Concrete

Windmills
CAE 597 Special Problems
Irene Martnez Villalonga

Submitted to: Dr. David Arditi
April 21st, 2016



















Illinois Institute of Technology
3300 South Federal Street
Chicago, IL 60616-3793
312.567.3000

Table of contents

1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 3
2. Comparison of concrete and steel ........................................................................... 4
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Weight and foundation ........................................................................................................................... 4

Structural capacity ................................................................................................................................... 4
Maintenance and durability ................................................................................................................. 4
Annual electricity generation .............................................................................................................. 4
Geographical expansion ......................................................................................................................... 5
Transportation ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Economy ....................................................................................................................................................... 5

3. Construction process by Inneo Torres ................................................................... 6

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Site preparation ......................................................................................................................................... 6

Foundation .................................................................................................................................................. 6
Transport and pre-assembly ................................................................................................................ 6
Tower assembly ........................................................................................................................................ 8
Final assembly ............................................................................................................................................ 8

4. New construction process: Line of Balance .......................................................... 9

a. Activities and durations ......................................................................................................................... 9
b. Application of the Line of Balance method ................................................................................ 10
c. Comparison of results .......................................................................................................................... 15

5. Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 16
6. References ..................................................................................................................... 17

1. Introduction
Wind energy is an inexhaustible, renewable and clean energy source that avoids
emissions of greenhouse gases. The necessity of decreasing the dependence on
fossil fuels is one of the reasons why the development of renewable energies, in
this case the wind energy, is very important.
Steel towers have been the standard in the wind industry until few years ago. The
maximum height of these towers is 262ft (80m. Source: Inneo Torres) because due
to highway/bridge clearance issues, the diameter of a tube section is limited to
14.1 ft, as increasing the hub height to 328 ft (100m. Source: Inneo Torres) requires
an increase of the diameter. The consequence is that transportation establishes the
limit of the steel hub height. If the towers could be higher they could take
advantage of more consistent winds and greater energy output.
Recent studies have established concrete as a more economic and durable
alternative to steel to reach these higher heights. Concrete towers would have an
operational lifetime of 40 years compared to the 20 years of the steel ones.
Moreover, concrete towers could be built with pre-assembled cells that would be
easier to transport.
This is a controversial issue that is still being studied, although some companies
are already fabricating this new concrete towers. The objective of this work is to
analyze all the improvements that concrete can bring to the wind energy, study the
most common construction process that is being applied to construct these
concrete towers and then propose a new process based on the Life Balance
method.
The work will start with a comparison between performances of steel and
concrete, this part will be based on different research papers published by the
American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
IOWA University, American Concrete Institute and Concrete Centre among others.
The following section will expose the construction process applied by Inneo Torres,
which is a partnership that offers precast concrete towers to wind power energy.
The last section will be the implementation of a new construction process based on
the Line Of Balance method.

2. Comparison of concrete and steel

a. Weight and foundation
Precast concrete has a higher weight than steel; this fact gives the tower stability
to resist overturning and helps to control the tower frequency. In addition to this,
the size of the gravity foundation needed decreases and so does the reinforcement
needed.

b. Structural capacity
Pre-stressed concrete towers have a very ductile behavior that is favorable in
seismic controlled sites. Due to its higher structural damping and fatigue
resistance it has high tolerance to dynamic loads.

Deflection: the deflection on a steel tower is nearly 3 feet while in a

concrete tower it is only about 3 inches. Deflection increases stress and
fatigue on the structure and makes necessary a replacement or repair.

Vibration: because of the rigidity and thickness of concrete, the vibrations

are reduced in comparison with steel. The combination of reduced
deflection and lower vibration allow the internal mechanical design to be
simplified.

c. Maintenance and durability

In comparison to steel the precast concrete is a very durable material. It is able to
keep its properties under tough weather conditions. Precast concrete towers
require little maintenance in contrast to the steel towers that have to be painted to
protect them against corrosion.

d. Annual electricity generation

The existent steel towers of 262ft (80m) are generating hardly 25TWh of
potential electricity production in the Southeast of the US. With higher concrete
towers, about 360ft (110m) tall, it is estimated that 1,747 TWh could be
produced. In the future, heights of 460ft (140m) could be reached and that would
allow producing 6,234 TWh of electricity.
In the next table obtained from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
can be seen the potential wind capacity produced with taller towers.

e. Geographical expansion
As the towers get taller, they will be able to produce energy in more regions and to
produce more valuable energy in the zones where they are already installed.

f. Transportation
Precast concrete towers can be divided into different sections that can be easily
transported under overpasses. While steel towers are often over legal weight limit
and cause damage to the roads apart from adding about a 20% to the total cost of a
wind farm project. Moreover, there can be an onsite batch plant (in case of large
wind farms) that will eliminate most of the transportation costs.

g. Economy
Raw materials needed for make concrete are inexpensive if we take into account
that the operational time of life of the precast tower will be between 40 and 60
years. Moreover, the faster and steadier winds present in high heights allow wind
turbines to generate higher levels of power, reducing this way the payback time.

3. Construction process by Inneo Torres

There are four main parts of a concrete wind tower: the foundation, the tower, the
nacelle and the rotor. The foundation is responsible for support all the assembly,
the tower is anchored to the foundation and supports the nacelle and the rotor.
The nacelle contains the electric generator and the rotor converts the wind energy
into rotational motion of the blades.
The construction process will depend on the company responsible for construct
the windmill. In this case we will consider the process carried out by Inneo Torres,
a Spanish company that is a partnership that offers precast concrete towers to
wind power energy. The Inneo Torres concrete tower is made of several precast
concrete keystones 20 meters long that are assembled onsite.
In the following points is expressed the process of construction and assembly of a
concrete wind tower.

a. Site preparation
The first step is site clearing and building access gravel roads from existing
roadways to each turbine place in order to provide the necessary equipment and
materials for construction. The width of the gravel road has to be about 40 ft to
allow the pass of large cranes needed for turbine erection.

b. Foundation
First of all, the stockpile topsoil and subsoil have to be removed. Then the
construction of the foundations starts excavating a hole to place reinforcing steel
and then pouring concrete into the excavation. The dimensions of the foundations
are approximately 55ft wide and 8 ft deep.
Once the concrete is dry, topsoil and subsoil extracted before are stockpiled in a
semicircle around the foundation to subsequently replace them over the concrete.
The only part that remains above the soil is the center of the foundation.
After this, a crane pad is constructed in order to allow for turbine erection. The
dimensions of the crane pad are about 55x80 ft.

c. Transport and pre-assembly

The precast keystones are transported to the site one by one on trucks and with
the help of medium capacity cranes (300t) are erected. The number of keystones
or segments will vary a little bit depending on the tower height. The distribution of
segments by levels depending on the height of the tower is shown below:

100m tower

120m tower

Level 1 - 4 segments

Level 1 - 5 segments

Level 2 - 4 segments

Level 2 - 4 segments

Level 3 - 4 segments

Level 3 - 4 segments

Level 4 - 3 segments

Level 4 - 4 segments

Level 5 - 2 segments

Level 5 - 3 segments

Total 17 segments

Level 6 - 2 segments
Total 22 segments

The segments of the first level (0-20m) are placed directly on top of the
foundation. The segments of the second level (20-40m) are temporarily placed on
auxiliary trestles to have a support until the vertical joints of this level are done.
The next levels are done in the same way unless the last level that will not require
pre-assembly in the site because it can be transported in one piece from the
factory.
Once the vertical joints are finished, each level will remain stable until the final
erection with the tower crane.

d. Tower assembly
This is a fast process (the erection of all the levels is done in one working day)
where each tower level is raised and placed on top of the level before until the
erection of the complete tower. This phase has to be carried out by a crawler crane.

e. Final assembly
The final assembly consists on the installation of the nacelle and blades and it
takes only 1 working day to be completed because the crane used is the same as
for the tower assembly.

4. New construction process: Line of Balance

In this section it is going to be developed the construction of a concrete windmill
farm of 46 towers. The towers are going to be composed by 5 different levels,
where the 3 firsts levels are composed of 4 segments each one, the 4th level is
composed of 3 segments and the 5th level is composed by 2 segments. The
segments are going to be prefabricated 50 km away from the wind farm.

a. Activities and durations

First of all, the precast concrete segments have to be fabricated.
The next table shows the number of segments needed for the construction of the
46 towers:


1st Batch 2nd Batch 3rd Batch 4th Batch Total per tower For 46 towers
Level 1
1
1
1
1
4
184
Level 2
1
1
1
1
4
184
Level 3
1
1
1
1
4
184
Level 4
1
1
1

3
138
Level 5
1
1


2
92




Total=
17
782


Following it can be seen the duration of the prefabrication of concrete segments
and the activities needed to be done:

Precast concrete segments
Activity
Duration per mold
1. Steel reinforcement
1 hour
2. Mold closing
20 min
3. Concrete pouring
20 min
+1 day

4. Demoulding
15 min
5. Storage
30 min
Total=
1.3 days
6. Keystone loading
20 min
7. Transport to site (50km)
1 hour

With the above tables, we can see that 782 concrete segments are needed for the
construction of the wind farm and that the construction of each segment takes 1.3
days. It will be possible to adjust the total duration of the prefabrication of the
concrete segments by having multiple molds.
Once the concrete segments are made and transported to the job site, the assembly
of the tower takes place. Below are shown the activities needed to raise each tower
and their durations:

Activity
Duration
st
8. Place 1 level segments on top of the foundation 2 hours
9. Place 2nd level segments on auxiliary trestles
2 hours
nd
10. Do vertical joints of 2 level segments
1.5 hours
rd
11. Place 3 level segments on auxiliary trestles
2 hours
rd
12. Do vertical joints of 3 level segments
1.5 hours
13. Place 4th level segments on auxiliary trestles
1.5 hours
th
14. Do vertical joints of 4 level segments
1 hour
15. Place 2nd level segments on top of 1st level
2 hours
rd
nd
15. Place 3 level segments on top of 2 level
2 hours
th
rd
15. Place 4 level segments on top of 3 level
2 hours
th
th
16. Place 5 level segments on top of 4 level
2 hours
Total= 2.4 days
17. Assembly of nacelle and blades
8 hours
Total with assembly of nacelle= 3.4 days

b. Application of the Line of Balance method

To apply the Line of Balance method (LoB) to this construction process I am going
to increase the resources of the different activities successively to try to optimize
the use of the machinery and reduce the project duration.
The first activity is the prefabrication of the concrete segments. The time required
to prefabricating the 782 segments needed for the 46 towers depends on the
number of molds available. Since 5 different levels compose each tower, I have
considered that minimum 5 molds are needed and that the production rate can be
increased to the double by having 10 molds. The next table shows the durations:

Number of molds Time (days) Time (months)
5
239.2
8 months
10
119.6
4 months

10

Then, the segments have to be transported to the job site. One truck can transport
one segment per ride and it takes 1 hour to arrive to the job site. Like with the
prefabrication of the concrete segments, the time required for transportation will
depend on the number of trucks available:

Number of trucks Time (days) Time (months)
1
215
7.2 months
2
107.5
3.5 months


The last activity is the assembly of the towers by a crane on the job site. Regarding
the number of cranes, the duration for the assembly of the towers varies as
follows:

Number of cranes Time (days) Time (months)
1
158
5.3 months
2
79
2.6 months


To optimize the total duration of the project and the use of the resources I am
going to apply the LoB method to the construction process. Firstly I am going to
consider that there are 5 molds available, 1 truck and the towers will be assembled
by 1 crane:


49
46
43
40
37
34
28

1 Truck

25

1 Crane

22
19
16
13
10
7
4
0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

1
250

Days

11

Towers

31
5 Molds

With this use of the resources, the start and finish time for each activity is:

Activity
Start (days) Finish (days)
Precast segments
Transportation
Towers assembly

0
29
88

239
244
246

It can be seen how using 5 molds, 1 truck and 1 crane the total duration of the
project will be 246 days. Assuming that the owner wants the project to be
completed in less than 130 days, I will increase the resources of the activities. I am
going to start increasing the number of molds from 5 to 10. After increasing the
number of molds it will be possible to increase the resources of the other activities
and thus, reduce the total duration of the project.
This way, with 10 molds, 1 truck and 1 crane we have:

49
46
43
40
37
34
28

1 Truck

25

1 Crane

22
19
16
13
10
7
4
0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

1
250

Days

12

Towers

31
10 Molds

With this use of the resources, the start and finish time for each activity is:

Activity
Start (days) Finish (days)
Precast segments
Transportation
Towers assembly

0
5
64

120
219
222

Increasing the resources in one activity reduces the duration of the project from
246 to 222 days. Assuming that the owner wants the project to be completed in
less than 130 days, I am going to increase the resources for the transportation of
the segments from 1 truck to 2 trucks. Now, with 10 molds, 2 trucks and 1 crane
the Line of Balance results:


49
46
43
40
37
34
31
28

2 Trucks

25

1 Crane

22

Towers

10 Molds

19
16
13
10
7
4
0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

Days

13

1
250

With this use of the resources, the start and finish time for each activity is:

Activity
Start (days) Finish (days)
Precast segments
Transportation
Towers assembly

0
15
17

120
122
175

It can be clearly seen how increasing the number of molds from 5 to 10, the
number of trucks from 1 to 2 and maintaining 1 crane, the duration of the project
has been reduced to 175 days
To have the project duration under 130 days, I am going to increase now the
number of cranes from 1 to 2, maintaining 10 molds and 2 trucks:

49
46
43
40
37
34
28

2 Trucks

25

2 Cranes

22
19
16
13
10
7
4
1
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

Days

14

Towers

31
10 Molds

With this use of the resources, the start and finish time for each activity is:

Activity
Start (days) Finish (days)
Precast segments
Transportation
Towers assembly

0
15
44

120
122
124

Finally, we can see how using 10 molds, 2 trucks and 2 cranes, the project has a
duration of 124 days that is less than the 130 days maximum required by the
owner.

c. Comparison of results

The table below shows the evolution of project duration related to the use of
resources:

Resources
5 Molds, 1 Truck, 1 Crane
10 Molds, 1 Truck, 1 Crane
10 Molds, 2 Trucks, 1 Crane
10 Molds, 2 Trucks, 2 Cranes

Duration
(days)
246
222
175
124

Cumulative difference
(days)
-
-24
-71
-122

We can see how increasing the number of molds and keeping the same number of
trucks and cranes the project duration is reduced 24 days. Then, with 10 molds,
increasing the number of trucks from 1 to 2 and keeping the same number of
cranes the project duration is reduced 71 days from the initial duration, which is
an important reduction. Finally, increasing the number of cranes from 1 to 2 and
having 10 molds and 2 trucks, the duration is reduced 122 days and the project
fulfills the owner requirements regarding duration.

15

5. Conclusions
As the renewable wind energy market is expanding rapidly and regarding all the
advancements made in the concrete wind towers, wind is likely to become a more
important source of renewable energy. All the towers will be up and beyond 328 ft
in the near future, allowing bigger power outputs and efficiency.
Regarding the application of the Line of Balance method to the construction of a
wind farm, in this document it has been shown how the construction process can
be easily optimized. With this method, the construction does not have lag times
and every worker and machine is all the time working. There is no need to wait for
work to be ready at each step, applying the method we can reduce these wastes
and save a lot of time and money. If one applies the Critical Path Method to a
project like the one discussed in this document, he or she will be overestimating
the duration of the project since this method cannot relate the resources available
to the duration of the activities. However, it is important to remark that this
method can be used only in cases were the construction has repetitive activities;
otherwise the method is ineffective.

16

6. References
American Concrete Institute (September 22, 2011). Concrete Technology for Wind
Turbine Towers. Retrieved January 25, 2016, from the Strategic Development
Council web page:
https://www.concretesdc.org/COMMITTEES/committeehome.asp?committee_cod
e=0000SDC-11
American Society of Civil Engineers (October 28, 2014). Concrete Could Make Wind
Towers Taller. Retrieved February 2, 2016, from the American Society of Civil
Engineers Magazine:
http://www.asce.org/magazine/20141028-concrete-could-make-wind-towers-
taller
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (August 2013). Concrete Key to Taller
Wind Turbines. Retrieved January 29, 2016, from the American Society of
Mechanical
Engineers
web
page:
https://www.asme.org/engineering-topics/articles/renewable-energy/concrete-
key-taller-wind-turbines
Fabcon Precast. Wind Turbine Towers. Retrieved February 3, 2016, from the
Fabcon Precast web page:
http://www.fabcon-usa.com/products/wind-turbine-towers
Inneo Torres. Precast Concrete Wind Towers: Assembly Process. Retrieved January
22, 2016, from the Inneo Torres web page:
http://www.inneo.es/index.php/en/installation-process.html
Lewin, T. An Investigation of Design Alternatives for 100m Tall Wind Turbine
Towers, MS Thesis. Ames: Iowa State University.
Lumsden, Philip. The Line-of-Balance Method. Pergamon Press Limited, 1968.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (February, 2015). Potential Wind Capacity
Maps. Retrieved January 25, 2016, from the U.S. Department of Energy web page:
http://apps2.eere.energy.gov/wind/windexchange/wind_resource_maps.asp?stat
eab=pa
The Concrete Centre (2007). Concrete Towers for Onshore and Offshore Wind
Farms.

17