofoam cups and two plastic sandwich bags. Place your hand
inside a plastic bag and rub the plastic bag vigorously over the entire surface of the
Styrofoam cup. Then rub the other Styrofoam cup with a second sandwich bag in the
same manner. If you put one of the cups on its side on a smooth, level, nonmetallic
surface and bring the other cup near it, the first cup should roll away as shown in Fig. 212a. That is, after the two cups have been electrified in a like manner they repel one
another. Now hold the two plastic bags together at the top end. Both plastic bags have
also been charged in a like manner and they repel one another as well as shown in Fig.
21-2b. However, an electrically charged sandwich bag and an electrically charged
Styrofoam cup will be attracted to each other just as electrified amber attracts electrified
glass. If you dont have Styrofoam cups, balloons rubbed with wool work too.
FIGURE 21-2 (a) Two Styrofoam cups electrified in the same way repel each other. (b) The two sandwich
bags used to electrify the cups also repel each other.
Pulling these observations together we note that identical objects charged in the same
way will have the same type of charge and repel one another. Any charged object that
attracts them must have the opposite type of charge-by definition. So, generalizing these
observations we conclude:
Oppositely charged objects attract one another.
Similarly charged objects repel one another.
A negatively charged object will repel a negatively charged object. A positively charged
object will repel another positively charged object. But, the negatively and positively
charged objects will attract each other.
CHECK POINT 21-1

In Fig. 21-3, objects made of different materials are arranged in four pairs. A is plastic
stroked with fur, B is glass stroked with silk, and C is an object that has not been
charged. In each case, state whether the top object in the pair will experience an
upward force, a downward force or no force due to its electrical interaction with the
bottom object.
A
Fig. 21-3 CheckPoint 21-1
Answers are at the end of the chapter.
21-2
For extra practice try XX
Using Atomic Theory to Explain Charging
Now, suppose you have electrically charged two Styrofoam cups so they repel each other.
What happens if you rub one of the cups some more? You should observe that the
magnitude of the interaction forces between the cups increases. One logical way of
interpreting this is to assume that something is added or removed from an object during
the charging process. Extensive experiments done at the end of the 18th century indicate
that this is correct. But, it is easiest to understand what is going during the charging
process (rubbing) using a contemporary understanding of the atomic structure of matter.
According to modern atomic structure theory, atoms consist of positively charged
protons, negatively charged electrons, and electrically neutral neutrons. Electrons and
protons have the same amount of charge but they have opposite signs. We represent this
amount of charge, called the elementary charge, with an e .
e =1.6x10-19 C
Hence, as shown in Table 21-1, an electron has a charge of 1e and a proton has a charge
of + 1e. The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C), named for Charles Augustin Coulomb,
who studied electric forces in the late 1700s.
It turns out that most of the atoms that are contained in matter have equal numbers
of electrons and protons. And, whenever a charged object is at some distance away from
such atoms, they do not interact with the charged object electrically. That is, the atom
appears to be electrically neutral. This leads us to a better definition of electrically
neutral. Electrically neutral objects contain equal numbers of positive protons and
negative electrons. This results in a cancellation of their electrical effects but it is
important to remember,
Macroscopic objects that are electrically neutral are not devoid of charge.
So, when we say an object is charged, what we really mean is there is a charge
imbalance. Since the number of electrons and protons is balanced in electrically neutral
objects, the object has no net charge or a zero net charge. The net charge on an object is
the simple sum of the total positive charge it contains and the total negative charge it
contains.
TABLE 21-1
The Three Fundamental Atomic Particles
Particle
Symbol
Charge
Mass
Electron
e = -1.6x10-19 C
9.11 x 10-31 kg
Proton
+ e= +1.6x10-19 C
1.67 x 10-27 kg
Neutron
1.67 x 10-27 kg
Note: The symbols for electron and for the elementary charge are almost the same. This
can be confusing.
Source: universe-review.ca
FIGURE 21-4 A sketch of the current view of the structure an atom.
We use to have a solar system view of what an atom might look like. The nucleus
was at the center of the atom and planet-like electrons orbited it in well-defined rings.
The current model, depicted in Fig. 21-4 has evolved a bit but still maintains some of the
key features. The much heavier protons and neutrons are tightly bound together in a
central nucleus. The lighter electrons are still believed to lie outside the nucleus.
However, rather than orbiting the nucleus in well-defined paths, we view them as existing
in a sort of a cloud.
In many types of materials the outer electrons are easily shared between atoms and
are even fairly free to wander if they experience forces. We call mobile electrons
conduction electrons. If an electric or other force is applied to the atom, only the
conduction electrons, with their negative charges, move appreciably. The much more
massive and tightly bound protons stay fixed in place.
Charging is a Transfer of Electrons

Because the electrons are light, more loosely bound and farther out than protons, it is not
surprising that they are the particles involved in charging. In ordinary matter, positive
charge is just much less mobile than negative charge. In general, experiment shows that
an object becomes charged when electrons with their negative charge are transferred
from one object to another. This is why we must rub, or otherwise make significant
contact between two objects for the objects to become charged. It also means that, an
object becomes positively charged through the removal of negatively charged electrons
rather than through the addition of positively charged protons
Glass and silk or Styrofoam and plastic become oppositely charged when they are
brought into contact. We can use our modern understanding of the atom to explain why.
Suppose we observe that Styrofoam becomes positively charged and plastic becomes
negatively charged. It is logical to assume that outer electrons associated with atoms in
the Styrofoam are attracted to the atoms in the plastic and move over to the plastic. The
Styrofoam is now missing electrons so there is a net positive charge on the Styrofoam.
The plastic now has excess electrons and has a net negative charge. This transfer of
electrons and the associated charge is shown in Fig. 21-5.
According to contemporary atomic theory, electric charge is an intrinsic characteristic
of electrons and protons. You should, however, keep in mind that experiments show
electrons and protons are the basic substances. Charge and mass are simply two of their
fundamental properties.
Fig. 21-5: The transfer of electrons during rubbing.
Conductors and Insulators

In materials such as metals and water some of the electrons move relatively easily. In
other materials, such as glass, plastic and amber the electrons move much less freely.
How do we know this? We observe that find we can charge non-metallic materials like
glass, plastic and amber while holding them in our hands. Metal objects can be charged
only when mounted on nonmetal objects such as glass or plastic. They cannot be charged
while being held in your hand. Touching charged nonmetal objects with your finger or a
piece of metal does not immediately remove all of the excess charge on the object. On
the other hand, when metal objects are touched with your finger or a second metal object
they immediately lose all of their charge. When an object losses all of its excess charge
we say the object is discharged. Current is a flow of charge through a material.
Materials in which some of the electrons move relatively easily from atom to atom
and current flows well are called conductors. Materials in which the electrons do not
readily move from atom to atom and current flows poorly are called insulators. The
observations discussed above give us a very functional way to determine whether a
material is a conductor or an insulator. If you have two interacting charged objects and
you touch them, do the objects stop interacting? If so, charge must have been transferred
to or from the objects. Hence, it must be a conductor. If the transfer of charge does not
occur, the object must be an insulator.
Charge Is Quantized
Any positive or negative charge q that has ever been detected as a free particle can be
written in the form
q ne, n 1, 2, 3, ...,
Relationshipe between net charge and elementary charge
(21-1)
where q is the net charge, n is a whole number and the elementary charge
e 1.60 1019 C.
This is consistent with our model of charging as a transfer of electrons. It is
possible, for example, to find a free particle that has no charge at all or a charge of +10e
or 6e, but not a free particle with a charge of, say, 3.57e. When a physical quantity
such as charge can have only discrete values rather than any arbitrary value, we say that
the quantity is quantized. What is this free particle stuff? Modern studies of the
structure of neutrons and protons have produced strong evidence that neutrons and
protons are made up of tightly bound particles with charges +2/3e and l/3e that we call
quarks, but quarks do not seem to be able to exist as free particles.
Charge is quantized. In free particles charge has never been measured to have an amount
other than an integer multiple of 1.60 1019 C.
Charge Is Conserved
Careful measurements reveal that whenever there is excess charge on one of the objects
after contact, there are excess charges on the other object too. These charges are equal in
amount but opposite in sign. This is consistent with the idea that when electrons are
transferred from one object to another, no electrons are destroyed or created in the
process. The amount of charge contained in the two objects is constant or conserved. This
hypothesis of conservation of charge was first proposed by Benjamin Franklin based on
his experiments. It is observed to hold both for large-scale charged bodies and for atoms,
nuclei, and elementary particles. No exceptions have ever been found.
The total amount of electric charge in the universe is conserved. Although particles
that carry charge can be transferred from one object to another, the charge associated
with particles cannot be created or destroyed.
CHECK POINT 21-2

(a)Suppose that you take a plastic rod and rub it fur. Both the fur and rod start out
electrically neutral. But, after rubbing you find the plastic rod has a negative charge of
1 C . Rank the following objects according to the net charge they contain from most
positive to most negative. If there is not enough information to determine the net
charge on the object, state that.
A) The rod
B) The fur
C) An object with a net charge of +2 C
D) An object with a net charge of -2 C
E) 6.8 x 1012 electrons
(b) Is 6.8 x 1012 electrons a whole (integer) number of electrons? Does it need to be?
EXAMPLE 21-1:
Charging is the transfer of electrons.
If youve ever gone to a gas station to fill a gas can, you may have noticed the sign that
tells you to take the gas can out of your car and place it on the ground before you fill it
with gasoline. Why is this important? If the can is not touching the ground, enough
charge can build up on the can to create a spark, igniting any fumes. Suppose the
magnitude of the charge deposited on a can is 1.0 C. (a) How many electrons is this?
(b) By how much does the mass of the gas can increase due to the charge build up
alone?
SOLUTION
Categorization
This is a problem that connects the transfer of electrons to the development of a net
charge on an object and changes in the objects mass.
Principles and Equations
Each electron that is transferred to the gas can carries with it a charge of -1.6 x 10-19 C
and 9.11 x10-31 kg in additional mass. The magnitude of the net charge on an object is
equal to the number of excess electrons or protons multiplied by the fundamental unit of
charge e = 1.6 x 10-19 C. q ne . The change in the mass of the can will be the number
of electrons transferred multiplied by the mass of the electron.
Computation
(a) The magnitude of the total charge on the can is 10 C. So we have
q ne
10 x106 n(1.6 x1019 )
n 6.25 x1013 electrons.
(b) The total mass of these electrons is
total mass n(9.11x1031 kg) 6.25 x1013 (9.11x1031 kg)

total mass 5.69 x1017 kg
Expect and Check
Expect: We expect the number of electrons transferred to be a whole number. (It is not
possible to transfer a fraction of an electron). And, we expect the mass change to be very
small. Check: 6.25x1013 electrons is 62,500,000,000,000 electrons (62 trillion-500
million). This is a large, but whole number, so that this good. There would have been a
problem with a number like 6.25x10-13 electrons. A mass of 5.69 x1017 kg or
.0000000000000569 grams is indeed very small.
21-3 Polarization and Induction

If you rub a balloon on a wool sweater, the balloon and the sweater become oppositely,
charged and interact via the electrostatic force. We understand this. Right? But the
charged balloon will also stick to a wall or other electrically neutral object. Why does
this happen? To understand this phenomenon, consider what happens when we dangle an
electrically neutral metal rod from a string near a charged object as shown in Fig. 21-6.
The electrons and protons in the neutral metal rod are attracted to or repelled from the
charged object. According to our atomic model, the electrons are relatively mobile. So,
they can move in response to this electrostatic force. When the electrons move, they
leave behind unpaired protons resulting in a localized charge rearrangement and
concentration of like charges. This separation of positive protons and negative electrons
in an electrically neutral object is known as polarization. Once an electrically neutral
object is polarized, the localized concentrations of like charges will interact electrically
with the charged object as shown in Fig. 21-7.
Electrically
neutral metal
Mobile
electrons move
away from a
negatively
charged object.
Electrically
neutral metal
Mobile
electrons move
toward a
positively
charge object.
Unpaired protons are left behind.
FIGURE 21-6 An example of polarization. The metal object has zero net charge but the electrons and
protons are separated somewhat by the presence of the charged object. The end of the object will be
attracted by either a negatively or positively charged object.
Fig. 21-7 The process by which a charged object (like a balloon) attracts an electrically neutral object.
Polarization can even occur on the atomic level. A charge in the vicinity of an
electrically neutral atom will cause the electron cloud to shift so that it is no longer
centered about the positive nucleus. The result is a slight separation of the equal positive
and negative charge within the atom. This is an important example of an electric dipole.
A electric dipole is system of two spatially separated charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign.
Creation of atomic scale electric dipoles as shown in Fig. 21-8 provides a polarization
mechanism for insulators. Electrons in insulators are tightly bound to atoms. As a result,
the charge separation induced when an insulating material is near a charged object is only
a small fraction of an atomic radius. In contrast, some of the electrons in conductors
become completely separated from the atoms to which they were originally associated.
This difference is shown in the comparison of the two images in Fig. 21-8 and provides a
plausible explanation for the observed fact that the force associated with charge
polarization is much stronger between a charged object and a conductor than between the
same charged object and an insulator.
FIGURE 21-8 According to atomic theory: (a) polarization induced in an insulator involves very very tiny
atomic-scale charge separations as shown in exaggerated form for a Styrofoam ball, whereas (b)
polarization in a conductor can involve a much larger scale migration of electrons as shown in a metalcoated ball.
The difference in mobility of charge carriers in conductors and insulators explains

why you cannot charge a metal rod by rubbing if you are holding it. The human body is a
conductor because it is made up of so much water. So, both you and the rod are
conductors. Although the rubbing will cause a charge imbalance on the rod, the excess
charge will immediately move from the rod through you to the floor (which is connected
to Earths surface), and as shown in Fig. 21-9 the rod will quickly be neutralized. Setting
up a pathway for electrons between an object and Earths surface is called grounding the
object, and always results in electrically neutralizing the object. If instead of holding the
metal rod in your hand, you hold it by an insulating handle, you eliminate the conducting
path to Earth, and rubbing can then charge the rod, as long as you do not touch it directly
with your hand.
The body (or the ground)

provides a sea of electrons
that flow to or from the
charged object. As this
happens, the object
becomes electrically
neutral. If the body is
electrically insulted from
the ground or other
sources of electrons it gains
a net positive charge but
the charge is more spread
out.
Fig. 21-9 The process of grounding.
Charging by Induction
The rubbing methods we use to charge insulators such as glass, rubber, and amber do not
work well with conductors. Fortunately, you can take advantage of the polarization and a
process known as charging by induction to accomplish this. In the example of charging
by induction, an electrically neutral metal plate is brought near a negatively charged
insulator shown in Fig. 21-10. The charges in the metal plate are polarized by induction.
Since the top of the metal plate now has an excess of electrons, touching it will cause
these electrons to flow onto your body. If you now stop touching the rod, the return
pathway for electrons is removed. So the metal plate is no longer electrically neutral. If
you now move the metal plate away from the charged insulator, the polarization effect
disappears and the metal plate remains positively charged due to a deficiency of
electrons. Of course, it is also possible to develop a similar procedure that will leave an
excess of electrons on the metal plate.
Electrically
neutral metal
Bring the metal close to a

negative charge and the
metal becomes polarized.
Touch the metal with your finger, the

mobile electrons move into your body.
Now the metal has a net

positive charge.
Remove your finger and there is no longer a

conducting path. Move the metal away from
the negative charge and the polarization
ends. The metal is positively charged.
FIGURE 21-10 Conductors do not charge well by rubbing but do charge by induction. The conductor
becomes positively charged in the presence of a negative charge. The conductor would have become
negatively charged in the presence of a positive charge.
CHECK POINT 21-3

An electrically neutral metal pan is attached to an insulating handle and is held by an
electrically neutral hand as shown in Fig. 21-X. Draw in the signs of the net charge on
the hands and metal in each of the figures below. Note the difference in separation
between the net positive charge and the metal pan.
Fig. 21-11 CheckPoint 21-3
21-4 Quantifying the Electrostatic Force

Because charge is conserved, we can transfer charge from one object to another without
changing the total amount of charge in the system. This allows us to perform experiments
that indicate how the interaction force between charged objects depends on the amount of
charge on each object. These experiments lead to surprisingly simple results when the
charged objects are symmetric, made of metal, and are particle-like (so that their
dimensions are small compared to the distances between their centers). For example,
consider the experiment shown in Fig. 21-12. Two identical uncharged metal spheres are
both charged by touching them with a charged plastic rod. We then touch the two spheres
together. Since the spheres are identical and the excess electrons repel each other, we
expect electrons to travel between the spheres until both spheres have the same number of
excess electrons. Next we measure the force exerted by one sphere on the other and
record it (Fig. 21-12a).
Wiley, change
Felec to FE
FIGURE 21-12 Depiction of an idealized experiment to measure the forces between small metal spheres that
hold different fractions of charge. Note: In order to make force measurements for particle-like objects, the
distance between the centers of the two balls of identical shape must be more than twice the diameter of a
ball.
TABLE 21-2
q1
q2
q1 q2
FE(arbitrary units)
q2
1F
q/2
q2/2
1/2 F
q/4
q2/4
1/4 F
q/2
q/2
q2/4
1/4 F
Then we leave sphere 1 alone and move sphere 2 a long distance from sphere 1 to
place it in contact with a third sphere 3 that is uncharged. The excess electrons on sphere
2 will now be shared equally between spheres 2 and 3 so the number of excess electrons
on sphere 2 will now be half of what it was before. If we return 2 to its original location
and measure the magnitude of the electrostatic force FE = FE between spheres 1 and 2,
we find that it is one-half of the force magnitude we first measured (Fig. 21-12b). If we
repeat this process so we reduce the amount of charge on sphere 2 to one-fourth of what
it was originally, then the magnitude of the interaction force between the spheres is also
reduced to one-fourth of what it was originally (Fig. 21-12c). In a similar experiment we
can reduce the charge on both spheres 1 and 2 to half their original values and then the
force measures one-fourth the original force between them (Fig. 21-12d). These
observations, which are summarized in Table 21-2, indicate that the magnitude of the
interaction force is proportional to the product of the amounts of charge on the two
spheres. This relationship is given by
FE q1 q2 ,
where the absolute value signs denote charge amounts independent of sign and the
symbol indicates the quantities are proportional to one another.
If we run this experiment in reverse, with known forces and unknown charges we see that
we can use the proportionality as a way to measure charge. That is, the amount of the
charge on a particle-like object can be quantified through measurement of the magnitude

of the interaction force between it and a standard charged object that is also particle-like.
The Electroscope
The fact that like charges repel has been used in the development of the electroscope, a
sensitive charge-measuring device, as seen in Fig. 21-13. A net charge can be transferred
to an electroscope by stroking the metal ball with a charged rod. If the rod is negatively
charged, some of its excess electrons will be transferred to the ball and then they will
spread throughout the metal rod and the foil attached to the ball. If a flexible metal leaf is
attached to the central conducting bar, the flexible conductor will be repelled from the
central charges and rise. As more electrons are transferred to the electroscope, the metal
leaf will rise higher. Alternatively if the rod is positively charged it will attract electrons
from the electroscope, leaving a net positive charge on it. Once again the foil will rise.
FIGURE 21-13 The electroscope can be used to measure charge. The rise of a metal foil is caused by the
repulsion due to an excess of like charged particles distributed on the parts of a metal conducting system.
The foil rises in proportion to the net charge contained on the conductor.
Coulombs Law
So far all our explanations of electrical phenomena have been qualitative. Can a
mathematical law be formulated to quantitatively describe the interaction forces between
electric charges? The observations we depicted in Fig. 21-12 led us to the conclusion that
the interaction forces are proportional to the product of the charges on the objects. So the
magnitude of the force on either particle is given by FE q1 q2 . But, what
observations have been made that would lead to a mathematical relationship that also
describes how interaction forces are related to the distance between charged particle-like
objects?
Benjamin Franklin observed that a small cork hanging from a silk thread is attracted
by induction to the outside of a charged metal can. However, if the cork is dangled inside
the can, there are no apparent forces on it. You may recall from Chapter 13 on gravitation
that we presented a shell theorem Newton derived from the assumption that gravitational
forces fall off as the inverse square of the distance between masses. Newtons shell
theorem implies that a shell of mass exerts no net gravitational force on a point mass
contained within it. Joseph Priestly reasoned that since an analogous shell theorem seems
to hold for electric interactions, then the inverse square law ought to hold for electric
forces too.
In 1785, Priestleys hypothesis regarding the dependence of electric forces on the
inverse square of distance was verified by the experiments of Charles Augustin Coulomb
using a sensitive torsion balance to measure the forces between charged spheres. Taking
his cue from Newtons work on Gravitation, Coulomb assumed the forces between
charged spheres would be the same as if the charge of each object was concentrated at its
center. He also found that the forces between the objects lie along a line between their
centers. Coulomb then used a method like the one we described above to reduce the
charges on the metal spheres in his torsion apparatus by known fractions.
As a result of his careful experiments, Coulomb found that the magnitude of the
electrostatic force, FE, between two stationary particle-like charged objects is
FE k
q1 q2
r2
(Coulomb's law),
where k is a positive constant of proportionality, r is the distance between the centers of

the two objects, q1 is the charge on one of the objects, and q2 is the charge on the other
object. This expression gives us the magnitude of the force only. We get the direction by
remembering two things:
1.
2.
The electrostatic force always acts along the line connecting the two charges.
Like charges repel one another. Opposite charges attract one another.
The electrostatic constant, k, in Coulombs law has the value

k 8.99 109 N m2 /C2 .
However, k is often replaced by a factor 1/40.

k
1
4 0
As you will see in later chapters, this more complicated expression for the electrostatic
constant simplifies many related equations. Substituting the 1/40 term for k gives an
alternate form of Coulombs law as
FE
q1 q2
.
4 0 r 2
1
The quantity 0, known as the permittivity constant (or sometimes simply epsilon sub
zero), often appears separately in equations and has a value of
0 8.85 1012 C2 /N m2 .
How do we know that the inverse square relationship in

Coulombs law is correct?
Coulombs law has survived every experimental test; no exceptions to it have ever been
found. It holds even within the atom, correctly describing the force between the
positively charged nucleus and each of the negatively charged electrons. This is true even
though classical Newtonian mechanics fails in that realm and is replaced there by
quantum physics. This simple law also correctly accounts for the forces that bind atoms
together to form molecules and for the forces that bind atoms and molecules together to
form solids and liquids. However, these experiments often require special equipment.
Fortunately, using modern tools available in many introductory physics laboratories, we
can verify the inverse square (1/r2) relationship in Coulombs law.
The experiment is pictured in Fig. 21-14. Two Ping-Pong balls that are covered with
conducting paint are stroked with a fur-charged rubber rod so they are negatively
charged. One of the balls is hung as a pendulum from a long, nonconducting string. The
other ball, which serves as a prod, is attached to a nonconducting rod. As the prod is
moved very slowly toward the hanging ball, the hanging ball is repelled and rises. The
hanging ball is displaced further and further from its equilibrium as the prod is brought
closer to it. This demonstrates qualitatively that the force exerted by the prod on the
hanging ball is greater when the distance, r, between the centers of the two charged balls
is smaller. It also indicates that the electrostatic force acts along the line connecting the
two charges. We know this because the hanging ball is not pushed off to the side.
Tx
L, x, r and y
are related by
trigonometry.
Ty
y
So long as the charged

object is not
accelerating, Tx FE
Wiley, change
Felec to FE
Fgrav to FG
Ftension to T and
move downward
A to 1
B to 2
FIGURE 21-14A charged metal-coated Ping-Pong ball is repelled from a charged prod. At equilibrium, the
vector sum of the gravitational force, the tension in the string, and the Coulomb force on the hanging ball is
zero.
Video technology allows us to take this experiment a step further. The motion of the
prod inching forward can be captured with a video camera and digitized. Then computer
software can be used to perform a frame-by-frame analysis of the angular displacement
of the hanging ball and of the distance between the balls. Figure 21-15 is an example of
this digital analysis. When the ball is stationary, the net force consists of the vector sum
of the gravitational force acting vertically downward, the tension force exerted by the
string, and the electric force acting in the horizontal direction. Thus, the magnitude of the
electric force on the ball can be calculated from the mass of the ball and its angle of rise,
, with respect to the vertical.
FIGURE 21-15 Three of twenty-five digitized video frames depicting the forces between two charged balls.
The string holding up the hanging ball is too thin to see and its point of attachment is well above the top of
the video frames.
A plot of the data is shown in Fig. 21-16. If we try to fit the data, we find that the
force between electrical charges falls off with distance as 1/r2 just as the gravitational
force does. This verifies Coulombs result summarized in Eq. 21-4.
Wiley, change
Felec to FE
FIGURE 21-16 A graph of the magnitude of the Coulomb force vs. the distance between two charged PingPong balls each having a mass of 2.40 g. The green line represents an excellent inverse square fit to the red
data points. The fit is given by Felec = (7.9 104 N m2)/r2. Using a Coulomb constant of 8.99 109 N
m2/C2 (as shown in Eqs. 21-6 and 21-7), it can be shown that each ball carries about 1 108 coulombs of
excess charge. VideoPoint software was used to obtain the data from video frames (Dson015.mov).
Newtons Third Law: The Reason We Use Absolute Value

Signs
q1 q2
(Coulomb's law)
r2
because the sign on a force component needs to indicate the direction of the force and not
simply whether we are multiplying like or unlike charges. As an example of the issue,
consider the two unlike charges in Fig. 21-17c. Because the order of multiplication
doesnt matter (multiplication commutes), the expression for the magnitude of the
electrostatic force above implies each particle exerts a force of the same magnitude on the
other particle,
We use the absolute value signs on the charges in FE k
F1 on 2 F2 on 1.
But, electrostatic forces, like all forces, obey Newtons third law. The force on the
positive charge (in Fig. 21-17c) due to the negative charge points to the right. The force
on the negative charge due to the positive charge points to the left. If we use explicit
positive and negative signs on the charges and dont make use of absolute values, the
product q1q2 (or q2q1) is always negative. So, the force would be negative, regardless of
whether we are calculating the force on the positive charge or the force on the negative
charge. This cannot be correct, since these two forces point in opposite directions and the
sign denotes direction. In this and every other situation, we avoid this pitfall if we use the
absolute values of the charges in our calculations and then determine the sign associated
with the force by thinking about our coordinate system and the issues of attraction and
repulsion.
Wiley, change
A to 1 and
B to 2
In each of the three situations,
the force acting on one particle
is equal in magnitude to the
force acting on the other particle
but has the opposite direction.
FIGURE 21-17 Two charged particles, separated by distance r, repel each other if their charges are (a) both
positive or (b) both negative. (c) They attract each other if their charges are of opposite signs.
The Electrostatic Force Due to Multiple Charges

Coulombs law can be used to find the forces between particle-like objects having excess
charge on them. When solving problems using Coulombs law, there are several issues to
keep in mind. For example, we must be sure to express the charges in coulombs and the
distance between the charges in meters if we are to use the value
1
k
8.99 109 N m2 /C2 . We should calculate the magnitude of the force using
4 0
the magnitude of the charges and think carefully about the direction of the force.
But what happens if there are more than two charges interacting as shown in Fig. 2118?
1
FIGURE 21-18 A collection of four charges at the corners of a square with side a.
As is the case with all other forces, the electrostatic force obeys the principle of
superposition. That is, if more than one force acts on an object we get the total or net
force by vector addition of the individual forces. Thinking about the individual forces in a
collection of interacting object can sometimes be confusing. We had to consider such
mm
situations when we learned about universal gravitation FG G 1 2 2 . The solution is to

r
always keep in mind that the objects interact independently in pairs. So, for the situation
in Fig. 21-18, the force on any one of the charges, let us say particle 1, is given by the
vector sum
Fnet 1 F2 on 1 F3 on 1 F4 on 1 ,
where, for example, F 4 on 1 is the force from particle 4 on particle 1 which is calculated
ignoring the presence of all charges other than 1 and 4.
Often, as is the case for the charges in Fig. 21-18 the various forces acting on a
particle do not all act along the same line? But, we know how to combine such forces.
First we must calculate the magnitudes of the individual forces (in this case, using
Coulombs law), adopt a coordinate system, and determine the directions of the forces.
We then calculate components of each force (See Fig. 21-1 or Core Skill 4-1for a
quick review) and determine the direction of these components. The sign on the
component expresses direction in conjunction with our chosen coordinate system. We
then add all of the components of forces that act along the same line, taking direction
(that is sign) into account. This gives us the components of the net (resultant) force. We
can then express the net force in either unit vector notation or angle magnitude notation.
(See Fig. 21-1 or Core Skill 4-2 for a quick review).
CHECK POINT 21-6

Two charges labeled + or - are shown in Fig. 21-19 along with a proton labeled p. The
magnitude of each + or - charge is the same. All the distances between charges are the
same. Rank these arrangements in order of the magnitude of the force on the proton p
from greatest to least. If the force magnitudes are the same in one than one situation
show this using an equal sign. Then, give the overall direction of the force.
FIGURE 21-19
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES 21-1:

A Strategy for
Calculating net electrostatic force due to a collection of point charges.
The following are actions you can take, or ideas to think about, in order to get started
solving problems that involve the electrostatic force between point charges. These
problems are sometimes called Coulombs law problems. The ideas and actions outlined
below are only a slight variation on how we get started on any force problem (3-1) and
are closely linked to both the strategy we presented for solving problems involving
interacting particles (5-2) and the strategy we will present in the next chapter for
calculating electric field (22-1).
1. Sketch the charge configuration and annotate. Sketch the collection of

charged objects. Identify which charge is the charge being acted on. Draw the direction
of all the forces on that charge due to each of the other charges present. Remember like
charges repel one another. Opposite sign charges attract one another. Focus on one
charge at a time and ask yourself if that were the only other charge present, what would
be the direction of the force on my charge being acted on? The other charges present do
not change the answer.
2. Note the geometry of the problem. Are there angles and distances that you
can find using trigonometry or other approaches? If so, make a note of this so that you
can do so if needed. Note symmetries in the problem. Symmetry can cause some force
components to sum to zero which makes a problem much simpler to solve.
3. Draw a freebody diagram and choose a coordinate system. Draw a
separate freebody diagram for the object of interest. The sketch of the charge
configuration may get crowded with other information. Identify a coordinate system.
4. Calculate the magnitude of all forces. Use Coulombs law to calculate the
magnitudes of the individual forces on the charged particle of interest.
q q
FE FE k 1 2 2 . Be sure to use the absolute values of the charges in your
r
calculations and focus on one charge at a time. Ask yourself if that were the only other
charge present, what would be the magnitude of the force on my charge being acted on?
The other charges present do not change the answer.
5. Determine the components of each force. Calculate the vector
components of each force along the coordinate dimensions as in Core Skill 4-1.
Review that skill now if needed. Determine the sign of the components based on their
directions and your coordinate system.
6. Find the net force on the charge. Combine all the force components that act
along the same line, taking sign into account. Express the net force in unit vector
notation or angle magnitude notation as in Core Skill 4-2. Review that skill now if
needed.
LEARN THE STRATEGY

Four worked examples follow in which we show how one can apply this strategy. In
general, whether you use this strategy or one you develop yourself, you should work to
become skilled in solving this type of problem.
EXAMPLE 21-2:
A Basic Coulombs Law Problem.
Three charged particles are fixed in place on a horizontal x-axis. The charges are qA =
+1.60 1019 C , qB = +3.20 1019 C and qC = 3.20 1019 C . qA and qB are a
distance R apart while qC is between them at a distance 34 R from particle A. R =
0.0200 m. What are the magnitude and direction of the electrostatic force F A on
particle A due to the other two charges?
SOLUTION
Categoriztion
This is a problem about finding the electrostatic force due to point charges. So, we will
use the strategy we learned for solving problems using Coulombs law in Problem
Solving Strategy 21-1.
Interpretation
The first few key ideas in our problem solving strategy give us guidance about things we
can do to interpret the problem statement. For example, it is helpful to
1. Sketch the charge configuration and annotate.
The fact that charge C sits between A and B
does not impact the force from B on A.
The charge acted on
is charge A. We note
this so that we stay
focused on that
FB on A
charge.
FC on A
Fig. 21-20 Like charges repel and opposite charges attract. So A is repelled by particle B. Thus, the
direction of force FB on A on particle A is away from particle B. Particle C attracts A and so
A is pulled toward C.
2 Note the geometry of the problem. Because the distance between A and C is
R, we know that the distance between C and B is 1/4 R. So, we know the distances
between all charges. 3 Draw a freebody diagram and choose a coordinate
system. A freebody diagram for charge A is shown. We will take the x-axis to be horizontal
with right the positive direction.
+x
Wiley, please change the

arrow to the word on and
insert spaces between the
letters and on.
Fig. 21-21

The force between two charged particles is proportional to the product of their charges
q1 q2
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. FE k
r2
Opposite sign charges attract one another. Same sign charges repel one another. The net
force acting on an object is the vector sum of all the forces. FA Fnet A F on A .
Computation
The first thing we do in regard to computation is to 4 Calculate the magnitude of
all forces.
We focus on one pair of charges at a time with Charge A always part of the
pair. Starting with the force from B on A, and using Coulombs law
FE k
FB on A k
q1 q2
r2
q A qB
2
rAB
(1.60 1019 C)(3.20 1019 C)

(8.99 10 N m / C )
(0.0200 m) 2
9
1.15 1024 N.
Again, the presence of particle C does not alter the electrostatic force on particle A from
particle B.
To find the magnitude of FC on A , we have
FC on A k
q A qC
2
rAC
(8.99 109 N m 2 /C2 )
(1.60 1019 C)(3.20 1019 C)

3
( 0.0200 m) 2
4
2.05 1024 N.
5 Determine the components of each force. Both forces are along the x-axis so
only their x-components are non-zero. The force from B on A is to the left, which is the
negative x-direction, so ( FB on A ) x 1.15x1024 N . The force from C on A is to the right,
which is the positive x-direction, so ( FC on A ) x 2.05 1024 N.
Now we can 6 Find the net force on the charge. The net force on particle A
F A is the vector sum of FB on A and FC on A . Again, all the forces are along the x-axis,
so the net force component is the sum of the x-components of the two forces acting on
particle A:
FA F A x ( FB on A ) x ( FC on A ) x
1.15 x1024 N 2.05 1024 N
=+9.00 1025 N
The positive result means the net force is directed to the right along the x-axis. So, in
unit-vector notation: FA (9.00 1025 N)i.
(Answer)
Or, in magnitude-angle notation, we would say that F A has a magnitude of 9.00 1025
N and direction (relative to the positive direction of the x axis) of 0o. (Answer)
Expect and Check
Expect: Charge B and C have the same magnitude of charge. Charge A is closer to
charge C, so the force from charge C should dominate. This force is directed to the right.
The net force should be smaller than either indivual force and direct to the right. Check:
The net force is in fact smaller than the either individual force from B or C and is
positive, so directed right.
EXAMPLE 21-3:
An example where the forces are not all along one line
Three charged particles are fixed in place. The charges are qA = +1.60 1019 C and qB
= +3.20 1019 C and qD = 3.20 1019 C . qA and qB are both along a horizontal line
with qB a distance R = 0.0200 m to the right of qA . qD is at a distance 34 R to the right of
particle A, and lies on a line that makes an angle of 60 with the horizontal. What is the
net electrostatic force FA on particle A due to particles B and D?
SOLUTION
Categorization
Again, this is a Coulombs law problem and so we use Strategy 21-1.
Interpretation
The first things that we will do are to 1 Draw a sketch of the situation and
annotate it and 2 Note the geometry of the problem. We are given the values
of the angle and distances here and there are no symmetry to exploit. So, there is not anything we
could calculate based on geometry that is of interest. But, sometimes there is and it is a good idea
to look for such opportunities. Next, 3 Draw a Freebody diagram and
coordinate system.
+y
The charge acted
on is charge A.
FD on A
+x
FB on A
Fig. 21-22: Sketch and freebody diagram for Exercise 21-3.

The force between two charged particles is proportional to the product of their charges
q1 q2
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. FE k
.
r2
Opposite sign charges attract one another. Same sign charges repel one another. The net
force acting on an object is the vector sum of all the forces. F A Fnet A Fon A
.
Computation
First we 4 Calculate the magnitude of all forces .
FB on A k
q A qB
2
rAB
1.15 1024 N (As in Exercise 21-2 above.)
FD on A k
q A qD
2
rAD
(8.99 109 N m 2 /C 2 )
(1.60 1019 C)(3.2 1019 C)

( 34 0.0200 m) 2
2.05 1024 N.
Next we 5 Determine the components of each force.
FB on A is directed straight left. So,

( FB on A ) x 1.15x1024 N
( FB on A ) y 0 N
FD on A is directed toward particle D, up (positive y) and to the right (positive x), at angle
= 60. So,
( FD on A ) y (2.05 1024 N)(sin 60)
( FD on A ) x (2.05 1024 N)(cos 60)
1.78 1024 N.
1.03 1024 N
6 Find the net force on the charge. To find the net force,
F A ( Fnet A ) FB on A FD on A , we first sum the components of FB on A and FD on A in each

dimension to get the components of net force in each dimension:
The sum of the x-components gives us
F Ax ( FB on A ) x ( FD on A ) x
1.15 1024 N 1.03 1024 N
1.25 1025 N.
The sum of the y-components gives us

FA y ( FB on A ) y ( FD on A ) y
0 1.78 1024 N
1.78 1024 N.
So, in unit vector notation, FA (1.25 1025 N) i (1.78 1024 N) j .

Or, we can say force FA has the magnitude
FA
F Ax F A y
2
1.78 1024 N.
(Answer)
To find the direction of FA , we look at the component triangle shown in Fig. 21-23.
FAy
FA
Figure 21-23
FAx
From this we see that tan
FA y
F Ax
so tan 1
1.78 1024 N
86o.
25
1.25 10 N
(Answer)
EXAMPLE 21-3:
Making Use of Symmetry
Four particles with charge +q are located at the corners of a square with side s. What is
the magnitude and direction of the net force on another charge +q placed at the center of
the square?
In several of the problem at the end of the chapter, including numbers XX, making
use of symmetry arguments greatly simplifies the mathematics required. The same
is true to for this example. To see a solution go to www.wiley.com/XX or scan the
image below with your phone.
EXAMPLE 21-4:
Finding an Equilibrium Point
Two particles are fixed in place; one particle, of charge qA = + 8q, is situated at the
origin and the second particle, of charge qB = 2q, is located at x = L as shown in Fig.
21-24. At what point (other than infinitely far away) can a positively charged particle,
of charge qp, be placed so that it is in equilibrium?
Fig. 21-24
SOLUTION
Categorize
This problem involves point charges and the electrostatic forces between them when in
equilibrium. So, it is part Coulombs law problem and part Newtons second law
problem with a zero acceleration. Since the electrostatic force is just a specific kind of
force, the Newtons second law aspect of the problem is more general, so we start there.
Our strategy for solving Newtons second law problems was presented in Chapter 3. The
key ideas are:
1 Identify the object or objects(s) of interest.
2 Identify the forces acting on the object(s) of interest.
3 Draw a free body diagram for the object(s) of interest and choose a coordinate
system.
4 Apply Newtons second law. Apply Newtons second law in component form
Fxnet Fx max and/or Fynet Fy ma y
Interpretation
Three of the four key ideas in our problem solving strategy are things we can do to get
started on such problems. So, first we will
1
Identify the object or objects(s) of interest. In this problem, that will be
our charge qp. And, 2 Identify the forces acting on the object(s) of
3
interest. Charge qp will have two electrostatic forces acting on it. One force is from
qA and one is from qB. The next step is where we have to do some thinking.
Draw a free body diagram for the object(s) of interest and identify
your coordinate system. Lets make the x-axis horizontal with to the right the
positive direction. But how do we draw the freebody diagram? We dont know where
the third particle will be placed. So, we quickly draw three free body diagrams for each of
the three possible regions.
Wiley: For each arrow label, replace the arrow with

the word on and spaces between the letter and on.
Replace P, S and R with p
Third charge
Third charge to the
Third charge to the
between A and B.
left of A.
right of B.
Both forces are in the same direction.

They cannot add to zero.
The forces are in opposite directions.

They could add to zero.
Fig. 21-25: Freebody diagrams for the three possible placements of the third
charge.

The net force on an object is zero when it is in equilibrium, F 0. The force between
two charged particles is proportional to the product of their charges and inversely
q1 q2
proportional to the square of the distance between them. FE k
r2
Computation
Let FA on p be the force on particle p due to charge qA and FB on p be the force on p due to
charge qB. A Key Idea is that in equilibrium
F 0
so
FA on p FB on p 0
FA on p FB on p
This tells us that at the point we seek, the forces acting on the test particle due to the
other two particles must be more than just in opposite directions. They must be of equal
magnitudes as well,
FA on p FB on p .
If the test particle is at any point on the x-axis to the left of qA, then FA on p and
FB on p are in opposite directions as seen in Fig. 21-25. However, FA on p and FB on p

cannot have equal magnitudes there. With FE k
FB on p , because FA on p
q1 q2
, FA on p must be greater than

r2
is produced by a closer charge (so smaller r) of greater
magnitude (so larger q).

On the other hand, if the test particle is at any point on the x-axis to the right of qB,
then FA on p and FB on p are in opposite directions. However, because now the charge of
greater magnitude (qA) is farther away from the test particle than the charge of lesser
magnitude (qB), there is a point at which FA on p must equal FB on p . We need to give
that point a symbol. Lets call it position R, measure relative to an origin at the location
of qA.
Now we 4 Apply Newtons second law in component form
max 0.
But, first we have to write expressions for the magnitudes of the two electrostatic
forces. For the force from A on p we have
FA on p k
at our diagram:
qA q p
2
rAp
, but what is the distance between Charges A and p? Let look back
This distance has
to be R-L
Wiley: Remove
arrows on qp
qp
R
Fig. 21-26: Exercise 21-5.
So, we see that FA on p k
8q qp
and
R2
FB on p k
2q qp
.
(R L)2
For equilibrium we need:

k
8q qp
2q qp
k
2
R
(R L) 2
8
2
2
R
(R L) 2
RL 1
R
4
Now, we have a choice as to how to do the math. We can square out the top and bottom
of the fraction on the left, cross multiply, simplify the expression and then use the
quadratic equation to solve. Or, we can just take the square root of both sides of the
expression. Lets take the second route.
RL 1
R
2
R 2L
(Answer)
The equilibrium at R = 2L is unstable. If we move the third charge even slightly, the
charge will not return to position R=2L.
Expect and Check
Expect: If we put the answer back into our expression for the balancing of forces, then
both sides should be equal. This is a good check for math errors in our solution.
Check:
8q qp
2q qp
k
k
2
(2 L L) 2
2L
8
2
2 1 1
2
4L
L
21-5 There are only four fundamental forces.

You may have noticed that Coulombs law for the electrostatic force
FE k
q1 q2
r2
has a form that is quite similar to Newtons law of universal gravitation:

FG G
m1m2
.
r2
Both of these expressions are inverse square laws because they have the distance
between the two interacting objects (r) squared and in the denominator of the fraction.
Both forces act along the line connecting the two objectssuch forces are called central
forces. Both also involve a property of the interacting particlesthe mass in one case
and the charge in the other. Both the gravitational force and the electrostatic force are
conservative forcesthe work done by these forces around a closed path is zero.
However, as similar as these forces are, they are not the same force. They are not
even different aspects of one force. How do we know this? Electrostatic forces are
intrinsically much stronger than gravitational forces. For example, the gravitational
attraction between a plastic comb and a small piece of paper is not large enough to
overcome the opposing gravitational attraction of Earth on the paper. However, if you rub
the comb with fur, the resulting electrostatic force is large enough to overcome the
gravitational attraction of Earth. Furthermore, the electrostatic force differs from the
gravitational forces because the gravitational force is always attractive but the
electrostatic force may be either attractive or repulsive, depending on the signs of the two
charges. This difference arises because although there is only one kind of mass, there are
two kinds of charge. That is why absolute value signs are needed in
q1 q2
r2
mm
FG G 1 2 2 .
r
FE k
but not in
Before concluding our discussion of the electrostatic or Coulomb force, lets compare
it to another somewhat similar forcethe force associated with magnets.
In addition to amber, the early Greeks knew of another special material that had the
ability to attract other objects. They recorded the observation that some naturally
occurring lodestones, known today as the mineral magnetite, would attract iron.
Lodestones were the first known magnets. Could the phenomena of amber (electricity)
and lodestones (magnetism) be related?
Observation of the interactions between two magnets and two electrified objects
shows that the phenomena of electricity and magnetism are not the same. Two magnets
will either attract or repel one another, depending on their orientation. Two pieces of
rubbed amber (or glass) always repel one another, regardless of their orientation.
Hence, the study of electricity and magnetism developed separately for centuries
until 1820, in fact, when Hans Christian Oersted found a connection between them: an
electric current in a wire can deflect a magnetic compass needle. The new science of
electromagnetism (the combination of electrical and magnetic phenomena) was
developed further by Michael Faraday, a truly gifted experimenter with a talent for
physical intuition and visualization. In fact, Faradays laboratory notebooks do not
contain a single equation. In the mid-19th century, James Clerk Maxwell put Faradays
ideas into mathematical form, introduced many new ideas of his own, and put electromagnetism on a sound theoretical basis.
Many Everyday Forces are Electrostatic

In Chapter 3 we presented an idealized model depicted in Fig. 21-27 of a solid as an array
of atoms held together by forces that act like tiny springs that resist both stretching and
compression forces. We then used this spring model to help explain the nature of most of
the everyday forces encountered in the study of motion including normal forces, friction
forces, and tension forces. We made the claim that all of these forces are basically
electrical.
FIGURE 21-27 An exaggerated view of what happens when one pushes on a wall.
Lets look once again at our spring model of solids in light of our new understanding
of the nature of the electrostatic forces between protons and electrons in atoms. Since
protons and electrons have opposite charges they attract each other. This is what holds
individual atoms together and causes a tension force to arise in a string as it resists
stretching. Under compression, the outer electrons in the atoms of one object repel the
outer electrons in the other object. This is the origin of the normal force. Although we
imagine this repulsion starting at the surface, it is happening in other layers of atoms as
well. As the electrons from one layer of atoms are being moved closer to those in the next
layer, the repulsion forces increase sharply as the electrons are forced closer together.
Thus, we think of a solid as having a delicately balanced equilibrium in which the
electron glue holds the atoms together at just the right spacing. Although more detailed
analysis of these phenomena requires quantum mechanics, all of the everyday forces we
encounter appear to be either gravitational or electromagnetic.
So, in some ways, the list of forces that we have discussed did not get longer with the
introduction of the electrostatic forces. Rather, we have unified our everyday contact
forces like tension and the normal force with the electrostatic force. In fact, physicists
currently see only four fundamental forces: gravitation, electromagnetism and two
nuclear forces called weak interaction and strong interaction. These forces are
fundamental because they, unlike tension or the normal force, cannot be described or
explained in terms of other forces. All of the four fundamental forces as non-contact
forces but the distances over which they can act vary greatly as do their strengths. This is
shown in Table 21-2 below.
In considering Table 21-2, you may be tempted to view gravitation as a weakling in
comparison to other fundamental forces. But, remember, although the gravitational force
is much weaker than these other forces, it is more important in large-scale situations
because it is always attractive. This means that it can collect many small bodies into huge
bodies with huge masses, such as planets and stars, that then exert large gravitational
forces. The electrostatic force, on the other hand, is repulsive for charges of the same
sign, so it is unable to collect either positive charge or negative charge into large
concentrations that would then exert large electrostatic forces.
Table 21-2: The four fundamental interaction forces
Force
Relative Strength
Range (m)
Gravitation
Electromagnetic
Weak Interaction
Strong Interaction
1
1036
1025
1038
10-18
10-15
EXAMPLE 21-5:
Charging is the transfer of electrons.
The nucleus in an iron atom has a radius of about 4.0 1015 m and contains 26 protons.
(a) What is the magnitude of the repulsive electrostatic force between two of the protons
that are separated by 4.0 1015 m? and (b) What is the magnitude
of the gravitational force between those same two protons?
SOLUTION
Categorization
This problem is about comparing the magnitude of the gravitational and electrostatic
forces acting between the same two objects so we can get some idea of the relative
strengths of these two forces.
The electrostatic force between two charged particles is proportional to the product of
their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
q q
FE k 1 2 2 . The gravitation force between two particles is proportional to the
r
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
m1 m2
them. FG k
.
r2
Computation
The Key Idea here is that the protons can be treated as charged particles, so the
magnitude of the electrostatic force on one from the other is given by Coulombs law.
Table 22-1 tells us that their charge is +e. Thus, Eq. 22-4 gives us
ke2
r2
(8.99 109 N m 2 /C2 )(1.60 1019 C) 2
(4.0 1015 m) 2
14N.
FE
(Answer)
This is a small force to be acting on a macroscopic object like a cantaloupe but an

enormous force to be acting on a proton. Such forces should blow apart the nucleus of
any element but hydrogen (which has only one proton in its nucleus). However, they
dont, not even in nuclei with a great many protons. Therefore, there must be some
enormous attractive force to counter this enormous repulsive electrostatic force.
b) What is the magnitude of the gravitational force between those same two protons?
With mp( = 1.67 1027 kg) representing the mass of a proton, we have
mp2
r2
(6.67 1011 N m 2 /kg 2 )(1.67 1027 kg)
(4.0 1015 m) 2
FG G
1.2 1035 N.
(Answer)
Expect and Check

Expect: The gravitational force should be much, much smaller than the electrostatic
force. Check: Our result is consistent with this and table 21-2 which shown the
electrostatic force to be 1036 times stronger than the gravitational force. This result tells
us that the (attractive) gravitational force is far too weak to counter the repulsive
electrostatic forces between protons in a nucleus. Instead, the protons are bound together
by an enormous force aptly called the strong nuclear force or strong interactiona force
that acts between protons (and neutrons) when they are close together, as in a nucleus.
Chapter Summary
Important Definitions, Symbols and Notation
An object is positively charged if it is repelled by a glass rod rubbed with silk. A

positively charged object has an excess number of protons as compared to electrons.
An object is negatively charged if it is repelled by amber (or plastic) rubbed with fur.
A negatively charged object has an excess number of electrons as compared to
protons. Electrically neutral objects are not repelled by either positively or
negatively charged objects and contain equal numbers of protons and electrons.
The net charge on an object is the simple sum of the total positive charge it contains
and the total negative charge it contains.
The elementary charge, e, is a fixed unit of charge. e =1.6x10-19 C.
Materials in which some of the electrons move relatively easily from atom to atom
and current flows well are called conductors. Materials in which the electrons do not
readily move from atom to atom and current flows poorly are called insulators.
When a physical quantity can have only discrete values rather than any arbitrary
value, we say that the quantity is quantized.
This separation of positive protons and negative electrons in an electrically neutral
object is known as polarization. A electric dipole is system of two spatially
separated charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign.
The electrostatic or Coulomb constant, k, has the value k 8.99 109 N m2 /C2 .
Inverse square laws are mathematical relationships in which the distance between
two interacting objects (r) is squared and in the denominator of a fraction. Forces that
act along the line connecting the two interacting forces are called central forces.
Important Concepts
Charges in a nutshell
There are only two types of charge: positive charge and negative charge. The SI unit of
charge is the coulomb (C). Objects with the same kind of charge repel one another.
Object with the opposite kinds of charge attract one another. The force always acts along
the line connecting the two objects. Macroscopic objects that are electrically neutral are
not devoid of charge, they just have equal amounts of positive and negative charge.
Grounding an object always results in electrically neutralizing the object.
An object becomes charged (positively or negatively) when electrons with their negative
charge are transferred from one object to another. As a result: 1) an object becomes
positively charged through the removal of negatively charged electrons rather than
through the addition of positively charged protons. 2) Charge is quantized. In free
particles, charge has never been measured to have an amount other than an integer
multiple of 1.60 1019 C which is the elementary charge or the magnitude of the charge
on the electron. 3) The amount of charge contained in the two objects is constant or
conserved.
Induction and Polarization
Polarization occurs whenever electrically neutral objects are in the
presence of a charged object. It occurs in both insulators and conducts
but the distance over which charge separation occurs is larger in
conductors. As a result of polarization, electrically neutral objects are
attracted to (positively or negatively) charge objects.
Steps in Charging by Induction
The electrostatic force between point charges

The electrostatic or Coulomb force, FE, between two stationary particle-like charged
q q
objects is FE k 1 2 2 (Coulomb's law), where k is the Coulomb constant , r is the
r
distance between the centers of the two objects, q1 is the charge on one of the objects, and
q2 is the charge on the other object. This expression gives us the magnitude of the force
only. We get the direction of this force as shown below.
Wiley, change
A to 1 and
B to 2
The electrostatic force always acts along the line connecting the two charges.
Like charges repel one another. Opposite charges attract one another.
Electrostatic forces, like all forces, obey Newtons third law.
Electrostatic forces superimpose (add up). So, Fnet 1 F2 on 1 F3 on 1 F4 on 1 .... But,

remember, the objects interact independently in pairs. Each force is calculated ignoring
the presence of all other charges not in the pair.
Some big picture statements about forces.

q q
mm
The electrostatic force, FE k 1 2 2 and gravitational force, FG G 1 2 2 , both
r
r
follow inverse-square laws and are central forces. There are only four fundamental
forces. Electromagnetism and gravitation are two of them. The others are the weak
interaction and strong interaction (both nuclear forces). Most everyday forces we
encounter like friction, tension or the normal force can be explained in terms of the
electrostatic force.
Fundamental Equations
q ne, n 1, 2, 3, ...,
Relationship between net charge and elementary charge
q1 q2
(Coulomb's law)
r2
Magnitude of the electrostatic force between point charges.
FE k
Core Skills and Problem Solving Strategies

21-1 A Strategy for calculating the net electrostatic force on point charge. (p.14)
Conceptual Questions
1
Figure 21-12 shows four situations in which five charged particles are evenly spaced along an axis. The
charge values are indicated except for the central particle, which has the same charge in all four situations.
Rank the situations according to the magnitude of the net electrostatic force on the central particle, greatest
first.
Figure 21-12 Question 1.
2 Figure 21-13 shows three pairs of identical spheres that are to be touched together and then separated. The
initial charges on them are indicated. Rank the pairs according to (a) the magnitude of the charge transferred
during touching and (b) the charge left on the positively charged sphere, greatest first.
3 Figure 21-14 shows four situations in which charged particles are fixed in place on an axis. In which
situations is there a point to the left of the particles where an electron will be in equilibrium?
4 Figure 21-15 shows two charged particles on an axis. The charges are free to move. However, a third charged
particle can be placed at a certain point such that all three particles are then in equilibrium. (a) Is that point to
the left of the first two particles, to their right, or between them? (b) Should the third particle be positively or
negatively charged? (c) Is the equilibrium stable or unstable?
5 In Fig. 21-16, a central particle of charge -q is surrounded by two circular rings of charged particles. What
are the magnitude and direction of the net electrostatic force on the central particle due to the other particles?
(Hint: Consider symmetry.)
6 A positively charged ball is brought close to an electrically neutral isolated conductor. The conductor is then
grounded while the ball is kept close. Is the conductor charged positively, charged negatively, or neutral if (a)
the ball is first taken away and then the ground connection is removed and (b) the ground connection is first
removed and then the ball is taken away?
7 Figure 21-17 shows three situations involving a charged particle and a uniformly charged spherical shell. The
charges are given, and the radii of the shells are indicated. Rank the situations according to the magnitude of
the force on the particle due to the presence of the shell, greatest first.
8 Figure 21-18 shows four arrangements of charged particles. Rank the arrangements according to the
magnitude of the net electrostatic force on the particle with charge +Q, greatest first.
9 Figure 21-19 shows four situations in which particles of charge +q or -q are fixed in place. In each situation,
the particles on the x axis are equidistant from the y axis. First, consider the middle particle in situation 1; the
middle particle experiences an electrostatic force from each of the other two particles. (a) Are the magnitudes
F of those forces the same or different? (b) Is the magnitude of the net force on the middle particle equal to,
greater than, or less than 2F? (c) Do the x components of the two forces add or cancel? (d) Do their y
components add or cancel? (e) Is the direction of the net force on the middle particle that of the canceling
components or the adding components? (f) What is the direction of that net force? Now consider the
remaining situations: What is the direction of the net force on the middle particle in (g) situation 2, (h)
situation 3, and (i) situation 4? (In each situation, consider the symmetry of the charge distribution and
determine the canceling components and the adding components.)
10 In Fig. 21-20, a central particle of charge -2q is surrounded by a square array of charged particles, separated
by either distance d or d/2 along the perimeter of the square. What are the magnitude and direction of the net
electrostatic force on the central particle due to the other particles? (Hint: Consideration of symmetry can
greatly reduce the amount of work required here.)
11 In Fig. 21-21, objects made of different materials are arranged in six pairs. A is
plastic stroked with fur, B is glass stroked with silk, and C is an electrically neutral
metal object. State whether the interaction between each pair will be attractive,
repulsive, or nonexistent.
Figure 21-21 Question 11
12. Four Balls Consider four lightweight metal-coated balls suspended on nonconducting
threads as shown in Fig. 21-22. Suppose ball A is stroked with a plastic rod that has been
rubbed with fur. When you observe interactions between pairs of balls one at a time you
find that:
1. B, C, and D are each attracted to A.
2. B and C seem to have no effect on each other.
3. B and C are both attracted to D.
State whether the net charge on each ball is positive, negative or zero.
[Based on question 5.9, Arons, Homework and Test Questions for Introductory Physics
Teaching (Wiley, New York, 1994).]
Figure 21-22 Question 12
Estimation Questions
These questions require estimations, going to external sources for information or both.
1. What is the total mass of electrons in your body?
2. What is the total mass of protons in your body?
3. How many coulombs of positive charge are there in a glass of water?
4. Two hard rubber spheres of mass ~10 g are rubbed vigorously with fur on a dry day.
They are then suspended from a rod with two insulating strings. They are observed to
hang at equilibrium as shown in Fig. 22-41, which is drawn approximately to scale.
Estimate the amount of charge that is found on each sphere.
5. Two marbles are floating in space, about 1 meter apart. What fraction of the charge would you
have to strip away so the gravitational force of attraction is balanced by a repulsive electric force?
6. How many blades of grass are there on a soccer field?
7. How many toothbrushes do people living in the United States throw away each year? If
all of these toothbrushes were tossed into a pile, what would be the height of the pile?
8. An earthquake strikes a small college and shakes all of the books off the shelves. If the
librarys holdings amount to about 400,000 volumes, how long would it take 20 people,
working 8 hour per day to properly reshelf the books? About how much money will this
cost the library?
Exercises
SEC. 21-2 USING ATOMIC THEORY TO EXPLAIN CHARGING
1. A Large Charge What is the total charge in coulombs of 75.0 kg of electrons?
2. How Many? How many megacoulombs of positive (or negative) charge are in 1.00
mol of neutral molecular-hydrogen gas (H2)?
3. How Many Electrons How many electrons would have to be removed from a coin to
leave it with a charge of +1.0 107 C?
4. Lightning Bolt In a lightning bolt electrons travel from a thundercloud to the ground.
If there are 1.0 1020 electrons in a lightning bolt, how many coulombs of charge are
dumped onto the ground?
SEC. 21-4 QUANTIFYING THE ELECTROSTATIC FORCE
5. What Distance At what distance between point charge qA = 26.0 C and point charge
qB = 47.0 C will the electrostatic force between them have a magnitude of 5.70 N?
6. Force on Each A point charge of +3.00 106 C is 12.0 cm from a second point
charge of 1.50 106 C. Calculate the magnitude of the force on each charge.
7. Charges and Coordinates The charges and coordinates of two charged particles held
fixed in the xy plane are qA = +3.0 C, xA = 3.5 cm, yA = 0.50 cm, and qB = 4.0 C, xB =
2.0 cm, yB = 1.5 cm. (a) Find the magnitude and direction of the electrostatic force on
qB. (b) Where could you locate a third charge qC = +4.0 C such that the net electrostatic
force on qB is zero?
8. Water Drops Two tiny, spherical water drops, with identical charges of 1.00 1016
C, have a center-to-center separation of 1.00 cm. (a) What is the magnitude of the
electrostatic force acting between them? (b) How many excess electrons are on each
drop, giving it its charge imbalance?
9. The Square In Fig. 21-21, what are the (a) horizontal and (b) vertical com ponents of
the net electrostatic force on the charged particle in the lower left corner of the square if q
= 1.0 107 C and a = 5.0 cm?
10. Where Along the Line Point charges qA and qB lie on the x axis at points x = d and
x = +d, respectively, (a) How must qA and qB be related for the net electrostatic force on
point charge + Q, placed at x = + d/2, to be zero? (b) Repeat (a) but with point charge +Q
now placed at x = + 3d/2.
FIGURE 21-21 Exercise 13.
11. Two Identical Spheres Two identical conducting spheres, fixed in place, attract each
other with an electrostatic force of 0.108 N when separated by 50.0 cm, center to center.
The spheres are then connected by a thin conducting wire. When the wire is removed, the
spheres repel each other with an electrostatic force of 0.0360 N. What were the initial
charges on the spheres?
12. Three Charges In Fig. 21-22, three charged particles lie on a straight line and are
separated by distances d. Charges qA and qB are held fixed. Charge qC is free to move but
happens to be in equilibrium (no net electrostatic force acts on it). Find qA in terms of qB.
13. Two Free Particles Two free particles (that is, free to move) with charges +q and
+4q are a distance L apart. A third charge is placed so that the entire system is in
equilibrium. (a) Find the location, amount and sign of the third charge. (b) Show that the
equilibrium is unstable.
14. Two Fixed Particles Two fixed particles, of charges qA = +1.0 C and qB = 3.0 C,
are 10 cm apart. How far from each should a third charge be located so that no net
electrostatic force acts on it?
15. Four Charged Particles Figure 21-28 shows four charged particles that are fixed
along an axis, separated by distance d = 2.00 cm. The charges are indicated. Find the
magnitude and direction of the net electrostatic force on (a) the particle with charge + 2e
and (b) the particle with charge e, due to the other particles.
FIGURE 21-28 Exercise15.
16. How Far In Fig. 21-30, how far from the charged particle on the right and in what
direction is there a point where a third charged particle will be in balance?
SEC. 21-5 THERE ONLY ARE FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES

17. An Electron in a Vacuum An electron is in a vacuum near the surface of Earth.
Where should a second electron be placed so that the electrostatic force it exerts on the
first electron balances the gravitational force on the first electron due to Earth?
19. Earth and Moon (a) What equal positive charges would have to be placed on Earth
and on the Moon to neutralize their gravitational attraction? Do you need to know the
lunar distance to solve this problem? Why or why not? (b) How many kilograms of
hydrogen ions would be needed to provide the positive charge calculated in (a)?
Problems
19. Cosmic Ray Protons Earths atmosphere is constantly bombarded by cosmic ray
protons that originate somewhere in space. If the protons all passed through the
atmosphere, each square meter of Earths surface would intercept protons at the average
rate of 1500 protons per second. What would be the corresponding rate of charge flow
intercepted by the total surface area of the planet?
20. Fibrillation A charge flow of 0.300 C/s through your chest can send your heart into
fibrillation, disrupting the flow of blood (and thus oxygen) to your brain. If that current
persists for 2.00 min, how many conduction electrons pass through your chest?
21. Beta Decay In beta decay a massive fundamental particle changes to another massive
particle, and either an electron of charge e or a positron of charge +e (positive particle
with the same amount of charge and mass as an electron) is emitted. (a) If a proton
undergoes beta decay to become a neutron, which particle is emitted? (b) If a neutron
undergoes beta decay to become a proton, which particle is emitted?
22. Identify X Identify X in the following nuclear reactions (in the first, n represents a
neutron): (a) 1H + 9Be X + n; (b) 12C + 1H X; (c) 15N + 1H 4He + X. Appendix F
will help.
23. Two Equally Charged Two equally charged particles, held 3.2 103 m apart, are
released from rest. The initial acceleration of the first particle is observed to be 7.0 m/s2
and that of the second to be 9.0 m/s2. If the mass of the first particle is 6.3 107 kg, what
are (a) the mass of the second particle and (b) the amount of charge on each particle?
24. Isolated Conducting Spheres Identical isolated conducting spheres A and B have the
same excess charges and are separated by a distance that is large compared with their
diameters (Fig. 21-20a). The electrostatic force acting on sphere B due to sphere A is
FAB . Suppose now that a third identical sphere C, having an insulating handle and
initially neutral, is touched first to sphere A (Fig. 21-20b), then to sphere B (Fig. 21-20c),
and finally removed (Fig. 21-20d). In terms of the force magnitude FAB , what is the
magnitude of the electrostatic force F' AB that now acts on sphere B?
FIGURE 21-20 Problem 24.
25. A Certain Charge Q A certain charge Q is divided into two parts q and Q q, which
are then separated by a certain distance. What must q be in terms of Q to maximize the
electrostatic repulsion between the two charges?
26. Identical Ions The magnitude of the electrostatic force between two identical ions
that are separated by a distance of 5.0 10-10 m is 3.7 10-9 N. (a) What is the charge of
each ion? (b) How many electrons are missing from each ion (thus giving the ion its
charge imbalance)?
27. Salt Crystal What is the magnitude of the electrostatic force between a singly
charged sodium ion (Na+, of charge +e) and an adjacent singly charged chlorine ion (Cl
of charge -e) in a salt crystal if their separation is 2.82 10-10m?
28. Cesium Chloride In the basic CsCl (cesium chloride) crystal structure, Cs+ ions form
the corners of a cube and a Cl ion is at the cubes center (Fig. 21-23). The edge length of
the cube is 0.40 nm. The Cs+ ions are each deficient by one electron (and thus each has a
charge of +e), and the Cl ion has one excess electron (and thus has a charge of -e). (a)
What is the magnitude of the net electrostatic force exerted on the Cl ion by the eight
Cs+ ions at the corners of the cube? (b) If one of the Cs+ ions is missing, the crystal is said
to have a defect; what is the magnitude of the net electrostatic force exerted on the Cl ion
by the seven remaining Cs+ ions?
29. Beads Figure 21-24 shows four tiny charged beads that can be slid or fixed in place
on wires that stretch along x and y axes. A central bead at the crossing point of the wires
(the origin) has a charge of +e. The other beads each have a charge of e. Initially beads
A, B, and C are at distance d = 10.0 cm from the central bead, and bead D is at a distance
of d/2. (a) How far from the central bead must you position bead A so that the direction of
the net electrostatic force F net on the central bead rotates counterclockwise by 30? (b)
With bead A still in its new position, where must you slide bead C so that the direction of
F net rotates back by 30?
30. Two Copper Coins We know that the negative charge on the electron and the
pqositive charge on the proton are equal in amount. Suppose, however, that these
amounts differ from each other by 0.00010%. With what force would two copper coins,
placed 1.0 m apart, repel each other? Assume that each coin contains 3 1021 copper
atoms. (Hint: A neutral copper atom contains 29 protons and 29 electrons.) What do you
conclude?
31. Particles A and B Figure 21-25a shows charged particles A and B that are fixed in
place on an x axis. Particle A has an amount of charge of |qA| = 8.00e. Particle C, with a
charge of qC = + 8.00e, is initially on the x axis near particle B. Then particle C is
gradually moved in the positive direction of the x axis. As a result, the magnitude of the
net electrostatic force FBnet on particle B due to particles A and C changes. Figure 21-25b
gives the x-component of that net force as a function of the position x of particle C. The
plot has an asymptote of FBnet 1.5 1025 N as x . As a multiple of e, what is the
charge qB of particle B?
32. Above the Floor In Fig. 21-26, a particle of charge +4e is above a floor by distance
d1 = 2.0 mm and a particle of charge +6e is on the floor at horizontal distance d2 = 6.0
mm from the first particle. What is the x-component of the electrostatic force on the
second particle due to the first particle?
33. Fixed on the x Axis In Fig. 21-27a, particle A (with charge qA) and particle B (with
charge qB) are fixed in place on an x axis, 8.00 cm apart. Particle C with a charge qC = +
5e is to be placed on the line between particles A and B, so that they produce a net
electrostatic force FCnet on it. Figure 21-27b gives the x-component of that force versus
the coordinate x at which particle C is placed. What are (a) the sign of charge qA and (b)
the ratio qB/qA?
34. Split in Two A charge of 6.0 C is to be split into two parts that are then separated by
3.0 mm. What is the maximum possible magnitude of the electrostatic force between
those two parts?
35. Two on the Axis Figure 21-29 shows two particles, each of charge +2e, that are fixed
on a y axis, each at a distance d = 17 cm from the x axis. A third particle, of charge +4e,
is moved slowly along the x axis, from x = 0 to x = +5.0 m. At what values of x will the
magnitude of the electrostatic force on the third particle from the other two particles be
(a) minimum and (b) maximum? What are (c) the minimum magnitude and (d) the
maximum magnitude?
36. Three Positive Charges In Fig 21-31a, three positively charged particles are fixed on
an x axis. Particles B and C are so close to each other that they can be considered to be at
the same distance from particle A. The net force on particle A due to particles B and C is
2.014 1023 N in the negative direction of the x axis. In Fig. 21-31b, particle B has been
moved to the opposite side of A but is still at the same distance from it. The net force on
A is now 2.877 1024 N in the negative direction of the x axis. What is the ratio of the
charge of particle C to that of particle B?
37. Fixed at the Origin A particle of charge Q is fixed at the origin of an xy coordinate
system. At t = 0 a particle (m = 0.800 g, q = 4.00 C) is located on the x axis at x = 20.0
cm, moving with a speed of 50.0 m/s in the positive y direction. For what value of Q will
the moving particle execute circular motion? (Assume that the gravitational force on the
particle may be neglected.)
38. Seven Charges Figure 21-32 shows an arrangement of seven positively charged
particles that are separated from the central particle by distances of either d ( = 1.0 cm) or
2d, as drawn. The charges are indicated. What are the magnitude and direction of the net
electrostatic force on the central particle due to the other six particles?
39. What is q In Fig. 21-33, what is q in terms of Q if the net electrostatic force on the
charged particle at the upper left corner of the square array is to be zero?
40. Charges Figure 21-34a shows an arrangement of three charged particles separated by
distance d. Particles A and C are fixed on the x axis, but particle B can be moved along a
circle centered on particle A. During the movement, a radial line between A and B makes
an angle relative to the positive direction of the x axis (Fig. 21-34b). The curves in Fig.
21-34c give, for two situations, the magnitude Fnet of the net electrostatic force on
particle A due to the other particles. That net force magnitude is given as a function of
angle and as a multiple of a basic force magnitude F. For example on curve 1, at =
180, we see that Fnet = 2F. (a) For the situation corresponding to curve 1, what is the
ratio of the charge of particle C to that of particle B (including sign)? (b) For the situation
corresponding to curve 2, what is that ratio?
41. Two ElectronsTwo Ions Figure 21-35 shows two electrons (charge e) on an x axis
and two negative ions of identical charges q and at identical angles . The central
electron is free to move; the other particles are fixed in place at horizontal distances R
and are intended to hold the free electron in place. (a) Plot the required amount of q
versus angle if this is to happen, (b) From the plot, determine which values of will be
needed for physically possible values of q 5e.
42. Diamond Figure 21-36 shows an arrangement of four charged particles, with angle
= 30 and distance d = 2.00 cm. The two negatively charged particles on the y axis are
electrons that are fixed in place. The particle at the right has a charge qB = +5e. (a) Find
distance D such that the net force on qA, the particle at the left, due to the three other
particles, is zero. (b) If the two electrons were moved closer to the x axis, would the
required value of D be greater than, less than, or the same as in part (a)?
43. Each Positive Two particles, each of positive charge q, are fixed in place on an x
axis, one at x = 0 and the other at x = +d. A particle of positive charge Q is to be placed
along that axis at locations given by x = d. (a) Write expressions, in terms of , that give
the net electrostatic force F elec acting on the third particle when it is in the three regions x
< 0, 0 < x < d, and d < x. The expressions should give a positive result when F elec acts in
the positive direction of the x axis and a negative result when F elec acts in the negative
direction. (b) Graph the magnitude of F elec versus for the range 2 < < 3.
44. Particles A and B In Fig. 21-37, particles A and B are fixed in place on an x axis, at a
separation of L = 8.00 cm. Their charges are qA = +e and qB = 27e. Particle C with
charge qC = +4e is to be placed on the line between particles A and B, so that they
produce a net electrostatic force FCnet on it. (a) At what coordinate should particle C be
placed to minimize the magnitude of that force? (b) What is that minimum magnitude?
45. A Particle with Charge Q A particle with charge Q is fixed at each of two opposite
corners of a square, and a particle with charge q is placed at each of the other two
corners. (a) If the net electrostatic force on each particle with charge Q is zero, what is Q
in terms of q? (b) Is there any value of q that makes the net electrostatic force on each of
the four particles zero? Explain.
46. Pivot Figure 21-39 shows a long, nonconducting, massless rod of length L, pivoted at
its center and balanced with a block of weight W at a distance x from the left end. At the
left and right ends of the rod are attached small conducting spheres with positive charges
q and 2q, respectively. At distance h directly beneath each of these spheres is a fixed
sphere with positive charge Q. (a) Find the distance x when the rod is horizontal and
balanced. (b) What value should h have so that the rod exerts no vertical force on the
bearing when the rod is horizontal and balanced?
47. Small Charged Sphere A small, charged sphere of mass 5.0 g is released 32 cm
away from a fixed point charge of +5.0 109 C. Immediately after release, the sphere is
observed to accelerate toward the charge at 2.5 m/s2. What is the charge on the sphere?
Hint: The force of gravity can be ignored in your calculation.
48. Two Free Particles Two free particles (that is, free to move) with charges +q and
+4q are a distance L apart. A third charge is placed so that the entire system is in
equilibrium. Show that the equilibrium is unstable.
Web Only
Reading Questions
READING EXERCISE 21-2: The creation of electrified objects can also be done
with strips of Scotch Magic Tape using a peeling action rather than stroking. In
order to charge the tape, cut 2 strips about 10 cm long. (a) If you were to stick the
tapes side by side on a table and peel them both off, what do you predict would
happen if you then brought the tapes close together? Explain the reasoning for your
prediction. (b) Perform the experiment and describe what happens. Is this consistent
with your prediction? If not, explain what you think is going on.
READING EXERCISE 21-3: Suppose you stroked a smooth wooden rod with a
linen cloth and announced that you had created a new type of charge you decided to
call woodolin charge. (a) If a skeptic asked you to prove that woodolin was really a
new type of charge, how would you do it? Specifically what would have to happen if
you were to bring two wooden rods together that had both been rubbed with linen? If
you were to bring a charged wooden rod near a charged glass rod? Near a charged
amber (or plastic) rod? (b) Why do you think most observers agree that there are only
two types of known charge?
READING EXERCISE 21-4: Assuming that solid objects are made up of atoms
rather than being continuous, can you think of a plausible way to explain why it is
so difficult to pull solids apart or push them together?
READING EXERCISE 21-5: Consider the measurements depicted in Fig. 21-6.

Sup pose you have measured the repulsion force between two identical metalcoated spheres that each have a total negative charge q due to excess electrons.
Next, you would like to measure the force on the metal-coated spheres that each
have one-fourth of the excess electrons they originally had. Describe how you
could use similar uncharged spheres to reduce the excess electrons on each of the
original spheres to q/4.
READING EXERCISE 21-6: (a) If we state that two bits of paper are electrically
neutral, what observation can you make to verify this is the case? Explain. (b) Can
induction be used to determine whether the charged object is positive or negative?
Why or why not?
READING EXERCISE 21-8: (a) Make the observation described in Reading Exer
cise 21-2. Is Scotch Magic Tape best described as an insulator or a conductor?
Explain your reasoning. (b) Is a balloon an insulator or a conductor? Explain your
reasoning.
READING EXERCISE 21-9: (a) Can you charge an insulator by induction? Explain
your reasoning. (b) Describe the steps you would take to give an object excess negative
charge using the process of charging by induction utilizing the electrophorus apparatus
shown in Fig. 21-10.
FIGURE 21-11 This is not a parlor stunt but a serious experiment carried out in 1774 to prove that the
human body is a conductor of electricity. The etching shows a person suspended by nonconducting ropes
while being charged by a charged rod (which probably touched flesh instead of the trousers). When the
person brought his face, left hand, or the conducting ball and rod in his right hand near bits of paper on the
plates, charge was induced on the paper, which flew through the intermediate air to him.
READING EXERCISE 21-10: Use the information provided at the end of Section 21-4
and in Fig. 21-6 to explain why the following statements cannot be true: (a) The force be
tween two charged particle-like objects is independent of the charge on the objects. (b)
The magnitude of the force between two charged particle-like objects is proportional to
1/|qA||qB|. (c) The force between two charged objects is proportional to |qA| + |qB|.
READING EXERCISE 21-11: The figure shows two protons (symbol p) and one
electron (symbol e) on an axis. What are the directions of (a) the electrostatic force on
the central proton due to the electron, (b) the electrostatic force on the central proton
due to the other proton, and (c) the net electrostatic force on the central proton? Are
there any points along the line connecting the three charges where the central proton can
be moved so that the net force on it is zero? Explain your reasoning and how your
answers relate to superposition for forces.
Workbook?
A. Opposites Attract It is said that unlike charges attract. You can observe that after the
sticky side of a piece of scotch tape is pulled quickly off the smooth side of another piece
of tape the tapes at tract each other. Perhaps each tape has a like charge and the rule has
been stated backwards. Why do you believe the charges on the two tapes are different?
Note: It is not acceptable to answer be cause unlike charges attract and I observed the
attraction.
B: (a) In the figure that follows, objects made of different materials are arranged in six
pairs. A is plastic stroked with fur, B is glass stroked with silk, and C is an electrically
neutral metal object. State whether the interaction between each pair will be attractive,
repulsive, or nonexistent. Explain your reasoning.
(b) According to the sign convention Benjamin Franklin decided to adopt, which of the
three objects carry an excess positive charge? An excess negative charge? No excess
charge? Explain.
(c) Suppose you were told that A, B, and C are made of new materials but you were not
told what those materials are. Would it be possible to determine whether they are
negatively charged, positively charged, or electrically neutral by observing how the pairs
shown in the diagram above interact? Why or why not?
C. Hanging Ball of Foil (a) Explain how a metal conductor such as a hanging ball of
aluminum foil can be attracted to a charged insulator even though the ball of foil has no
net charge so that it is electrically neutral. (b) Can two metal balls with no net charge
attract each other? Explain. (c) Can the process of induction cause a neutral conductor to
be repelled from a charged insulator? Explain.
D. Plastic Rubbed with Fur Suppose you rub a plastic rod with fur that gives it a
negative charge. You then bring it close to an un charged metal coated Styrofoam ball
that is suspended from a string. (a) When the rod gets close to the ball, the ball starts
moving toward it. Use the concept of induction to explain what happens to the atomic
electrons and protons in the ball. Include a sketch of the ball and the rod that shows the
excess negative charges on the rod. Also show how the charges are distributed on the ball
just before it touches the rod. (b) After the ball touches the rod, it moves away from the
rod quickly. Explain why.
E. Hang from Thread In Fig. 21-38, two tiny conducting balls of identical mass m and
identical charge q hang from nonconducting threads of length L. Assume that is so
small that tan can be replaced by its approximate equal, sin . (a) Show that, for
equilibrium,
1/ 3
2kq 2 L
x
mg
where x is the separation between the balls. (b) If L = 120 cm, m = 10 g, and x = 5.0 cm,
what is q?
F. What Happens? Explain what happens to the balls of Problem 45b if one of them is
discharged (loses its charge q to, say, the ground), and find the new equilibrium
separation x, using the given values of L and m and the computed value of q.

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21 Electrostatic Force

Describe how we know whether an object is positively charged, negatively

ax i + a y j and az k are vectors called the component vectors of a .

components and unit vectors

ax2 a 2y . The magnitude of a three-dimensional vector is

To specifiy a vector in magnitude angle notation we need to give both the

Rearranging these relationships, we find

21-1 Discovering Charge and the Electrostatic Force

FIGURE 21-1 Interactions between charged objects.

CHECK POINT 21-1

Answers are at the end of the chapter.

For extra practice try XX

Using Atomic Theory to Explain Charging

Charging is a Transfer of Electrons

Fig. 21-5: The transfer of electrons during rubbing.

Conductors and Insulators

CHECK POINT 21-2

Answers are at the end of the chapter.

For extra practice try XX

total mass n(9.11x1031 kg) 6.25 x1013 (9.11x1031 kg)

21-3 Polarization and Induction

Unpaired protons are left behind.

The difference in mobility of charge carriers in conductors and insulators explains

The body (or the ground)

Fig. 21-9 The process of grounding.

Bring the metal close to a

Touch the metal with your finger, the

Now the metal has a net

Remove your finger and there is no longer a

CHECK POINT 21-3

Fig. 21-11 CheckPoint 21-3

Answers are at the end of the chapter.

For extra practice try XX

21-4 Quantifying the Electrostatic Force

charge on a particle-like object can be quantified through measurement of the magnitude

where k is a positive constant of proportionality, r is the distance between the centers of

The electrostatic constant, k, in Coulombs law has the value

However, k is often replaced by a factor 1/40.

How do we know that the inverse square relationship in

So long as the charged

Newtons Third Law: The Reason We Use Absolute Value

The Electrostatic Force Due to Multiple Charges

situations when we learned about universal gravitation FG G 1 2 2 . The solution is to

CHECK POINT 21-6

Answers are at the end of the chapter.

For extra practice try XX

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES 21-1:

1. Sketch the charge configuration and annotate. Sketch the collection of

LEARN THE STRATEGY

Wiley, please change the

Principles and Equations

(1.60 1019 C)(3.20 1019 C)

(8.99 109 N m 2 /C2 )

(1.60 1019 C)(3.20 1019 C)

Fig. 21-22: Sketch and freebody diagram for Exercise 21-3.

Principles and Equations

1.15 1024 N (As in Exercise 21-2 above.)

(1.60 1019 C)(3.2 1019 C)

FB on A is directed straight left. So,

( FD on A ) x (2.05 1024 N)(cos 60)

F A ( Fnet A ) FB on A FD on A , we first sum the components of FB on A and FD on A in each

The sum of the y-components gives us

So, in unit vector notation, FA (1.25 1025 N) i (1.78 1024 N) j .