Basic Concepts of Measurements PDF

MECN 4600 Design of Experiment and Instrumentation
BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENTS

INTRODUCTION
The process or the act of measurement consists of obtaining a quantitative comparison
between a predefined Standard and Measurand.
The word Measurand is used to designate the particular physical parameter being
observed and quantified; that is, the input quantity to the measuring process. (A physical
quantity, property or condition to be measured)
A Measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to a physical variable. That
physical variable becomes the Measured Variable.
The standard of comparison must be of the same character as the measurand, and usually
is prescribed and defined by a legal or recognized agency or organization.
Example:
NIST : The National Institute of Standards and Technology.
NBS : The National Bureau of Standards.
ISO : The International Organization for Standardization.
ANSI : The American National Standards Institute.
The engineer is not only interested in the measurement of physical variables but also
concerned with their control. The two function are closely related, however because one
must be able to measure a variable such as temperature or flow in order to control it. The
accuracy of control is necessarily dependent on the accuracy of measurement.
Created by Amlcar A. Rincn Charris
Measurement is also a fundamental element of any control process.

Statistical techniques are available for analyzing data to determine expected errors and
deviations from the true measurements. The engineer must be familiar with these
techniques in order to analyze the data effectively.
The Generalized Measurement System

Most measurement system may consist of part or all of four general stages:
a)
b)
c)
d)
A sensor Transducer Stage.

An Intermediate Stage or signal Conditioning Stage.
A Terminating Stage Output Stage.
Feedback Control Stage.
Sensor Transducer Stage

The primary function of the first stage is to detect or to sense the physical variable
(Measurand) and performs either a mechanical or an electrical transformation to convert
the signal into a more usable form.
The sensor is a physical element that employs some natural phenomenon by which it
senses the variable being measured. The transducer converts this sensed information into
a detectable signal form, which might be electrical, mechanical, optical, etc. In most
cases, however, the physical variable is transformed into an electric signal because this is
the form of signal that is most easily measured.
Signal Conditioning Stage
The purpose of the second stage is to take the transducer signal and modifies by
amplification, filtering or other means so that a desirable output is available.
Output Stage
Provides an indication of the value of the measurement. The output equipment might be a
simple readout display a marked scale or might contain devices that can record the signal
for later analysis. Examples of these devices are tape recorders, chart recorders and
computer disk drives.
Feedback Control Stage
In those measurement systems involved in process control a fourth stage the feedback
control stage, contains a controller that interprets the measured signal and makes a
decision regarding the control of the process. This decision results in a change in a
process parameter that affects the magnitude of the sensed variable.
It is very important to realize that the accuracy of control cannot be any better than the
accuracy of the measurement of the control variable.
Therefore one must be able to measure a physical variable accurately before one can hope
to control the variable.
A schematic diagram of the generalized measurement system is shown below.
The overall schematic of the generalized measurement systems is quite simple and as one
might suspect the difficult problems are encountered when suitable devices are sought to
fill the requirements of each of the boxes on the schematic diagram.
Definition of Terms
The following terms are often employed to describe the quality of an instruments reading.
Range (Campo de Medida)
The region between the limits within which a quantity is measured, received or
transmitted, expressed by starting the lower and upper range values.
Example: 0 to 150 oF, 20 to 200 psi.
Span (Amplitud o Alcance)
The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values.
For example:
a) Range 0 to 150 oF , span 150 oF.
b) Range -20 to 200 oF, span 220 oF.
c) Range 20 to 150 psi, span 130 psi.
Elevated Zero Range (Rango con elevacin de cero)

A range in which the zero value of the measured variable, measured signal, is greater
than the lower range value.
Example:
-25 to 50 psi.
Suppressed Zero Range (Rango con supresin de cero)
A range in which the zero value of the measured variable is less than the lower range
value.
Example:
20 to 100 psi.
Measured Variable (Variable Medida)
A quantity property or condition that is measured. Sometimes referred to as the
measurand. Example: Temperature, Pressure, rate of flow.
Measured Signal (Seal Medida)
The electrical, mechanical, pneumatic or other variable applied to the input of a device. It
is the analog of the Measured Variable produced by a transducer.
Example:
In a thermocouple thermometer, the measured signal is an emf which is the electrical
analog of the temperature applied to the thermocouple.
In a flow meter, the measured signal may be a differential pressure which is the analog of
the rate of flow through the orifice.
In a electric tachometer system, the measured signal may be a voltage which is the
electrical analog of the speed of rotation of the part coupled to the tachometer generator.
Output Signal (Seal de Salida)
A signal delivered by a device, element or system.
Accuracy (Exactitud)
The accuracy of an instrument indicates the deviation of the reading from a known value
accuracy is typically expressed as:
1. Percentage of full scale reading (upper range value). Example:
A 100 Kpa pressure gage having an accuracy of 1 % would be accurate of
1 Kpa over the entire range of the gage.
2. Percentage of span. Example:

A pressure gage has span of 200 Kpa, Accuracy of 0.5%.
To one reading of 150 Kpa is taken, then the true value of measurement will be
between
150
0.5 x 200
= 150 1 or 149 Kpa and 151 Kpa.
100
3. Measured Variable Accuracy of 1 Kpa, over all ranges of the Instrument.

4. Percentage of the actual reading. Thus, for a 2% of reading voltmeter, we
would have an inaccuracy of 0.04 volts for a reading of 2 volts.
Precision
The difference between the instruments reported values during repeated measurements of
the same quantity. Typically, this value is determined by statistical analysis of repeated
measurement.
Repeatability
Is the ability of an instrument to reproduce the same measurement each time the same set
of conditions is repeated. This does not imply that the measurement is correct, but rather
that the measurement is the same each time.
Example:
The concept of accuracy and repeatability in measurements can be illustrated by the
throw of darts.
In summary
a) Poor Repeatability means poor Accuracy.
b) Good Accuracy means good repeatability.
c) Good Repeatability does not necessarily mean good Accuracy.
Repeatability does not include Hysteresis.
Sensitivity (Sensibilidad)
The change of an instrument or transducer output per unit change in the measured
quantity. A more sensitive instrument reading changes significantly in response to
smaller changes in the measured quantity. Typically an instrument with higher sensitivity
will also have better repeatability and higher accuracy.
Resolution
The smallest increment of change in the measured valve that can be determined from the
instrument readout scale.
Dead Band (Banda Muerta)
In process instrumentation the range through which an input signal may be varied upon
reversal of direction, without initiating an observable change in output signal. Dead band
is usually expressed in percent of span.
Hysteresis
An instrument is said to exhibit hysteresis when there is a difference in readings

depending an whether the value of the measured quantity is approached from above or
below. Hysteresis results from the inelastic quantity of an element or device. In other
word, it may be the result of mechanical friction, magnetic effects, elastic deformation, or
thermal effects. Hysteresis is expressed in percent of span. Dead band term is included in
the hysteresis.
Example 1
A temperature transducer has a range of 20 o to 250oC. A measurement results in a value
of 55oC for the temperature. Compare the errors if the accuracy is:
a) 0.5 % FS.
b) 0.75 % of span.
c) 0.8 % of reading.
What is the possible temperature in each case?
Solution:
a) Error =
0.5%(250 o C )
= 1.25 o C
100%
Thus, the actual temperature is in the range 53.75 oC and 56.25 oC.
b) Error =
0.75%.(250 20) o C
= 1.725 o C
100%
c) Error =
0.8%(55 o C )
= 0.44
100%
Example 2
Two pressure instruments with a range of 0 to 100 psi are measuring a process value of
50 psi. The accuracy of both devices is 1% FS. Data obtained from five measurements
are listed in the following table; determine which instrument has a greater degree of
repeatability.
Measurement
1
2
3
4
5
Instrument A (psi)
49.9
49.7
50.1
49.8
50.2
Instrument B (psi)
49.9
49.6
50.4
49.7
50.5
Solution:
From the measurements shown, it can be seen that the instrument A is more repeatable.
The measurements from both instruments are within the tolerance expressed by the 1%
accuracy stated ( 1 psi).
Example 3
A force sensor measures a range of 0 to 150 N with a resolution of 0.1% FS. Find the
smallest change in force than can be measured.
Solution:
Because the resolution is 0.1% FS, we have a resolution of:

Resolution =
0.1%(150 N )
= 0.15 N
100%
Which is the smallest measurable change in force.
Standards
In order that investigator in different parts of the country and different parts of the world
may compare the results of their experiments on a consistent basis. It is necessary to
establish certain standard units of length, mass, time, temperature, pressure, etc. The
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) have the primary responsibility
for maintaining these standards in the United States.
A Dimension defines a physical variable that is used to describe some aspect of a
physical system. The fundamental value associated with any dimension is given by a
Unit.
A Unit defines a measure of a dimension.
Dimension
Length
Mass
Time
Unit
Meter
Kilogram
Second
Fundamental Dimension: Length, Mass, Time, Temperature, Electrical Current,

Luminous Intensity.
Derived Dimension: Acceleration, Area, Density, Velocity and Force.
A Primary Standard defines the value of a unit it provides the means to describe the unit
with a unique number that can be understood throughout the world. The primary standard
then assigns a unique value to a unit by definition.
The standard of length:

The meter is defined as the length of a platinum-Iridium bar maintained to certain
specified condition at the International Bureau of Weights and Measured.
1 foot = 0.30480060 meters.

1 inch = 0.02540005 meters.
The standard of Mass:
The kilogram is defined as the mass of a particular platinum-Iridium bar which is
maintained under very specified conditions at the International Bureau of Weights and
Measured.
1 lbm = 0.45359237 Kg.

The standard of time:
The second has been defined as 1/86400 of a mean solar day. The solar day is measured
as the time interval between two successive transits of the sun across a meridian of the
earth.
Standards of Temperature
The basic unit of temperature, the Kelvin, K, is defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water, the temperature at which the
solid, liquid, and vapor phases of water exist in equilibrium.
o
C = K 273.15
F = oR 459.67
o
F = 1.8 oC + 32
o
Electrical Standards
All electrical units originate from the definition of the Ampere. One ampere is the current
that produce a magnetic force of 2*10-7 N/m on a pair of thin parallel wires carrying that
current and separated by 1 m. The remaining electrical units, such as volts and ohms, can
all be derived from the value of the ampere and the basic units of mass, length and time.
STANDARD GRAPHICS SYMBOLS FOR PROCESS CONTROL

AND INSTRUMENTATION
In the measurement and control field a standard set of symbols is used to prepare drawing
of control systems and processes. The symbols used in these drawing are generally based
on Instrument Society of America (ISA) and American National Standards Institute
(ANSI), standard ANSI / ISA S5.1.
A typical application for this standard is Process and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID).
This type of drawing shows the interconnection of process equipment and the
instrumentation used to control loops.
10

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MECN 4600 Design of Experiment and Instrumentation