Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Collecting
STATISTICS
Analyzing
Organizing
Interpreting
PURPOSE OF STATISTICS
Statistical techniques are used extensively by
marketing
managers,
accountants,
consumers,
educators, politicians, physicians, etc.
Statistical techniques are used to make many
decisions that affect our lives. Regardless what your
future line of work is, you will make decisions that
involved data.
1
TYPES-OF VARIABLES
A variable measures the characteristics of the population
that the researcher wants to study.
Variable
The characteristics of the population
of interest
E.g. monthly income of
respondents, respondents age,
gender, level of education, number
of children and type of house owned
Quantitative or Numerical
Measured on numerical
scale
Yields numerical response
E.g. How tall are you? The
answer is numerical.
Qualitative or Attributive
Measured on non-numerical
scale
Yields categorical response
E.g. Are you a Malaysian?
The answer is only Yes or
No.
Discrete
Numerical response which
arises from a counting
process.
E.g. How many mobile
phones do you have?
Continuous
Numerical response which
arises from a measuring
process.
E.g. What is your weight?
DATA PRESENTATION
Raw data
Data collected that have not been organized or
processed are called raw data.
When every observed value of the random variable is
listed, the data are called ungrouped data.
Grouping is one of the most common methods of
organizing data. When we group data we are actually
constructing frequency distributions for the raw data.
Frequency Distribution
A frequency distribution is a table in which possible
values for a variable are grouped into non
overlapping classes, and the number of observed
values which fall into each class is recorded.
Data organized in a frequency distribution are called
grouped data.
Example
The frequency distribution below represents the number
of books read by 500 students in a school during one
year:
No. of books read No. of students (Frequency)
09
52
10 19
63
20 29
71
30 39
96
40 49
43
50 59
58
60 79
72
80 99
45
The variable is number of books read.
The data (number of books read) are grouped into 8
classes.
4
- 10
- 20
- 30
- 40
- 50
** Class
(inclusive type)
0 9
10 19
20 29
30 39
40 49
Class
(open-ended)
Below 20
20 - < 30
30 - < 40
40 - < 50
50 and above
Example
The following is a record of the number of books borrowed per
week in the library for 30 weeks:21
89
87
47
15
27
64
97
74
42
25
21
89
35
66
76
12
25
55
92
47
100 75
36 93
10 89
67
34
30
4.9069 Use k = 5
Number of classes:
log 2 log 2
Class size: Lowest value = 10; highest value = 100
( H L)
(100 10)
18 Use i = 20
i
=
k
5
Frequency distribution for the number of books borrowed per
week in the library for 30 weeks:
Number of books
10 29
30 49
50 69
70 89
90 109
Total
Tally count
Number of weeks
30
Example
The average amount of rainfall (in cm) for a small town was
recorded for the month of December.
20.42 21.06
22.40
21.117 22.6
33.01 22.89
22.9
30.34 25.61
23
24.5
26.881
24.49
23.7
28
25.0
25.69 27.14
26.321 27.216
19.22 29.6
26.5
24.15 24.18
26.4
25
25.7
28
25.556
Construct a grouped frequency distribution for the data using
suitable class size.
Solution:
The variable is the average amount of rainfall which is
continuous.
log n log 31
k
4.9542 Use k = 5
Number of classes:
log 2 log 2
Class size: Lowest value = 19.22; highest value = 33.01
i
( H L)
(33.01 19.22)
2.758 Use i = 3
=
k
5
Tally count
Number of days
31
it upper class
2
i
m
i
l
m
i
l
lower class
or
Example
Class
10 - 29
30 - 49
50 - 69
70 - 89
90 - 109
class marks
Class boundaries
9.5 29.5
29.5 49.5
49.5 69.5
69.5 89.5
89.5 109.5
1st class
19.5
Class size
29.5 9.5 =20
49.5 29.5=20
69.5 49.5=20
89.5 69.5=20
109.5 89.5=20
2nd class
39.5
Class mark
19.5
39.5
59.5
79.5
99.5
3rd class
59.5
[/////// ////////]
[/////// ////////]
...]
10
class limits
29 30
49 50
[
69 70
class
9.5
boundaries
29.5
49.5
69.5
Example
Class
19 < 22
22 < 25
25 < 28
28 < 31
31 < 34
Class boundaries
19 22
22 25
25 28
28 31
31 34
class marks
1st class
20.5
Class size
22 19 = 3
25 22 = 3
28 25 = 3
31 28 = 3
34 31 = 3
2nd class
23.5
Class mark
20.5
23.5
26.5
29.5
32.5
3rd class
26.5
22
22
25
25
28
28
Histogram
is a graphical representation of the frequency distribution.
A bar is drawn for each class and the area of each bar is
proportional to the class frequency. The bars are drawn
adjacent to another. Class boundaries are graduated on
the horizontal axis.
For frequency distribution with equal class size, the
height of each bar is drawn proportional to the actual
frequency of each class and the width of each bar
extends from the lower class boundary to the upper class
boundary of the class.
Example
Construct a histogram for the frequency distribution of the
number of books borrowed per week in the library for 30
weeks:
Number of books
10 29
30 49
50 69
70 89
90 109
Total
Number of weeks
8
7
4
7
4
30
Solution:
Histogram of number of books borrowed per week
Frequency
10
8
6
4
2
0
class boundaries
10
Example
Construct a histogram for the frequency distribution the
average amount of rainfall in the month of December:
Average amount of
rainfall (cm)
19 - < 22
22 - < 25
25 - < 28
28 - < 31
31 - < 34
Total
Number of days
4
10
12
4
1
31
Solution:
Histogram of the average amount of rainfall (cm) in
the month of December
Frequency
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
class boundaries
19
22
25
28
31
34
Average amount of rainfall (cm)
Sales (units)
0 99
100 199
200 299
300 499
500 699
No. of branches
10
18
8
6
4
Solution:
Sales
(units)
0 99
100 199
200 299
300 499
500 699
No. of branches
Class
Class *Adjusted
(frequency )
boundaries
size frequency
10
- 0.5 99.5
100
10
18
99.5 199.5
100
18
8
199.5 299.5
100
8
6
299.5 499.5
200
3
4
499.5 699.5
200
2
100 frequency
Adjusted
frequency
*
, where the common
class size
class size = 100
Histogram of sales of 46 branches of a
company in one week
Adjusted freq.
20
15
10
5
class boundaries
0
-0.5
499.5
699.5
12
Types of Histogram
Frequency Histogram
Relative Freq. Histogram
Percentage Histogram
13
29
49
69
89
109
Number of
weeks (freq.)
8
7
4
7
4
Class
boundaries
14
Example
Average
amount of
rainfall (cm)
19
22
25
28
31
<
<
<
<
<
22
25
28
31
34
Number of
days (freq.)
4
10
12
4
1
Class
boundaries
19
22
25
28
31
22
25
28
31
34
upper class
boundaries
15
Example
The following table shows the output produced by 20
employees in an hour in a factory.
Output (units)
15
6 10
11 15
16 20
21 25
Number of employees
1
2
3
9
5
Number of
employees
(freq.)
Class
boundaries
15
6 10
11 15
16 20
21 25
1
2
3
9
5
0.5 5.5
5.5 10.5
10.5 15.5
15.5 20.5
20.5 25.5
16
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
class boundaries
0.5
5.5
10.5
15.5
20.5
25.5
Output
0.175
22 units to be
20
20
(iii) the number of units of output which will be exceeded by
90% of the employees to be x units
90% of the employees are producing more than x units
10% of the other employees (10% x 20= 2 employees)
are producing less than x units. From the < ogive, x = 8
units.
(iv) the number of employees producing output between 8 and
18 units to be 10.5 - 2 = 8.5.
17
(b)
(c)
(d)
2.
80
50
79
52
66
71
41
43
56
52
61
65
60
76
65
48
68
49
75
41
52
69
81
56
179
162
177
184
175
165
182
164
183
170
185
175
183
170
171
187
186
186
175
168
191
178
169
167
166
174
179
181
172
181
171
185
181
188
166
180
188
181
184
177
177
165
190
172
180
189
198
184
173
168
182
178
176
187
182
178
167
174
182
192
185
191
175
193
170
180
175
178
179
190
176
176
194
189
179
196
187
18
Percentages of companies
8
22
36
18
10
6
Number of calls
45
104
142
173
192
200
(a)
(ii)
(ii)
(ii)
(ii)
23
(iii) 0.7294
0.865
24 rejects
14 min.
20