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Journal of Cleaner Production 16 (2008) 1258e1263

www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Implementing sustainable laundering procedures for textiles in a

commercial laundry and thus decreasing wastewater burden
Sabina Fijan*, Rebeka Fijan, Sonja Sostar-Turk
University of Maribor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering Materials and Design,
Smetanova ulica 17, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia
Received 1 March 2007; received in revised form 21 May 2007; accepted 5 June 2007
Available online 31 August 2007

Abstract
This paper presents a research on how to optimize a laundering program to reduce wastewater burden thus achieving a more sustainable
laundering procedure. A green surgical textiles program was investigated and the first step of optimization was performed based on the results
of measuring certain parameters in the water taken from individual chambers. The wastewater parameters were reduced after optimization of
the program although effluent treatment plants for water reuse remain necessary. An experimental laundering procedure with a high dosage
of sodium hypochlorite was also conducted in order to observe a correlation between measured values of active chlorine and conductivity.
As an approximate correlation was found this could result in the possibility of incorporating a sensor in the washing machine measuring online
the conductivity with the possibility of regulating the dosage of sodium hypochlorite and thus preventing overdosing, which increases the damages of the laundered textiles and the burden of wastewater.
2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Laundry wastewater; Optimization; Textiles; Sustainable laundering

1. Introduction
The use of water in laundries is as important as the use of
detergents. Water acts as a heating medium, transport medium
and solvent for detergents and other chemicals as well as soils,
and as a wetting agent for textiles [16]. It also transfers the mechanical action of the washing machine to the laundry. Thus
water is a major component in the washing process. Water is
used in large quantities in laundries and at present they are
emitting relatively high quantities of wastewater [1,15,19].
Presently, the cost of water is a relatively small part of the total
laundry cost, but water prices are expected to rise due to European legislation (2000/60/EC) [3]. The European Directive
2000/60/EC prescribes the creation of incentives for an efficient use of water resources and focuses on improvement of
sustainability of production [9,14,16]. Following this
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 386 2 220 78 92; fax: 386 2 220 79 90.
E-mail address: sabina.fijan@uni-mb.si (S. Fijan).
0959-6526/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2007.06.017

Directive, laundries will have to search for opportunities to reduce their water consumption.
The first possibility is to optimize the laundering procedure
by minimizing the consumption of all washing products for
the laundering procedure thus reducing the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), chemical oxygen demand (COD), suspended and sedimented substances [16]. The ingredients of
the washing product have a specific function in enhancing detergency. Surfactants aid in removal of fatty soils, builders
soften the water by removal of calcium and magnesium ions,
bleaches assist stain removal by lightening or whitening the
linen through chemical degradation of colored soils and disinfection agents have an antimicrobial effect against wide spectrum of microorganisms [2,7]. It is also important that the
washing products are environmentally friendly and are biologically degradable [14]. Overdosing washing products strongly
increases the burden of wastewater by increasing BOD5, COD
and suspended and sedimented substances [14,18]. On the
other hand, it is important not to decrease the washing agents

S. Fijan et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 16 (2008) 1258e1263

1259

optimize a laundering procedure for green surgical textiles.

We measured important parameters in water from individual
chambers to estimate the influence of the program optimizing
as well as determining a possible correlation between measured parameters. We also measured the wastewater parameters according to the regulation for laundry wastewater noted
in the Slovenian Official Gazette [11] and compared them to
the concentration limit values.

to such measures that the laundering procedures do not have

a sufficient cleaning and disinfection effect. It is well known
that textiles contaminated due to inappropriate laundering procedures are a possible vehicle for nosocomial outbreaks involving bacterial, viral and fungal infections [4e6,10,12,13].
Therefore, when decreasing the amounts of washing agent it
is necessary to control temperature to ensure an appropriate
disinfection effect of laundering [7,13]. Because clean, bright
and undamaged textiles are an important part especially for the
catering industry, the laundering quality determined by the
secondary laundering effects (whiteness quality, chemical in
mechanical wear and incineration residue) is also an important
factor which cannot be ignored [17]. The laundering quality is
a direct consequence of the correct dosing of washing agents
which is a complex process.
Sustainable use of water and energy also involves using
chemo-thermal disinfection laundering procedures for hospital
textiles instead of thermal disinfection laundering procedures.
This is important as the trend to decrease the washing temperature, energy consumption, laundering agents, etc., thus decreasing the laundering costs, combined with the trend of using
blends of polyester and cotton for hospital textiles, which cannot
withstand high laundering temperatures, has led to the omission
of thermal laundering procedures and therefore, enhancing the
possibility that laundered textiles are not sufficiently safe for
use by hospital patients. Therefore, when introducing chemothermal laundering procedures in a hospital laundry, it is important to ensure disinfection of textiles for further use.
Another efficient tool for sustainable use of water in laundries
is water recycling and reuse which requires major investments in
effluent treatment plants [1,16]. The most widely used systems for
wastewater treatment are conventional methods such as precipitation/coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation and filtration or
a combination of these [19]. As the conventional methods have
several disadvantages [19] other methods are becoming more
popular including membrane processes [1,15,18,19], electrocoagulationeelectrofloculation [8], etc.
In our research we focused on the first tool for improving
sustainability in an industrial laundry by attempting to

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Continuous batch washing machine
A continuous batch washing machine (Senking, Jensen
Group, Denmark) (Fig. 1) with 14 chambers, a maximum capacity of 50 kg of dry linen per chamber, a maximum water
load of 100 L per chamber and a washing time of 4 min per
chamber was used for the investigation. Pre-washing was conducted in the first 4 chambers reusing water from tank 1
(Fig. 1). The water was in co-current flow with a consumption
of 4 L per kg of linen. Water from chamber 4 was released into
the sewage. Two litre per kg of linen of water from tank 1 together with 2 L per kg of linen of fresh water was then added
in chamber 4 for main washing. Main washing was conducted
in chambers 5e10 with a water consumption of 4 L per kg of
linen. Water was released from chamber 10 to the sewage.
Heating devices were inserted in chambers 5 and 9. Rinsing
was conducted in chambers 11e13 using counter-current water flow with fresh water flow to chamber 13 with a consumption of 5 L per kg of linen. Finally neutralization was
conducted in chamber 14 using the same amount of fresh water. Water from chambers 11 and 14 were released to tank 1.
2.2. Washing procedure for optimization
The washing program for green surgical textiles (ST) was
investigated. The dosing of detergents, alkalis, bleaching, disinfecting and neutralizing agents is noted in Table 1 for both
the original and optimized program. Detergents (DET) were

dirty
linen

DET
DIS

DET
ALK

PW

PW

PW

MW

PW

NEA

DIS
heat

heat

MW

MW

MW

MW

MW

RIN

RIN

RIN

NEU
PRESS

sewage

5
fresh
water

10

11

sewage

12

13

14

fresh fresh
water water

TANK1
sewege

Fig. 1. Water consumption and dosing scheme in the continuous batch washer for the green surgical textiles program after optimization. PW: pre-washing phase;
MW: main washing phase; RIN: rinsing phase; NEU: neutralization phase; DET: detergent; ALK: alkalis; DIS: disinfecting agent; NEA: neutralizing agent.

S. Fijan et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 16 (2008) 1258e1263

1260

Table 1
Washing recipes for the green surgical textiles program before and after optimizing
Laundering stage

Dosing

Laundering agentsa

Laundering agents

Laundering conditions

ST

STO

ST

Pre-wash C1-4

C1

Main wash C5-10

C5

1.9 g DETb/kg linen

1.7 g ALKc/kg linen
0.5 mL BLAd/kg linen

Rinse C11-13

C12

2.3 mL DISe/kg linen

2.3 g DETb/kg linen;

1.9 g ALKc/kg linen
0.5 g DETb/kg linen;
0.6 mL DISe/kg linen
2.7 mL DISe/kg linen

Neutralization C14

C14

NEAf until pH 6.3

NEAf until pH 6.3

added in chambers 1 and 5. The original program contained

a small dosage of a mild bleaching agent (BLA) in chamber
5 for persistent stains. The optimized program also contained
a dosage of the detergent together with the disinfectant agent
(DIS). A disinfecting agent (DIS) was added in chamber 12 in
both programs. The program ended with neutralization in
chamber 14 (NEU).

T 95  C

ST and STO

STO

t 12 min, T 55  C,
bath ratio: 4 L/kg linen
t 24 min,
bath ratio: 4 L/kg linen
t 12 min, T 40  C,
bath ratio: 5 L/kg linen
t 4 min, T 40  C,
bath ratio: 5 L/kg linen

T 75  C

2.5. Experimental washing procedure for determining the

correlation between added active chlorine and conductivity

The measured parameters of water samples from individual

chambers were chosen in order to give the most significant insight on the laundering procedure.

In the green surgical textiles program there is no dosage of

active chlorine, as we wanted to observe the relationship between the measured active chlorine and conductivity. Therefore,
we chose a program for kitchen and restaurant textiles with
a higher chorine dosage (sodium hypochlorite 50 %), since
the whiteness degree and stain removal is very important for
these textiles for aesthetic reasons. We increased the dosage
of active chlorine to achieve high amounts in the bath water
for measurements. We tested the experimental program at
2 separate occasions to determine the influence on the possible
correlation.

2.4. Measurements of wastewater parameters

3. Results and discussion

The measured wastewater parameters were chosen according

to the Slovenian regulation of the Official Gazette Regulation
on the substance emission during the removal of wastewater
from laundries and dry cleaners (UL RS 46/02) [11]. The
parameters and concentration limits are noted in Table 2.

3.1. Program optimization

2.3. Measurements of water parameters from

individual chambers

The program for laundering green surgical textiles was optimized by implementing various changes regarding a transition
from a thermal laundering procedure conducted at 95  C in the

Table 2
Parameters and concentration limits for laundry wastewater according to the Slovenian Official Gazette, No. 46/02
Parameter

Concentration limit of emission into Standard

Water

Sewage system

Temperature ( C)
pH value
Suspended substances (mg/L)
Sedimented substances (mL/L)
Chlorine-free (mg/L)
Nitrogen ammonia (mg/L)
Total phosphorus (mg/L)
COD (mg O2/L)
BOD5 (mg O2/L))
AOX (mg/L)
Sum of anionic and nonionic surfactants (mg/L)

30
6.5e9
80
0.5
0.2b
5
2
120
25
1.0 or 3.0d
3.0

40
6.5e9.5
a

10
0.5b
c

e
e
e
1.0 or 3.0d
a

DIN 38404-C4
SIST ISO 10523
ISO/DIN 11923
DIN 38409-H9
ISO 7393/2
SIST EN 25663
SIST ISO 6878-1
SIST ISO 6060
SIST ISO 5815
SIST ISO 9562
Appl. Bulletin No. 233/3, No.230/1 (Metrohm SW)

Method

Thermometer
Electrochemical
Gravimetrical
Sedimentation
Colorimetric
Spectrophotometric
Spectrophotometric
Titrimetric
Electrochemical
Colorimetric
Potentiometric

a
The limit concentration of suspended substances and surfactants in wastewater is determined with the value at which there is no influence on the sewage system
or purifying plant.
b
The limit value is not defined in the case of disinfection of laundry from health care.
c
For wastewater flowing into a purifying plant with capacity less than 2.000 PE, the limit value is 100 mg/L; for wastewater flowing into a purifying plant with
capacity of 2.000 PE or more, the limit value is 200 mg/L.
d
The parameter limit value is valid for wastewater originating from washing laundry from health care.

S. Fijan et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 16 (2008) 1258e1263

main washing phase to a chemo-thermal laundering procedure

conducted at 75  C. Due to the lowering of the main washing
temperature it was necessary to slightly increase the dosage
of the detergents (DET) in chamber 1 and add dosage of detergents in chamber 5. It was also necessary to slightly decrease
the dosage of the alkalis (ALK). Most important was increasing
the dosage of the disinfection agent (DIS) containing an equilibrium solution of peroxyacetic acid, acetic acid and hydrogen
peroxide in chamber 12. Also the dosage of the original bleaching agent (BLA) containing hydrogen peroxide was replaced
by the disinfection agent (DIS) in chamber 5.
Both the procedures were tested also for the disinfection
effect according to the modified procedure [7] which proved
to be sufficient as no bioindicators survived (data not shown).
Also the secondary laundering effects according to the
methods for professional textile care [17] proved to be within
the tolerance limits for both the procedures (data not shown).
3.2. Results of the parameters measured in the water
from individual chambers
The results for the green surgical textiles program (ST) and
the optimized green surgical textiles program (STO) are noted
in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The optimization of this procedure included decreasing the temperature of main washing
from a thermal laundering temperature of 95  C to a chemothermal laundering temperature of 75  C. Due to the temperature decrease it was necessary to somewhat increase the
amount of washing products in order to maintain the same
laundering level. Detergents (DET) were added in chamber
5 and the dosage was increased in chamber 1. The dosage of
alkalis (ALK) in chamber 1 was also increased. The results
in Table 4 confirm these changes. However, the COD and
BOD5 values are slightly decreased after optimization despite
higher dosages of chemicals; this is perhaps due to a combination of a random laundering of less dirty textiles when testing
the program STO with less organic deposits and the use of
higher amounts of disinfectant (DIS) that partially degraded
the organic deposits. As the dosage of the disinfectant in the
program STO is higher in chamber 12 in comparison to the program ST and is also added in chamber 5 in the program STO,
the values of active oxygen are higher as noted in Table 4.
The overall results of water analysis of all procedures show
expected high values of COD between 200 and 2000 mg O2
per mL, high values of BOD5 between 60 and 900 mg O2

1261

per mL as well as high values of the amounts of anionic and

nonionic surfactants mainly due to the reuse of water. Therefore, the procedures could be more sustainable by treating
the water before reuse in a way that the organic deposits would
be removed whilst the surfactants would be retrieved and the
dosages thus decreased. This would also lead to lower costs
for expensive detergents and other chemicals.
3.3. Correlations of measured parameters in the
experimental kitchen and restaurants textiles program
As we did not find any correlations in the green surgical
textiles program between parameters such as: pH, temperature
and conductivity that can be measured online and parameters
such as alkalinity, active chlorine, active oxygen, COD,
BOD5, and surfactants, we decided to determine the possibility of a correlation between conductivity and active chlorine,
if the added amounts of chlorine are much higher. This cannot
be conducted in the green surgical textiles program, as it
would cause discoloring of green garments and drapes. Therefore, we used a program that already contains higher amounts
of active chlorine in order to achieve appropriate whiteness
degree and stain removal and we increased the dosage for 2
washing processes. From our research Fig. 2 confirms an approximate linear correlation between the measured conductivity and the amount of active chlorine in water from both
measurements of the experimental kitchen and restaurant textiles program. The correlation is not exactly linear
(R2 0.87), as the conductivity is not only dependant on the
active chlorine content, but also in the case of the experimental kitchen and restaurant textiles program it represents the
main contribution as the dosage of active chlorine is high.
This is an important factor as it could be possible to measure
conductivity online in each compartment and by determining
a maximum level of conductivity, the over-dosage of active
chlorine as the bleaching agent containing sodium hypochlorite could be prevented thus preventing excessive damages
to the washed textiles and unnecessarily increasing the wastewater burden.
3.4. Results of the parameters measured in the
wastewater from all procedures
The results noted in Table 5 show that several parameters
exceeded the limit values for the emission into the sewage

Table 3
Results for the original green surgical textiles program (ST) of water from individual chambers
Chamber

pH

T
( C)

k
(mS/m)

Total
alkalinity
(g/L)

Active
chlorine
(mg/L)

Active
oxygen
(mg/L)

COD
(mg/L)

BOD5
(mg/L)

Anionic
surfactants
(mg/L)

Nonionic
surfactants
(mg/L)

C1
C2
C4
C5
C10
C12
C14

10.56
10.56
9.98
9.70
9.82
9.81
4.94

36.1
43.2
48.9
80.5
68.2
56.7
32.8

866
1533
669
889
829
646
245

0.7
0.9
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.2

20
20
<10
20
20
20
<10

120
130
80
120
110
100
60

2150
1430
860
850
1050
900
450

425
375
300
240
260
200
90

8.99
12.86
8.33
7.24
8.80
7.93
4.83

110.17
117.94
62.53
32.80
60.20
33.72
11.83

S. Fijan et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 16 (2008) 1258e1263

1262

Table 4
Results for the optimized green surgical textiles program (STO) of water from individual chambers
Chamber

PH

T
( C)

k
(mS/m)

Total
alkalinity
(g/L)

Active
chlorine
(mg/L)

Active
oxygen
(mg/L)

COD
(mg/L)

BOD5
(mg/L)

Anionic
surfactants
(mg/L)

Nonionic
surfactants
(mg/L)

C1
C2
C4
C5
C10
C12
C14

10.51
10.51
10.18
8.31
8.84
8.77
5.17

45
45.7
38.7
69.6
68.2
59.1
26.5

1639
1609
692
860
789
670
223

0.7
0.7
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.1

<10
<10
<10
30
20
20
20

60
60
40
160
110
90
60

975
1000
390
600
670
600
200

100
900
110
110
150
70
60

9.83
13.35
9.26
17.72
18.22
12.35
5.98

117.19
127.27
70.16
86.45
69.58
55.15
43.75

system such as: pH value, temperature and AOX. Although we

found high values for COD, BOD5 and sum of surfactants,
there are no limit values in the Slovenian regulation for emission into sewage systems. The overall results clearly show that
the optimized program produces less burdened wastewater.
The results also show that wastewater treatment methods are
inevitable.

4. Conclusions

conductivity

( S/m)

From the research we can conclude that the optimized

program demonstrated better overall results and that a transformation from thermal to chemo-thermal laundering procedures
can be environmentally friendly and at the same time ensure
disinfection. We also found a correlation between added active
chlorine and conductivity thus confirming the possibility of
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0

Table 5
Results for wastewater parameters of the green surgical textiles program
before and after optimizing according to the Slovenian Official Gazette
No. 46/02

y = 3,8936x + 2744,3
R2 = 0,869

200

400

600

800

using online sensors in washing machines to regulate important parameters and thus avoiding unnecessary damages to
textiles due to overdosing.
In general laundering procedures can be even more effective, sustainable and environmentally friendly if the following
measure besides optimization of washing agents are taken: (1)
water from reservoirs (from rinsing, neutralization and after
press) are treated before reuse in order to decrease the amount
of organic deposits, microfibrils, pills, etc. from the dirty laundry whilst the detergents are retrieved thus decreasing the necessary dosages and in turn decreasing the costs for chemicals;
(2) the energy from the hot water after main washing is used
via heat exchanger for heating fresh rinsing washing water;
(3) the water consumption is decreased by increasing the
amount of recycled water via water treatment plants, (4) incorporating various sensors to manage the dosage of different
washing agents thus preventing overdosing due to reuse of water with a certain amount of washing agents and thus preventing excessive damages to the laundered textiles and reducing
unnecessary wastewater burden. At the same time the

Parameter
1000

Concentration limit
of emission into
Water

Sewage
system

30
6.5e9
80

40
6.5e9.5

conductivity

( S/m)

Active chlorine (mg/L)

10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0

y = 6,2911x + 2958,2
R2 = 0,8701

200

400

600

800

1000

Active chlorine (mg/L)

Fig. 2. Correlation between conductivity and active chlorine in the water from
individual chambers of the experimental kitchen and restaurant textiles program measured at 2 separate occasions.

Temperature ( C)
pH value
Suspended substances
(mg/L)
Sedimented substances
(mL/L)
Chlorine-free (mg/L)
Nitrogen ammonia (mg/L)
Total phosphorus (mg/L)
COD (mg O2/L)
BOD5 (mg O2/L))
AOX (mg/L)
Anionic nonionic
surfactants (mg/L)
a

ST

STO

51.3
10.34
50

38.6
9.62
30

0.5

10

2.5

e
5
2
120
25
3.0
3.0

e
100
e
e
e
3.0

0
<0.05
1.883
710
650
<0.1
37.37

0
<0.05
1.239
320
260
<0.1
45.57

The limit concentration of suspended substances and surfactants in wastewater is determined with the value at which there is no influence on the sewage
system or purifying plant.

S. Fijan et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 16 (2008) 1258e1263

optimized procedures should not cause higher costs or any

negative effects on the washing performance.
Acknowledgements
Financial supports by the EU project COOP-CT-2004005864, the Leonardo da Vinci project 2005-146 300 and
the project of the Slovenian Research Agency ARRS No.
Z2-7076 is gratefully acknowledged.
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