SHRI VISHNU ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN:: BHIMAVARAM

(Autonomous)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SUB: DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS

HANDOUT 1(UNIT-1)

BRANCH:III ECE-A,B&C

Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting and receiving independent signals over a common
signal path by means of synchronized switches at each end of the transmission line so that each signal appears on the
line only a fraction of time in an alternating pattern. It is used when the data rate of the transmission medium exceeds
that of signal to be transmitted.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a technique by which the total bandwidth available in a communication
medium is divided into a series of non-overlapping frequency sub-bands, each of which is used to carry a separate
signal. This allows a single transmission medium such as the radio spectrum, a cable or optical fiber to be shared by
multiple independent signals. Another use is to carry separate serial bits or segments of a higher rate signal in
parallel.
Pulse-Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is a form of signal modulation where the message information is encoded in
the amplitude of a series of signal pulses. It is an analog pulse modulation scheme in which the amplitudes of a train
of carrier pulses are varied according to the sample value of the message signal. Demodulation is performed by
detecting the amplitude level of the carrier at every symbol period.
Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) or Pulse-Duration Modulation (PDM) is a modulation technique used to
encode a message into a pulsing signal. Although this modulation technique can be used to encode information for
transmission, its main use is to allow the control of the power supplied to electrical devices, especially to inertial
loads such as motors. In addition, PWM is one of the two principal algorithms used in photovoltaic solar battery
chargers, the other being maximum power point tracking.
Pulse-Position Modulation (PPM) is a form of signal modulation in which M message bits are encoded by
transmitting a single pulse in one of 2M possible required time-shifts. This is repeated every T seconds, such that the
transmitted bit rate is M/T bits per second. It is primarily useful for optical communications systems, where there
tends to be little or no multipath interference.
Waveform Representation:

555 Timer IC is most popular to generate waveforms for PPM and PWM modes. PWM is generated using 555 timer
in monostable multivibrator mode. PPM is generated using 555 timer by using PWM as a trigger signal in
monostable multivibrator mode.

SHRI VISHNU ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN:: BHIMAVARAM

(Autonomous)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SUB: DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS

HANDOUT 2 (UNIT-2)

BRANCH:III ECE-A,B&C

Digital Communications: is the physical transfer of data (a digital bit stream) over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint
communication channel.
Pulse Modulation: Digital pulse modulation: Message signal represented in a form that is discrete in both amplitude and time.
The signal is transmitted as a sequence of coded pulses
No continuous wave in this form of transmission
Elements of Digital Communication systems:
Information source:Generate the messages that can be transmited to destination
Source Encoder/Decoder:The Source coder converts the symbol sequence into a binary sequence of 0s & 1s &

viceversa
Communication Channel: The physical medium on which the signal is carried
Modulator/ Demodulator: The device that converts a physical signal from source to an electrical, mechanical or
electromagnetic signal more suitable for communicating & viceversa
Channel Encoder/Decoder:Channel coding is a practical method of realizing high transmission reliability and efficiency
Advantages of digital communication systems:
Reliable communication; less sensitivity to changes in environmental conditions (temperature, etc.)
Easy multiplexing, Easy signaling
Hook status, address digits, call progress information
Voice and data integration, Easy processing like encryption and compression
Easy system performance monitoring, QOS monitoring
Integration of transmission and switching
Signal regeneration, operation at low SNR, superior performance
Integration of services leading to ISDN
Sampling: The act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample; specifically : the act, process, or technique of selecting a
representative part of a analog signal for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the analog signal
Quantization : A process in which the continuous range of values of an analog signal is sampled and divided into
nonoverlapping (but not necessarily equal) subranges, and a discrete, unique value is assigned to each subrange.
Coding: is a rule for converting a piece of information (for example, a letter, word, phrase, or gesture) into another form or
representation (one sign into another sign), not necessarily of the same type.
Quantization Error: the difference between the actual analog value and quantized digital value is called quantization error or
quantization distortion. This error is either due to rounding or truncation.
Companding in PCM systems: Companding (compressing and expanding) is a signal processing technique that is used to
effectively
enhace
the
dynamic
range
of
a
channel
at
the
cost
of
some
extra
noise.
In PCM companding, the usual technique is to expand a digital signal by a mapping between the codewords of the baseband
signal and the expanded version
Differential PCM Systems(DPCM):Differential pulse code modulation (DPCM) is a procedure of converting an analog into a
digital signal in which an analog signal is sampled and then the difference between the actual sample value and its predicted
value (predicted value is based on previous sample or samples) is quantized and then encoded forming a digital value.
Delta Modulation: Delta modulation uses a single-bit PCM code to achieve digital transmission of analog signals. With
conventional PCM, each code is a binary representation of both the sign and the magnitude of a particular sample. Therefore,
multiple-bit codes are required to represent the many values that the sample can be.
--With delta modulation, rather than transmit a coded representation of the sample, only a single bit is transmitted, which simply
indicates whether that sample is larger or smaller than the previous sample.
--The algorithm for a delta modulation system is quite simple.
--If the current sample is smaller than the previous sample, a logic 0 is transmitted.
--If the current sample is larger than the previous sample, a logic 1 is transmitted.
To achieve high signal-to-noise ratio, delta modulation must use oversampling techniques, that is, the analog signal is sampled at
a rate several times higher than the Nyquist rate.
Derived forms of delta modulation are continuously variable slope delta modulation, delta-sigma modulation, and differential
modulation. Differential pulse-code modulation is the super set of DM.
Adaptive delta modulation
Adaptive delta modulation (ADM) or continuously variable slope delta modulation (CVSD) is a modification of DM in which
the step size is not fixed. Rather, when several consecutive bits have the same direction value, the encoder and decoder assume
that slope overload is occurring, and the step size becomes progressively larger. Otherwise, the step size becomes gradually
smaller over time. ADM reduces slope error, at the expense of increasing quantizing error. This error can be reduced by using a
low pass filter.

SHRI VISHNU ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN::

BHIMAVARAM
(Autonomous)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
SUB: DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS

HANDOUT 3 (UNIT-3)

BRANCH:III ECE-A,B&C

Fundamental digital modulation methods based on keying are as follows:

PSK (phase-shift keying): a finite number of phases are used.

FSK (frequency-shift keying): a finite number of frequencies are used.

ASK (amplitude-shift keying): a finite number of amplitudes are used.

QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation): a finite number of at least two phases and at least two amplitudes
are used.
BPSK: BPSK (also sometimes called PRK, phase reversal keying, or 2PSK) is the simplest form of phase shift
keying (PSK). It uses two phases which are separated by 180 and so can also be termed 2-PSK.
The general form for BPSK follows the equation

Bit error rate

The bit error rate (BER) of BPSK in AWGN can be calculated as:

QPSK: QPSK can encode two bits per symbol The mathematical analysis shows that QPSK can be used either to
double the data rate compared with a BPSK system while maintaining the same bandwidth of the signal, or to
maintain the data-rate of BPSK but halving the bandwidth needed.

the probability of bit-error for QPSK is the same as for BPSK:

Frequency-Shift Keying: Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital
information is transmitted throughdiscrete frequency changes of a carrier wave.

Amplitude-Shift Keying: The simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude-shift keying (ASK), where a
binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier.

M-ary Encoding: M simply represents a digit that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or combinations
possible for a given number of binary variables. N = log2 M
Different M-ary Modulations:
M-ary ASK
M-ary FSK
M-ary PSK

SHRI VISHNU ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN::

BHIMAVARAM
(Autonomous)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
SUB: DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS

HANDOUT 4 (UNIT-4)

DATA TRANSMISSION
Baseband Signal Receiver

Signal to Noise Ratio of the Integrator and Dump Filter is

Probability of Error in Integrate and Dump Receiver is

Optimum Receiver
Probability of Error of Optimum Filter is
Transfer Function of Optimum Filter is
Matched Filter
Impulse Response of the Matched Filter is

Probability of Error of Matched Filter is

Error Probabilities of Baseband Signaling Schemes

Error Probability of ASK is

BRANCH:III ECE-A,B&C

Error Probability of BPSK is

Error Probability of FSK is

Error Probability of QPSK is

Error Probability of MSK is

SHRI VISHNU ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN::

BHIMAVARAM
(Autonomous)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
SUB: DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS

HANDOUT 5 (UNIT-5)

BRANCH:III ECE-A,B&C

SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION

A system may be required to provide secure communication in hostile environments such that the
transmitted signal is not easily detected. The requirement is catered by class of signaling techniques known
as spread spectrum modulation.
Spread spectrum is a means of data modulation in which data sequence occupies bandwidth in excess of
minimum bandwidth required to send it.
Applications
Developed for military, used for civilian applications also.

Direct sequence spread spectrum: In direct sequence spread spectrum, the amplitude of already
modulated signal is amplitude modulated by very high rate NRZ binary stream of bits.
Frequency hopping spread spectrum: In Frequency hopping spectrum, the spectrum of data modulated
carrier is widened by changing carrier frequency in a pseudo random manner.
Both the techniques employ noise like spreading code called pseudo random noise sequence.
PN Sequence: PN sequence is a periodic binary sequence with noise like waveform and is generated by
means of feedback shift register.
Coherent systems require carrier and phase synchronization to permit modulated received signal to be
mixed down to baseband. In spread spectrum a third synchronization is required to allow regeneration of
chipping waveform used at transmitter.
The term acquisition is referred to as coarse synchronizationand tracking is used to refer fine
synchronization.

SHRI VISHNU ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN::

BHIMAVARAM
(Autonomous)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
SUB: DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS

HANDOUT 6 (UNIT-6)

BRANCH:III ECE-A,B&C

INFORMATION THEORY AND CODING

Information Theory: Information theory deals with mathematical modelling and analysis of
communication system rather than physical sources and physical channels.
The symbol emitted by the source is modelled as discrete random variable.
Information:The information gained after observing the event S=SK which occurs withprobability PK is
I (SK) =log (1/PK)
Properties of Information
1. I (SK) =0 for PK=1
2. I (SK) 0 for 0PK1
3. I (SK) > I (SI) for PK< PI
4. I (SKSI) =I (SK) +I (SI) if SK and SI are statistically independent.
EntropyItis the average amount of information contained in each message received.
Properties of Entropy
1. H(X) =0 If and only if the probability P K=1 for some k, and the remaining probabilities in the set are
zero.
2. H(X) =log2k if and only if PK=1/k for all the value of k.
Information rate
The number of bits transmitted per second is called Information rate.It is given as R=rH, where
r is the symbol rate and H is entropy
Mutual information of two discrete random variables X and Y is defined as

Properties of Mutual Information

I(X; Y) =I(Y; X),

I(X; Y) =H(X)-H(Y/X), I(X; Y) 0,

I(X; Y) =H(X) +H(Y)-H(X, Y)

Source Coding is the process of efficient representation of data given by discrete source. The two data
compaction algorithms are Huffman code and Shannon Fano code algorithms.
Channel Coding employs addition of redundant bits in the transmitted sequence to detect and correct
errors. The error correcting codes are block codes and convolutional codes.