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Crossroads of Life
Microbial
Metabolism:
The Chemical
Crossroads
of Life
Chapter 8
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Metabolism
Nutrients from
outside or from
internal pathways
Pyruvate
Acetyl CoA
Glyceraldehyde-3-P
Amino acids
Sugars
Nucleotides
Fatty acids
Proteins
Peptidoglycan
RNA + DNA
Complex lipids
Glycolysis
Krebs cycle
Respiratory chain
Fermentation
Macromolecules
Building
blocks
Glucose
Precursor
molecules
+
ATP
NADH
Yields energy
Uses energy
Uses energy
Metabolism
Anabolism (biosynthesis):
process that results in
synthesis of cell molecules
and structures
Catabolism: breakdown
of bonds of larger
molecules into smaller
molecules
Enzymes
Enzymes are catalysts
Catalysts - chemicals that increase
the rate of a chemical reaction
without becoming part of the products
or being consumed in the reaction
Enzyme Structure
Most are protein
Can be classified as simple or conjugated
Simple enzymes- consist of protein alone
Conjugated enzymes (haloenzyme) - contain
protein and nonprotein molecules
Protein (now called the apoenzyme) and
one or more cofactors
Cofactors are either organic molecules
(coenzymes) or inorganic elements
(metal ions)
Enzyme-Substrate Interactions
For a reaction to take place, a temporary enzymesubstrate union must occur at the active site
Lock-and-key fit
The bonds are weak and easily reversible
Type of action
Substrate
Decarboxylases
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11
12
Oxidation/Reduction
Oxidation is losing electrons
Reduction is gaining electrons
Oxidation is always linked to reduction
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Na
281
Reducing agent
gives up electrons.
Cl
287
Oxidizing agent
accepts electrons.
Na
Oxidized
cation
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Cl
288
Reduced
anion
Electron Carriers
Repeatedly accept and
release electrons and
hydrogens
Most carriers are
coenzymes that transfer
both electrons and
hydrogens
Some transfer electrons
only
Most common carrierNAD (nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide)
13
Adenosine Triphosphate
Ongoing cycle
Adding a phosphate to ADP replenishes ATP but it
requires an input of energy
In heterotrophs, this energy comes from certain
steps of catabolic pathways
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15
Glucose Metabolism
16
Aerobic Respiration
Series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions
Electrons are transferred from fuel molecules to
oxygen as a final electron acceptor
Principal energy-yielding scheme for aerobic
heterotrophs
Provides both ATP and metabolic intermediates
for many other pathways in the cell
Glucose is the starting compound
Glycolysis enzymatically converts glucose
through several steps into pyruvic acid
Glycolysis
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AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION FERMENTATION
Glycolysis
Glycolysis
Glycolysis
Glucose
Glucose
ATP
ATP
NADH
NADH
CO2
CO2
CO2
Acetyl CoA
Fermentation
Acetyl CoA
C C C
Glucose
FADH 2
FADH2
Krebs
CO2
NADH
Krebs
CO2
Acetaldeh yd e
Lactic acid
NADH
ATP
First phosphorylation
Ethanol
ATP
ATP
1
ADP
Or other alcohols,
acids, gases
Electrons
Electrons
Electron transport
Electron transport
O2 is final electron
acceptor.
ATP produced
38
2 to 36
ATP produced
PO4
C C C
C C
C C C
C C
Second phosphorylation
Glucose-6-phosphate
PO4
Fructose-6-phosphate
ATP
3
ADP
PO4
PO4
C
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
(DHAP)
Fructose-1,6-diphosphate
(F-1,6-P)
PO4
C
Glyceraldehyde-3
phosphate
C C PO4
C PO4
C C C
To electron transport
NAD
Glyceraldehyde-3-P
(G-3-P)
PO4
NAD
NADH
NADH
PO4 C C C
Diphosphoglyceric
acid
Substrate-level
phosphorylation
PO4
ADP
ATP
C C C
PO4 C C
PO4
C C C
PO4
ADP
ATP
3-phosphoglyceric
acid
PO4
To electron transport
7
PO4
PO4
C C C
2-phosphoglycericacid
C C
8
PO4
C
Phosphoenolyruvicacid
C
C C
Substrate-level
phosphorylation
ATP
C
ATP
C C
Goes to
Krebs cycle or fermentation
PO4
Pyruvicacid
Goes to
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18
Krebs Cycle
19
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Electrons pass
through membrane
carriers
Carriers are called
cytochromes
Cell wall
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
Cytochromes
H
H
Cytoplasm
ATP synthase
Cell membrane
with ETS
ADP
H
H
H
ATP
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Anaerobic Respiration
Functions like the aerobic cytochrome system
except it utilizes oxygen-containing ions rather
than free oxygen as the final electron acceptor
The nitrate and nitrite reduction systems are best
known, using the enzyme nitrate reductase
Denitrification: when enzymes can further
reduce nitrite to nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, and
nitrogen gas- important in recycling nitrogen in
the biosphere
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Fermentation
The incomplete oxidation of glucose or other
carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen
Uses organic compounds as the terminal electron
acceptors and yields a small amount of ATP
Many bacteria can grow as fast using fermentation
as they would in the presence of oxygen
This is made possible by an increase in the rate of
glycolysis
Permits independence from molecular oxygen
Products of Fermentation in
Microorganisms
Products of Fermentation in Microorganisms
Alcoholic beverages
Organic acids
Dairy products
Vitamins, antibiotics, and even hormones
Two general categories
Alcoholic fermentation
Acidic fermentation
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Fermentation Pathways
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Amphibolic Metabolism
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Anabolism: Formation of
Macromolecules
Monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, nitrogen
bases, and vitamins come from two possible sources
Enter the cell from outside as nutrients
Can be synthesized through various cellular pathways
Carbohydrate Biosynthesis
Several alternative pathways
Amino Acids, Protein Synthesis, and Nucleic Acid
Synthesis
Some organisms can synthesize all 20 amino acids
Other organisms (especially animals) must acquire the
essential ones from their diets
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Proceeds in two
phases
Light-dependent
reactions
Lightindependent
reactions
Glucose
H2O
ATP
2H + e
NADPH
O2
Chloroplast
CO2
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Light-Dependent Reactions
Solar energy delivered in discrete energy packets called
photons
Light strikes photosynthetic pigments
Some wavelengths are absorbed
Some pass through
Some are reflected
Light is absorbed through photosynthetic pigments
Chlorophylls (green)
Carotenoids (yellow, orange, or red)
Phycobilins (red or blue-green)
Light-Dependent Reactions
Bacterial chlorophylls
Contain a photocenter- a magnesium atom held in the
center of a complex ringed molecule called a
porphyrin
Harvest the energy of photons and converts it to
electron energy
Accessory photosynthetic pigments trap light energy and
shuttle it to chlorophyll
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Photosynthesis
Light-Independent Reactions
Occur in the chloroplast stroma or the cytoplasm
of cyanobacteria
Use energy produced by the light phase to
synthesize glucose by means of the Calvin cycle
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Calvin Cycle
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CO2
Splitting
6-carbon
intermediate
P
Autotrophs
3-phosphoglyceric
acid
Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
5-carbon
ADP
Calvin Cycle
ATP 2
ADP
ATP
6 CO2 Glucose
P
Seriesof7-carbon
and5-carbon
Intermediates
P
1,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid
P
H
P
H
NADPH 2
NADP+
Glyceraldehyde-3phosphate
Glucose
Fructoseintermediates
Other Mechanisms of
Photosynthesis
Oxygenic (oxygen-releasing) photosynthesis that occurs
in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria- dominant type on
earth
Other photosynthesizers such as green and purple
bacteria
Possess bacteriochlorophyll
More versatile in capturing light
Only have a cyclic photosystem I
These bacteria use H2, H2S, or elemental sulfur rather
than H2O as a source of electrons and reducing power
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