GLASS & CERAMIC

SHAPING & FORMATION

Glass
When a crystalline material solidifies, there is a
step change in volume at the melting
temperature.
Glasses do not really solidify in the traditional
sense no definite temperature at which the
liquid transforms to a solid
Upon cooling, a glass continues to be more viscous
with decreasing temperature The molecules
pack closer and closer together, becoming an
increasingly denser liquid.
volume decreases continuously with temperature
reduction
The slight change in slope occurs when the
Crystal
discountinue
molecules are essentially unable to flow.
decrease in vol at Tm
This is the Glass Transition Temperature
Tg The temperature at which the transition in
Tg: glass transition T
the amorphous regions between the glassy and
Tm: melting T for
rubbery state
crystalline

Glass Forming

Heat RM to an elevated temperature above which melting occurs

Most commercial glasses are of the silicasodalime variety
silica (quartz)Na2O(soda ash, Na2CO3)CaO(limestone, CaCO3)
Important: homogeneous and pore free
Homogeneity complete melting and mixing of RM
Porosity results from small gas bubbles that are produced these must be
absorbed into the melt or otherwise eliminated, which requires proper
adjustment of the viscosity of the molten material
4 methods to fabricate glass: pressing, blowing, drawing & fiber forming

pressing

relatively thick-walled pieces (plates and dishes.

The glass piece is pressed in a graphite-coated cast iron mold
with desired shape
the mold is heated to ensure an even surface.

BLOWING
some glass blowing is done
by hand art object
RM press in mold
parison (temporary
shape); place into finishing
or blow mold & forced to
conform to the mold
contours by the pressure
created from a blast of air
Glass bottle, jar, light bulb

DRAWING

Form long, wide glass pieces (window glass,sheet, tubing, rod etc)
hot rolling may applied
Flatness & surface finish may be improved by floating the molten
glass sheet on a bath of molten tin at high T followed slowly cooled
and subsequently heat treated

Glass processing

CERAMIC-Clay Products
Clay are aluminosilicates Al2O3 & SiO3 contain chemically
bound water
Broad in physical characteristic, chemical composition,
structure
Impurities-various: oxide of Ba, Ca, Na, K, Fe
May contain nonplastic ingredient
Nonclay minerals: flint, quartz, feldspar
Quartz relatively hard, little change in high T, ability to form
glass

Composition
Clay minerals play 2 roles:
1.When added water, form hydroplasticity
2.Fuse or melt over a range T dense & strong
ceramic during firing without complete melting;
desired shape
Common clay mineral: kaolinite (Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4
Most prevailing structure layer structure
When water is added, the water molecules t in
between these layered sheets and form a thin
lm around the clay particles.
RM milling & grinding screening & sizing
mixing all RM shaping

Binder & plastiziser

Binder a component that is added to hold the powder together while
shaping the body
2 functions of binder:
1) provide plasticity necessary for forming
2) provides the dry (green) shape with strength sufcient to survive the
handling process between shaping and sintering
the binder should be able to be eliminated from the compact during the
ring process without any disruptive effect water, polymers
Poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA high green strength) and poly (ethylene glycol)
(PEG high green density) are the two of the most popular binders for dry
pressing ceramics

Plastic forming
Plasticizer is the component of a binder that keeps it soft or pliable; it
improves the rheological properties
Mixing ceramic powder with large vol of liquid to produce a mass that
deformable/plastic under P
The binder: water, organic liquid, complex comp to achieve required
viscosity & properties
NOTE
Slurry a suspension of ceramic particles in a liquid
Green state: ceramic compact that is strong enough to be handled and
machined but is not fully dense and the bonds between the grains are not
strong represents a transition state between the loose powder and the
high-density sintered product ; ceramic before fired
Slip fine ceramic powders (<10 um) that are suspended in fluid

Fabricating clay product

Clay is mixed with water to form a plastic body & formed
to desired shape wet body
Wet body is then dried and fired
- drying removes water from the clay controlled rate
- fire vitrifies clay
- degree of vitrification depends on firing tempterature

CERAMIC SHAPING
3 methods in ceramic shaping:
Powder compaction: dry pressing, hot pressing, cold isostatic pressing,
etc
casting: using a mold with the ceramic as or containing of liquid or slurry
Plastic forming: using pressure to shape the green ceramic; extrusion,
injection molding etc.

Powder compaction
Pressing of free flowing powder
Pressure application depends on final product
2 types: dry pressed (i.e. without addition of binder) & pressed with the
addition of suitable binder
uniaxially simple shape, or isostaticcally complex shape

Dry pressing
three basic steps: lling the die, compacting the contents, and
ejecting the pressed solid
A particle size 20 and 200 m; a high volume fraction of small
particles s problems with ow and sticking of the punches.
During pressing the powder particles must ow between the
punches uniformly lled.
In a double-action press top and bottom punches are
movable
Product example: brick

 bottom punch is in the low position a cavity the cavity is lled with free
owing powder ; the powder is struck off level with the top of the die.
The top punch descends and compresses the powder either to a
predetermined volume/set pressure.
After pressing, both punches move upward The compact is then ejected

Hot pressing

Pressing performed at high temperatures

The die assembly is contained within a high temperature furnace
During hot pressing the ceramic powders may sinter together to form a highdensity component.
the ADVANTAGES of this process:
1 The powder does not have to be of the highest quality.
2 Large pores that are caused by non uniform mixing are easily removed.
3 densify at temperatures lower (typically half the melting temperature of the
material) than those needed for conventional pressure less sintering.
4 densify covalently bonded materials such as B4C, SiC, and Si3N4 without additives

 Graphite is the most widely used

die material (up to 2200C, 10 30 Mpa)
Graphite properties:
1 easy to machine
2 cheap
3 strength increase with T
4 good creep resistance
5 excellent thermal conductivity
6 low coeff of thermal expansion
DISADVANTAGE :
1 Die for high T is expensive and do
not generally last long.
2 limited simple shape: flat plates,
block, cylinder

Cold isostatic pressing-CIP

apply of hydrostatic pressure to a powder in a

exible container.
The advantage of applying pressure in all directions
more uniform compaction of the powder and
more complex shapes
Can be performed either with or without applied
heat.
WET BAG CIP PROCESS
ADVANTAGES:
Wide range of shapes and sizes can be produced
Uniform density of the pressed product
Low tooling costs
DISADVANTAGES:
Poor shape and dimensional control (particularly for
complex shapes)
Long cycle times (typically between 5 and 60
minutes) low production rates

Casting ceramic
In Tr, require slurry ceramic powder particles to be suspended in a
liquid
2 type: slip casting & tape casting
S lip casting slurry is poured into porous mold that remove the liquid,
leave a particulate compact in the mold
Tape casting to make thick film/sheet

Slip casting
The slip is poured into a mold (usually plaster of Paris2CaSO.4H2O) that has been made by casting round a
model of the required shape
The mold allow for the shrinkage of the cast ceramic
on drying and sintering.
The neness of the powder (in the slip) and the
consequent high surface area ensure that settling
does not occur.
Na silicate (or soda ash) is added to the slip to
deocculate the particles. The water passes, via
capillary action, into the porous plaster leaving a layer
of the solid on the wall of the mold. Once a sufcient
thickness has been cast, the surplus slip is poured out
and the mold and cast are allowed to dry.

 Drain slip casting the processs terminated when desired

thickness reached, pour out the excess slip.
After dried, the mold is disassembled
Characteristic the Slip high specific gravity, very fluid &
pourable

sanitary lavatory ware, art objects

Slip casting is a low cost way to produce complex shapes

method for the production of teapots, jugs, and large articles (whitewares)
One of the t signs of slip casting ceramic is that it is hollow.
Another variant of the slip casting process is solid/tape casting slip is
continually added until a solid cast is made. These items will not be
hollowrelatively, they will be heavier.
Characteristic slip: high specific gravity, very fluid, pourable (depend on
solid to water ratio), free of bubble, low drying shrinkage & high strength
Mold properties quality of casting
Usually plaster of paris ecomonical, easy to fabricate, reusable

 Solid casting water from slip is absorbed into the mold when
poured, leaving solid layer on the mold wall (thickness, f=(t))
May continue until entire mold cavity becomes solid

extrusion
Extrusion involves forcing a deformable
mass through a die orice (like toothpaste
from a tube)
widely used to produce ceramic
components having a uniform cross section
and a large length-to-diameter ratio such as
ceramic tubes and rods
Extrusion is also used to produce the
alumina shells for sodium vapor lamps and
the honeycomb-shaped catalyst supports
for automotive emission-control devices

Injection molding

Used for ceramic powder which is added to a thermoplastic polymer.

the polymer is usually referred to as the binder
The ceramic powder is added to the binder and other organic materials to provide a
mass that has the desired rheological properties
The plastic mass is rst heated, at which point the thermoplastic polymer becomes
soft and is then forced into a mold cavity. The heated mixture is very uid and is not
self-supporting (this is different from the situation encountered in extrusion). The
mixture is allowed to cool in the mold during which time the thermoplastic polymer
hardens.
complex shapes are retained with very little distortion during sintering since the
densities, although low, are uniform.
ADVANTAGES: used to fabricate
ceramic components with complex
shapes; cycle times can be rapid
high-volume process.
DISADVANTAGES: initial tooling costs
is quite high

Drying & Firing

Ceramic formed hydroplastically/slip casting significant
porosity & insufficient strength, contain some liquid added in
previous operation
Remove by drying green body
Continued with firing
Defect may be introduced results of nonuniform shrinkage

drying
early stage, clay particles surrounded & separated by thin water film
Drying: remove some liquid remain interparticle separation decrease
(shrinkage);
Critical to control the rate of water removal
Drying interior is accomplished by diffusion of water molecules to surface
where evaporation occurs
Rate of evap>diffusion surface will dry faster than interior shrink
Nonuniform shrinkage & defect formation thick >thin pieces
More water content more extensive the shrinkage; kept as low as
possible
Particle size decrease shrinkage increase

Binder burnout

removal of water from the shaped clay.

The rest of the ring process causes structure changes and transformations in the
silicate itself.
Expected remove binder without cracking or distorting the ceramic compact.
Binder burnout forms defects in the processing of a ceramic: macroscopic defects,
such as cracks and blisters affect the mechanical strength and other properties.
In commercial ceramic which often consists of several components challenging
to be controlled, different boiling points and decomposition temperatures.
The components with low boiling points (e.g., waxes)may be removed by
evaporation at fairly low temperatures.
The process of binder removal is kept slow to redue possibility of macrodefects
being produced.

firing
Fire between 900-1400 C (RM composition & desire
properties)
During firing operation density increase ( porosity
decrease) & mechanical strength enhance
Complex reactions occured
vitrification: gradual liquid glass formation that flows
into & fills pore volume ; f=(T, t, composition);
accompanied by shrinkage
Degree of vitrification controls ceramic properties
(strength, durability & density)
Addition of fluxing agent reduce T of liquid phase
Upon cooling, this fused phase forms in a dense, strong
body
Complete vitricifation is avoided body become too
soft, may collapse