Critical reflection in the second language

classroom through audiotaped journals

Maria Dantas-Whitney*
System 30 (2002) 543555

Derived mostly from the works of Lev Vygotsky (1978), social constructivist theory
states that learning is essentially a social activity. Learners are creators of their
own knowledge; they learn by creating new meanings based on prior
experiences. In
constructivist classrooms, activities are designed to help learners gain access
to their
experiences and beliefs so they can reshape their existing knowledge in light
of new
course content. Therefore, the ability to engage in critical reflection is an essential
condition for constructivist learning environments because it enables students to
become aware of their own knowledge construction process. The opportunity to
reflect on ones present assumptions, premises, beliefs, or conceptualizations facilitates
cognitive growth (Kaufman and Brooks, 1996, p. 234).
Content-based second language instruction applies the constructivist principle
that students need to activate their previous knowledge to guide them in the
construction
of new understandings. A related assumption behind content-based methodologies
is that people do not learn languages and then use them, but that people
learn languages by using them (Eskey, 1997, p. 133). Language instruction is centered
around high-interest themes; therefore, the focus is on contextualized language use, and
attention is given to meaning rather than form (Brinton et al., 1989).
Studies have shown that topic selection in content-based classes can play an important
role in student motivation.
Broad topics that are interdisciplinary in nature and that can be approached from
multiple perspectives and points-of-view can enhance student interest and satisfaction
(Valentine and Repath-Martos, 1997).
In addition to choosing appropriate content,
however, teachers must integrate activities which will help students make connections
between the subject-matter and their individual experiences. In other words, teachers
need to actively foster engagementthe personal involvement of the learner in the
learning at a level which guarantees real interest in it (Eskey, 1997, p. 138).
King and Kitchener (1994) also advocate
for educational activities that encourage reflective thinking, particularly with students
in the college years. In their reflective judgment model, they describe a developmental
progression in reflective judgment from childhood to adulthood, in which concepts
of knowledge evolve from concrete and absolute to abstract and uncertain.
In second language contexts, critical reflection has been an important element of
Freirean problem-posing approaches which encourage students to link classroom
learning to the broader context in which the students live (Schleppegrell and Bowman,
1995, p. 301). In higher education settings in particular, critical reflection is often
fostered through the use of reading reaction journals (Adamson, 1993) and other
activities that guide students into bringing their life experiences to bear in relating
to the texts they read (Brinton et al., 1994, p. 87). Critical reflection has therefore
provided ESL practitioners with a powerful tool for hooking (Brinton et al., 1994,
p. 87) students to topics being explored in class, and for nurturing what Eskey
(1997) refers to as engagement.
Written dialogue journals have been used extensively by faculty from different
disciplines as a tool to extend classroom learning, to develop writing skills and
to
promote critical thinking (Peyton and Staton, 2000).

This group interview provided important data triangulation for the study; in addition,
it served as an opportunity for member checking (Lindlof, 1995).
3.1. Relevance
Relevance has been identified as an essential condition for learner motivation
(Keller, 1987, cited in Driscoll, 1994). In discussing the rationale for content-based
language instruction, Brinton et al. (1989) remark that the use of informational
content which is perceived as relevant to the learner is assumed by many to increase
motivation in the language course (p. 3). Driscoll (1994) also points out that teachers
should make an effort to relate instruction to their learners experiences because the
more familiar something is, the more likely it is to be perceived as relevant to the
learner (p. 316). Based on their study of college ESL students, Valentine and
Repath-Martos (1997) concluded that relevance is an important factor for learner
motivation in content-based classrooms, in addition to careful content choice,
explicit language instruction and effective use of instructional techniques.

Self-evaluations of the stream of thought in

journal writing
James L. Myers*
Applied English Department, Ming Chuan University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
Received 1 March 2001; accepted 8 August 2001
System 29 (2001) 481488

James described the stream of thought as having five characteristics: (1) every
thought is a part of an individuals consciousness; (2) each thought is always
changing; (3) each is sensibly continuous; (4) every thought is directed toward
objects outside itself; (5) and thought discriminates among those objects, including
some while rejecting others (James, p. 225 (1950/1890) famous theory of the stream of
thought, to journal writing.).
Even though James wrote Chapter IX The Stream of Thought in his Principles
ofPsychol ogy in the nineteenth century, many modern researchers probing into the
nature of consciousness such as Baars (1997), Natsoulas (1997) and Singer (1998)
view it as one of the most significant and influential models of consciousness.
introspection must also involve retrospection to truly capture the
most significant aspects of ones own experiences. In journal writing, a re-reading of
their journals may provide most students, who take such an activity seriously, with
both a retrospective and introspective perspective on their writing.
As Vygotsky (1999/1934) contends, thought and speech are the essence of human
consciousness and writing is speech in thought and image (p. 181). If this is the case,
it appears then that writing can be a means by which a person can understand and
refine her personal language development, especially by studying her own writing
and seeing within it a reflection of her attitude toward learning and experience as
seen in her recorded thoughts at different periods of time.

Staton and Peyton

(1988), in their analysis of 26 sixth-grade Ll students, concluded that dialogue journal writing provided a window into the students
cognitive processes, thereby allowing the teacher to plan lessons more effectively.
They also found that the journals allowed the teacher to provide counseling by making suggestions for behavior modification and
enabling the students to solve personal problems. Reed and Peyton (1987), in a similar study of L2 students, also found journals
to be an aid to the teachers lesson planning, individualization of instruction, and classroom management as well as to the students
acculturation process.

writing
affects learning positively if specific cognitive and metacognitive
strategies of self-regulated learning are explicitly
supported by the writing task.
JOURNAL OF SECOND LANGUAGE WRITING, 4

(3), 223-251 (1995)

A Contrarian View of Dialogue

Journals: The Case of a Reluctant
Participant
VICKI L. HOLMES

MARGARET R. MOULTON
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Dialogue

The purposes of writing dialogue journal

1. One of the underlying purposes of dialogue journal writing is to instill in students the idea that writing is a form of
genuine interactive communication in which two equals exchange ideas.

2. Another purpose of dialogue journal writing is to enhance language acquisition.

3. A third purpose of dialogue journal writing is to encourage students to write without fear of error.
4.
Peyton (1991) suggested that the issue of correction is particularly troublesome with adults, who are often preoccupied with the
desire to write everything correctly; she explained that students have often been conditioned by educational experiences to think
that written expression involves producing perfect final text, without surface errors, for evaluation by a teacher (p. 13).
Research has reported only the positive aspects of dialogue journals from the teachers perspective. It appears that only one
published article has even raised questions about the practice with ESL students (Wigfield, 1991). Our study shows that when
viewed from the student perspective, dialogue journal writing, at least for one student, has some negative aspects too. If teachers
had the time to discover what is happening in the real space of writing (Krapels, 1990, p. 51) from the perspective of each student,
as we did in this study, they would probably find that there is a contrarian like Dang in every class. More studies need to ask
students how the dialogue journal affects them and whether or not they perceive that it contributes to their success as language
learners.