Dr. Md.

Aminul Hoque (Keio, Japan)

Professor, Department of Statistics, RU
E-mail: mdaminulh@gmail.com, FBI: mdaminulh
[Description and Contents of the Course]
Day 1: Numbers and Set Theory
Statistics
Variables
Numbers
Set Set Operations
Examples
Day 2-3: Calculus
Calculus (Differential and Integral) Algebra
Matrix Analysis
Functions and Inequalities
Day 4-5: Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Location
Measures of Dispersion
Skewness and Kurtosis
Day 6: Mid-term Exam
Day 7-8: Measuring of Uncertainity & Hypothesis Testing
Probability with Bayes Theorem Discrete probability distributions
The normal distribution
Significance testing
Non-parametric tests
Day 9-11: Relating variables and predicting outcomes
* Correlation * Regression
Multiple regression and correlation
Sampling
Day 12: Final Exam
==============================================================
Q: What is Statistics?
There are three types of Lies
Lies, Damn Lies & Statistics
Q: Meaning and Definition of Statistics
The meaning of the word 'Statistics' is implied by the pattern of development of
the subject. Since the subject originated with the collection of data and then, in
later years, the techniques of analysis and interpretation were developed, the
word 'statistics' has been used in both the plural and the singular sense.
Statistics, in plural sense, means a set of numerical figures or data. In the
singular sense, it represents a method of study and therefore, refers to statistical
principles and methods developed for analysis and interpretation of data.
> Statistics has been defined in different ways by different authors. These
definitions can be broadly classified into two categories. In the first category are

HRN/Statistics/exam preparation/ Oct2016

those definitions which lay emphasis on statistics as data whereas the

definitions in second category emphasize statistics as a scientific method.
Q: Statistics as Data
Statistics used in the plural sense implies a set of numerical figures collected
with reference to a certain problem under investigation. It may be noted here
that any set of numerical figures cannot be regarded as statistics. There are
certain characteristics which must be satisfied by a given set of numerical figures
in order that they may be termed as statistics. Before giving these characteristics
it will be advantageous to go through the definitions of statistics in the plural
sense, given by noted scholars.
Q: Definition of Statistics
1. "Statistics are numerical facts in any department of enquiry placed in relation
to each other. - A.L. Bowley
The main features of the above definition are :
(i) Statistics (or Data) implies numerical facts.
(ii) Numerical facts or figures are related to some enquiry or investigation.
(iii) Numerical facts should be capable of being arranged in relation to each other.

2. "By statistics we mean quantitative data affected to a marked extent by

multiplicity of causes.
- Yule & Kendall
This definition covers two aspects, i.e., the data are quantitative and affected by
a large number of causes.
3. "Statistics are classified facts respecting the conditions of the people in a
stateespecially those facts which can be stated in numbers or in tables of
numbers or in any other tabular or classified arrangement. - Webster
4. "A collection of noteworthy facts concerning state, both historical and
descriptive. - Achenwall
Definitions 3 and 4, given above, are not comprehensive because these confine
the scope of statistics only to facts and figures related to the conditions of the
people in a state. However, as we know that data are now collected on almost
all the aspects of human and natural activities, it cannot be regarded as a statecraft only.
The following definitions covers some more but not all aspects of statistics.
5. "The science of statistics is the method of judging collective, natural or social
phenomena from the results obtained by the analysis or enumeration or
collection of estimates. - W.I. King
6. "Statistics or statistical method may be defined as collection, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of numerical data. - Croxton and Cowden
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This is a simple and comprehensive definition of statistics which implies that

statistics is a scientific method.
7. "Statistics is a science which deals with collection, classification and tabulation
of numerical facts as the basis for the explanation, description and comparison
of phenomena. - Lovitt
8. "Statistics is the science which deals with the methods of collecting,
classifying, presenting, comparing and interpreting numerical data collected to
throw some light on any sphere of enquiry. - Seligman
9. "Statistics is concerned with scientific method for collecting, organising,
summarising, presenting and analysing data as well as drawing valid conclusions
and making reasonable decisions on the basis of such analysis.
> On the basis of the above definitions we can say that statistics, in singular
sense, is a science which consists of various statistical methods that can be used
for collection, classification, presentation and analysis of data relating to social,
political, natural, economical, business or any other phenomena. The results of
the analysis can be used further to draw valid conclusions and to make
reasonable decisions in the face of uncertainty.
Q: What is Statistics?
Statistics is the science of collecting, describing, and interpreting data.
Statistics as a scientific method can be divided into the following two categories:
(a) Theoretical Statistics and
(b) Applied Statistics
(a) Theoretical Statistics:
Theoretical statistics can be
further sub-divided into the
following three categories:
(i)
Descriptive Statistics
(ii)
Inductive Statistics
(iii)
Inferential Statistics
(iv)
(i) Descriptive Statistics: All
those methods which are
used for the collection,
classification, tabulation, diagrammatic presentation of data and the
methods of calculating average, dispersion, correlation and regression,
index numbers, etc., are included in descriptive statistics.
(v)
(ii) Inductive Statistics: It includes all those methods which are used to
make generalisations about a population on the basis of a sample. The
techniques of forecasting are also included in inductive statistics.
(vi)
(iii) Inferential Statistics: It includes all those methods which are used to
test certain hypotheses regarding characteristics of a population.

(vii)

OR Inferential Statistics: making decisions and drawing conclusions

about populations.
(viii)
(b) Applied Statistics: It consists of the application of statistical methods
to practical problems. Design of sample surveys, techniques of quality
control, decision-making in business, etc., are included in applied
statistics.
Q : What is Population?
Population: A collection, or set, of individuals or objects or events whose
properties are to be analyzed.
The entire group of individuals is called the population.
For example, a researcher may be interested in the relation between class size
(variable 1) and academic performance (variable 2) for the population of thirdgrade students.
Two kinds of populations: finite or infinite.
Q: Sample
Sample: A subset of the population or a representative part of population.
Usually populations are so large that a researcher cannot examine the entire
group. Therefore, a
sample is selected to
represent the
population in a
research study. The
goal is to use the
results obtained from
the sample to help
answer questions
about the population.

Q: Glossary
Variable: A characteristic about each individual element of a population or
sample.
Data (singular): The value of the variable associated with one element of a
population or sample. This value may be a number, a word, or a symbol.
Data (plural): The set of values collected for the variable from each of the
elements belonging to the sample.
Experiment: A planned activity whose results yield a set of data.
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Parameter: A numerical value summarizing all the data of an entire population.

Statistic: A numerical value summarizing the sample data.
Example: A college dean is interested in learning about the average age of
faculty. Identify the basic terms in this situation.
The population is the age of all faculty members at the college.
A sample is any subset of that population. For example, we might select 10
faculty members and determine their age.
The variable is the age of each faculty member.
One data would be the age of a specific faculty member.
The data would be the set of values in the sample.
The experiment would be the method used to select the ages forming the sample
and determining the actual age of each faculty member in the sample.
The parameter of interest is the average age of all faculty at the college.
The statistic is the average age for all faculty in the sample.

Ordinal Scale: Nominal categories with an implied order--Low, medium,

high.
A nominal scale is an unordered set of categories identified only by
name. Nominal measurements only permit you to determine whether
two individuals are the same or different.
An ordinal scale is an ordered set of categories. Ordinal measurements
tell you the direction of difference between two individuals.

Q: Scales of Measurement
Nominal

Ordinal

Q: Variable
A variable is a characteristic or condition that can change or take on different
values.
Variable a characteristic that can vary in value among subjects in a sample or a
population.

Q: Types of Variable
Variables can be classified as
(i) Discrete and (ii) Continuous.
Discrete variables (such as class size) number of family members, and
Continuous variables (such as time or weight) are infinitely divisible into
whatever units a researcher may choose. For example, time can be measured
to the nearest minute, second, half-second, etc.
Q: Data and Variables
Data are often discussed in terms of variables, where a variable is:
Any characteristic that varies from one member of a population to another.
A simple example is height in centimeters, which varies from person to person.
Q: Types of Variables
There are two basic types of variables:
(i) Categorical and (ii) Numerical variables.
Categorical Variables: variables defined by the classes or categories into which
an individual member falls. Example Male/Female, Yes/No, 1st/2nd etc.
Numerical Variables: variables to which a number is assigned as a quantitative
value. Example Family size, Age, temperature etc.

Q: Categorical Variables
Defined by the classes or categories into which an individual member falls.
Nominal Scale: Name only--Gender, hair color, ethnicity, religion etc.

Data are labels or names used to identify an attribute of the

element.
A nonnumeric label or a numeric code may be used.

The data have the properties of nominal data and the order or
rank of the data is meaningful.
A nonnumeric label or a numeric code may be used.

Example:
Students of a university are classified by their class standing using a
nonnumeric label such as Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, or Senior.
Alternatively, a numeric code could be used for the class standing variable (e.g.
1 denotes Freshman, 2 denotes Sophomore, and so on).

Q: Data
* Elements, Variables, and Observations
* Scales of Measurement
Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Cross-Sectional and Time Series Data
Q: Elements, Variables, and Observations
The elements are the entities on which data are collected. E.g.,
IBM, Dell, Apple, etc. in the previous setting.
A variable is a characteristic of interest for the elements. E.g.,
Sales revenue, stock price (of a company)
The set of measurements collected for a particular element is called an
observation.
Sales revenue, stock price for 2003
The total number of data values in a data set is the number of elements
multiplied by the number of variables.
Q: Data, Data Sets, Elements, Variables, and Observations

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 Example:
Melissas college record shows 36 credit hours earned, while Kevins record
shows 72 credit hours earned. Kevin has twice as many credit hours earned as
Melissa.
Q: Scales of Measurement
Interval
The data have the properties of ordinal data and the interval
between observations is expressed in terms of a fixed unit of
measure.

Q: Numerical Variables

(i)

Numerical Variable are of Two types:

Ratio and
(ii) Interval

Q: Ratio

The data have all the properties of interval data and the ratio of
two values is meaningful.
Variables such as distance, height, weight, and time use the ratio
scale.
This scale must contain a zero value that indicates that nothing
exists for the variable at the zero point.

Interval data are always numeric.

Interval scale:
is an ordered scale where the differences between numerical values are
meaningful.
Temperature is a classic example of an interval scale, the increase on the
centigrade scale between 30 and 40 is the same as the increase between
70 and 80.
However, the heat cannot be measured in absolute terms (0 oC does not
mean no heat) and it is not possible to say that 40 oC is twice as hot as
20 oC, but we can say it is hotter.
In practice there are few business-related measurements where the
subtlety of the interval scale is of consequence.

Interval

Example:

Q: Measurement
Q: Ratio scale:

Melissa has an SAT score of 1205, while Kevin has an SAT score of 1090.
Melissa scored 115 points more than Kevin. GPA etc.

The highest level of measurement,

- which has all the distance properties of the interval scale and in
addition,
- zero represents the abscence of the caracteristic being measured.
Distance and time are good examples.
It is meaningful, for example, to refer to 0 time and 0 distance and refer to one
journey taking twice as long as another journey or one distance as being twice
as long as another distance.

=++++++++++++++++++=

Q: Scales of Measurement
Ratio

Lecture-2: Set Theory

Q: Sets
A set is a well-defined collection of objects.
A set is an unordered collection of objects referred to as elements.
A set is said to contain its elements.
Each object in a set is called an element or member of the set.
The elements or objects of the set are enclosed by a pair of braces { }.
Q: Notations
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Capital or uppercase letters are usually used to denote sets while small
or lowercase letters denote elements of a set.
denotes is an element of or belongs to
denotes is not an element of or does not belong to
Example:
Let A the set of letters in the English alphabet
B the set of primary colors
C the set of positive integers
g A , orange B, 100 C
Q: Ways of Describing a Set
List (or roster) method describes a set by enumerating the elements
of the set.
A = {a, b, c, d,,z}
B = {red, yellow, blue}
C = {1, 2, 3, 4,}
Rule (or set builder) method describes a set by a statement or a rule.
A = {x | x is an English alphabet}
B = {a | a is a primary color}
C = {y | y is a positive integer}

Q: Examples of Sets

Different ways of describing a set.

1 Explicitly: listing the elements of a set
{1, 2, 3} is the set containing 1 and 2 and 3. list the members
between braces.
{1, 1, 2, 3, 3} = {1, 2, 3} since repetition is irrelevant.
{1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1} since sets are unordered.
{1,2,3, , 99} is the set of positive integers less than 100; use ellipses
when the general pattern of the elements is obvious.
{1, 2, 3, } is a way we denote an infinite set (in this case, the natural
numbers).
= {} is the empty set, or the set containing no elements.
Note: {}

Q: Set Theory - Definitions and notation

Important Sets
N = {0,1,2,3,}, the set of natural numbers, non-negative integers,
(occasionally IN)
Z = { , -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,3, ), the set of integers
Z+ = {1,2,3,} set of positive integers
Q = {p/q | p Z, q Z, and q0}, set of rational numbers
R, the set of real numbers

Note: Real number are the numbers that can be represented by an

infinite decimal representation, such as 3.4871773339. The real
numbers include both rational, and irrational numbers such as and the
and can be represented as points along an infinitely long number line.

Q: Definition of Terms

The cardinality of a set A, or the cardinal number of A, denoted as n(A),

is the number of elements in A.
n(A) = 26, n(B) = 3, n(C) =
A set is finite if there is one counting number that indicates the total
number of elements in the set.

A and B are finite sets.

A set is infinite if in counting the elements, we never come to an end.

C is an infinite set.
The null set or empty set, denoted by the symbol , is the set that
contains no elements, that is, A is empty iff n(A) = 0.
D = {x|x is a month in the Gregorian calendar with less than 28 days}

n(D) = 0, so D =

A singleton set is a set that contains only one element, that is, B is a
singleton set iff n(B) = 1.
E = {y|y is prime number, 5 < y < 10}

Q: Empty Set

The unique set with no elements

is called empty set and denoted by .
Set Properties that involve .
For all sets A,
1. A
2. A = A
3. A =
4. A Ac =
Sets A and B are equal if they have the same elements.
Set A is a subset of B, denoted as A B, iff every element of A is also
an element of B.
Laws of subset:

Every set is a subset of itself, that is, A A, for any set A.

The null set is a subset of any set, that is, A, for any set A.
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Example: Subset
G = {x|x is an integer}
F = {y|y is a whole number}
C = {z|z is a positive integer}
C G because every element of C is found in G.
F C because 0F but 0C.
Set A is a proper subset of B, denoted A B, if A is a subset of B and
there is at least one element of B that is not in A. That is, A B iff A B
and A B.
P = {1, 3, 5, 7}
Q = {3, 7}
Then, QP
The set containing all of the elements for any particular discussion is
called the universal set, denoted as U.

Exercise:
What is the power set of A = {x, y, z}?
What is the power set of the null set?
What is the power set of the power set of the null set?
What is the power set of B = {0, {1}, 3, {2, 4}}
Definition: Given a set A,
the power set of A, denoted P (A) ,
is the set of all subsets of A.
Example: P ({a,b}) = {, {a}, {b}, {a,b}} .
Properties:
1) If A B then P (A) P (B) .
2) If a set A has n elements
then P (A) has 2n elements.

Q: Exercise

Describe the following sets using the list method and give the set
cardinality:
a. A = {x|x is a natural number which is 1 less than a multiple of 3}
b. B = {a|a is a rational number whose value is 2/3}
c. C = {b|b is a vowel that appears in the phrase set of vowels}
d. D = {z|z is an even prime integer greater than 2}
Describe the following sets using the rule method:
a. F = {0, 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, }
b. G = {, -30, -20, -10, 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, }
c. H = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, }
Determine which of the following statements are true and which are
false:
a) N
b) {1, 2, 3} N
c) {0} N
d) {1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 3}
e) 1 {1, 2, 3}
f) n(N) = 1010
g) A B n(A) > n(B)
h) {3} N

Q: The Power Set

Given a set S, the power set of S is the set of all subsets of the set S. The
power set of S is denoted by P(S) or (S).
Example:
S = {0, 1, 2}
(S) = {, {0}, {1}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}, {0, 1, 2}}
Note that the empty set and the set itself are members of this
set of subsets.
If a set has n elements, then its power set has 2n elements.

Q: Union

Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A and B, denoted by A B, is

the set that contains those elements that are either in A or in B, or in
both.
A B = {x|x A or x B}
Example:
A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3}
A B = {1, 2, 3, 5}

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Q: Set Theory Operators

The union of two sets A and B is:
A B = { x : x A or x B}
If A = {Charlie, Lucy, Linus}, and B = {Lucy, Desi}, then
A B = {Charlie, Lucy, Linus, Desi}

Example:
A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3}
A B = {5}
-Venn Diagram

Q: Intersection

Q: Complement

Let A and B be sets. The intersection of the sets A and B, denoted by A

B, is the set containing those elements in both A and B.

A B = {x|x A and x B}
Example:
A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3}
A B = {1, 3}

Let U be the universal set. The complement of the set A, denoted by A,

is the complement of A with respect to U. In other words, the
complement of set A is U A.

A = {x|x A}

Example:
A = {a, e, i, o, u}
where the universal set is the set of letters in the English
alphabet
A = {y|y is a consonant}

Venn diagram
Q: Set Theory Operators
The intersection of two sets A and B is:
A B = { x : x A x B}
If A = {Charlie, Lucy, Linus}, and B = {Lucy,
Desi}, then
A B = {Lucy}

-Venn Diagram

Q: Disjoint
Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.
AB={}
Example:
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
A B = , then A and B are disjoint
Q: Difference
Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B, denoted by A B, is
the set containing those elements that are in A but not in B.

The difference of A and B is also called the complement of B with

respect to A.
A B = {x|x A x B}

Q: Cartesian Products

The order of elements in a collection is often important. Since sets are

unordered, a different structure is needed to represent ordered
collections. This is provided by ordered n-tuples.
The ordered n-tuple (a1, a2,an) is the ordered collection that has a1 as
its first element, a2 as its second element,, and an as its nth element.
Two ordered n-tuples are equal iff each corresponding pair of their
elements is equal.
Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by A x B,
is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a A and b B.
A x B = {(a, b)|a A b B}
Example: A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b, c}
A x B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}
Note: A x B B x A

The Cartesian product of sets A1, A2,, An, denoted by A1 x A2 x x An is the

set of ordered n-tuples (a1, a2,, an), where ai belongs to Ai for i = 1, 2,, n.

A1 x A2 x x An = {(a1, a2, , an) | ai Ai for i = 1, 2, , n}

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Example: A = {0, 1},

C = {0, 1, 2},

B = {1, 2},
find A x B x C.

Q: Exercise

Let A be the set of students who live one km from school and let B be
the set of students who walk to classes. Describe the students in each of
these sets.
a. A B
b. A B
c. A B
d. B A
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {0, 3, 6}. Find
a. A B
b. A B
c. A B
d. B A
Let A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 19}, B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and C = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
a. A B C b. A B C
c. (A B) C d. (A B) C

1. The removal of the null set from any set has no effect on the set. A
=A
2. The removal of the elements of any set from itself will leave the empty
set. A A =
3. No elements can be removed from the null set. A =
4. The result of removing the elements of a set from any given set is a
subset of the given set. A B A
5. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)

Q: Properties of Set Cardinality

For any sets A, B, and C,
1. |A B| = |A| |A B|
2. |A B| = |A| + |B| |A B|
3. |A B| = |A| |A B|

Q: Set Properties

(a) A B B A
Commutative Laws: (b) A B B A

( a ) ( A B) C A ( B C )
Associative Laws: (b) ( A B) C A ( B C )

( a ) A ( B C ) ( A B) ( A C )
Distributive Laws: (b) A ( B C ) ( A B) ( A C )

c c
Double Complement Law: ( A ) A

Q: Properties of Set Union

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

For any sets A, B, and C,

The union of any set with the null set is the set itself. A = A
The union of any set with itself is the set itself. A A = A
Set Union is commutative. A B = B A
Set Union is associative. (A B) C = A (B C)
Any set is a subset of its union with another set. A A B

Q: Properties of Set Intersection

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

For any sets A, B, and C,

The intersection of any set with the null set is the null set. A =
The intersection of any set with itself is the set itself. A A = A
Set Intersection is commutative. A B = B A
Set Intersection is associative. (A B) C = A (B C)
The intersection of any given set with another set is a subset of the given
set. A B A
6. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)

( a ) ( A B ) c Ac B c

c
c
c
De Morgans Laws: (b) ( A B ) A B

( a) A ( A B) A
Absorption Laws: (b) A ( A B) A

Q: Properties of Set Difference

For any sets A, B, and C,

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referred to as differential calculus. If we begin with a function and

determine its derivative, we arrive at a new
function called the first derivative. If we
differentiate the first derivative, we arrive at
a new function called the second derivative,
and so on.
The derivative of a function is the slope at a given
point.

Q: Various Symbols for the Derivative

dy
or
dx

f '( x) or

df ( x )
dx

Definition:
-

dy
y
lim
dx x 0 x

Q: Basic Rules of Differentiation

Using the definition of the derivative, can be tiresome.

f ' x lim
h 0

f x h f x
h

In this lesson we are going to learn and use some basic rules of
differentiation that are derived from the definition. For these rules, lets
assume that we are discussing differentiable functions.
Rule 1: Derivative of a constant
d c
0
dx

=========================End of Set Theory=====================

, for any constant,c.

This rule states that the derivative of a constant is zero.
For example,

f ( x) 5

f ' ( x) 0

==================Basic Rules of Differentiation===================

Q: Differential Calculus

The two basic forms of calculus are differential calculus and integral
calculus.

The study of calculus usually begins with the basic definition of a

derivative. A derivative is obtained through the process of
differentiation, and the study of all forms of differentiation is collectively
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9
Rule 3: Derivative of a Constant Multiple of a Function
, where c is a constant
This rule states that the derivative of a constant times a
function is the constant times the derivative of the function.
For example, find the derivative of

d
f x d 5 x 4
dx
dx
d 4
5
x
dx
5 4 x3

20x 3
Rule 2: The Power Rule
, where n is any real number
This rule states that the derivative of x raised to a power is the
power times x raised to a power one less or n-1.
For example,

f x x 5 , f ' x 5 x 4

Notice that the derivative is the original power, 5 times x raised to the fourth,
which is one less than 5.

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Rule 4: Derivative of a Sum or Difference

d
f ( x) g ( x) d f ( x) d g ( x)
dx
dx
dx
This rule states that the derivative of a sum or difference is the sum or
difference of the derivatives.
For example, find the derivative of x2 +2x -3

d 2
d 2
d
d
x 2x 3
x 2 x 3
dx
dx
dx
dx
2x 2 0
2x 2
The derivative of x squared is done by the Power Rule (2), the
derivative of 2x is done by rule 3 and power rule and the derivative
of 3, a constant is 0.

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d 1
2
dx
x
More Examples: Find
d
More Examples: Find dx

Youll notice none of the basic rules specifically mention radicals, so you
should convert the radical to its exponential form, X1/2 and then use the
power rule.

d
dx

x dxd x

1
2

1 12 1 1 21
1
1
x x 1
2
2
2 x

2x 2

Again, you need to rewrite the expression so that you can use one of the
basic rules for differentiation. If we rewrite the fraction as x-2 ,then we can
use the power rule.

d 1 d 2
2
21
2 x 3 3
2 x 2 x
dx x dx
x
3
d 4x 2x 7

dx
x

More Examples: Find

Rewrite the expression so that you can use the basic rules of differentiation.

4 x3 2 x 7 4 x3 2 x 7

4 x 2 2 7 x 1
x
x
x x
Now differentiate using the basic rules.
d 4 x3 2 x 7 d

4 x 2 2 7 x 1
dx
x
dx

d
d
d
4 x 2 2
7 x 1
dx
dx
dx
11
4 2 x 0 7 1x

8 x 7 x 2
7
8x 2
x
Another example: Find the slope and equation of the tangent line to the
curve at the point (1,3).
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Recall from the previous chapter, the derivative gives the slope of the
tangent to the curve. So we will need to find the derivative and evaluate it
at x = 1 to find the slope at the point (1,3). Then well use the slope and the
point to write the equation of the tangent line using the point slope form.
Find the slope and equation of the tangent line to the curve
at the point (1,3).
First find the derivative of the function.

d
y d 2 x 2 1 d 2 x 2 d 1
dx
dx
dx
dx
2 1
2 2x 0
4x
Now, evaluate the derivative at x = 1 to find the slope at (1,3).

m 4 1 4

Example continued: Now we have the slope of the tangent line at the point
(1,3) and we can write the equation of the line.
Recall to write the equation of a line, start with the point slope form and
use the slope, 4 and the point (1,3).

y y1 mx x1
y 3 4x 1
y 3 4x 4
y 4x 1

Another example: Find all the x values where

3
2
has a horizontal tangent line. y x 2 x x

d 3
x 2 x 2 x 3x 2 4 x 1
Find the derivative. dx
Since horizontal lines have a slope of 0, set the derivative equal to 0 and
solve for x.

3x 2 4 x 1 0
3x 1x 1 0
3x 1 0 or x 1 0
1
x
or x 1
3
Thus the x values where the function has horizontal tangents is at x = -1 , -1/3.

Q: Chain Rule

y f (u )

u u ( x)
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dy df (u ) du
du

f '(u )
dx
du dx
dx
f '(u )

df (u )
du

Where
Example 6-2. Approximate the derivative of y=x2 at x=1 by forming small changes.
2
y
(1.01)

(1.01)
1.0201
=>
y 1.0201 1 0.0201

y (1) (1)2 1

dy y 0.0201

2.01
dx x
0.01
Example 6-3. The derivative of sin u with respect to u is given below.

d
sin u cos u
du

Use the chain rule to find the derivative with respect toy x of

y 4sin x 2
Example 6-3. Continuation.

u x2

du
2x
dx
=>

dy
du dy du
f '(u )

dx
dx du dx
4(cos u )(2 x) 8 x cos x 2
Table 6-1. Derivatives

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Q: Applications: Maxima and Minima

1. Determine the derivative.

2. Set the derivative to 0 and solve for values that satisfy the equation.
3. Determine the second derivative.
(a) If second derivative > 0, point is a minimum.
(b) If second derivative < 0, point is a maximum.

Q: Exercise
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Q: Integral and Derivative Are Complements

Derivative: Give me distance and time, and Ill give you velocity (speed,
rate)
Integral: Give me velocity and time, and Ill give you distance

Integration- the process of evaluating an indefinite integral or a definite integral

The indefinite integral
Dx[g(x)]=f(x)

f(x)dx is defined as a function g such that its derivative

The definite integral

is a number whose value depends on the
function f and the numbers a and b, and it is defined as the limit of a riemann
sum
Indefinite integral involves an arbitrary constant; for instance,
x2 dx= x3 + c
The arbitrary constant c is called a constant of integration

Q: Why we include C
-The derivative of a constant is 0. However, when you integrate, you should
consider that there is a possible constant involved, but we dont know what it is
for a particular problem. Therefore, you can just use C to represent the value.
-To solve for C, you will be given a problem that gives you the y(0) value. Then
you can plug the 0 in for x and the y(0) value for y.

Q: Power Rule

u n 1
u du n 1 C
n

=====================End of Differentiation======================

C = Constant of integration
u = Function
n = Power
du = Derivative

Q: Integration by parts
================(Lecture-6: Integration)========================

History of integration
-Archimedes is the founder of surface areas and volumes of solids such as the
sphere and the cone. His integration method was very modern since he did not
have algebra, or the decimal representation of numbers
-Gauss was the first to make graphs of integrals, and with others continued to
apply integrals in the mathematical and physical sciences.
-Leibniz and Newton discovered calculus and found that differentiation and
integration undo each other

-Is a rule that transforms the integral of products of functions into other
functions
-If the functions are not related then use integration by parts
The equation is

u dv= uv-

u du

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Q: Recall
Previous learning:
If f(x) = ex then f(x) = ex
If f(x) = ax then f(x) = (ln a)ax
If f(x) = ekx then f(x) = kekx
If f(x) = akx then f(x) = k(ln a)akx
This leads to the following formulas:

Q: Indefinite Integrals of Exponential Functions

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2xdx
Approximate 0
the area of the region under the graph of
f(x) = 2x above the x-axis, and between x=0 and x=4. Use 4 rectangles of
equal width whose heights are the values of the function at the
midpoint of each subinterval .

f (x )x
i 1

f (x1 )x f (x2 )x f (x3 )x f (x 4 )x

f (.5)x f (1.5)x f (2.5)x f (3.5)x
1(1) 3(1) 5(1) 7(1)
16units 2

++++++++++++++++ remaining not added+++++++++++++++++++

===================Lecture 3: Matrix=================

Outline

Q: The Definite Integeral

The definite integral can be thought of as a mathematical process that
gives the sum of an infinite number of individual parts. It represents the
area only if the function involved is nonnegative (f(x)0) for every x-value
in the interval [a,b].
There are many other interpretations of the definite integral, but all
involve the idea of approximation by sums.

Definition of a Matrix
Operations of Matrices
Determinants
Inverse of a Matrix
Linear System
Matrix Definiteness
Q: What is Matrix?
Matrix - a rectangular array of variables or constants in horizontal rows and
vertical columns enclosed in brackets.
Element - each value in a matrix; either a number or a constant.
Dimension - number of rows by number of columns of a matrix.
**A matrix is named by its dimensions.

Q: Example

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Q: Why use it?

Matrix algebra makes mathematical expression and computation easier.
It allows us to get rid of cumbersome notation, concentrate on the
concepts involved and understand where your results come from.
Matrix (Basic Definitions)

Column Matrix - a matrix with only one column.

Row Matrix - a matrix with only one row.
Square Matrix - a matrix that has the same number of rows and
columns.
Equal Matrices - two matrices that have the same dimensions and
each element of one matrix is equal to the corresponding element
of the other matrix.

*The definition of equal matrices can be used to find values when

elements of the matrices are algebraic expressions.

Jim, Mario and Mike are married to Shana, Kelly and Lisa. Mario is
Kellys brother and lives in Florida with his wife. Mike is shorter
than Lisas husband. Mike works at a bank. Shana and her husband
live in Kentucky. Kelly and her husband work in a candy store. Who
is married to whom?

An k n matrix A is a rectangular array of numbers with k rows and n

columns. (Rows are horizontal and columns are vertical.) The numbers k
and n are the dimensions of A. The numbers in the matrix are called its
entries. The entry in row i and column j is called aij .

a11 ,, a1n

a21 ,, a2 n
A
Aij

a , , a
kn
k1
Matrix
A matrix is any doubly subscripted array of elements arranged in rows and
columns.

a11 , , a1n
a 21 ,, a 2 n
Aij
A

am1 , , amn
Different types of Matrices
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Q: Identity Matrix
An identity matrix is a diagonal matrix where the diagonal elements all equal
one.

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1
I=
Q: Matrix Operations

AI=A

* Transposition
* Addition and Subtraction
* Multiplication
* Inversion
Q: Matrix Addition and Subtraction
A new matrix C may be defined as the additive combination of matrices A and
B where: C = A + B
is defined by: Cij Aij Bij

Q: Special matrices
There are a number of special matrices
Diagonal
Null
Identity

Q: Diagonal Matrices
0
0
a11 0
0 a
0
0
22

0
0 a33 0

0
0 a44
0
A diagonal matrix is a square matrix that has values on
the diagonal with all off-diagonal entities being zero.

Q: Null Matrix
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 A square matrix where all elements equal zero.

Note: all three matrices are of the same dimension

Q: Matrix Addition Example

3 4 1 2 4 6
A B
C
5 6 3 4 8 10
Q: Matrix Subtraction
C = A - B,

Is defined by

Cij Aij Bij

5

=
=

Q: Matrix Multiplication

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Q: Multiplication Conformability

Regular Multiplication
To multiply two matrices A and B:
# of columns in A = # of rows in B
Multiply: A (m x n) by B (n by p)
n

Cij = k=1
Aik x Bkj
Q: Operations with Matrices (Scalar Multiple)
3 4 1 6 8 2

2
6 7 0 12 14 0

Example:

The matrix addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication and matrix

multiplication, have the following properties.

Associative Laws :
A (B C) (A B) C, (AB)C A(BC).
Commutative Law for Addition :
A B B A
Distributive Laws :
A(B C) AB AC, (A B)C AC BC.
Q: Operations with Matrices (Transpose)
Transpose
The transpose, AT , of a matrix A is the matrix obtained from A by writing its rows
as columns. If A is an kn matrix and B = AT then B is the nk matrix with bij = aji.
If AT=A, then A is symmetric.
Usually denoted by
Sometimes T
Exchanges rows and columns
(m x n) matrix becomes (n x m)
Aij = Aji

Q: Determinants

Determinant is a scalar
Defined for a square matrix
Is the sum of selected products of the elements of the matrix,
each product being multiplied by +1 or -1

Q: Laws of Matrix Algebra

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Thm: Let A be a nonsingular matrix. Then,

1
A-1
adj A.
det A
Q: Inverse

A number can be divided by another number - How do you divide

matrices?
Note that a / b = a x 1 / b
And that a x 1 / a = 1
1 / a is the inverse of a

Q: Unary operations: Inverse

Matrix equivalent of 1 is the identity matrix

Find A-1 such that A-1 * A = I

Q: Unary Operations: Inverse

Inverse of (2 x 2) matrix
Find determinant
Swap a11 and a22
Change signs of a12 and a21
Divide each element by determinant
Check by pre- or post-multiplying by inverse

Q: Calculation of Inversion using Determinants

Def: For any nn matrix A, let Cij denote the (i,j) th cofactor of A, that is, (-1)i+j
times the determinant of the submatrix obtained by deleting row i and column j
form A, i.e., Cij = (-1)i+j Mij . The nn matrix whose (i,j)th entry is Cji, the (j,i)th
cofactor of A is called the adjoint of A and is written adj A.
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u
u

(m n) (p n) = cannot be done
(1 n) (n 1) = a scalar (1x1)

Q: Properties
u Matrix multiplication is Associative
A(BC) = (AB)C
u Multiplication and transposition
(AB)' = B'A'

Q: The Inverse of a Matrix (A-1)

u For an n n matrix A, there may be a B such that AB = I = BA.
u
u
u
u

The inverse is analogous to a reciprocal

A matrix which has an inverse is nonsingular.
A matrix which does not have an inverse is singular.
An inverse exists only if

Q: Matrix Multiplication
u

To multiply a scalar times a matrix, simply multiply each element of the

matrix by the scalar quantity

a12 ka11 ka12

a
k 11

a21 a22 ka21 ka22

To multiply a matrix times a matrix, we write
AB (A times B)
u This is pre-multiplying B by A, or post-multiplying A by B.
u In order to multiply matrices, they must be
CONFORMABLE
u that is, the number of columns in A must equal the number of rows in B
u So,
A B = C
(m n) (n p) = (m p)
u

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