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Principles of Flight
Chapter 4.
INDUCED- and
TOTAL DRAG.
The objective of this chapter is to give you knowledge of the
aerodynamic causes of induced drag and total drag.
According to the JAA requirements you shall be able to describe:
Page
4-2
4-9
4-14
Paragraph
4.1
4.2
4.3
Induced drag.
Reducing induced drag.
Total drag.
This lesson describes INDUCED DRAG and how we can reduce it. It also
describes TOTAL DRAG.
4 - 1
4.1
INDUCED DRAG.
This paragraph describes INDUCED DRAG, what causes it, and its
relationship to airspeed.
_
_
Fig. 4.1
Three-dimensional flow.
The airflow under the wing surface tries to avoid the higher pressure
in this area, resulting in a spanwise flow component of air outwards
from the fuselage. On the upper surface, however, the airflow tries to
fill the lower pressure, resulting in a spanwise component towards the
fuselage.
Airflow
upper surface.
Airflow
lower surface.
+
+ +
+ +
- -
- -
- - -
- - -
Fig. 4.2
These different flow components will together spill around the wing tip
forming a twisting vortex core behind each wing tip.
Fig. 4.3
4 - 2
Principles of Flight
The upward flow in the vortex is outside the span of the wing, but the
downward flow is behind the trailing edge of the wing, within the span
of the wing. The net effect is a downwash behind the wing, which
influences the airflow around the wing.
Fig. 4.4
Fig. 4.5
Local l
ift vect
or
Effecti
ve
Geometrical
Local r
elative
wind
Chor
d lin
Fig. 4.6
If we did not have the downwash, e.g. an infinite span wing, the local
airflow experienced by the airfoil would be parallel to the free stream
giving a highly effective angle of attack. We would then obtain a certain
total aerodynamic force with a given lift and a given drag known as the
parasite or zero lift drag Do.
TFHS and NAR
4 - 3
Do
Geometrical Effective
Chor
d lin
Fig 4.7
Decrease in lift
Downwash angle
Do
Di
Fig. 4.8
In order to simplify the picture, we will take a look at the local lift vector
again. With an increase in the A.o.A, the downwash angle will
increase, the effective A.o.A will be less than the geometrical A.o.A and
the local lift vector will be tilted more backwards giving higher induced
drag.
Di
Induced drag
Local l
ift vect
or
Effecti
ve
Geometrical
Local r
elative
wind
Chor
d lin
Fig. 4.9
Principles of Flight
Lift
Zero Lift Drag + Induced Drag
Fig. 4.10
Note: A twisted wing may produce low induced drag even if the total
wing CL = 0.
W
Fig. 4.11
Fig. 4.12
4 - 5
Since the self-induced downwash is greatest near the wing tips, the
larger the wingspan, the lesser the influence from the downwash. On
the contrary, if we increase the span loading, using a shorter wing
with the same aircraft mass, we have to obtain a greater difference in
pressure and greater downwash, which creates stronger vortices and
gives higher induced drag.
High span loading.
Very high induced drag.
Low span loading.
Very low induced drag.
Equal Weight
Fig. 4.13
Reducing speed.
Increasing A.o.A.
70 KIAS
15 o
100 KIAS
9o
200 KIAS
o
2
Fig. 4.14
Principles of Flight
Di
Fig. 4.15
High speed
D0
Di
Fig. 4.16
Note: The grey wing tip vortices illustrated above are only the vortex
cores.
More details on wing tip vortices are found in the chapter 13 "Lift/Drag"
paragraph 4 "Wake Turbulence".
When the A.o.A. is increased, CL is increased
giving higher induced drag.
So, induced drag varies with airspeed. Low airspeeds are associated
with high induced drag while high airspeeds are associated with low
induced drag. We can see on the graph that, close to stalling speed,
the induced drag tends to be infinite, while at high airspeeds the
induced drag tends to be equal to zero. When flying at half of this
speed the induced drag is four times higher.
Di
Stall
4 Di
Di
V
Slow
2V
Fast
Fig. 4.17
4 - 7
High altitude
Low altitude
Di
Di
V
Slow
Fast
Fig. 4.18
Constant altitude
Stall
High weight
Low weight
Di
Di
V
Fig. 4.19
Slow
Fast
Low A.o.A
Low C L
Low D i
V
Airspeed
Coefficient for
wing shape
Fig. 4.20
4 - 8
2
1
C Di =
CL
e (ellipse factor 0.7 - 1.0) A (aspect ratio)
Principles of Flight
The induced drag is expressed by the induced drag
coefficient called CDi, which is proportional to CL2.
The picture below shows the elliptical area with low pressure on the
upper surface of the wing. It is visible because the a/c is flying in
rather humid air and the produced low pressure decreases the
temperature below the actual dew point. The vortex core from the a/
c right wing is also visible for the same reason.
Fig. 4.21
4.2
Aspect ratio.
The main cause of induced drag is the downwash caused by the wing
and the wing tip vortex. The part of the wing that is near the tip
produces the greatest share of the induced drag. With a long wing a
smaller fraction of the wing is affected by the downwash which results
in a better ratio between lift and drag. Thus, if we want to reduce the
induced drag we must reduce the intensity of the wing tip vortex.
TFHS and NAR
4 - 9
The wing aspect ratio "A" is the first factor that can affect induced drag. It
is the ratio between the span of the wing "b" and the geometric mean chord
"c". Thus A = b/c = b2/bc = b2/S. The latter, span2/area, is the most
commonly used. Wings with the same area can be designed with different
aspect ratios.
High Aspect Ratio
A = b2 /S
Wingspan (b)
Wingspan (b)
ading
Low span lo
Wingspan (b
ea
ar
urface
wing s t.
h
Equal
ig
and we
Fig. 4.23
1.5
1.0
0.5
o
Fig. 4.24
A.o.A
4o 8 12 16 20
Principles of Flight
This effect explains why a glider, which of course must create very low
induced drag, has such a great wingspan. This is done in order to
increase the aspect ratio as much as possible.
Fig. 4.25
Wing tip
Wing root
Fig. 4.26
Wing tip
Wing root
Fig. 4.27
Wing planform.
The wing planform also has a considerable influence on induced drag.
The lowest induced drag for a given wingspan is attained when the
downwash angle is constant across the span. This is true for an
elliptical wing, or more precisely, a wing with elliptic loading. Thus,
the load distribution is a function of the planform of the wing. An
untwisted elliptical wing of constant section has elliptic loading and
this is the optimum shape as far as induced drag is concerned.
TFHS and NAR
4 - 11
Load distribution
Uneven
Elliptical
CL
Fig. 4.28
Front
views
Infinite span pressure distribution
Actual pressure distribution
Better pressure
distribution near
wing tip.
Fig. 4.30
Front views
Winglet
"Lift"
Total force
Flow
s
inward
The winglet surface creates only a small drag since the component of
total force acts forward in the flight direction, reducing its total drag
Fig. 4.31
4 - 12
winglet
Drag from
winglet.
Principles of Flight
A wing tip tank also makes it more difficult for the airflow to spill around
the wing tip and thus less induced drag is produced.
No wing tip modification
Wingtip tank
Front views
Better pressure
distribution near
wing tip.
Fig. 4.32
The better pressure distribution near the wing tip increases also the
rolling effect from the ailerons. However, these wing tip modifications
increase parasite drag and must therefore be introduced only
when the total effect is positive.
Normally, these types of wing tip modifications, i.e. winglets, are used
on long range aircraft flying at high altitudes where the low static
pressure gives less dynamic pressure demanding a relative high angle
of attack to produce the required lift.
Fig. 4.33
Flat plate.
L
Drag
Requires a great A.o.A.
Produces high drag.
Equal chord
and equal lift.
Efficient airfoil.
L
Drag
Requires only a small A.o.A.
Produces only low drag.
Fig. 4.34
4 - 13
4.3
TOTAL DRAG.
This paragraph describes TOTAL DRAG , its components, and how it
changes.
Fig. 4.35
Lift
Zero Lift Drag + Induced Drag
No lift
Zero Lift Drag only
Fig. 4.36
Principles of Flight
The sum of parasite drag and induced drag is called total drag. It is the total
of the resistance experienced by an aircraft when flying in the air.
Zero Lift Drag or Parasite Drag + Induced Drag
Form Friction Interference
= TOTAL DRAG
Di
Do
D tot
Fig. 4.37
Shockwaves
Fig. 4.38
4 Do
Do
V
V
Fig. 4.39
2V
Airspeed
Di
V
Fig. 4.40
Slow
2V
Fast
4 - 15
To calculate the variation in total drag with speed, we must add induced
drag to parasite drag for each speed, Di + Do = Dtot.
Total Drag
D tot
Dtot
=
Di
+
Do
V
Slow
Fast
Fig. 4.41
You can see that at low speeds, induced drag is predominant while the
parasite drag component of the total drag is very small. If we increase
the speed to an intermediate value where Di = Do (1/1), we can see that,
by adding the parasite drag to induced drag, we obtain a minimum
value of total drag. This airspeed value is very important.
It is called the most efficient airspeed, designated Vmd (sometimes
also VDmin ), and we will analyse it more closely later on.
Total Drag
D tot
Dtot
=
Do + D i
V
Slow
Fast
Vmd
Fig. 4.42
Total Drag
D tot
Dtot
Do
Di
V
Slow
Fig. 4.43
4 - 16
Fast
Principles of Flight
As has been shown in the figures, the total drag does not have the lowest
value at the lowest flying speed!
D tot
Dynamic pressure
Reference area
Coefficient of drag.
1/2 V 2
CD
C Do + C Di
Fig. 4.44
The coefficient of drag CD takes into account the shape of the aircraft
e.g. wing aspect ratio "A", wing planform, and the angle of attack.
We can draw curves representing the variation of CD with the angle of
attack for different aspect ratios.
CD
0.15
A=5
A = 10
0.10
Shape
D tot = q S C D
0.05
5o
10 o
15 o
20
A.o.A
A.o.A
Fig. 4.45
D tot = q S C D
0.05
A.o.A
5o
Fig. 4.46
10 o
15 o
20
crit
Low
4 - 17
At low angles of attack near cruising speed, the coefficient of drag is low,
but the airspeed "V" is higher. This has a major effect on the total drag.
CD
0.15
High
0.10
D tot = q S C D
0.05
A.o.A
5o
10 o
at cruise
Fig. 4.47
15 o
20
Low
Dynamic pressure
D tot
Reference area
1/2 V 2
Coefficient of drag.
CD
C Do + C Di
Fig. 4.48
2000 kg
1500 kg
1000 kg
Di
Slow
Fast
Fig. 4.49
Principles of Flight
We can also see that when the mass of the aircraft increases, the most
efficient airspeed increases.
Total Drag
D tot
2000 kg
1500 kg
1000 kg
Di
Slow
Fast
Vmd
Fig. 4.50
D tot
Dynamic pressure
Reference area
Coefficient of drag.
1/2 V 2
CD
C Do + C Di
Fig. 4.51
With
landing gear
down
Do
"Clean" a/c
Slow
V md
Fast
Fig. 4.52
4 - 19
With
landing flaps
Total Drag
D tot
With
t/o flaps
Do
"Clean" a/c
Fast V
V md
Slow
Fig. 4.53
Fig. 4.54
Slow
Fast
At low speed the wing with a high aspect ratio has lower total drag
because of the lower induced drag.
Aircraft designed to fly at speeds near the speed of sound mostly have
short wings with a low aspect ratio. The reason for this is that the
wingsection must be very thin in order to reduce the wave drag at
transonic or supersonic speeds. The combination of a thin and long
wing will be very heavy in order to have the required strength,
consequently a thin wing must be short to reduce weight.
This is the reason why high-speed jet fighters operating at high speeds
at all altitudes, usually have wings of low aspect ratio. On the
contrary, aircraft which fly slowly or quite fast jet aircraft at high
altitudes have wings with high aspect ratio.
High altitude reconnaissance aircraft
Fig. 4.55
4 - 20
Principles of Flight
Transport aircraft which are designed to carry high loads long distances
have wings with high aspect ratios and tapered wings, sometimes equipped
with "winglets".
Fig. 4.56
Sophisticated gliders with long slender wings have less total drag than
hang gliders, despite the lower total weight of the latter.
Drag
Drag
FIG. 4.57
4 - 21