Optical Final Notes

Optical Fibre
Communication
Dr.-In g Mu h ammad Riz wan Amirzad a
OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION
My Introduction
Muhammad Rizwan Amirzada
MS and PhD in Electrical Engineering from Universitt
Kassel, Germany
Specialization in MEMS structures (Micromirrors)
Study Material
Optical Communication Systems by J. Gowar (2nd Ed)
Optoelectronics and Photonics by S.O. Kasap
These slides will be available after every lecture
Introduction
Communication ?????
It is transfer of information..
This information can be..
Reading a book or newspaper
Watching T.V
Telephone call
Email, file transfer etc.
This transfer involves a source,
channel and destination
Together, it is called a communication system
Introduction (contd.)
What is a communication system?
It is a system, used to transfer an information from one point to the other
It has three basic elements i.e.
Transmitter: converts information to a suitable form so that it can be
transmitted
Channel: physical medium through which information travels, it adds
noise, attenuation etc.
Receiver: converts information to a suitable form so that it can be
recognized
Basic Communication Model
Source of
information
and transducer
Transmitter
Channel
Receiver
Output
Transducer
Communication System
Basic Communication Model (contd.)
Source of
information
and transducer
Transmitter
Channel
Receiver
Output
Transducer
Source of Information: Audio, Video, Picture, text or data etc.

Input transducer can be:
Microphone
Camera
Keyboard
Source of
information
and transducer
Transmitter
Channel
Receiver
Output
Transducer
Output transducer:
Speaker
Monitor
Source of
information
and transducer
Transmitter
Channel
Receiver
Output
Transducer
Transmitter will:
Convert the electrical signal into a form which is suitable for channel
Modulation
Amplification
Source of
information
and transducer
Transmitter
Channel
Receiver
Output
Transducer
Receiver will:
Extract an estimate of original transducer output
Demodulation
Amplification
10
Source of
information
and transducer
Transmitter
Channel
Receiver
Output
Transducer
Channel can be:

Wire lines
OPTICAL FIBRE
Wireless (atmosphere)
11
Optical Fibre (Introduction)

Why we need optical Fibre ???
With the passage of time, the information traffic increased rapidly
It requires a medium which can carry
this traffic
Copper wires or coaxial cables are limited
because of low bandwidth and
attenuation
The SOLUTION is OPTICAL FIBRE
12
Optical Fibre (Introduction) contd.

Today, all the long distance comm. is carried over optical fibres
Late 1980s, all overseas
communication was
shifted to optical fibre
from copper or coax
Fibre to the Home (FTTH)
scheme is the recent
development
13
Motivation
How data can be transmitted simultaneously ????
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
14
Optical Fibre (Introduction) contd.

First transatlantic operation was carried out in 2001
Surgery of a human patient
7000kM between Strasbourg (France) and
New York (USA)
Time delay was 155msec (for a feasible
surgery time delay must be < 335msec)
Operation performed in 54 min

High speed 10Gbits/sec fibre optic link
was used
Thanks to the Optical Fibre
15
Interference of two identical waves
16
Optical Communication System
17
Comparison of optical and electrical

systems
Advantages of Optical Fibre system
Compared to Electrical system
Larger Bandwidth
Optical Freq. 1014 Hz (NIR)
10Gb/s in practice and 20 60GHz in research
Much less attenuation.less repeaters required
Limit ~ 1GHz
(Attenuation increases with increase in frequency)
Material: Glass or polymer

Light weight and small size
Ideal for aircrafts etc.
Material: Copper very heavy and large size
No potential problems (Insulator)
Serious potential problems
No interference or crosstalk between neighbouring

fibres (No shielding required)
Interference or crosstalk
Nearly perfect signal security
Less signal security
Low transmission loss

0.18dB/kM (1.55m) for single mode fibre
20dB/kM at 100MHz
18
Electromagnetic Spectrum
19
Electromagnetic Spectrum (Contd.)
20
What is Light???
Light is an electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of
electromagnetic spectrum
Light has dual Nature
Particles (Newton believe because of photoelectric effect)
Waves (Huygens believe and Thomas Youngs double slit experiment)
21
Refractive Index
It is the ratio of the speed of the light in the vacuum to the other
medium
Mathematically
Refractive index varies with wavelength

This is Dispersion
Example is splitting of white light
into different colours
22
Refraction
It is the change in the direction of propagation of wave when it enters
from one medium to the other
If wave is entering from light medium to dense, it bends towards normal
If wave is entering from dense to the
light medium, it bends away from
the normal
23
Snells Law
The sine of the angle of incidence times the refractive index of first
medium is equal to the sine of the angle of incidence time the
refractive index of second medium
1 sin 1 = 2 sin 2
24
Total Internal Reflection

Phenomenon occurs when a propagating wave strikes a medium
boundary larger then a particular angle
That particular angle is called critical angle
25
Optical FibreIntroduction
It is flexible fine transparent glass or plastic which can propagate
light
It has two parts
Core (Inner part) which transmits the signal
Cladding (outer part) which guides the light within the core
Since light is guided so it is also called an Optical Waveguide

Core always have high refractive index than cladding
Cladding is normally made up of pure silica (n = 1.444 at 1.55m)
Core is made up of silica but with some doping of germanium
oxide or other oxides (increase in n i.e. 1.4475)
26
Optical FibreIntroduction (contd.)

How doping change the refractive index ???
27
Optical FibreIntroduction (contd.)
28
Acceptance angle and Acceptance cone

Critical angle can be calculated by Snell's law
= sin
2
1
29
Principle of propagation
For propagation through optical fibre, two condition must be
fulfilled
Refractive index of core should be greater than the cladding
Incident angle should be greater than critical angle
Total internal reflection phenomenon will occur and light will

propagate through fibre
30
Ray model and Wave model

Normally two different models can be used to represent a wave in
an optical waveguide
Ray Model: it is obtained by a line in the direction of energy flow and
perpendicular to wavefronts
Very simple and laws of reflection, refraction are well analysed
It cannot tell the field in the cladding, also cannot predict that the ray can
only be transmitted on certain angles
It cannot show the phenomenon of interference and diffraction
Wave Model: it explains the phenomenon of interference and diffraction
Modes in optical fibre can be well analysed
31
Types of Optical Fibres

Generally three types exists
Single Mode Fibre
Step index Fibre
Graded index Fibre
Last two are multimode fibres
It depends on the physical dimensions of fibre i.e. core diameter

For a typical single mode fibre, core diameter is in between 8 - 10m
Similarly for multimode fibre, core diameter is more than 50m
32
Types of Optical Fibres (contd.)
33
Manufacturing of Optical Fibre

Optical fibre mainly manufactured from pure silica
We start by vaporization with chlorine
Reaction with water or oxygen .. Preform formation
Second step is fibre drawing by using these preforms

4 + 22
2 + 4
OR
4 + 2
2 + 22
Dopant like GeO2 also added with the same process

34
Manufacturing of Optical Fibre (contd.)

Outside Vapour Deposition (OVD)
Vapours of SiO2 and GeO2
are mixed together. The quantity
of dopant is carefully monitor by
control unit.
First, the core layer is deposited
and then the cladding layer.
At the end, ceramic or graphite
rod is removed by heating and
preformed is formed
35

Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition (MCVD)
Start with pure silica tube
Similar reactants are used and they are blown inside the tube
Burner is continuously heating the rotating tube
Soot is formed inside the tube
The material which is deposited
inside the tube will turn to core
and pure silica tube will react as
cladding part of fibre
36
Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour

Deposition (PECVD)
37

Plasma Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (PMCVD)
Similar process as MCVD
Reactants enter in the pure silica tube
RF coil around the tube
generates the high
temperature plasma inside
the tube
Soot formation takes place
and due to very high
temperature, preform forms
38

Optical Fibre Drawing Process
After preform formation, drawing process is
used to draw the fibre from preform
Preform is heated at 2200C to melt
After that a long thin fibre is drawn from the
middle
Diameter of the fibre is carefully monitored
Drawn velocity is 10m/s (production) and
0.2m/s (Laboratory)
At the end the fibre is winded
39
Losses in Optical Fibre

There are two different types of losses in optical fibre
Attenuation
Absorption
Scattering
Bending losses
Dispersion
Intermodal dispersion
Material dispersion
Waveguide dispersion
40
Losses in Optical Fibre (contd.)

Attenuation is the loss of optical power as signal travel through the
fibre
Mathematically it can be represented as
10
=
log10
Unit for attenuation is in dB/kM

Three main factors of attenuation are: Absorption, Scattering and
radiation loss
41

Absorption is the portion of attenuation resulting from the
conversion of optical power to some other form such as heat
Three main causes of absorption are
Imperfections in the atomic structures of the fibre material
- it is caused by missing molecules or atoms, or absorption of hydrogen
molecules in glass
Intrinsic absorption
- Basic fibre material properties, if no impurities then all the absorption
will be intrinsic
Extrinsic absorption
- Presence of impurities in fibre material, also when OH are introduced
42

Three main windows of operation which shows optimum
attenuation
850 nm (cheap lasers)
1300 nm (min dispersion)
1550 nm (min absorption)
43

Scattering is caused by the interaction of light with density
fluctuations in the fibre
When light wave strikes those density areas, it scattered in all
directions
This scattering of light in all
directions causes the
attenuation of light
44

In commercial optical fibres, which operates from 700 nm to
1600 nm, the main cause of scattering is Rayleigh Scattering
Rayleigh scattering caused because there are some inhomogeneities
smaller then wavelength
It occurs when the size of inhomogeneities are 10 times smaller than
operating wavelength
Mathematically
1
~ 4
It restricts to use shorter wavelength for fibre operation
45

Bending is also a cause of attenuation
It can be classified in two different types
Macroscopic bending
Microscopic bending
Macroscopic bend losses observed when fibre bends radius is

large as compared to fibre diameter
It occurs while installing the fibre and propagating mode is mixed
with higher order mode
46

Microscopic bending occurs during the fabrication
The surface of core sometimes not homogeneous, this produces
some irregularities on core surface
When light wave strikes these
irregular surfaces, it changes
its direction and mix with
higher order modes
47

Dispersion is the phenomenon in which the velocity of the
propagating EM wave depends on wavelength
Mean every wavelength travel at different speed
Because of this phenomenon, the pulse broadening occurs
48

If the dispersion is more, then the bit interval must be high
It means fewer bits can be transmitted per unit time
Hence lower bit rate
It concludes, higher the dispersion, then lower the bit rate
49

Intermodal dispersion occurs in multimode fibre
Different modes travels at different speed, so if pulse is constituted
with different modes then phenomenon is intermodal dispersion
50

Material dispersion is because of different frequency components
present in output of an optical source
Each wavelength travels at different speed in the optical fibre
51

In optical fibre, propagation velocity depends on wavelength
It means when input
pulse is made up of
many wavelengths,
it spreads out in
time as it travels
52

Velocities of propagating wave are important
Phase velocity is the velocity of a monochromatic wave
- a wavefront is chosen from the monochromatic wave and its velocity is
called phase velocity
Group velocity
- An optical source produces spectrum of different wavelengths
- When these wavelengths combined with each other while travelling
they form wavepackets
- Velocity of those wavepackets is referred as group velocity
53
54

These wavepackets consists of different wavelengths
When these wavepackets travels in a dispersive medium, it
changes its shape
55

Waveguide dispersion is because of the geometry of the optical
fibre/waveguide
Light travels partly in the core and in the cladding
Cladding has the low refractive index so the portion of light in
cladding travels faster as compare to core
As the wavelength increases, the power distribution in cladding
also increases
This causes different speed in core and cladding, hence dispersion
56

This type of dispersion can be reduced
by modifying the geometry/index profile
of optical fibre
Material dispersion can not be avoided
as it is the property of the material
57

The total chromatic dispersion is sum of material and waveguide
dispersion
At 1300nm the chromatic dispersion is zero
58
Light Sources
Two main light sources are used
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Low energy consumption
Longer lifetime
Smaller size
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (LASER)
Coherent light source so many advantages
Different types
Gas lasers
Semiconductor lasers etc
59
Light Sources (contd.)

LED mainly used where
We need less data rate
We want short distance multimode system
Because of its low power, small NA and small diameter of SMF
LED is a pn junction diode

It emits a photon when voltage is applied
Photon energy depends on the band gap on p and n material
n type material is heavily doped and contains electrons
p type material contains holes
60

Colour of LED depends on the
band gap energy
Some impurities are also added

while doping for different
colours
61

Direct and indirect band gap is important for material selection
In direct bandgap, electron will
prefer to fall in highest energy states
where majority of holes are
Electron will emit a photon and
recombine with hole
In Indirect bandgap, electron needs an extra energy to recombine with hole
In other words, the probability to recombine electron and hole is very less
This is why silicon is not used
62

LASER
The basic principle involve is stimulated emission
When electron absorb a photon, it goes to higher
energy level, Absorption
When this electron releases the energy, it will
change its state
If a photon is pass by (Eph=E2-E1), it will make
exact copy of that photon and in same direction
This is Stimulated emission
63

Process of Population Inversion
64

This process for copying one photon
with other continues
At the end, we have got max no. of
photons which have same frequency
and direction
Energy to put these extra electrons in
exciting state is provided externally
and knowns as pumping or carrier inversion
65

Typical semiconductor LASER uses an active medium where
photons generate and amplified
Two mirrors at each side so that photons get reflected back and
amplified by constructive interference
66

Typical semiconductor LASER is shown
Consists of AlGaAs and GaAs
Electrons and holes got trapped inside
the GaAs and met with each other
Double hetero-structure provide good
electrical and optical confinement
Refractive index profile with light
intensity is shown
67
Amplifiers
When signal/light pulses travel through optical fibre they becomes
attenuated and dispersed
So it is necessary to refresh those pulses to their original form so that
they can be recognized
For this purpose some kind of amplifiers should be present in between

the links
The most common amplifier is Erbium Doped Fibers Amplifiers (EDFA)
68
Amplifiers (contd.)
Before invention of these amplifiers, the optical signal was first
converted into electrical signal, amplify and then again to optical
form
This causes a lot of complexity and expensive too

After invention of optical amplifiers, system gets simplified as
there is no need of conversion, less cost
69
Amplifiers (contd.)
Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier is most common amplifier used at 1550
nm as almost all communication is taking place at this wavelength
Some portion of the optical fiber is doped with Erbium ions

An additional pumping required with a wavelength of 980 or 1480 nm
This extra pumping excite the Erbium ions and they move to excited
state
70
Amplifiers (contd.)
At the same time light pulses of 1550 nm arrives and Erbium ions
interact with those light pulses and releases the energy in the form
of photon or exact wavelength (Copy of 1550 nm photons),
Stimulated emission
This phenomenon takes place at large scale so constructive
interference takes place and light pulses are amplified or refreshed
After amplification those light pulses travel again through optical

fiber
71
Amplifiers (contd.)
Diagram shows the EDFA with different components and energy
state diagram
72
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

In early 1990s, only one single wavelength was used for
transmission
Later, after the internet boom, requirement for large data rate
increases
A new scheme Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) was
invented
Optical signals with different wavelength are combined,
transmitted on one single optical fibre and separated
73
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) (contd.)

Working principle is same as prism but in reverse direction
74

Different optical channels are defined for each wavelength means
every wavelength represents one separate optical path
The width of the channel depends on the line width of the light
source
In long haul communication, normally semiconductor LASERs are
used which has very narrow line width i.e. ~1nm
DBR or DFB LASERs are the solution
Very costly as compared to other LASERs
75

Two types of WDM
Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing
- Standard channel plans defined by ITU
- Each channel has 20 nm spacing
- Starts at 1270 nm and going through 1610 nm
- Total 18 channels
76

Other type is Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)
- Standard is developed by ITU
- 100 GHz (0.8 nm)spacing between channels
- Typical range is from 1530 nm to 1560 nm
77
78

Main components for WDM are fibre couplers and optical filters
Fibre coupler can be an optical fibre with one input fibre and one or more
output fibres
Light from an input fibre can appear to several output depending on the
wavelength and polarization
These couplers can be fabricated in different ways
Two or more fibres can be thermally tapered and fused so that there core
comes into contact
Some coupler used side polish to give access to the core
79

Normally they are directional couplers means no optical power can
go back to the input port
80

After coupling, light pulses sent on single fibre and at the other
end some Demux should be use to decouple the wavelengths
For this purpose some detectors can be used:
- Silicon detector (more sensitive to 850 nm)
- AlGaAs detector (more sensitive to 1300 nm)
Also, different types of gratings can be used for splitting the light
into different wavelengths
Each detector will detect the corresponding wavelength
81

Gratings are equally spaced parallel
lines which are having distance
approximately of wavelength
Light pulses strikes on those grating
and split into different wavelengths
Real life example is CD which shows
different colours when white light
strikes the surface
82

Most commonly used tuneable filter for demultiplexing is FabryPerot Filter
83

These type of filters can be
tuned in two different ways
Thermally
Electrically
By tuning, cavity length changes

and we can filter out desired
wavelength
84
85
Subcarrier Multiplexing
The main disadvantage of WDM is
Chromatic dispersion and
Precise filters and transmitters required
Solution is to use SCM (Sub Carrier Multiplexing)

Data is first modulated electrically (AM or FM can be used)
Then it is converted into optical signal
Combination of SCM and WDM can increase data rate upto 1THz
86
Subcarrier Multiplexing (contd.)

First users/channels assign a specific Microwave carrier to each
channel
Then a combiner/multiplexer is used to combine all channels
Then data is transmitted over optical fibre after conversion
87
Subcarrier Multiplexing (contd.)

Main advantages are:
Wide bandwidth
Analogue or digital modulation schemes can be uses for transmission
FM and AM both can be used
In combination with WDM, 1THz can be achieved
Cheap as compare to WDM as RF components are cheap
Main disadvantages are:

Bandwidth limitation as electronic components involved
Complexity
88
SONET/SDH
High data rate (such as video conferencing) and low data rate but
with large number of users should be accommodated on optical
fibre
So there must be a standard for this problem
The United States (ANSI) and European (ITU-T) define a standard
which is know as
Synchronous Optical Network in North America
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy Rest of the World
89
SONET/SDH (contd.)
Main advantages are:
Standardised method for operation as equipment from different vendors can
be used together
When higher data speed introduces, system can expand gracefully
World wide compatibility: same standard can be used all over the world
90
SONET/SDH (contd.)
SONET defines a hierarchy for electrical signalling level called
Synchronous Transport Signals (STS)
Each STS level (STS-1 to STS 192) supports a certain data rate
(Mbps)
Corresponding optical signals are called Optical Carriers (OC-n)
SDH defines a similar system based on data rates which is called
Synchronous Transport Module (STM)
These STM modules are compatible with STS levels
91
SONET/SDH (contd.)
STM and STS rates are given below
92
SONET/SDH (contd.)
Each STS consists of 8000 frames
Each frame is two dimensional matrix bytes of 9 rows and 90xn

columns
For example STS-1 consists of 9x90x1=810 bytes and similarly
STS-3 consists of 9x90x3=243 bytes
93
SONET/SDH (contd.)
Basic frame structure
Frame in transmission
94
SONET/SDH (contd.)
Simple network which uses SONET equipment
95
SONET/SDH (contd.)
MUX/DEMUX are the starting and end points of the SONET
network
They proved an interface between optical and electrical network
STS MUX multiplex the signals to generate corresponding OC signal
An STS DEMUX demultiplex the optical signal and produces the
corresponding electrical signal
96
SONET/SDH (contd.)
Regenerator extends the lengths of the link
Regenerator is repeater which amplify the OC-n signal and

produces the fresh pulses
Optical to Electrical conversion can be used of EDFAs can be used
It alters the overhead information with new one
97
SONET/SDH (contd.)
Add-Drop MUX (ADM) allows insertions and extraction of the
signals
ADM can add or drop the STS signals without demultiplexing the
entire signal
ADM identify the desired STS by their header information such as

addresses and pointers
98
SONET/SDH (contd.)
An optical link which connects two neighbouring devices is called a
Section i.e. from MUX to regenerator or regenerator to
regenerator
The portion between two MUXs is called Line i.e. MUX to ADM etc
The end to end network potion is called Path i.e. from MUX to
DEMUX
99

Optical Final Notes

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Optical Final Notes

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Optical Fibre

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

These slides will be available after every lecture

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Source of Information: Audio, Video, Picture, text or data etc.

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Channel can be:

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Optical Fibre (Introduction)

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Optical Fibre (Introduction) contd.

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Optical Fibre (Introduction) contd.

Operation performed in 54 min

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Interference of two identical waves

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Optical Communication System

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Comparison of optical and electrical

Compared to Electrical system

Material: Glass or polymer

Material: Copper very heavy and large size

No potential problems (Insulator)

Serious potential problems

No interference or crosstalk between neighbouring

Nearly perfect signal security

Less signal security

Low transmission loss

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Electromagnetic Spectrum (Contd.)

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Refractive index varies with wavelength

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Total Internal Reflection

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Since light is guided so it is also called an Optical Waveguide

Optical FibreIntroduction (contd.)

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Optical FibreIntroduction (contd.)

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Acceptance angle and Acceptance cone

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Total internal reflection phenomenon will occur and light will

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Ray model and Wave model

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Types of Optical Fibres

It depends on the physical dimensions of fibre i.e. core diameter

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Types of Optical Fibres (contd.)

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

Manufacturing of Optical Fibre

Second step is fibre drawing by using these preforms