Rapid Non-contact Visual Scanning of Structures Using Infrared

Thermography
Semih Gonen1, Burak Tonga2, F.Necati Catbas1,3*
1

Department of Civil Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey,

semih.gonen@boun.edu.tr, necati.catbas@boun.edu.tr
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Istanbul Bilgi University, Istanbul, Turkey, e-mail:
buraktonga1992@gmail.com
3
Department of Civil, Environmental and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando,
Florida, USA, catbas@ucf.edu (contact author)

Abstract
Structural systems can be assessed at the global as well as at the local level. One of the non-destructive
evaluation methods that can help assess structural elements and systems is infrared thermography (IRT)
particularly for concrete structures. Infrared cameras measure electromagnetic radiation in the IR spectrum,
where the emitted radiation is in long wave-length light. For the implementation of the infrared thermography,
the emitted radiation is proportional to T4 and the emissivity of a material determines how much radiated power
for a given temperature. Infrared thermography can be used to detect concrete delamination under concrete
surfaces. In this paper, first, a review of the IRT technology and the state-of-the-practice are presented. Next,
some of potential implementations are discussed along with the possible data analysis methodologies to detect
variations in the IRT scans indicating structural defects. Finally, a number of demonstration studies are presented
for old stone built structures as well as reinforced concrete and stone retaining walls. Results, interpretations as
well as special considerations such as the selection of the IRT implementation time during the solar
heating/cooling cycle, scan distance, data analysis methods are presented along with the results obtained from
the IRT are presented. The results indicate that the delamination, structural defects, wall voids, humidity behind
retaining walls and structural temperature distribution can be observed or predicted.
Keywords: inspection, non-destructive evaluation, historical constructions, image infrared thermography

1 Introduction
All of the structures deteriorate with time without an exception. Deterioration can be due to aging of the
materials, excessive use, overloading, climatic conditions, lack of maintenance and such (National Science
Foundation [NSF], 1992). Consequently, condition assessment of the deteriorated structure is necessary in order
to validate its safety and reliability. Overall condition of the entire system should be inspected by means of a

ACE2016
thorough inspection program that includes measuring the structural characteristics in situ and assessing the
service condition precisely. The inspection costs are to be kept low while inspection requires minimum
specialized training. Non-destructive evaluation can help achieving these objectives in global and local condition
assessment (Rens et al., 1997). Although the assessment is traditionally done by visual inspection and simple
procedures such as tap test, the invisible defect and damage inside the structure are often difficult to identify.
Non-Destructive Evaluation/Testing (NDE/NDT) techniques are usually far more convenient and cost-effective
than destructive techniques in evaluating the safety of the structures (Chang and Liu, 2003). Furthermore, nondestructive testing (NDT) can complement visual inspection or destructive testing when a direct physical
measurement strategy is either inadequate or too expensive, and when extension of the limited physical
investigation is required. There are many NDT techniques available in industry and in research laboratories but
only a number of them are practically applicable to civil engineering use. There are techniques such as infrared
thermography, acoustic emission, vibration signatures, ultrasonic and magnetic methods, and they are based on
different theoretical principles, producing different sets of information related to the properties of the structure.
In the interpretation of these properties, some assumptions about the structure have to be made and previously
gathered information should be evaluated in conjunction with the structure properties, condition and its
engineering properties (McCann and Forde, 2001).
The importance of carrying out NDE in situ for different kinds of structures has been highlighted by many
authors. Particularly for masonry structures, NDE can be used for several purposes such as (i) detection of
hidden structural elements like arches, piers etc. in the walls, (ii) mapping of non-homogeneity in the masonry,
(iii) qualification of masonry, (iv) interpretation of moisture content and capillary rise, (v) detecting surface
decay, (vi) qualitative evaluation of the extent of mechanic damage, (vii) interpretation of the mechanical and
physical properties of masonry elements. Presently, significant portion of the NDE procedures give only
qualitative results; therefore it is required to evaluate the results and use them at least as comparative values
between different parts of the same masonry structure or by using different NDE techniques (Binda, 2000). It
should also be stated that in spite of the availability of vast knowledge on NDT techniques and their application
on civil engineering structures, there are no clearly defined standards for NDT methods available for use in
structure testing.
The main objective of this study is to provide brief review of the infrared thermography technology and its
various fields of implementation in civil engineering. Therefore, the IRT technology is reviewed first to shortly
explain its working principles while the information on camera technology and availability of various cameras
are mentioned. Then, a review of different implementations i.e. state-of-the-practice based on the structure
description, camera specifications, type of the IRT test, methods used etc. is given to provide various aspects of
usage and key information to the reader. Once the review is examined, it is seen that applications of IRT on civil
engineering structures comprise detecting the variations in IRT scans indicating structural defects and it mostly
focuses on reinforced concrete structures, particularly on civil infrastructures such as bridges. Being no less
important than civil infrastructures for the community, heritage structures are often the landmarks, possessing
spectacular beauty and cultural importance. Thus, their safety is of utmost priority for preservation of cultural
heritage and providing public well-being. A driver for this research study was in fact a recent failure of an old
and historic retaining wall structure between historic royal palace and a park. While there are a number of
monitoring technologies to track such structures, IRT can also be utilized for local defects. Since the information
on the use of infrared thermography for historical and masonry constructions is limited, this paper also aims to
contribute to the literature by discussing potential implementations and giving different examples of case studies.

Figure 1. Hamlin Hall building thermal image (left) and visible light image (right)

S. Gonen, B. Tonga, F.N. Catbas

The use of infrared thermography has been demonstrated by a thermal image of historic Hamlin Hall building at
Bogazici University South Campus, compared with the visible light picture on Figure 1. As can be seen from the
thermal image, the areas of higher temperature such as the stone masonry walls, stone window frames and the
man standing on the right corner reflect brighter color whereas the cooler parts such as the bushes, light bulbs,
metal roof of the building and sky are represented in darker colors.
In the scope of this study the IRT technology is reviewed briefly and its working principles are summarized.
Different cameras and the available camera technology are discussed together with the applications of active and
passive thermography. Then, as state-of-the-practice, a few of the different implementations observed in the
literature are presented in order to emphasize the versatility, the capabilities and the limitations of the
technology. All the same, these implementations are investigated with regards to their emphasis on different
aspects in testing, methodology used, data analysis method and observations and results. Finally, it is decided to
use two available infrared cameras of FLIR brand, E5 and InfraCAM, with passive thermography on various
structures: i) a significant historical construction Albert Long Hall building at Bogazici University; ii) a masonry
retaining wall inside the university; and iii) a reinforced concrete retaining wall with predicted delamination on
the overlying plaster, again inside the university. The features of the infrared cameras are given in the following
section and they resemble to each other very much. In order to determine the optimum timing for the tests
thermocouples can be used to identify the time of the day when the temperature difference between the surface
of the structure and the air is the most. At this time, the researchers took advantage of the available weather sites
(Weather Underground Website, 2016). A discussion for practical determination of time windows for IRT is
presented in literature (Watase et al., 2015).
As mentioned earlier, the driver for this research study was the failure of an old and historic masonry wall
between a historic royal palace and a park. As a result, it was decided to choose at least two masonry structures,
one being a retaining wall similar to the one failed and the other one a complex masonry building representing
various features. In addition, a reinforced concrete (RC) wall with delaminated plaster was used for
demonstration purposes.

2 Review of IRT Technology

Human eyes are able to see only visible light that is in a limited electromagnetic spectrum; however, infrared has
longer wavelength than visible light. On the spectrum of infrared, every object that have temperature higher than
0 K emits heat and this fact forms the basis to the method of infrared thermography with the help of infrared
cameras which captures infrared energy and turns it into the electronic signals in order to have thermal
image/video (What is Infrared?, n.d.). Infrared thermography(IRT) is a method which measures heat radiation
emitted from the investigated material, and shows the surface area of the material as a colored thermal image
which is related to temperature distribution (Avdelidis and Moropoulou, 2003). IRT concept leans on the heating
of investigated material that is heated naturally or artificially with sources such as the sun or thermal heaters, and
observation of the materials during its heating and cooling periods. In many cases the surface temperature of the
material is recorded and compared within its medium in order to recognize difference of temperature, which
usually refers to phenomenon such as delamination, detachment and cracks in civil engineering structures. On
the other hand, IRT method may have a disadvantage on structures with more than one type of material such as a
Masonry Arch Bridge, since different materials have different emissivity values and that would cause
temperature differences regardless of deteriorations (Clark and Forde, 2003).
Thermal radiation theory is the fundamental of IR cameras and IRT. According to the theory, it is possible to
detect photons as individual particles with energy e (J) which is related to radiation.

= =

!!
!

In this equation, h represents Plancks constant with the value of h=6.626x10-34 J and also v is frequency, c is
speed of light, and is wavelength. Since the energy of photon is conserved, v has a constant value, however, the
value of c and depend on the environment which they are going through (Kylili et al., 2014). In Figure 2, we
can see the electromagnetic spectrum which is from high to the small wavelength values.

ACE2016

Figure 2. Electromagnetic spectrum in micrometer wavelengths (CSI Website, 2016)

IRT surveys performance depends on many factors such as data collection time, size of delamination, IR
camera specifications, and data collection speed (Catbas et al., 2015). In addition to that, there are some
physical properties that are directly related with investigated material and can be counted under the titles of
thermal, spectral, and other properties. According to Avdelidis and Moropoulou (2003), there are some physical
properties that need attention, and these can be counted as the following: Conductivity, effusivity, and specific
heat as thermal properties, emissivity, absorption, reflection, transmission as spectral property and porosity,
volumetric mass, physiological water content as other properties (p. 120).
IRT has been recently popular in order to investigate buildings, with main focus towards decreasing energy
consumption. In 1800, Herschel discovered infrared spectrum while he was working on optical filters which
could reduce the brightness of the image of the sun taken by telescopes (Kylili et al., 2014). Afterwards, the first
infrared camera was developed by Tihanyi in 1929 and it was used by Britain for defense purposes against
aircrafts (Lisowska-Lis, 2011). During the times that was close to the end of World War II, new findings on
image converters helped military on the case of night time vision (Seeback, 1826). Finally, around late 1960s,
the usage of infrared cameras was started not only for military services but for commercial purposes as well
(Barreira, 2012).
Infrared cameras specifications play a huge role on IRT surveys. There are many research studies which focus
on how specifications of IR cameras affect the decision of deterioration detection over thermal images. The main
specifications of cameras which influence IRT results can be given as detector type, thermal sensitivity,
accuracy, pixel resolution, spectral range, frame rate, field of view. Table 1 illustrates the specifications of two
cameras which are examined for this research. There is better visibility of damage indication with IR cameras
which have higher thermal sensitivity and resolution. In addition, camera angle influences temperature reading
of IR cameras, because images that are not taken from perpendicular angle is more sensitive than perpendicular
ones (Hiasa et al., 2016a).
Table 1. Specifications of two infrared cameras
Camera
Detector Type
Thermal Sensitivity
Accuracy
Resolution
Spectral range
Frame rate
Field of view

FLIR E5
Uncooled micro bolometer
<0.10C
2C or 2%
120x90 pixels
7.5-13 m
9 Hz
45 x 34

FLIR InfraCAM
Uncooled micro bolometer
0.12C
2C or 2%
120 x 120 pixels
7.5-13 m
9 Hz
25 x 25

IRT consist of two methods as active and passive. Active IRT is chosen when thermal equilibrium exists. IRT
methods need a heating source in order to investigate heating and cooling periods of the material and when there
is no natural heating source, it is possible to use an external, artificial heating source, and this method is called
active IRT. Passive IRT is used when natural heating source which is the sun already breaks thermal equilibrium
around the test material. Passive IRT method is so efficient to use in order to evaluate the structural integrity.
Also for many years, it has been used to detect moisture on historical structures (Theodorakeas, 2015). On
historical structures, it is important to detect water leakage, moisture, delamination on plasters and frescos for
timely repair and restoration before any major damage.

S. Gonen, B. Tonga, F.N. Catbas

3 Review of Different Implementation

State-of-the-practice of IRT in civil engineering structures and various implementations observed in the literature
are briefly presented in order to emphasize versatility, capabilities and limitations of the technology. Meanwhile,
the latest implementations are chosen from the literature since multiple examples are also reviewed in Kylili et
al, 2014. The implementations given in this paper are investigated with regards to their emphasis on different
aspects in testing and methodology, camera specifications, data analysis techniques and the main findings. Brief
summary of the findings is presented together within the following text and in Table 2.
Hiasa et al.(a) investigated the effects of using different cameras with different specifications, taking images with
different angles and using different data analysis methods. Raw images and processed data were compared for
the images taken with miscellaneous angles using various cameras and it is concluded that factors such as
camera angle, resolution and sensitivity affect the temperature readings whereas it is easier to detect damages
with processed data (Hiasa et al, 2016a) There is more to these factors affecting the IRT readings; for example,
the effect of data collection time, the weather conditions and the speed of the camera in dynamic readings. Hiasa
et al.(b) proposes that nighttime is better for IRT readings to avoid effects such as sunlight and uncooled micro
bolometer cameras show good performance for static readings whereas for large bridge deck investigations a
cooled IR camera with high resolution should be preferred (Hiasa et al. 2016b). Effects of the weather conditions
on thermal contrast were investigated after long-term data acquisition and using statistical evaluation. Using the
information obtained, a guideline -which declares best ambient weather conditions and time intervals, for
outdoor thermal imaging applications was created (Washer and Fuchs, 2015). Matsumoto et al have
demonstrated the real life, rapid and innovative bridge inspection using image processing and infrared
technology. This has been demonstrated on a building structure. Their studies have shown very comprehensive
field implementations with a vehicle-mounted system, operating on highways about 80 km/h speed. These
dynamic infrared monitoring applications have been applied to more than a dozen bridges in Florida, including a
multi-span (~2.5 km long bridge) over Lake Jessup, near Orlando, Florida (Matsumoto et. al., 2014; 2015).
IRT is often complemented with other NDT methods such as surface penetrating radar (SPR), impact echo (IE)
and ultrasonic tomography (UT). There are various examples in the literature showing miscellaneous
applications on infrastructures and historical constructions, yet they also show the shortcomings of the IRT in
their findings. White et al. evaluated the multi-method NDT approach on a RC bridge built in laboratory
environment and observed that the IRT did not detect cracks, corrosion or deep delamination (White et al.,
2015). Another multi-method approach used laboratory specimens with different depths of delamination to
simulate bridge parts and IRT could only detect shallowest delamination; however, observations from IRT
testing complied with the finite element method simulation and the combination of results with IE improved the
results (Khan et al., 2015). Clark and Forde used IRT to detect moisture on masonry arch bridges which they
built up in the laboratory and examined on site. It is noticed that the field experiments are influenced by many
factors such as wind, rain, sunlight etc. but it is possible to detect drain pipes in the bridge and vegetation on the
faade (Clark and Forde, 2003). Similarly, IRT was used for investigating the moisture and dampness problems
in the masonry walls and the timber roof of a historic 13th Century Mosque. Furthermore, its timber pillars,
supporting the roof, were examined. Rain penetration and roof drainage problems were observed, causing
dampness in the walls and in the timber ceiling. Also, the areas of dampness caused by the previous cement
mortar repairs were detected. For the timber pillars it was possible to detect cracks and the notches using IRT
imaging (Kandemir-Yucel et al., 2007). Regarding the detection of damage on historical structures in terms of
delamination and detachment, Maierhofer et al. investigated detachment of plaster and faade elements. Two
case studies were presented as the example of locating plaster delamination in a historical cathedral and as an
example of crack and structure detection below the plaster in a recent structure with cultural heritage value
(Maierhofer et al., 2015). Besides, Arndt et al. used IRT in conjunction with other NDT methods for condition
assessment of a historic fort and detected the locations of the delamination that are crucial for the future life of
the mud wall covered with plaster (Arndt et al., 2015). In addition to damage detection, IRT technology was also
used for the evaluation of conservation treatments such as surface cleaning, consolidation of stone, restoration of
mortars and examination of plastered mosaics. When the examples are reviewed, it becomes apparent that IRT
could be considered as a valuable assessment tool for the preservation and protection of cultural heritage
(Avdelidis and Moropoulou, 2004).
There are various techniques available in the literature; however, in this paper, basic interpretation of the IRT
images based on engineering judgment is used. Acquiring fast and valuable results, solely based on the visual
interpretation of the images by an experienced user is possible and it can be a key feature in field applications.

ACE2016
Table 2. Literature Review
Work

Investigated
Structure

Active / Passive
Thermography

Camera number, brand and specifications

Hiasa et al.(a),
2016

Laboratory specimens
and RC wall structure
on field

Active in the lab

and passive
testing on field

3 cameras;
FLIR T420: uncooled micro bolometer, 320x240
pixels, 60 Hz frame rate, NETD of <0.045 at 30C
FLIR T640: uncooled micro bolometer, 640x480
pixels, 30 Hz frame rate, NETD of <0.035 at 30C
FLIR SC5600: InSb, 640x512 pixels, 100 Hz frame
rate, NETD of <0.02 at 30C

Hiasa et al.(b),
2016

Specimens on site,
scanned with a vehiclemounted system
dynamically at 50 km/h
speed

Passive

3 cameras;
FLIR T420: uncooled micro bolometer, 320x240
pixels, 60 Hz frame rate, NETD of <0.045 at 30C
FLIR T640: uncooled micro bolometer, 640x480
pixels, 30 Hz frame rate, NETD of <0.035 at 30C
FLIR SC5600: InSb, 640x512 pixels, 100 Hz frame
rate, NETD of <0.02 at 30C

Washer & Fuchs,

2015

RC block on field and

RC bridge deck

Passive

1 camera
FLIR S65: uncooled micro bolometer, 320x240
pixels, 60 Hz frame rate

White et al.,
2015

Pre-stressed concrete
girder deck in
laboratory

N/A

1 camera, FLIR

Khan et al.,
2015

Laboratory specimens
to simulate bridge parts

Active

1 camera, FLIR a325sc: uncooled micro bolometer,

320x240 pixels, 60 Hz frame rate

Clark & Forde,

2003

Mock-up of a masonry
arch bridge in the
laboratory and a real
one on field
13th Century mosque
from Seljuk Period

Passive

1 camera: AGEMA 900 thermal camera

Passive

1 camera: AGEMA 550 thermal camera

Avdelidis &
Moropoulou,
2004

Historic building in
Athens, Medieval
masonry wall in
Rhodes, fortification
masonry in Crete, Hagia
Sophia dome in Istanbul

Passive for the

first three cases
Active for the
plastered mosaics
of Hagia Sophia

1camera: TVS200 Mk II LW & AVIO processor,

spectral range of 8-12 m and a frame rate of 15
Hz.

Maierhofer et al.,
2015

Laboratory samples,
plaster scratches at
Magdeburg Cathedral
and mural painting in
Cobbelsdorf

Active for the first

two
Passive for mural
painting

1 micro bolometer camera with 640 x 480 pixels,

frame rate of 2 Hz.

Arndt et al.,
2015

Mud wall of the historic

site Fort Bowie

Passive

1 micro bolometer camera with a spectral range of

7.5 13.0 m and a frame rate of 30 Hz.

Kandemir-Yucel
et al., 2007

4 Case Studies
4.1 Albert Long Hall Building
Albert Long Hall was designed by architect Albert Dwight Foster Hamlin and constructed as a part of Roberts
College in 1862. The building is composed of masonry walls, rubble masonry and denser cut stones at the
corners with mortar, includes some complex geometry like arches and vaults, and timber floors and roof. It has
been in use as a part of Bogazici University since 1971 and it hosts many cultural events, primarily classical
music concerts (Bogazici Universitesi website, 2016).

S. Gonen, B. Tonga, F.N. Catbas

Figure 3. Albert Long Hall building thermal image (left) and visible light image (right)
Thermal image of Albert Long Hall was taken in the morning, around 10 AM. and when the outside temperature
was 17 C, in order to have a general idea about temperature distribution over the building. FLIR E5 infrared
camera, which is capable of taking infrared and visible light images, was utilized. For evaluation of the thermal
image, FLIR Tools image processing software was used. As a result, it is seen that the image quality is directly
affected by the cameras resolution; the smaller the resolution closer the camera should be placed. In addition, it
can be noticed that the highest temperature demonstration on the image is on the roof of the structure due to the
effect of direct sunlight. Also, as a result of having less porous corner stones, the temperature changes more
slowly and they remain colder in the morning.

4.2 Masonry Retaining Wall

The masonry retaining wall, located at the South Campus of Bogazici University was inspected because of its
resemblance to the failed, old and historic retaining wall between a royal palace and the park. The wall is
approximately 3m high and 20m long; however, the image represents only a portion of it. It is made of irregular
stones laid with mortar. The aim of examining this wall was to detect the presence of moisture influenced areas
and drainage outlets.

Figure 4. Masonry Retaining Wall thermal image (left) and visible light image (right)
The image was taken with FLIR E5 infrared camera around 10:50 AM, when outside temperature was 17 C.
Raw images were interpreted visually using engineering judgment. As it can be noticed from the thermal image,
drainage outlets can easily be seen with the help of temperature difference on those spots. Parallel with the
working principle of infrared thermography, those spots had lower temperature in the morning, when compared
to the masonry around. The effect of rain which happened one day before taking the image can be realized by the
water gathered at the bottom of the wall, causing lower temperature. On the other hand, the visible light image
enables to prove the locations of drainage outlets and vegetation on the wall. Also, even though the masonry is
irregular and the wall does not look monolithic at all, thermal distribution indicates otherwise.

ACE2016

4.3 RC Wall with Plaster Delamination

The reinforced concrete wall is located near the Engineering Faculty building in the South Campus of Bogazici
University. The wall has a length of approximately 25 meters with average height of 4 meters. And it is covered
by plaster. The goal of gathering data from this wall was observing the delamination behind the plaster in a faster
and easier way compared to tap test. Thermal image was taken around 11:20 AM. when the outside temperature
was 18C (Hourly weather history and observations, 2016). FLIR E5 and FLIR InfraCAM were used; however,
no significant difference was observed in between the images. When images are inspected, the part with
delamination on the wall can be noticed from the thermal camera due to the temperature difference between the
sound and delaminated part since the sound part warms up -later. Also, the image of digital camera prove the
existence of defected area.

Figure 5. R/C Retaining Wall thermal image (left) and visible light image (right)

5 Conclusions
IRT is a method which measures heat radiation emitted from the investigated material and shows the surface of
the material as a colored thermal image in terms of the temperature distribution. The method is advantageous
with regards to its features of fast data acquisition, high sensitivity, and no requirement for contact as well as
portability and usability during day and night although it requires a high initial cost and thermal heating. In this
study, a brief review of the infrared thermography technology and its various fields of implementation in civil
engineering was presented. The IRT technology was shortly reviewed in terms of its working principles and
different implementations based on the structure description, camera specifications, type of the IRT test, methods
used etc. to provide various types of use, findings and key information to the reader. In addition, potential
implementations with case studies were discussed with the aim of contributing to the literature since the use of
IRT for historical and masonry constructions is somewhat limited in the literature. Three different case studies
were presented; a large masonry building structure and two retaining walls; one is RC and the other is masonry.
Findings indicate that IRT can detect delamination on the surface of the structure and the voids in the structures
medium in a fast and efficient manner. Also, it is possible to detect damp zones which can lead to realization of
the presence of water behind the retaining walls or to determine whether the drainage outlets work properly or
not. This information can be very valuable for the safety assessment of old and historic masonry retaining walls.
Furthermore, the IRT helps the user to observe different materials in the structure with complex geometry. The
effectiveness of IRT can be increased by employing more sophisticated testing such as use of more advanced
image processing methods, more precise timing, use of better cameras and use of complementary technology
such as sonic methods. Nonetheless, it is evident that IRT could be considered as a valuable NDE tool. The
authors will include some of these recommended testing and image processing in their future work.

6 Acknowledgements
The study presented here is supported through a fellowship by The Scientific and Technological Research
Council of Turkey (Trkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Arastirma Kurumu - TUBITAK). The authors would like to
thank Assoc Prof. Serdar Soyz of Bogazici University for his insightful discussions and feedback on structural
health monitoring research and this study. In addition, the authors would like to thank Prof. Dr. Gkhan Baykal
(Bogazici University) and Assist. Prof. Muammer zbek (Istanbul Bilgi University) for providing infrared
thermal cameras for the research presented in this paper. The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude
for these agencies, responsible administrators, other graduate students in the senior authors research group. The

S. Gonen, B. Tonga, F.N. Catbas

senior author would like to express his sincere gratitude to Mr. Masato Matsumoto of Nexco-West USA for his
several years of support and collaboration in the area of civil infrastructure assessment research studies.

References
Arndt,R.W., Walkowiak,W., Porter,D. (2015). Condition assessment for restoration of the national historic site Fort
Bowie. International Symposium Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering (s. 1184-1193). Berlin: BAM.
Avdelidis,N.P. and Moropoulou,A. (2004). Applications of infrared thermography for the investigation of historic
structures. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 119-127.
Barreira, E., Freitas, V.P., Delgado, J.M.P.Q., Ramos, N.M.M. (2012). Thermography Applications in the study of
Buildings Hygrothermal Behavior, In Prakash R.V. (Ed.), Infrared Thermography (pp. 171-192).
Binda,L., Saisi,A., Tiraboschi,C. (2000). Investigation procedures for the diagnosis of historic masonries. Construction
and Building Materials, 199-233.
Catbas, F.N., Hiasa, S., Khuc, T., Matsumoto, M., Mitani, K. (2015) Development, Implementation and Evaluation of
Image-based Technologies for Civil Infrastructure Systems Report Submitted to West Nippon Expressway
Authority (NEXCO-West), 262 pages.
Chang,P.C. and Liu,S.C. (2003). Recent research in non-destructive evaluation of civil infrastructures. Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, 298-304.
Clark,M. and Forde,M.C. (2003). Infrared Thermography Assessment of Masonry Arch Bridges Laboratory and Field
Case Studies. International Symposium Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering. BAM.
Climate Science Investigations, (2016) Last connection May 21, 2016. https://www.ces.fau.edu/nasa/module-2
Hiasa,S., Birgul,R. and Catbas, F.N. (2016a). Infrared thermography for civil structural assessment: demonstrations
with laboratory and field studies. Journal of Civil Structural Health Monitoring (revision under review)
Hiasa, S., Catbas, F.N., Matsumoto, M., Mitani, K. (2016b) Monitoring Concrete Bridge Decks using Infrared
Thermography with High Speed Vehicles Structural Monitoring and Maintenance (SMM) Journal, Techno-Press
(revision under review)
Kandemir-Yucel,A., Tavukcuoglu,A., Caner-Saltik,E.N. (2007). In situ assessment of structural timber elements of a
historic building by infrared thermography and ultrasonic velocity. Infrared Physics & Technology, 243-248.
Khan,F., Mazzotti,M., Bartoli,I., Weidner,J., Aktan,E., Moon,F. (2015). Validation and Integration of Non-Destructive
Evaluation data for the assessment of bridge decks . International Symposium Non-Destructive Testing in Civil
Engineering (pp. 241-250). Berlin: BAM.
Kylili,A., Fokaides,P.A., Christou,P., Kalogirou,S. (2014). Infrared thermography (IRT) applications for building
diagnostics: A review. Applied Energy, 531-549.
Lisowska-Lis, A., Mitkowski, S.A., Augustyn, J. (2011). Infrared technique and its application in science and
engineering in the study plans of students in electrical engineering and electronics. World Conference on
Technology and Engineering Education, September 5-8, Vol.2, pp. 104-108
Maierhofer, C. et al. (2015). Detection and Characterization of safety relevant detachments of faade elements using
combination of active thermography and optical scanning methods. International Symposium Non-Destructive
Testing in Civil Engineering (s. 291-300). Berlin: BAM.
McCann,D.M., and Forde,M.C. (2001). Review of NDT methods in the assessment of concrete and masonry
structures. NDT&E International, 71-84.
Matsumoto, M., Mitani, K., and Catbas, F. N. (2015). NDE for Bridge Assessment using Image Processing and
Infrared Thermography The pilot Project. Transportation Research Board 94th Annual Meeting.
Matsumoto, M, Mitani, K., Catbas, F. and Hayashi S. (2014): On-site Application of Innovative Bridge Inspection
Methods Using Image Processing and Infrared Technology, Bridge maintenance, Safety, Management and Life
Extension Chen, Frangopol & Ruan (Eds), London, 978-1-138-00103-9
Rens,K.L., Wipf, T.J. , and Klaibe,F.W. (1997). Review of non-destructive evaluation techniques of civil
infrastructure. Journal of Performance Constructed Facilities, 152-160.
Seeback, T.J., (1826). Magnetische Polarisation der Metalle und Erze durch Temperatur-Differenz. Annalen der
Physik, Vol.82, pp. 253-286.
Theodorakeas, P., Cheilakou, E., Ftikou, E., Koui, M. (2015). Passive and active infrared thermography:
An overview of applications for the inspection of mosaic structures. Journal of Physics Conference
Series, November 2015. Vol. 655, pp. 531-549
Washer,A.G. and Fuchs,P.A. (2015). Developments in the use of infrared thermography for the condition assessment
of concrete. International Symposium Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering (s. 281-290). Berlin: BAM.
What is Infrared? (n.d.). Retrieved May 11, 2016, from http://www.flir.com/about/display/?id=41536
Watase, A; Birgul, R; Hiasa, S; Catbas, F.N; Matsumoto, M; Mitani, K (2015) "Practical identification of favorable
time windows for infrared thermography for concrete bridge evaluation" Construction and Building Materials
Journal 101 (2015) 10161030. Elsevier
Weather Underground Website, (2016) Last connection May 18, 2016. https://www.wunderground.com/
White,J., Hurlebaus,S., Wimsatt,A. (2015). Concrete Bridge Deck Condition Assessment using Multi-Method
Nondestructive Testing Techniques. International Symposium Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering
(s. 400-403). Berlin: BAM.