365

The modelling, prediction, and experimental evaluation

of gear pump meshing pressures with particular
reference to aero-engine fuel pumps
M Eaton1, P S Keogh2*, and K A Edge2
1Goodrich Engine Control Systems, Birmingham, UK
2Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, UK
The manuscript was received on 19 July 2005 and was accepted after revision for publication on 21 March 2006.
DOI: 10.1243/09596518JSCE183

Abstract: This paper presents the development of a model for the evaluation of pressure
transients occurring within an involute tooth form twin-pinion gear pump and addresses, in
particular, the inuence of cavitation. The latter can cause erosion, limiting the life of such
pumps, and liberate hard particles, leading to secondary damage elsewhere. The model considers the inter-tooth volumes that are formed at the roots of the driver and driven gears and
utilizes the continuity equations by considering compressible ow into and out of these
volumes. Cavitation arising from insucient ow into the expanding inter-tooth volumes is
taken into account. The continuity equations are expressed in terms of uid density rather
than pressure. Hence correct solutions are ensured even during cavitating conditions, when
the minimum void pressure is xed at the appropriate vapour pressure. The eectiveness of
the model is assessed through gear pump meshing pressure measurement and ow visualization.
The signicant inuence of inlet pressure ripple on low-pressure predictions is also investigated.
Keywords: gear pump, cavitation, ow visualization, ow continuity

1 INTRODUCTION
The supply of fuel to an aerospace gas turbine engine
is a demanding application for a hydraulic pump.
Delivery pressures can rise up to 14 MPa, operating
speeds may be as high as 13 000 r/min and fuel temperatures can vary from 50 to 180 C. A gear pump
is generally the preferred choice owing to the small
number of parts, soft failure modes, good reliability,
and general robustness. To assist in the design of
improved gear pumps, particularly for fuel system
applications, the ability to predict pumping dynamics
is a key requirement.
In the operation of a gear pump, uid is drawn
into the gear rotors from the low-pressure (LP) port
and transferred to the high-pressure (HP) port around
the peripheries of the gears, as shown in Fig. 1. For
* Corresponding author: Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Bath, Faculty of Engineering and Design, Claverton
Down, Bath BA2 7AY, UK. email: P.S.Keogh@bath.ac.uk

JSCE183 IMechE 2006

maximum volume transfer, the gear tooth depth

needs to be as large as possible, although this is
limited by the centre distance between the two gears
and the gear root diameter. The displacing action of
the pump is achieved by the meshing of the teeth
during which rapid changes in trapped volumes of
uid result in the generation of pressures signicantly above and below the bulk inlet and discharge
pressures. Excessive over-pressure can lead to high
loading of the gears and excessive mechanical
losses. Under-pressure can result in cavitation. The
geometries of the gear teeth and side porting area
on the bearing bridge need to be designed to minimize the magnitude of these transient pressures.
During double gear contact, uid may enter or leave
the trapped gear volumes through the bearing bridge
side porting area. The design of the bridge, which
interfaces with the gear thrust bearing surfaces
through a thin lm of uid, is a compromise between
controlling pressures in the trapped volumes and
minimizing the leakage.
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366

M Eaton, P S Keogh, and K A Edge

Fig. 1 Gear pump mode of operation

Analysis of pump designs with regard to susceptibility to uid cavitation has received limited
attention in the open literature. Internal reports by
Heath [13] demonstrate the feasibility of procedures
to predict conditions under which cavitation can
occur in gear pumps. Eaton et al. [4] present a
preliminary approach and discuss the relative merits
of solving the system equations in terms of pressure
or density. A pressure-based solution method is
ideal for uids with high air content and relatively
slow pressure transients, since it enables the bulk
modulus to be varied as a function of air release [5].
It can also be extended to include air release and
reabsorption rate coecients [6]. A solution for
uid density, as used by Manhartsgruber and Scheidl
[7] to include the eects of cavitation within a
piston pump, may well be suited to the modelling
of an aviation gas turbine engine gear pump. The
typical design point condition for cavitation performance of a civilian aero-engine application is
a high-altitude cruise condition. This results in a
situation where the true vapour pressure (TVP) of
the fuel is greater than the air saturated vapour
pressure, thus negating the requirement to consider
eects due to air release. The question of whether
air release can be neglected still needs further
investigation.

The main objective of this paper is to improve the

understanding of the pressure history as the teeth
pass through the meshing cycle. This enables
informed decisions to be made with regard to design
for cavitation damage limitation. The investigation is
concerned primarily with the low pressures in the
rapidly expanding volumes generated as the gear
teeth pass the midpoint of the meshing cycle. If these
volumes cannot be lled at a rate that ensures that
the inter-tooth space is full of uid, then cavitation
is likely to occur. Although the focus on gear pump
cavitation is the primary concern, issues relating to
the pumping action are also of interest in other
systems. For example, Milian et al. [8] examine the
consequences of airlubricant compression on gear
teeth heating in spur and helical gearbox units.

2 PUMP DESIGN
Typically, gear pumps employ an involute tooth
prole in which the contact point between meshing
teeth moves along the line of action (Fig. 1). Tooth
sliding is highest at the start of the meshing cycle,
reduces to zero at the midpoint, and then increases
until the end of the cycle. Since aviation fuels tend to
have poor lubricity characteristics, it is advantageous

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Gear pump meshing pressures aero-engine fuel pumps

to design the tooth prole to minimize the sliding

velocity component. For a given gear speed, the
sliding velocity will depend on the gear base circle
diameter and the tooth depth, which must be
selected in association with the design of the bearing
bridge between the HP and LP ports.

2.1 Leakage paths

367

2.3 Gear pump geometry element denition

during meshing
The key stages in the gear tooth meshing cycle are
shown in Fig. 2, which identies the time-varying
discrete control volume V within the root of the
1
driven gear and the time-varying discrete control
volume V within the root of the driver gear. Each
2
discrete control volume will be exposed to either the
HP or the LP ports depending on the rotational
position of the gears. Flow areas may then be dened
as follows:

To achieve maximum volume transfer of uid, the

leakage paths must be kept to a minimum and the
swept volume of the teeth must be maximized.
Leakage ows occur around the periphery of the
gears, across their anks, across the side face of
the gear between the root circle of the gear and the
counter face on the thrust face of the bearings, and
at the bearing bridge. The design of the bearing
bridge, which forms the seal between the LP and
HP ports, is critical in optimizing volumetric and
cavitation performance. Once the gear teeth enter
the double-contact phase of the meshing cycle, the
geometry of the bearing bridge is a prime factor in
controlling pressure within the trapped volumes. The
pressure may increase or decrease rapidly as the
trapped volumes reduce or expand, the latter
potentially causing cavitation in the inter-tooth
spaces. Depending on the geometry of the bearing
bridge, potential leakage paths are directly between
the HP and LP ports, and from the trapped volumes
to the HP and LP ports.

(a) A as the side ow area of V exposed to the HP

1
1
port;
(b) A as the side ow area of V exposed to the LP
2
1
port;
(c) A as the tooth tip gap ow area of V exposed
3
1
to the LP port;
(d) A as the side ow area of V exposed to the HP
4
2
port;
(e) A as the side ow area of V exposed to the LP
5
2
port;
(f) A as the tooth tip gap ow area of V exposed
6
2
to the HP port;
(g) A as the backlash ow area between V and V .
7
1
2
With appropriate denition of discharge coecients
for the restrictions, Fig. 3 shows the control volume
model to represent the meshing cycle, with the pistons
used as an analogue of the uid displacement action
of the gears.

2.2 Modelling approach

3 SYSTEM MODEL FORMULATION

An analytical model must allow the gross pressure

within the meshing teeth of a gear pump to be predicted and must take account of the gross eects of
the cavitation on the ow processes occurring within
meshing teeth. A discrete parameter uid dynamics
approach is appropriate since the level of solution
detail required for a design analysis does not warrant
the use of computational uid dynamics techniques,
at least in the initial design phase. A system consisting of two discrete control volumes, formed by
the root of the driver gear and the root of the driven
gear, is to be considered. The LP and HP ports are
considered to be regions of constant pressure. Model
formulation will require evaluation of ows across
the following:

3.1 Application of system equations to a gear

pump

(a) the dynamic areas between the anks of the

gears, before, during, and after meshing;
(b) the dynamic axial areas at the interface of the
gear side face and the bearing thrust face.
JSCE183 IMechE 2006

It is convenient to express the gear position in a

non-dimensional form using the ratio
x
x
0
where the gear base pitch is dened by
s=

(1)

pD
b
x =
0
N

(2)

and x is the position of the leading driver gear ank

from the pitch point along the line of action (Fig. 2).
For an involute tooth form, x is equal to the circumferential displacement of a point on the gear base
circle (x= 1 D h) and thus varies linearly with gear
2 b
angular displacement h.
In order to determine the pressuredensity history
as a function of non-dimensional gear position,
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M Eaton, P S Keogh, and K A Edge

Fig. 2 Schematic sequence showing the denition of inter-tooth volumes V and leakage ow
i
areas A relative to the bearing bridge at various gear displacement s. Rectangular tooth
j
tip gap areas A , A , and A are normal to the page. Gear rotation relative to the HP and
3 6
7
LP ports is as shown in Fig. 1

rather than time, a coordinate transformation is

required. Consider a general trapped volume V at
pressure p. If a volumetric ow Q into the trapped
volume is considered positive, ow continuity yields

K dV
dp
=
Q
dt
V dt

(3)

Since s=Nh/2p, the time derivative of the pressure

may be transformed using
dp dp ds dh dp Nv
=
=
dt ds dh dt ds 2p

(4)

where N is the number of teeth and v is the gear

angular speed. A similar relation applies to the volume
rate of change. Hence the continuity equation (3)

becomes
dp
2pK
=
ds
NvV

Nv dV
Q
2p ds

(5)

It is further noted that the bulk modulus K may be

dened in terms of density through
K=V

dp
dp
=r
dV
dr

(6)

Expressing the continuity equation (5) in terms of

density rather than pressure yields

dr
2pr Nv dV
=
Q
ds
NvV 2p ds

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(7)

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Gear pump meshing pressures aero-engine fuel pumps

369

Fig. 3 Equivalent hydraulic model for gear tooth meshing cycle

3.2 Geometry data and system equations

Analytical representations of the control volumes and
ow areas are not generally possible. Yanda et al. [9]
dened trapped inter-tooth volumes during the
double-contact phase of the meshing cycle. The
expressions were validated by comparing calculated
data with measurements taken using a large-scale
planimeter. However, the method ignores gear backlash, and boundary conditions imposed on the calculation method mean that it cannot be used to
evaluate inter-tooth volumes pre- and post-double
gear tooth contact.
For a given pump design stored within currently
available computer-aided design (CAD) software,
numerically dened volumes and areas may be
evaluated at selected values of the dimensionless
coordinate s. Typically, the inter-tooth volumes V (s)
1
and V (s), together with the side ow areas A (s),
2
1
A (s), A (s), and A (s), before, during, and after gear
2
4
5
meshing can be obtained for selected values of
s=s , , s . The tooth tip gaps L (s) can also be
m
k
0
determined between V and the LP port (k=1),
1
between V and V (k=2), and between V and the
1
2
2
HP port (k=3). The remaining areas required are
then given by
A (s)=L (s)l , A (s)=L (s)l , A (s)=L (s)l
3
1 g
6
3 g
7
2 g
(8)
where l is the gear width. Cubic splines were used
g
to interpolate each data set, allowing the control
volumes, areas, and tooth tip gaps to be treated as
continuous and dierentiable functions of s, to
within the tolerances of the design specication.
JSCE183 IMechE 2006

Other interpolation methods might be used, provided that derivative discontinuities in the functions
are avoided.
For the pump geometry and speed range considered in this paper, pressure variations due to
centrifugal action are estimated at below 0.03 MPa
and are therefore neglected in the ow model
illustrated by Fig. 3. Similarly, velocity head eects
likely to result from changes in the velocity of uid
as it enters or leaves the volumes under consideration are also neglected. It is also assumed that
distortion eects due to applied pressures do not
cause appreciable changes to the dynamically varying ow areas and control volumes. It will be seen
that the maximum pressures encountered in this
paper are less than 8 MPa, which are within the scope
of the model. Assumptions on the system pressures
in setting initial conditions are
p >p ; p >p ; p >p ; p >p
(9)
HP
1
HP
2
2
1
1
LP
Given the developments leading to equation (7), the
coupled rst-order dierential equations describing
the uid behaviour in volumes V and V are given
1
2
by

A
A

dr
Nv dV
2pr
1 =
1
1 Q
1
ds
NvV 2p ds
1
dr
Nv dV
2pr
2 =
2
2 Q
2
ds
NvV 2p ds
2

B
B
(10)

The coupling arises through the leakage ow terms.

A Reynolds number evaluation indicates that typical
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370

M Eaton, P S Keogh, and K A Edge

pump ows are turbulent for most of the meshing

cycle, hence they are based on orice characteristics
in the form
Q =2c A
1
d1 1

S
S

p p
HP
1

1,HP |pHP p1 |

2c A
d1 2

p p
1
LP
r

1,LP |p1 pLP |

A B
S

r
+max 1, 2 c A
d2 7
r
1
2

c A
d2 3

p p
2
2
1
r |p p |
1,2
2
1

p p
1
LP

(11)

1,LP |p1 pLP |

the logic expressions

r ,
p p
1
HP
r
= 1
1,HP
r( p ), p <p
HP
1
HP
r ,
p p
1
LP
r = 1
1,LP
r( p ), p <p
LP
1
LP
r , p p
1
2
r = 1
1,2
r , p <p
2
1
2
r ,
p p
2
HP
r
= 2
2,HP
r( p ), p <p
HP
2
HP
r ,
p p
2
LP
r = 2
2,LP
r( p ), p <p
LP
2
LP

G
G
G
G
G

(14)

and
Q =2c A
2
d1 4

S
S

p p
HP
2
r

2,HP |pHP p2 |

2c A
d1 5

2
r

p p
2
LP

2,LP |p2 pLP |

A B
S

r
max 1, 1 c A
d2 7
r
2

2
p p
2
1
r |p p |
1,2
2
1

p p
HP
2
r
|p p |
2,HP
HP
2

+c A
d2 6

(12)

The formulation of equations (10) in the trapped

volumes V and V requires specication of the leak1
2
age ows (11) and (12) in terms of the densities r
1
and r . Equation (6) may be integrated and, when
2
combined with a lower pressure limit to account for
cavitation, it follows that (see also reference [7])

p(r)=

K ln

A B

TVP

TVP

r<r
TVP
+p

TVP

, rr

(13a)
TVP

Conversely,
r( p)=r

TVP

exp

pp
TVP
K

(13b)

whenever pp .
TVP
It is now possible to use equation (13a) to dene
p =p(r ) and p =p(r ) in equations (11) and (12).
1
1
2
2
The densities r
,r ,r ,r
, and r
in the
1,HP 1,LP 1,2 2,HP
2,LP
ow terms are based on the values associated with
the upstream pressure of each ow area. Therefore

are used. The factors max(1, r /r ) and max(1, r /r )

2 1
1 2
appearing in equations (11) and (12) ensure mass
ow continuity between the inter-tooth volumes.
However, ow between these volumes occurs only
when the pressures are relatively high and density
variations are negligible. In general, the density
variations will not signicantly aect the other leakage ow terms except in cases for which the densities
r and r are signicantly reduced by aeration. The
1
2
most signicant inuences arise from the pressure
dierences and the discharge coecients.
The dierential equations (10) may be solved using
an adaptive step dierential equation solver. Postprocessing of the model output data converts the
density history into a pressure history through
equation (13a).

4 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES AND MODEL

VALIDATION
To validate the model of the gear pump it is necessary
to measure the meshing pressures. A development
test block (Fig. 4) was available for this purpose. The
relatively large size of the pump gears permitted
mounting of two pressure transducers in the root
of the driver gear (i.e. the root of volume V ). One
2
transducer, designated as T , was positioned axially
1
in the centre of the gear. The other, designated as T ,
2
was positioned close to the side face of the gear. The
transducer installation holes were spark eroded and
the transducers were bonded in place using a twopart epoxy adhesive, with a thin layer of LoctiteA 5220
applied around the circumferential gap between the
transducer and the gear to provide additional sealing.
The signal from the transducers was transferred via

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Gear pump meshing pressures aero-engine fuel pumps

371

loaded carbon face seal was located at each end of

the driver gear, to ensure a dry environment for
the wires from the gear-tooth-mounted pressure
transducers. The rotary encoder and slip rings were
mounted on an extension of the driver gear journal
bearing; this resulted in an overhung moment, which
combined with the hydraulic load (owing to the
pressure distribution around the bearing thrust face)
acts to part the driver gear thrust face and thrust
bearings. Analysis of the loads indicated that the gear
thrust face sealing would be maintained provided
that the gear pump pressure rise remained below
7.6 MPa.

Fig. 4 Gear pump test block

slip rings mounted on an extension of the driver gear

journal bearing. A rotary encoder was included with
the intention of synchronizing pressure signals to gear
position. Figure 5 shows a schematic representation
of the test equipment.
The transducer bandwidth was 60 kHz, which is
20 per cent of its resonant frequency (300 kHz). For
a maximum test block speed of 5000 r/min and a
12-tooth pump, the meshing frequency is 6.3 kHz,
giving a bandwidth-to-capture-rate ratio of 9.5 to 1.
In the low-speed test condition of 2040 r/min this
ratio increases to 26.1 to 1. Thus the bandwidth of
the transducer was adequate for the range of test
conditions.
The pump used consisted of an external twinpinion gear pump incorporating bearing journals,
which were radially and axially lubricated. A spring-

4.1 Calibration of pressure transducers and test

details
It was decided to calibrate the transducers after testing. Justication for this was based on the uncertainty
regarding the robustness of the transducers and
their installation. The concern was that exposure
to HPs during calibration could result in premature
failure of the measurement surface and/or the bonding or sealing, rendering the test block ineective.
Unfortunately, one of the transducers (T ) failed part
2
of the way through the test programme; therefore
only the inner transducer (T ) could be calibrated on
1
completion of the testing.
Figure 6 illustrates the test rig conguration. Valves
1 and 2 governed the test block inlet pressure while
valve 3 governed test block discharge pressure.
The test uid used was kerosene (AVTUR to specication DERD 2454). The fuel tank was open to
the atmosphere, nominally 0.101 MPa (absolute),
throughout the testing. At the end of the testing, the

Fig. 5 Schematic diagram of the gear pump test block

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372

M Eaton, P S Keogh, and K A Edge

Fig. 6 Overall ow control and sampling

dissolved air content of the fuel was measured using

the method described in reference [10] and was found
to be 24 per cent. The relatively high air content
is attributed to turbulence as the fuel is returned
back to tank, enabling more air to become entrained
and subsequently dissolved within the fuel. An air
content of this magnitude is not unusual for the type
of test circuit used.
The positional output signal data were not
suciently reliable to relate pressure history to
position. This was attributed to relative movement
of the encoder during testing. However, the pressure
history for 360 of gear revolution was recorded,
enabling an assessment of gear position relative to
known geometrical features of the thrust bearing to
be made.
4.2 Experimental results
Experimental tests were undertaken for the operating
conditions specied in Table 1. For each test case,
ensemble averaging over 50 complete meshing cycles
was used to reduce noise from the measured pressure
data. The data were also adjusted to take account of
centrifugal eects for both T and T . A signicant
1
2
oset was found to exist between the readings from
T (inner position) and T (outer position). The
1
2
results appeared to indicate that minimum pressures
at the outer gear root measurement position ranged
from 0.345 to 0.689 MPa (absolute) during the
LP exposure phase of the meshing cycle, depending

on operating condition. However, the minimum

pressures at the inner position remained above
0.2 MPa. Further investigation indicated that these
dierences could be attributed to amplier gain and
oset errors associated with the T signals, which
1
were not present during the post-test calibration. The
T signals were therefore corrected with appropriate
1
gains, which were common to all the tests. Although
the failed transducer could not be calibrated, the T
2
signals were eectively corrected by matching with
the T signal values during exposure to the HP region
1
prior to gear meshing. During this stage the full width
of the gear ank is exposed to the HP port, in which
pressure variations due to side ows are minimal.
When applied to test case 1, Fig. 7 shows how
the corrected inner and outer position pressure
measurements are in broad agreement over 360 of
gear revolution, particularly during the HP phase.
Furthermore, the mean HP levels correlated with a
separate pressure measurement taken from the HP
port. The measured pressures correspond to p from
2
the model and for the test pump the bridge closes
V to HP at 132 and opens V to LP at 138. Tooth
2
2
tip sealing between V and V occurs at 132. Figure 8
1
2
shows the corrected results of all test cases for a
range of 35 about the midpoint of the gear meshing
cycle (135). For reference, (100, 135) corresponds
to s=(0.76, 0.5) (Fig. 2). Similar results were
obtained for each test condition except for test
case 5, which is without the failed T data.
2

Table 1 Validation testing conditions

Test case

Pump speed
(r/min)

Absolute inlet
pressure (MPa)

Absolute discharge
pressure (MPa)

Discharge
temperature (C)

Capture rate
(kHz)

1
2
3
4
5

2040
3000
4000
4000
5000

0.414
0.414
0.414
0.414
0.414

3.5
3.7
5.4
5.6
7.3

20
20
21
21
23

60.6
80
80
80
80

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Gear pump meshing pressures aero-engine fuel pumps

373

Fig. 7 Measured pressures (corrected, absolute) from transducers T () and T (~) correspond1
2
ing to the operating conditions of test case 1 stated in Table 1. The midpoint of the
meshing cycle (135) corresponds to s=0.5

4.3 Comparison of analytical and measured data

The mathematical model dened in section 3 was
used to predict the behaviour at the test block conditions detailed in Table 1. A number of iterations
were required to establish the fuel bulk modulus and
discharge coecients within the ow expressions of
equations (11) and (12). The values were considered
appropriate when the predicted pressure p corre2
lated with the corrected pressure measurements in
Fig. 8.
A signicant factor in achieving predictions that
matched experimental results was the necessity to
reduce the uid bulk modulus to the exceptionally
low value of 6.9 MPa, in order to account for
entrained gas and vapour bubbles. Figure 9 shows
the inuence of bulk modulus on predicted pressure
for test case 4. In particular, the sensitivity of the
transition region between high and low pressure (A)
is evident. The nal low pressure predictions (C),
indicating cavitation due to insucient tooth volume
lling, which decreases slightly with higher values
of bulk modulus. However, the peak pressure (B)
decreases as the bulk modulus increases in a more
pronounced manner. The discharge coecients c
d1
and c were found to have little inuence on regions
d2
A and C, although peak pressures at B decreased
slightly as discharge coecients were increased.
Table 2 summarizes the nal model input parameters

adopted and Fig. 10 shows the corresponding predictions for pressure p . The matching process
2
between the model and the experimental results has
thus been achieved without recourse to additional
experimental programmes relating to fuelair mixtures and leakage ows. More detailed investigation
in this area would be highly desirable. However,
undertaking experiments of a more fundamental
kind, which emulate conditions similar to those in a
real pump, would be particularly challenging. The
present authors are not aware of any such studies
reported in the literature.
The necessity to use a low eective bulk modulus
when a uidair mixture exists is now discussed.
Assuming that the free air undergoes a polytropic
change, an eective bulk modulus may be derived
from ow continuity according to
1 1d
d
air + air
=
K
K
cp
fluid

(15)

where d is the volume fraction of air at pressure p,

air
c=1.4 is the polytropic exponent, and K
is the
fluid
bulk modulus of the uid component. If there is any
appreciable volume fraction of air, the eective bulk
modulus will be dominated by the air component
and K#cp/d . At point C of Fig. 9, taking d =0.24
air
air
and p=0.4 MPa, then K#2.3 MPa. At point A, where

Table 2 Model input parameters

Test case

Pump speed
(r/min)

Absolute inlet
pressure (MPa)

Absolute discharge
pressure (MPa)

Bulk modulus
K (MPa)

Discharge coecients
c ,c
d1 d2

1
2
3
4
5

2040
3000
4000
4000
5000

0.414
0.414
0.414
0.414
0.414

3.5
3.7
5.4
5.6
7.3

6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9

0.75,
0.75,
0.75,
0.75,
0.85,

JSCE183 IMechE 2006

0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75

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374

M Eaton, P S Keogh, and K A Edge

Fig. 8 Measured pressures (absolute) from transducers T () and T (~) corresponding to

1
2
the operating conditions stated in Table 1: (a) test case 1; (b) test case 2; (c) test case 3;
(d) test case 4; (e) test case 5

p#3 MPa and the volume fraction of air is lower,

the implication is that K17.5 MPa. In general, the
eective bulk modulus is a dynamic parameter and
precise determination in the presence of highly
transient multi-phase ows is very dicult. Within
the scope of the present paper the averaged value of

K=6.9 MPa over one meshing cycle was found to

yield pressure predictions that gave a best t over
the cycle BAC, for all test cases in Table 1. It is not
possible to determine an accurate representation of
the eective bulk modulus variation with pressure
from the experimental programme undertaken.

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JSCE183 IMechE 2006

Gear pump meshing pressures aero-engine fuel pumps

Fig. 9 Inuence of bulk modulus K (MPa) on predicted

pressure p (absolute). The conditions of test
2
case 4 apply

Flow visualization tests were undertaken on a gear

pump of the same design as that modelled and
tested. The gear tooth form is typical of that used for
a civilian large fan gas turbine engine. Pictures were
obtained by means of strobe photography and therefore present an image averaged across a number of
meshing cycles. Figure 11 shows results for meshing
teeth at positions corresponding to s=0.40 (132),
0.50 (135), and 0.62 (138), obtained for an angular
velocity of the gears at 4000 r/min. The inlet and
outlet pressures for these tests were 0.21 MPa and
1.12 MPa respectively. Evidence of cavitation is seen
in the uid, which corresponds to the trapped
volume V of the model. Flow visualization testing
1
conducted over a range of operating conditions
demonstrated that air release due to vortex cavitation
is a common occurrence for this particular design of
gear pump operating with relatively high air content
values. This has demonstrated that, during part A of
the meshing cycle (Fig. 9), presumed air release takes
place owing to the generation of ow vortices at the
edge of the HP ow area. However, air release does
not occur for the full duration of the existence of
the HP-to-LP ow path. Flow visualization also
demonstrated that the air is not redissolved in the
fuel at the instant that the HP ow area tends to zero,
i.e. when the ow of uid from HP to LP causing the
vortex ceases. This is attributed to a combination of
two factors.
1. Localized uid vortex motion continues, enabling
the existence of regions where the pressure is
below the air saturation condition.
2. The air is not instantly reabsorbed into the fuel.
Schweitzer and Szebehely [11] report that the gas
release and reabsorption process can be represented
JSCE183 IMechE 2006

375

by a rst-order dierential equation with a time constant dictated by the degree of agitation. Szebehely [6]
further demonstrated that the half-life of air evolution
for an aircraft fuel with a specic gravity of 0.78, a
kinematic viscosity at 21 C of 1.67 cSt, and an air
content of 17.2 per cent air in solution is 0.236 s.
Also, the half-life of solution is 2.595 s for a fuel comparable with that used during the ow visualization
testing. This means that air re-absorption is approximately ten times longer than air release. Figure 11
provides support for this.
Once vortex cavitation causes the release of
dissolved air, it is not realistic to estimate the
eective bulk modulus of the fuel contained within
the trapped volumes of the meshing teeth. This
arises because the dynamic interactions of the gear
geometry produce relatively complex ows patterns,
which are not compatible with the discrete volume
assumptions of the current model.
The experimental data presented in Fig. 8 show
that a small pressure dierential exists across half
the width of the gear. During part B of the cycle the
measured pressure at the centre of the gear T tends
1
to be higher than that measured at the outer edge
T . At any instant, the volumetric ow in the axial
2
plane within the trapped volume of the gear teeth
will increase as it moves from the centre of the gear
toward the side ow area, because an increasing
quantity of uid must pass through a constant area.
Thus the pressure will drop. Conversely, during part
C of the cycle, the pressure at the centre of the gear
tends to be lower than that at the outer edge. Hence,
the pressure dierential acts in the opposite sense.
The majority of experimental data presented in
Fig. 8 show that, as the gears enter part C of the
meshing cycle, the pressure tends towards zero for
varying durations. Using air solubility data for fuel
[12], the measured air content value of 24 per cent
suggests that air release will occur at an absolute
pressure of around 0.165 MPa. The occurrence of
pressures of around zero suggests that the pressure
within the trapped volume continues to fall until the
TVP of the uid is reached (at the temperature of the
fuel used within the test this value is around
0.001 38 MPa. This is likely to be the result of rapid
pressure transients; i.e. the reduction in pressure due
to the expansion of the volume occurs so quickly that
the air does not have time to come out of solution.
For such situations it is appropriate that the vapour
pressure value should be used in the pressure constraint logic function of equation (13) rather than the
air saturated vapour pressure value. There is evidence
(Fig. 8(c)) that negative pressure occurs for a short
period, starting at around 139. Negative pressures
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376

M Eaton, P S Keogh, and K A Edge

Fig. 10 Predicted pressure p (absolute) corresponding to the operating conditions stated in

2
Table 1: (a) test case 1; (b) test case 2; (c) test case 3; (d) test case 4; (e) test case 5

have been reported by other researchers. The

extremely rapid expansion in this particular situation
may be a key factor.
Once adjusted for gain and oset eects and taking
account of the reduction in bulk modulus for the
model, the measured pressures generally show a high
degree of correlation with the predicted values. The

model predictions match the peak pressures, but

over-predict the minimum pressures. In the context
of the model, this weakness can only be attributed
to an over-prediction of ow into the inter-tooth
volume during the expansion phase of the meshing
cycle. Consider test case 3 as an example. The
recorded pressures for both measurement locations

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Gear pump meshing pressures aero-engine fuel pumps

377

meters can inuence the ow into the volume (and

hence the pressure within the volume), namely the
inlet pressure and the discharge coecient.
4.4 Pressure within the inlet region of the gear
pump
Inlet pressure ripple will arise from interaction of the
pumping dynamics with the dynamic behaviour of
the inlet piping system, although the model assumes
that the pressure at the inlet port is constant.
However, the presence of pressure ripple would lead
to a uctuating pressure dierential, and hence a
uctuating ow, into the inter-tooth space (see Fig. 7).
If the minimum pressure ripple point coincides with
the expansion phase as the side ow areas open up,
it is possible that the pressure dierential across the
ow area would be insucient to maintain lling of
the inter-tooth space. Hence air or vapour release
would occur within the tooth space. To investigate
this possibility, a modied inlet pressure prole was
adopted. This is based on a simple sinusoidal ripple
with a frequency corresponding to tooth meshing
frequency and given by
p

=0.4140.40 sin(12vt+w) (MPa)

(16)
inlet
The amplitude and phase w of the inlet pressure
ripple are close approximations to those measured
at the relevant part of the pumping cycle. Figure 12
shows the predicted pressure histories considering
inlet pressure with and without ripple based on test
case 3. The importance of the inlet ripple on predicted behaviour can be clearly seen. This suggests
that, for improved accuracy, the pump model should
be coupled with transmission line modelling of the
attached piping systems.
4.5 Discharge coecient

Fig. 11 Flow visualization results with cavitation

arrowed

continue to fall after the predicted results attain the

nominal inlet pressure. It is inferred that the bulk
modulus of the uid in the trapped volume is at a
low value at this point. The uid density value used
within the model is appropriate at the point of
ow restriction as dictated by the direction of ow.
Therefore, in relation to the analysis, only two paraJSCE183 IMechE 2006

The discharge coecient accounts for the eective

ow area of an orice. A high value of discharge
coecient leads to a correspondingly higher ow.
The model assumes that the discharge coecient
remains constant as the discharge ow area changes
shape. For the bearing bridge design considered,
the side ow area shape change is considerable.
Variations in discharge coecient with orice geometries have been given in reference [13]. However,
these are evaluated for steady ow conditions and
for the very rapid geometric changes occurring in a
real pump should be used only if the dynamic eects
are quantiable. There does not appear to be anything in the literature to assist with the modelling
of ow through rapidly varying variable-geometry
orices. In the model matching the results of
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378

M Eaton, P S Keogh, and K A Edge

Fig. 12 Predicted pressures p () and p (~) corre1

2
sponding to the operating condition of test
case 3 stated in Table 1: (a) without variation
in inlet pressure; (b) with the inlet pressure
variation of equation (16)

Table 2, the higher value of the discharge coecient

associated with the side ows is attributed to
dynamic eects and a higher Reynolds number.

5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents a method of predicting the
pressure in the trapped volumes of meshing gear
pump teeth. The model applies the continuity
equation for compressible ow solving for uid
density in terms of gear position. Previous studies
that have considered the complex geometries formed
by meshing involute form gear teeth have invested
much time and eort in obtaining geometric data.
For this study this issue has been overcome by using

data directly from CAD information dening complex gear and bearing bridge forms. One of the key
features of the work is the experimental evaluation,
which used pressure transducers mounted in the
root of a gear tooth to measure meshing pressures.
In addition to this, gear pump ow visualization has
been used to support explanations for the measured
behaviour.
Validation of the analytical model under conditions
of low saturated air content and high vapour pressure
has not been directly possible. It has, however,
been possible to validate the model in conditions of
highly saturated air content and low vapour pressure.
The test data demonstrate that cavitation due to
vaporization still occurs when a uid has a high
dissolved air content. This is attributed to rapid
pressure transients relative to the rate of air release.
Flow visualization studies have demonstrated that
complex ow regimes exist at a key point in the
meshing cycle, namely ow vortex generation resulting in cavitation. The crux of the problem remains
in the prediction and quantication of vortex-owinduced cavitation.
In general, the model is capable of evaluating the
gross pressure within the meshing teeth of a gear
pump. However, the bulk modulus value used in the
model needs to be set low to take account of air and
vapour release due to vortex cavitation. In addition,
the model does not take into account inlet line
dynamics to allow for the eects of pressure ripple
upon ow into the inter-tooth volume. Further work
needs to be undertaken to estimate this. Whilst the
model has a satisfactory mechanism to allow for
the eects of cavitation on the gross pressures and
ows during gear meshing, the model tends to overpredict the ow into the inter-tooth volume at the
critical moment.
In order to develop the model further the following
areas need to be addressed:
(a) enhancement of the model to include the eects
of interactions with suction and delivery piping
systems (this will enable ow-induced pressure
ripple at both inlet and discharge sides of the
pump to be predicted and hence improved
modelling of minimum pressures during gear
meshing);
(b) the modelling and prediction of the eects of
vortex cavitation on uid properties, particularly
during the trapped volume portion of the meshing cycle;
(c) the prediction of discharge coecient requirements for ow areas of non-uniform shape
and multi-phase ow during rapid changes in
geometry.

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JSCE183 IMechE 2006

Gear pump meshing pressures aero-engine fuel pumps

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Goodrich Engine
Control Systems, Shaftmoor Lane, for providing
funding, test facilities and hardware. Special thanks
are extended to Martin Yates and Ron Heath for their
insight and advice throughout.

REFERENCES
1 Heath, R. A. Theoretical analysis of cavitation conditions in gear pumps. Internal Report B60, 080,
Lucas Aerospace Ltd, Birmingham, 1977.
2 Heath, R. A. Computer programme to determine
pressures and ows during the meshing cycle of twin
pinion gear pumps. Internal Report B50, 248, Lucas
Aerospace Ltd, Birmingham, 1981.
3 Heath, R. A. Elements of twin pinion gear pump
design. Internal Report B60, 474, Lucas Aerospace
Ltd, Birmingham, 1987.
4 Eaton, M., Edge, K. A., and Keogh, P. S. Modelling
and simulation of pressures within the meshing teeth
of gear pumps. In Proceedings of the Conference on
Recent advances in aerospace actuation systems and
components, Toulouse, France, 1315 June, 2001,
pp. 2126.
5 Harris, M., Edge, K. A., and Tilley, D. G. The suction
dynamics of positive displacement axial piston
pumps. American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Winter Annual Meeting, California, USA, 813
November 1992.
6 Szebehely, V. G. Relation between gas evolution and
physical properties of liquids. J. Appl. Physics, 1951,
22, 627628.
7 Manhartsgruber, B. and Scheidl, R. Cavitation driven
impact in a hydraulic piston pump a theoretical
and experimental investigation. In Proceedings of the
Design Engineering Technical Conference (DETC97),
Sacramento, California, USA, 1417 September 1997
(American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York).
8 Milian, C., Distretti, J. P., Leoni, P., and Velex, P. A
model of the pumping action between the teeth of
high-speed spur and helical gears. Gear Technol.,
MayJune 2004, 5054.

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9 Yanda, H., Ichikawa, T., and Itsuji, Y. Study of the

trapping of uid in a gear pump. Proc. Instn Mech.
Engrs, 1987, 201(A1), 3945.
10 Analysis of AVTUR for dissolved air content.
Laboratory method. Internal Report G1.14, Issue 1,
Lucas Aerospace Ltd, Birmingham, 1976.
11 Schweitzer, P. H. and Szebehely, V. G. Gas evolution
in liquids and cavitation. J. Appl. Physics, 1950, 21,
12181224.
12 Smith, M. Aviation Fuels, 1970 (G.T. Foulis & Co Ltd,
London).
13 Spikes, R. H. and Pennington, G. A. Discharge
coecient of small submerged orices. Proc. Instn
Mech. Engrs, 1959, 173(25), 661675.

APPENDIX
Notation
A , , A
1
7
c ,c
d1 d2
D
b
K, K
fluid
l
g
L ,L ,L
1 2 3
N
p
Q
s
t
T ,T
1 2
T
HP
V ,V
1 2
x
x
0
d
air
h
r
w
v

leakage ow areas
coecients of discharge relating to
side and tooth tip gap ows
respectively
gear base circle diameter
eective bulk modulus and uid bulk
modulus respectively
gear width
tooth tip gaps
number of gear teeth
pressure
volumetric ow
dimensionless gear displacement
=x/x
0
time
pressure transducers
high-pressure port temperature
discrete inter-tooth volumes
gear displacement
gear base pitch
volume fraction of air
angular displacement of gears
density
phase of inlet pressure ripple
gear angular velocity

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