Telegraphy

Wireless

and

History, Theory

Its

Practice

BY

A.

COLLINS

FREDERICK

Published

by

McGraw-Hill

the

Book.

Company

Ne
to

McGraw

the Book

Hill

PublishingCompany
Bobliahers

Electrical
TKe

Department* of

World

Railway

Publishing Company

of

Books

The

and
MiningJournal
Engineering"

Engineering Record

Electric

for

Power

Journal

and

American

miiHi

NEW

McGRAW

tKe

YORK

PUBLISHING
1905

COMPANY

The

Engineer
Machinist

Telegraphy

Wireless
Its

and

History,Theory

Practice

BY

A.

COLLINS

FREDERICK

Of

THE

UNIVERSITY
OF

NEW

McGRAW

YORK

PUBLISHING
1905

COMPANY

cl

Copyrighted,

1905

by

McGRAw

the

COMPANY

PUBLISHING

NEW

YORK

PREFACE.
Nearly

has

decade

of

its

the

first

which

economics

telegraph
progressive
be

to

come

social

of

foundation

the

forms

has

of

scheme

the

in

magnitude

of

horizon

the
on
spectacularappearance
achievement, and in these passing years it

made

wireless

the

since

elapsed

now

and

factor

commercial
of

complex mode

our

living.
As

forces

nature's

effected, and,

small

hands

of

found

useful

untaught and

the

by the

that all the

should
a

would
For-

at

and

phases

brief

historical

beginning of nearly every

the

the conditions

fulfil in sequence

experimental physics and

given, and
the book

it is believed
will

relating to
In

find

wireless
I

conclusion

friend, Dr.

James

that

hitherto

synthesisof electric

and

my
to

thanks
my

to the
are

should, in
student

also

wife, both

as

clue to my
of

whom

virtue

City,April, 1905.

them

in

takes

series,

and

in

order

theoretical

the

well

wide

to the

as

brother,
have

Dr.

bibliography
to

herein

these

Byard

FREDERICK

the

tions
por-

worker;

greatly assisted

checking up

my

experience in

advanced
T.

are

of treatment

course

in

to

tions,
deduc-

indebtedness

my

one

precedence

action, make

A.

York

posed
pro-

consideration

then,

of his

wave

preparation by reading the proofs and

New

was

consequential details

many

the

and

niche

the

sometimes

are

finallythe practicalworkings

which

invaluable

and

cited above, the

unoccupied

in

present time.

retrospect

chapter,

enumerated, and
analysis and

to the

by pursuing this

Ives, for

fall into

it
specialist,

telegraphy.
wish
to acknowledge
E.

texts

and

pages.

necessarilyfollow

the state of the art down

reascm

these

subject under

would

longer

fact,may

treatises

simplest of
of the

of

invisible

the

and, by connecting

attention

logical account

bring

this

the

didactic

highly trained

most

various

due

receive

complete

that

that

frequentlyhappens

it

class

this

concrete

perusal of

of

forth, that

of

a
selectivity

by

subtle

ing
assured, swifter work-

correlation

render

determined

be

measure

Since

would

which

waves

all,the

above

most

of

called

might be bridged,greater accuracy

distances

it has

skilled labor

the

head

the

vividly at

stands

it

and

phenomena,

elusive

by the

example of occult manifestations

an

Collins
in

data.
COLLINS.

its

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

I.

ETHER
PAGE.

HISTORICAL

THEORETICAL

Function

of

Ether

the

of

Constants

Ether

the

10

CHAPTER

II.

MOTION

WAVE

THEORETICAL

11

Molecular

Undulations

11

Transverse

Vibration

13

Light

Wave

Length

14

Reflection

16

Refraction

16

Polarization

17

CHAPTER

ELECTRIC

III.

WAVES

20

HISTORICAL

21

EXPERIMENTAL
Hertz's

28

Apparatus

Reflection

29

Rectilinear

30

Propagation

Refraction

30

Polarization
Free

32

Electric

and

Sliding

Half

-Waves

CHAPTER

DISRUPTIVE

33

IV.

DISCHARGE

HISTORICAL

36

PHYSICAL

38

Forms

of

Discharge
Color,

Size

Discharges
Dielectrics
Through
and
Shape of Discharges

Distance

Striking
Action

of

Direct

and

Ultra

38

39
40
42

Violet

Alternating

44

Light
Current

Effects

45

CONTENTS.

vi

CHAPTER
ELECTRIC

V.

OSCILLATIONS
PAGE.

HISTORICAL

47

THEORETICAL

48

Frequency Currents
High Frequency Currents
Analogue of Electric Oscillations
Properties of Electric Oscillations
Low

48
49
49
50

Transformation
Rate

52

of Radiation
of

Decrement
Skin

Effect

of

Energy

53

Oscillations

54

Oscillators

55

in

CHAPTER

VI.

OSCILLATORS
56

PHYSICAL

56

Oscillators
Oscillator

56

Systems

57

Oscillator

Hertz's

Righi's Oscillator

58

Oscillator

58

Lodge's
Multiplex

Oscillator

59

Dumbbell

Oscillator

59

Bose's

60

Oscillator

60

Oscillator

Experimental

Oscillator

Marconi's

61

Open and Closed Systems

Symmetrical and Dissymmetrical
CHAPTER

63

VII.

INDUCTANCE,

CAPACITY,

61

Systems

AND

RESISTANCE
64

HISTORICAL

Capacity

64

Inductance

65

Resistance

66

THEORETICAL

66
66

Defined

Capacity
Inductance

Defined

Resistance

Defined

Effect

67
68

of Constants

Formulae

for

Calculation

of

on

69

Oscillations

Calculating

Constants

70

Oscillator

Dimensions

71
71

Measurements

Capacity
Capacity

72
of

an

74

Aerial

75

Inductance
Inductance

of

an

76

Aerial

77

Resistance

CHAPTER
MUTUAL
HISTORICAL

THEORETICAL
Induced

VIII.

INDUCTION
78
80

Currents

80

vii

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Mutual

82

Currents

Primary and Secondary

Theory of the Induction
Permeability
Hysterisis

83

Coil

83
84

84

Induction
Condenser

85

Optimum
Capacity
Calculating the Potential

87

Function

the

of

of

88

Coil

"

89

of Coils

Forms

CHAPTER

IX.

INDUCTION

COILS
92

HISTORICAL

95

PRACTICAL

96

Primary Coils
Secondary Coils

97
99

Insulation
of E.

Sources
Selection

and

of

Types
Ordinary
Modern
Foote

100

of Parts

Assembly

M.

100

Care

of

100

Coil

Coils

102

Coil

102
102

Coil
Pierson
Muirhead

Lodge
Kinraide

103

Coil

Pelta

103

Coil

103

Coil

Braun-Siemens

and

Halske

103

Coil

Slaby-Arco

Coil

103

Fessenden

Coil

104

Queen

"

Co.

Meter

Spark

105

Coil

CHAPTER

X.

INTERRUPTORS
PRACTICAL

107

Single Vibrating Interruptor

Double-Contact
Interruptor
Double
Spring Interruptor
Independent Interruptor
Mechanical
Reciprocating Interruptor
Mechanical
Rotating Interruptor
Mercury Turbine
Interruptor
ElectrolyticInterruptor
Liquid Interruptor
Rotary Interruptor
Disruptive Discharge Interruptor
Rotary Converter
Interruptor
Mercury Vapor Interruptor
CHAPTER
OSCILLATING

CURRENT

PRACTICAL

108
109
110
Ill
112
113
114
116
119
120
121
122
125

XL

GENERATORS
127

Holtz-Toepler Machines
Fleming Transformer

130

Tesla

Oscillator

130

Elihu

Thomson

Apparatus

128

134

CONTENTS.

viii

XII.

CHAPTER

ACTION

WAVE

ELECTRIC

PAGE*

HISTORICAL

136

THEORETICAL

136

EXPERIMENTAL

140
140

Branly's Experiments
Researches
Tommasina's
and
Koepsel's, Guthe's
and
De
Forest
Smyth's Investigations
Testing the Coherer

143

143

XIII.

CHAPTER

DETECTORS

WAVE

ELECTRIC

142

14$

PRACTICAL
Tube

145

Resonator

145

Calzecchi
Hertz

145

Radio-Conductor

Branly
Lodge

Coherer

147

Other

Detectors

147
149

Coherer

Marconi

Experimental Coherer
Slaby-Arco Coherer

150

Braun

151

Blondel

153

Coherer

Regenerable

153

Anti-Coherer

Schaffer

Branly Tripod

154

Coherer

154

Coherer

Castelli
Fessenden
Marconi
DeForest

Lodge

150

Magnetic
Magnetic Detector
Electrolytic Responder

Hot-Wire

Fessenden

Liquid
Boxes

or

155

157
158

Detector

Magnetic

Fessenden

Testing

Coherer

Mercurial

Marconi

154

Detector

(Second

Form)

159
160

Barretter

161

Barretter

162

Buzzers

XIV.

CHAPTER

TRANSMITTERS
163

HISTORICAL

164

PRACTICAL
Classification

of

Transmitters

Marconi

Transmitter

Marconi

Transmitter

Lodge

Guarini
Marconi
Braun
Marconi

.' 166

(First Form)
(Second Form)

166
167

Transmitter

(First Form)
Transmitter
(Second Form)
Transmitter
(First Form)
Transmitter
(Second Form)
Transmitter
(Third Form)

Slaby-Arco
Slaby-Arco
Guarini

165

Transmitter

169
171
173
174
175

Transmitter
Transmitter

168

(Fourth

Form

176

ix

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Popoff-Ducretet

178

Transmitter

DeForest

Transmitter

178

Fessendeii

Transmitter

179

Branly-Popp
Cervera

182

Transmitter

182

Transmitter

Lodge-Muirhead
Bull

180

Transmitter

183

Transmitter

184

Transmitter

Cableless

Marconi

XV.

CHAPTER

RECEPTORS
185

HISTORICAL

186

PRACTICAL
Classification

of

186

Receptors

187

Popoff Receptor
)
Receptor ( First Form
Form
Marconi
)
Receptor ( Second
Lodge Receptor
Slaby-Arco Receptor
Braun
Receptor
Marconi
)
Receptor (Third Form
Automatic
Guarini
Repeater
Form
Marconi
)
Receptor ( Fourth
Fessenden
Receptor
Popoff-Ducretet Receptor
DeForest-Smythe Receptor
Cervera
Receptor
Branly-Popp Receptor
Lodge-Muirhead Receptor
Bull
Receptor
Cableless
Marconi
Receptor

188

Marconi

'

190
191
191
192

194
195

197

198
200
201
202

203
204
207
207

XVI.

CHAPTER

APPARATUS

SUBSIDIARY

210

PRACTICAL

210

KEYS
Marconi

210

Key

Key
Key
Ducretet
Key
Fessenden
Key
DeForest
Key
Lodge-Muirhead
Lodge-Muirhead

211

(a ) Braun
(b) Braun

211
212
213
213

Key

214

Buzzer

215

216

CONDENSERS
Tesla

Oil

216

Condenser

216

Braun
Cylindrical Condenser
Condenser
Adjustable Mica

217
218

TRANSFORMERS
Braun
Marconi

High-Frequency
Low

Potential

218

Transformer

219

Transformer

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

DE-COHEKEBS

220

Marconi

Tapper
Tapper
Tapper
Magnetic

Braun
Guarini
Collins

221
222
223

De-Coherer

223

RELAYS

223

Ordinary

Relays
Relays

Polarized.

223
224

INDICATORS

226

Morse

Register
Telephone Receivers
Siphon Recorders

TUNING

227
228
229

COILS

CHOKING

230

COILS

231

POLARIZED

CELLS

SCREENING

CASES

ALPHABETIC

231
232

CODES

232

XVIT.

CHAPTER

AERIAL

WIRES

AND

EARTHS
234

HISTORICAL
'

THEORETICAL

234

PRACTICAL

238

Methods

of

Suspension

Forms

of

Lodge

Capacity

Guarini

Sheathed

Jegou

Differential

Marconi

Mast

Fessenden

Wave

241

(Second

242

Form)

Earthed

and

244
244

Aerial

245

Chute

247

Aerials

Cableless

243

Aerial

Earth

Kite-Sustained
Marconi

241

Aerial

Direct

DeForest

241

Aerial

Artificial

239

240
Aerial

Aerial

Slaby-Arco
Braun

Aerials

Station

252

Aerial
.

CHAPTER

XVII

I.

RESONANCE
HISTORICAL

258

THEORETICAL

259'

EXPERIMENTAL

261

Simple Resonance
Sympathetic Resonance
Determination
of Periodicity
Apparatus for Plotting Resonance
Relation

of

Tuning
Tuning

Closed

Resonance

Co-efficients
to

Resonator

to

264
Curves

Resonance

Open-Oscillator
Circuits
.

in Wireless

261

262

Telegraphy

...

Circuits

265
265
v

267
267
268

xi

CONTENTS.

XIX.

CHAPTER

SYNTONIZATION
PAGE.

HISTORICAL

26!)

PRACTICAL

270
Tuned

Lodge

270

System
Multiple

Slaby-Arco

272

System

Marconi

Syntonic

System

(First

Marconi

Syntonic

System

( Second

Braun

Tesla
Stone
Bull

Selective

276
277
280

System

Synchronized

CHAPTER

Electric
Bell
Ruhmer
Collins

286

Method

286

Method
Wave

287

Method

287

Radiophone
Telephone

Photo-Electric
Wireless

XX.

TELEPHONY

WIRELESS

Inductivity

274
274

System

Multiplex

275

System

System

Duplex

Conductivity

Form

System

Resonance

Fessenden

273

Form)

Telephone

288
292

CHAPTER

I.

ETHER.

To

the fundamental

understand
electric

at the very

the

is

composed

determine

its

postulatesof

matter

and

we

we

mitting
trans-

confronted

are

that branch

of

cannot, by

we

waves

known

any

this has

differentiate

we

substance

the

mean

constituency,although

electric

the term

connecting wires

in

ing
physicsdeal-

matter.

transcendental

By

and

with

outset

transcendental

with

ether

without

waves

principlesinvolved

of which

physicalmethod,

been

attempted. By

emitted

waves

the

by electricity

itself.
electricity

HISTORICAL.

For

at least

hypothesisof
fluid

thousand

medium

in the form

interstellar
filling

molecules

These

and

atoms

the

; other

theory would

presence
or

the

deemed

was

postulatethat
and

nature

vacuum

act

other

on

to transmit

by

them

evidence

this
of

an

and

masses

between
matter.

gross

by experiment, were

found
the
a

wanting,
existence

universal

metaphysics,as,

necessary

all space

vanced
ad-

if
of

ether

not, indeed,
a

in

virtue

for instance, where

factor in the extension

be filled with

must

connecting
of
its

of matter,

something, since

incompatible.

are

Oppositelyarrayed
could

be

assuming

their
a

in

occupied by

verified

advocated

thinkers

requirements of

all space

attenuated

or

occasioned
the demand
by a
satisfying
for it frequentlyoccurred
that an
planation
ex-

utterlyuntenable, without
medium

not

substance

the

of

purpose

particularphenomenon,
or

of

otherwise

not

speculations,
though
for

the

and

space

philosophersadvanced

B.C.

years

were

matter

the energy,

those

through

who
space

proclaimed that
without

matter

ter
interveningmat-

physicalcontact ; and
the
considered a rational philosophy. Without
was
experimental nature to justifythe claims of either
action
i.e.,

without

WIRELESS

faction,the problem

TELEGRAPHY.

remained

unsolved
practically

the

of
succeeding centuries until the dawn
the cloud of obscurityoverhanging it began

The

from

questionwas,
and

evolved

debate, and

bitter

his

its

in

even

universal

of

theory

a
incipiency,

at

distance," and

interveningmatter
from

body to
curious phase of
own

the

letters that

existence

of this

followers

were

Nearly
that

another

one

to the

in

he gave

explainedby
a

was

rather

Newton's

of

actual

the

to it.
years

mutual

in the

after,or

attractions

of the

middle

and

teenth
eigh-

at

thought by

it is

completeand

had
physicist,

the

Boscovitch
it

and

again

Michael

doomed

was

in

prove that the laws

same

the

1845,

which

made

govern

undulatory theory he
as

those

rotation

of

magnetism.

of the

was

enabled

is the
it

out his

only

was

obscurityuntil

uppermost when

Faraday,

whose

to

Huygens,

worked

in 1678

science,but

of modern

came

or, as

vacuum,

that
a

was

questionforever settled,

Christian

theoryof lightand an ether by which he

all its various phenomena. Huygens's
in the revelations

losophy
phi-

Kelvin, terselyputs it, "matter

face of the fact that

and

mathematician

erratic

familiar
un-

not," so that the dissolution of the ether

scientists to be

this in the

the

through absolute

Lord

now

for

account

universallyacceptedas the

almost

distance

to fire

but
repulsions,
"

priesthad become

Thompson,

acting where

by

belief

"

Sir William

the

of energy

from

that of an essence
to
attribute
special
phenomena. During the next fiftyyears

final solution of action

in

This

that

attenuated, subtle substance,notwithstanding his

hundred

of the

and

believed

who

seem

his

of

wave

transmission

it would

firm

Cartesians,or

onward

distance.

by

still the

were

the

the

Newton

century,Father Boscovitch promulgated his doctrinal theory

the laws governing all matter, including their inherent
acteristics
charof physics,chemical
and magnetism,
affinity,
electricity,

could be

and

quite

into

Newtonians,

removed

was

opposed

one

the

cussion
for dis-

theme

Sir Isaac

1(550,when

resisted

for
discussion,

he

rise.

to

constant

resolved

essential

not

was

the

gravitation,there

now
oppositionparties,who were
of
followers
Descartes, who

"action

throughout all
nineteenth,when

eminent

undulatory
for

to account
tenable

shelved

theory

for that

wheel

the

Dutch

of

revolved

experimentalist,

series of tests in

an

effort to

lightas elucidated by Huygens"

had
This

the
he

utmost

confidence^

"

were

accomplished
successfully

plane of polarizedlightunder

the

action

of

WIRELESS

system of

determined
Grange's co-ordinates,

Le

the

between

been

had

than

before.

known

to be convinced

only be

obtained

The

analyzed by
many

laws

of

their

decisive
of

such

This

the

of

were

and

taken

now
as

The

to

tended

those

lines of

above

the

the

of labor

ether, and

the infinite

proof of it,may

be

well-knowr

to conclude

from

Faraday-Maxwell theory,

to prove

the

actualityof one
varied phenomena

for all the

kinetics,
heat, electro-

magnetic force.
for

Hertz

should

it remained

for

the proof of Maxwell's

experimentally"
methods, like Faraday's,were
physicalrather than

about

could

Helmholtz, Kelvin,

von

Heinrich

written,

amount

fused
re-

eagerly and

up

establish

tremendous

still

proof as

propagation of light,radiant

of the lamented

name

of

sufficient to account

the curved

it had

as

who

course

whom,

correctness

the rectilinear

as

Maxwell's

such

for such

still clamored

analysisof all

was

greater

now

substance

those

scientists

of

were

experiment.

eminent

results

final

ether.

added

subtle

the

Maxwell

all

matter

of

number

preceding centuries,for

were

who

The

starting with
and magnetism, were
led
light,electricity,

the

such

by

others,

own

and

There
and

deductions

and

of transcendental

to
tangibility

tions
accuratelythe rela-

it included.

phenomena

in all the

made

equationsgave
never

various

doctrine

to the

converts

TELEGRAPHY.

involved

in

have

been

alone

him

deductions.

His

theoretical.
for

probing

to

The

the

truth

deniable
pains required to obtain absolute,ununderstood
by looking backward
again

to the laborious task

Faraday performed in showing experimentally

curved lines of force
undulatorytheory of lightand his own

that the

related,and

were

must

be the
the

Maxwell

same.

verification

finallyHertz
order

that, therefore,the

of

of

utilized the

laws
as

that

in their

action

for

startled the world

reversed

the

existence

and

of the

his

light.

finallythe

commercial

in wireless

This

waves

existence

as

the

they represent,and
of

has
an

enterprisethat

telegraphy.

of

did in

he

experiments,simple

electric

the

of their propagation

constant

of

that

ing
entail-

and

sublimityas the scientific world

and
conclusively

the foundation

the time

identical with

was

governing the

settled

and

duties

mathematically,and

equations of Maxwell

Karlsruhe, Germany,

grand

researches

Faraday's experiment demonstrating

in ether
at

transmitting them

the arduous

assumed

Faraday's

stationaryelectric waves
1888

then

ether

ever

ether
has

so

known,
and

laid

recently

ETHER.

THEORETICAL.

great work, "Electric Waves/' has thoroughly

sifted the various
by recent scientists for an
viewpoints assumed
all the functions
ether fulfilling
requiredof it,and concludes with a
concise
statement
showing the difference in the views held by
Hertz,

Maxwell

his

and

attractions
upon

in

those

of

between

directlyon
indicated

as

the
"

POLARIZATION

(According

that

to

Helmholtz.)

sides will be

and
positive,

subsequentmatter
to Poisson

this

will

these forces

of the
polarization

this deduction

be

actingand

he

ether

it

erted
ex-

portion;
be

substance

it the

shown

by
polarized,

be

negative and

negative,

ruled

the

rectangles,will

reachingB charge

on

by

other

or

the

is,the portions nearest

force

will be

intervening matter,

ether

ETHER.

OF

portion of

black

the

charged, the
positively

is

1.

the

separatebodies A and B, Fig. 1, is based

A and B, reprefirst by direct action between
sented
by the arrows, and second by
the changes in the ether represented
posing
by the interveningrectangles.Supthat

FIG.

Helmholtz

to

two

factors,the

two

According

Helmholtz.

the

opposite
reactingon the

negatively. According

is of

magnetic nature, and

developedhis theory of

statical

magnetism ;
Helmholtz, combining
these two hypotheses,formulated
a
theory embracing all the phenomena
of electro-magnetism. This theory postulatesthat if from
the space C the ether be removed, forming an absolute
the
vacuum,
and
positive
negative forces will continue to exist as shown by the
but, since there is no matter, polarization
cannot
arrows,
take place.
upon

Mosotti

them

assumed

to be

and
electrical,

Maxwell, according to Hertz, agrees with Helmholtz

the polarizations
of the ether are
actuallypresent, but
these polarizations
due to the force of A acting on
are
Maxwell
B

does

not

that

assume

represent nothing, and

present,as
trace

shown

that

the

the space

It will be

seen

is this

and

cause

be

not

that

B,

and

and

exist,hence
to which

transcendental

matter

that if all the ether

C, Fig. 2, accordingto Maxwell,

polarizationsnot

that

polarizationis the only factor

Fig. 2, and it

all the effects of molecular

acquainted with.
from

in

the distant forces

in

manifested, but

the

not

we

may
we

are

is removed

only would

the

forces
electro-magnetic

WIRELESS

them

producing

theory Hertz

also

would

he based

which

theory upon

TELEGRAPHY.

present. This is Maxwell's

system of equations,and this is the

his

with

employed,

be

not

few

some

practicalmodifications,
for this evolution

the corner-stone

polarizations.Maxwell

of etheric

drafted

the

consummation,

but

the architect

was

plans for
Hertz

its

who

the builder, and

was

had

he

2.

POLARIZATION

"

(According

Maxwell.)

to

his classical

were

his

the

deny

of the

there

that, as
of

subtle

more

were

there would

of molecular

transcendental

who

denied

commenced

Hertz

in
polarizations
of
he

there

prizefor

the

non-conductor

able to

was

see

lutionist,
great evo-

lamented

he

the

the molecular
still a few

fact

theory

philosophers

1879, when

the Berlin

solution

of

it

not

was

ing
show-

problem

to be

dielectric

emy
Acad-

until

result

the

that

1886

solving it. These remarkable

fully treated in the succeedingchapters,for

his way

will be

achievements

of ether.

or

but

electro-magneticinduction,

as

were

the existence
in

men,

just as much reason

to deny the existence

denied

his researches

offered

of Science

be

ether, and

metaphysicianswho

the

Haeckel,

now

matter

matter, as Berkeley and Hume,

of the abstract

Ernest

that
investigations

existence

before

rose

mighty masterpiece;so complete

proclaimedthat
to

ether

ETHER.

OP

when

grand work
terial
proof of a ma-

finished

the first absolute

Fio.

laid

experiments. Faraday

in his

clear

to

exceedinglyvital propositions,
of
the electro-magnetic
them
theory
being the proof
among
of an
of light,the proof of the existence
ether,the discoveryof
by
stationaryelectric waves, the mode of producing electric waves

Hertz's

embraces

work

spark-gap,and

means

of

means

of

series of

whole

the

detector, all of

those

enumerated,

latter discoveries,forming the

two

treated,wireless telegraphy. The

by all the workers has given us
ether

is,its functions,and

But,

after

of ether is

said, it

reallyknown

the real nature

laws

all is

sum

basis

must

; for that

of molecular

governing the latter and

but
the

waves

by

the
especially

subject herein

knowledge advanced

followingconception of what

the

not

be

some

but

of its

uses.

supposed that

matter, we

matter,
some

of

of the

alreadyknow

we

of electric

manifestation

we

the nature

do not know

positively

know

of the

do

of the laws

many

of the fornler,and

ETHER.

with

these

for the

are

this is of the

solution

of

of both
or

have

who

being enlarged and

As

bended

their

to contradict

they appear
to choose

between

the trend

of scientific

them,

but

the

we

and

all

the

seen,

views

of

energiestoward a possible
quently
frealways coincide; more

not
each

have

laws

new

accuratelydetermined,

more

mystery do

ether

the

Slowly but surely

content.

are

greatestimportance.

thinkers

those

be

must

present we

knowledge of the laws

discovered
occasionally

our

other, so

that

is at

one

followingpoints will

serve

loss

to show

opinion.

Starting out with the now

cosmic ether pervades all space

universallyaccepted idea that

by molecular
postulatesas gospel truths, we
matter, and accepting Maxwell's
with the questionof its structure.
it
next confronted
are
By some
is believed to be a homogeneous corpuscularbody, while others
it to be

conceive

not

the continuous

there

is another

so

to

In

up

those

By

theory,it is pointed out that

for it must
corpusclesis defective,

etheric

on

taken

substance.

continuous

otherwise

who

hold

to

oppositetheory of
then be supposed that
between
the corpusclesand

ultra-etheric medium

the

infinity.

behalf

of the

that
corpusculartheory,it has been advanced
the corpusclesof ether, though of a uniform
sarily
size,need not necesbe spherical,
but of any shape permitting them
to conform
to each other without
The
net
leaving any intermediate space.
product would be then, to all intents and purposes, a continuous
substance.

The

of
consistency

ether

calls for another

subdivision

of

it is considered
opinion,for by some
gaseous, by others a liquid,
and
others a solid. Again, probably it is none
of
again by some
these,though each in turn serves as an analogue for its actions. In
popular lectures it is often likened to a jelly,and, though crude,
this

offers

of
pressibility
As

it. A

it is

have

it,nor

sense

we

to the fourth

assist in

along

change
'Dr.

as

Bence

and
elasticity

in the scale of matter

instruments

incom-

these

lines,and
vast

In
the

he

1816

and

was

expressionhe

difference between

said,speakingof radiant

Life

Letters

we

cannot

enough to recognize
tive
Faraday's1statement rela-

matter

beyond vaporizationas that

Jones's

that

sensitive
from

state of matter.

; he

far

high

be obtained

the
elucidating

ethereal matter
a

so

any

conceptionmay

researches

the

the ether.

substance

good illustration of

very

of

Faradav.

conducting his
employed may

gross
:

"If

is above

matter
we

and

conceive

and
fluidity,

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

into

take

then

of

alterations

form

can

and

many

would

fluid

and

and

state

precedingstate; when
of hardness

shapes

and

colorless

solids

softness

character

color

that

They

now

left

were

form

but

to the

few

annihilated.

lost.

immense

remains

in the

Transparency
and

How

if

is evident
from

could

we

radiant

matter

almost

substance

molecular
latter

as

and

conceive
the

as

far

as

distinction

The

weight

is this of molecular

true

that

specific
gravity of

matter

as

ether

is

is
so

of density,

render

the

supplied by

now

we

as

removed

would
as

ether

have

itself.

ether

and

imponderableand

the

made

former

It

matter!

times

many

analytical
powers

our

the

universal.

which

solids

physicistshave

ponderable; this

are

ferred.
con-

difference in

varieties

the

differences

transcendental

and
a

is to class the

matter

to

color."

latter is from

beyond

some

other

are

more

becomes

form

infinite

the

fluids all varieties

The

set of substances

in

slightvariations

number

belong to

state,still

gaseous

fluids almost

of solids and

in

frequentlygive way

color

the
disappear,

one

which

into

and
hardness, opacity,color,elasticity,
number

solid to the

the

is
general mobility of particles

are

here

and
lost. Crystalline
necessarily

of bodies

weight almost

those

converted

are

are

transparency and

in their

of

losingsome

Passing onward
evident

from

ascend

we

matter;

lost, so

qualitieswere

we

destroyed.Opacity and

are

of radiant

physicalpropertiesdiminish

states

variety,each

As

tent
ex-

shall,perhaps, if

fall short

many

disappear.

gaseous

proportionalincreased

changes rise,we

last conversion

the

more

the

as

conception at all,not

any
in

as

also the

consideration

between

for, though the

evidentlyerroneous,
slightas to be beyond the sensibility

testinginstrument, yet as a substance it must

from
the energy
of the
have weight, and this has been computed
light waves
through it1 to be approximately over fifteen trillion
times lighterthan the air,or, in popular language,a sphere of ether
of the

delicate

most

"

"

the size of

earth

our

would

weigh only

250

pounds.

that
densityto be Looo.ooo.oooS.ooo.ooo
that of steelof water, and its rigidityto be rooo.oo^.ooo.ooo
Having
and
and
matter
properties
have, essentially,
density
weight, ether
in common
with each other, and this is the more
easilyunderstood
Maxwell

if

we

An

has

estimated

consider

Lord

atom

of gross

^ebedew,

its

hypothesisof matter.
matter, according to this beautiful deduction,

Kelvin's

Experiments

on

Radiation

Pressure.

ETHER.

had

always

distinct

entity,but originated in a minute

portion of the ether attaininga whirling motion, and in virtue of
the vortex
formed
it became
so
an
a
particleof rigid matter
entityin itself. Although the ether is extremely tenuous, the vortex
not

"

give it all the physicalpropertiesof

rigidity,
stability,
density,and weight.
will

motion

As
into

be

may

of

atom

an

be

crude
excessively
for the

air is

perfect; for
in energy

very

air-vortex

reason

J.

substance
into

positiveand

known

to man,

vibrate

can

is

In

however
of

nature

from

the

these thinkers
be

destroyed.

one
practically

constitutes

and

action

every

stand

unit

in

According to

unrest.

disagree as

agreeing

Plato

ether

that

to the ether's

there is

results in

for,or clingingto
affinity
the sugar

coatingof

ether, and
with

is

attraction

an

and

of

some

its

between

for in the
the

ether

part of the atom

is what

to which

Nikola

the

it adheres

and

are

may

the

ence
pres-

ether

and

lightof
forming

Tesla

the

name

Likewise

surrounding each individual

pill.This

to

which
incompressibility,

matter, readilyaccounted

which
hypothesis,

of

it is in

derives

term, signifyingperpetualmotion.

matter

of

atoms

of

reaction

regarded as infinite,
although,according to Fresnel,in

the

tinuous
con-

be sheared

may

whirls

in

respects physicists
may

agreed as

of gross

thus

capable.

ether, they
Greek

when

instead
by polarization

energy
of

be

light,which

as

which
negative electricity,

many

state of continual

offers

decrease

constant, and

method

says, this ether

which

and

matter, and,

any

Lodge

absolute

atomic

matter, which transmits

impact and is the primary cause
matter

rings are

in size and

become

atomic

which

air

easilyproduced.

air

smoky

ringsincrease

rings remain

set in motion

Oliver

be

may

that

in the

compared with ether vortex rings or atoms,

imperfectmedium, whereas ether is absolutely

ether- vortex

once

objectsand

remembered, however,

transformed, cannot, by
As

familiar

are

motion

vortex

of smoke

rings formed

as

when

this

and

so, when

metamorphosed by

vortex

matter,

given, as they
It must

ether

of the

analogue

an

such

matter

Kelvin's
closer

atom

terms

like

bound

travels about

it.
The

relation
wireless

of bound

ether

telegraphy

to

that

does
electricity
is another

not

particularly

question but it is
the radiation
of waves
emitted
by electricity
through and by free
ether that here claims our
attention.
Lodge thinks it probable that
negativeand positiveelectricity
jointlymay make up the ether and
concern

"

"

10

WIRELESS

the

that
As

ether

be

may

illustration

an

ether

if

then,

divided

of

it

is

TELEGRAPHY.

this

A,

diagrammatically

line

dividing

it

in

into

the

represent

two

Fig.

by

3,

portions,

p..

dotted

electricity.

negative

let

process,

shown

as

and

positive

shearing

sheared,
the

into

will

though

Erlung

ductor,

it

be

and

positive

is

negative
ether

asserts

more

Al-

electricity.
be

to

reasonable

to

perfect

con-

it

that

suppose

^
"

is

perfect

Maxwell,

conductors

Lodge

"

non-conductor,

points

out,

for,
be

must
the

ether

according
while,

opaque,
is

to

absolutely

as

parent.
trans-

"

FIG.

3.

SHEARING
"

ETHER

THE

(According
to

Lodge).

The

determined

being

with
for

accuracy,
of

of

propagation

168,000

miles

per

exactness

practical
waves

second.

in

of

constants
have

been

ether

ether,

has

while

far

determined

For

purposes.
the

the

instance,
been

found

with
the

to

from
ficient
suf-

velocity
be

about

WIRELESS

12

4 is termed

the

length;

wave

caused

waves

of another

determines

the

by
; the

wave

higher

is the

another,

of air and

these

reach

they

the

ear

is lost

energy
the

through
or

The

air and

substance

again

impact

of

whistle

impinge

the

upon

onward

Sound

be transmitted
of water

air molecules

or

through a

i.e.,where

vacuum,

first
the

molecule

until

the

through

any

propagated

forward

and

be

class,cannot

air has

been

thrusts.

transmitted

exhausted,and
feet per

and

wave

of

the

travel

in

second,

by dividingthe velocityby the

forming sound
particlesor molecules

be found

length may

like those

in the

end

or

free air

waves,

dium
me-

mercury.

waves

of vibrations.

mitted
trans-

elastic

Sound
nothing to do with its motion.
with the velocityof,approximately,1,120

number

until

by impact
or

on

vibrating

ether has

the

of

cause

The

is thus

is backward

the

of

waves

the

nearest

propagation, by longitudinal vibrations

Sound, like all

4 and

molecule

one

blowing.

motion

diffusion.

body

6 and

waves;

receivingapparatus

by

may

as

of

motion

line of

other

or

3 and

ROPE.

the

or

pass the

in turn

OF

sound

whistle

or

points of

wave.

are

or

null

or

the valley
intersecting

wave

MOTION

vibration

ringing

of the bell

molecules

the nodes

are

one

the

WAVE

"

in the scale

bell

of

crest

4.

molecular

as

vertical distance between

FIG.

sound

1 and

amplitude of

the

Next

TELEGRAPHY.

The

water

the

or

rope

do

not

travel

but

remain

practicallystationary.
If the
and

waves

then

are

are

permitted

reflected

back

reflection is in

the

valleysor

points may

are

then

nodal

called

Heat

classes of
to another

offers
wave

line

only

continue

to

themselves

on

so

propagation, the

of

be

distance

given

that

line

the

crests

wave

easilydistinguished. The

of
and

waves

stationarywaves.
a

connecting

motion,

link

for it may

like sound, while

between

the

be transferred

it possesses

the

first and
from
added

one

second
molecule

property of

MOTION.

WAVE

travel

with

those

set

atomic

the
of

another

in

radiant

the

ether

ether

of the

transference

irrespectiveof

of

The

differ from

waves

where

space

sun

there

waves

with

offers

from

heat

the

is

no

greater
tration
illus-

good

body

one

to

dium.
temperature of the interveningme-

the

VIBRATIONS.

principlesof

motion

wave

set up

molecular

by
a

that

waves

propagated by

are

heat

radiant

the fundamental

now

in

air.

TRANSVERSE

Having

which

present,transmits

matter

bound

vibratoryatoms,

Eadiant

heat.

air, for

the

molecular

or

than

ease

is called

up

its

ether, by

velocityof light,and

the

ether; this

the

to

communicating

13

is by
impact, the next stepping-stoneto electric waves
familiar knowledge of the laws of lightwhich belong to the second

class of

of

nature

motion,

wave

electric

radiant heat and

Though
between

Waves

Fig. 6.
are

The

and,

in

other

of which

theory

form

explain largelythe

to

is

between

variation of the

molecular

undulatory motion
matter

the

WAVE.

FIG. 6.

matter

"

similar,

vast

difference

is caused

wave

the line of

lengths.
are

molecules,or by end-thrusts
across

luminous,

wave

straightlines,there is yet a

vibrate

in gross

serve

only difference

molecular

of the

IMPACT

fact,all

emission

in

will

as

at

propagation as

TRANSVERSE

by

A, Fig.
at

B,

WAVE.

POLARIZATION

by longitudinal
impact, those of
transversal
by polarization.
follows coincidentlythat of ether,
historyof light waves

both

be

waves

LONGITUDINAL

5."

ether

travel in

them, for

5, and ether

FIG.

electric waves

fro movement

to and

these

The

waves.

electric and

in that both

and

found

are

phenomena,
had

their

favor

with

for there

champions.
Newton,

two

were

The

who

theories

vanced,
ad-

corpuscularor

believed

light to

of

segregatedmatter, each particlebeingsmaller than the

and that these were
atom
from a
projectedwith enormous
velocity
body having luminous
tenable
properties. Tyndall proved this theoryuna

by demonstrating that

body having

weight

of

one

grain

WIRELESS

14

acquirethe

would

TELEGRAPHY.

of

momentum

at the rate of 1,000 feet per

could

he

apply

showed

ball

cannon

second,whereas

light does

that

traversingits

the
not

course

delicate

most

test

mechanical

possess

force.1
in

Huygens advanced,

the

oppositionto

above, the undulatory

finallyproven experimentally

theory of light,and this was

dulatory
by Young and Fresnel. Accepting now, Huygens's untheory and Young's transverse vibrations of light waves
and the Faraday-Maxwell electro-magnetictheory of light,that
ether waves
are
less
propagatedwith finite velocity,and that regardmotion

wave

or

of their
of electric
been

remains
length the velocity

well within

waves

determined

by

our

have

we
identical,

speed of light has

The

grasp.

the laws

several different methods

is found

and

to be

culated
calAs earlyas 1676 Romer
186.500
miles per second.
practically
the velocity
by the interval between two successive eclipses
ration
of the satellites of Jupiter. Bradley devised a method
by the aberof light. Fizeau measured
the velocity
directlyin a most

Romer

pending
developeda method in 1850 dethe Wheatstone
revolving plane mirror, which had
priorto that time to prove that time was requiredfor
sons
dischargeto take place. One of the first readisruptive

upon
been
the

invented

spark of

for

advanced

an

ether

detailed

be found
of those

descriptionof
in any

by

the nature

treatise

which

Hertz

that

was

requireda given length of

a

the
on

"

here

to
applyingdirectly

enabled

in 1801
be

may

WAVE

though

is

not

on

Mechanical

Force

2R6mer's, Bradley's,Fizeau's

Ency.

Brit.

few

determine

light. Whatever
as

"

ference,
interis said

analogous but

as

LENGTHS.

body emitting light produces waves

*Lebedew

phenomena.

affectingthe opticnerve,

in

for

so

motion

wave

taken, not only

electric wave

capable of receivingis

of

may

refraction,
reflection,

are

final test for

the

and

to compare

These

waves.

LIGHT

these

"

developedby Young
lightwaves

great its velocity,

Without
entering into

propertiesof lightwaves
will be made
light mention

was

of his electric

light,however

to travel.

time

and
absorbtion,polarization

about

closelycoincidingwith

Foucault2

Bradley.

and

results

in 1849, with

convincing manner

the range

great,being
of
and

of
of

length capable of
lengthsthe eye

wave

from

271

ten-millionths

Light.
Foucault's

methods

are

fully described

MOTION.

WAVE

of

violet

light.

note, in
of

is red

inch,which

an

This

is the

of what

view

the

that
light,

propagationas

shown

and

spectrum
as

and

others

of

with

had

of

action

ever

to

RETINA

ON

the

OF

idea

THE

that

has

eye

should

ultra-violet
of

an

inch;

will be' sensitive

sight.

designated as
the

and

arc

violet
ultra-

since

the

hood
neighborbe

pressed
im-

must

be

presence and
admirably, for when

the

recourse

to their

photographicplate answers

all

radiations.

failingto

eye

that
short

too

electric

is in

the

is true

radiation,

radiation

at

occurred

called
proceeds,

waves

be

of

sense

the

as

wave

seen

have

must

portion,and it
some
being much

of

stream

or

eye,

EYE.

the visible

properly, ultra-violet
the

who

one

lengthsso exceedinglyminute,

wave

posed
ex-

spectrum it shows a color band far above that of

violet seen
by the eye; likewise will a plate record the presence
if
short
it
is
doubtful
of transverse
so
they have
waves
very
the

to

the

any

of the

in the line of

and

long to impress the

especiallyfrom
sources,

more

something

to

To

7.

invisible waves,

ten-millionths

140

up

IMPINGING

below

radiation

or

elevations

minute

deal too

length of

wave

of

thought to it,the

some

visible

not

WAVES

are

great

sunlight,a
light,or,

waves

The

Fig.

in

and

there

from

Thus
from

given

ends

of the retina

of the retina

surface

LIGHT

"

is above

to what

at both

7.

inch

an

to
spectrum, and it is interesting
said concerning transverse
vibrations

microscope, is made
the

of

visible

has been

by
right angles to

FIG.

ten-millionths

165

structure
physiological

the

revealed

light,to

15

been

period of

correctly,although

measured
vibration

is

some

300

it is

supposed

that

the

quadrillions
per second.

these
vibrations
transverse
exceedingly penetrating are
and
sheets of metal, as
that they will pass through wood, paper
the most rapid vibrations
are
light waves
pass through glass. These

So

of which

we

have

absolute

knowledge.

16

WIRELESS

At

the

waves,

and

oppositeend of the visible spectrum

these, although emitted by luminous

longer than
heat
until

the

reached

are

of
that

to

when

Eeflection of

lightand

of the waves,

have

From

ant
radi-

rectilinear

propagated through

density, and

and

much

gradually increases
tric
deal, namely, elec-

radiations

absolutelyfulfills these

in the direction

change

other

heat

bodies, are

ones

have

we

composition

the ether
"

invisible

which

and

the radiant

are

capable of sensing.

straight lines

in

uniform

REFLECTION.

the

with

waves

travel

or

medium

length of

Light

waves.

shown

the retina* of the eye is

waves

those

motion,

TELEGRAPHY.

it has

been

conditions.

other ether

is

waves

words,

or, in other

simply

the

waves

ror
physicalsurface, usually a polishedmirof metal or glass,thus changing the originaldirection,though
the medium
through which they are propagated remains the same.

back

thrown

are

The

by

some

law of reflection for ether

the

rays

fall upon

FIG.

ANGLES

OF

INCIDENCE

dence

Fig.

called the

the

The

of waves,

WAVE

it passes from

air into
a

waves

for instance,let AA

waves,

representthe

luminous

are

is made

direction

that

it is understood

less in
ether

in

air.

Since

due

to

transverse

they
to
peilciicular

as

tion
glass.The refracof light through

velocityof light is

glass than

PRISM.

ray

of

glass prism, Fig. 9,

the

THROUGH

the

to another

medium

one

clear when

WAVE

ILLUSTRATED,

reflection of

of

IO.-LIGHT

9.

lightis a bending

from

FIG.

inci-

b.

refraction of
when

angle of

the

GRAPHICALLY

FRONT

the

to

exactly equal

angle of reflection

formed

called

"

in which

direction

FIG.

REFLECTION.

is

REFRACTION."
ray

surface
reflecting

the

8.
AND

"

is that

waves

therefore

are

of the

the

wave

lightor

brations
viper-

front;
electric

MOTION.

WAVE

17

be

would

the

When

front.

wave

the surface of the

vibration,then

the transverse

BB

wave,

reaches

wave

prism AB, Fig. 10, the lower end of the wave

the glassfirst. This end of the wave
enters
ether of the glass,while the upper
the bound
still in the free ether outside the glass. The

the

front
moves

a,

side

the

slowly in

of the
end

lower

of

strikes and

more

end

CC

wave

wave

is

of a, is

so

that when
has
the whole
wave
greatlyretarded in its propagation,
The
entered
the prism, the wave
front is rectified as shown
at c.
front being perpendicularto the path causes
a
change in the
wave

direction,and
of the
at

The

end

and

front

which

is involved

change

refracted

from

POLARIZATION.
which

the bound

by

the

first into

emerges
the

rapidlythan

in the direction

the

wave

from

finallyemerges

wave

the

more

is still impeded

in

the

AC,
of

travels much

ether

with

strikes

upper

straightline until the top

of the prism, as shown
surface

travels

now

wave

front

wave

m.

the

the

other

ether of the
shown

glass as
of its

of the

end

glass.

at n,

propagation and

free,

the

When
second

it is

now

perpendicular.
Another

"

shall have

remarkable

to deal

property of lightand

later in electric

one

is

polarization.
Silvanus
P. Thompson has offered
an
exceptionallyclear
descriptionof what polarization
reallymeans.1
Light from the sun
that is,it consists of
or
body, he says, is non-polarized,
any luminous
vibrations
which
directed up and down, right or
not especially
are
left

we

in any

or

different

many
but

it consists

up,

that

cord

whose

waves

vibrations

transverse

partitionslimit
to pass

waves

of the cord.

the motion

of the cord

all

jumbled

box

waves

will

only the
the

The

box

is used

it
partitions
vertical,
reach

allow

waves

that have

passed through the

in the
it will

same

plane.

now

transmit

If the

only

waves.

second

waves

and

partitions,
Fig.

of the direction of
through, irrespective

all are
i.e.,
plane polarized,
is turned over
its side,Fig. 12,
on

horizontal

vertical

box, with

said to be

If

are

As a mechanical
polarizedin any particulardirection.
of
analogue
polarizationThompson used an india-rubber

vibration

box

of

is, not

11 ; these

are

Natural
given order.
lightis not only made up of
different colors,
wave
lengths,representingso many

a wooden
passing through^

vertical

waves

the

box

will

^Thompson

on

both

"Light."

the

first one,

the
polarize

marked

get through

and

P, is placed with its

and as these,
vertically,

waves

A, also having
boxes and

are

similar

the
partitions,

in
polarized

the vertical

WIRELESS

18

plane.

But

TELEGRAPHY.

if the first box,

P,

is set

and the second box,

vertically,
A, horizontally,
Fig. 13, P will polarizethe waves
but
vertically,
the box, A, called the analyzer,prevents the waves
from passing
the polarizerP is placed it will polarizethe
through it. However
but if the analyzer A is turned
at right anglesto P, the
waves,
will be cut off.

waves

To

when
the polarizer
and
recapitulate,
analyzer are parallel,
the waves
plane polarized pass through; but when the polarizer
and analyzerare crossed,the waves
cut off. Hence
are
by turning
round
the analyzerto such a positionthat it cuts off the waves,
the
"

"

FIGS.

direction of the
determined.

by

11, 12,

ANALOGUE

"

OF

WAVE

MOTION.

emanating from the polarizer

may be easily
be plane-polarized,
lightand electric waves
may

waves

Now

of suitable

means

13.

AND

apparatus, in

similar

manner

to that

just

described.
There

is

called

tourmaline, which
polarizinglightwaves.

gem,

If
property of
allowed
to pass through a tourmaline plate it
the polarizingbox
P, Figs. 11, 12 and 13, on

slices has the

are

like

tourmaline

plate is

shown

in
pass

Fig.

^=

if

introduced

-^^/

14."

TOURMALINE

first plate,a
and

stream

to the unaided

tion of the

PLATE

of
eye

14.

lightwaves
it could

not

As

the

cut

into

waves

of

acts
the

waves

on

thin

light
them

cord.

from

light

the

platethey are polarized.

second
is
plate of tourmaline
and placed in the line of direcand parallel
to the
lightwaves
will pass through both plates,

through

Now

FIG.

when

be detected

that the

waves

had

CHAPTER

III.

ELECTRIC

WAVES.

HISTORICAL.

The

designate

coil, and

brilliant
called

almost
this

electric

Professor

results.

of

by Hertz

oscillator

system

these

in

with

space

before

when

he

of

of

by

the

resultant

several

had-,

Here

he

the

were

and

Hertz

as

by Maxwell,
could

not

Silvanus

had

have

the

to

of

feet with

he

failed

Lightning
2Memoirs

of

Joseph

to

small

of

grasp

though

even

by

1876,

the

yet

was

one

the

Guards.

Henry.
20

any

of

Lodge

of

in

waves

Washington,

frictional
in

machine
the

cellar

and

vening.2
ceilings inter-

but

the

to

be

it had

knowledge

elucidated
been
the

by

ated
enuncielectric

theory.

produced
Hertz

tric
elec-

practical

electric

surprising property of

foreseen
in

waves,

to

discoveries.

own

needles

floors

two

of

work

his

from

electric

special and

like

prior

without
the

discovery

spark

elusive

been

quite

of

announced

pointed out,

Thompson,

apparatus

later, but

this

made

were

years

by Prof. Joseph Henry,

30

he

existence

but

them,

electro-magnetic theory of light

Faraday,

the

house, in magnetizing

of

distance

work

manifestations

knowledge

no

means

floor of his

his

of

theory

disruptive discharges from

produce

had

made

Hertz, was

succeeded,

at

to

after

been

have

the

investigated
part

Dublin,

approaches

nearest

upper

beneath

until

that

by

they

1888,

of ^an

wires.

neighboring

however,

radiations

to

waves.

necessary

that

Hertz,

of the

an

as

attempted

One

spark

and

and

Fitzgerald

the

Hertzian

Fitzgerald,

and

of

Karlsruhe,

or

employed

discovery, theoretically demonstrated

waves

an

of

noted

in

waves

Hertz's

discovery

experiments

and

jars

jar

coincidently, Lodge

year,

of

den

Ley

first

was

the

universally,

number

den

Ley

on

since

lightning rod,1

large

by

scientist

young

In

radiation,

emitted

waves

induction

the

electric

term,

electric

employed

great underlying

radiations
twelve

by
)^ears

principle

in-

ELECTRIC

volved

that the effects obtained

"

in

transversingspace
cause

of the

must

have

and

electric

waves

both

but

them,

effect
of

effect

The

lightwaves.

them

produced by

experimentaliststime

Henry

and

observed

was

Thompson
without

the

being suspected. As long ago as 18GG A. S. Varley, of land,

Engapplied for a patent on a lightningbridge based on the principle

cause

of the cohesion
of

the

of electric waves

as

when

together,as

often

more

the

as

observation

the

under

come

manner

same

well

as

21

the evidence

were

exactlythe

again,sometimes

noted

WAVES.

of carbon

or

this "coherer

Italy,observed

metallic

powder, Calzecchi-Onesta,

action"

in

1885,

but

he

attributed

it to induction.

for Hertz

It remained

phenomenon,
Since
and

that

his time
has

others

the

to make

known

before him

had

received

subjecthas

been

the attention

the

of such

with

one

eminent

investigators

scientists

and

results to the accumulation

these

of whom

Fleming, all

thoughts are

of facts.
and

many,

results will be treated

have

The

contributed

workers

who

la

De

as

liive,Lodge, Poynting, Bjerknes,Heaviside, Poincaire, J.

Lebedew

of the

merely speculatedupon.

favorite

real nature

J. Thomson,

important
have utilized

the

analyses,opinions and practical

unfolding of this and the succeeding

of in the

chapters.
EXPERIMENTAL.

When

oscillations

the

strain

or

similar

to the

the
elasticity
cease,

be

must

emitted

of

place. This

and

lines of force in
lines

electric waves,

direction

and

magnetic flux1and

so

the

at

by

the

ether

law

waves

on.

For

this

form

vanish

in

of energy

creation

reason

resists

ether

of
the

disappear they give rise

the

produced

by

governingthe

strained

rightangles to

when

is

wave

placement
dis-

its

polarizations
producing it
To produce a wave
there

the

other

some

of
The

the

and

requiresthat

of force

form

state.

energy,

is fulfilled
a

when

its normal

suppliedwith

law

in the

elastic solid.

an

wave

resumes

energy

shall be

magnetic

in

expenditure of

an

disruptivedischarge occur,

in the ether

strain

the ether

of

servation
con-

stored
being re-

to take

magnetic

flux

When

wave.

in their

waves

are

or

the

place to

they again produce

all ether

its

the

magnetic
electro-

in character.
An

analogue
action

and

of the
reaction

electric
may

wave

be found

and

its

accompanying

in the sound

wave.

netic
mag-

bell,

WIRELESS

22

struck,gives rise

when

thus

another
For

elastic strain,and

an

produces the strain energy in

strain in the oppositedirection

productionof

the

air

shown

FIG.

19.

kinetic

of

coil

large induction

electro-motive

the entire oscillator

only the spark,but

The

Hertz

were

Fig. 20,

in

several meters

to which

he

length.

the

gave

oscillations and

the

Hertz

resonators
but

one

side of the

diameter

for

Hertz

used

of 35
a

the

primary spark passes

at

first of

cm.

detector,

of several

were

experimentsin
circular with

was

In his earliest

experiments

of resonator.

the resonator

that

syntonized
producing it.

his

rectangularform

ployed
em-

or

waves

employed

by

its natural

when

tune

the resonator

oscillator,he attached

dissymmetricalpoint as

Hertz

spark gap

in

was

from

coil used

the

detect them

with

-high-tension
through

emanate

waves

obtained

were

electric radiations

SONATOR.

To

vibration

20^-HfeRTz
RE-

ondary
sec-

travelingwith

waves

system of

period of

forms,

FIG.

of the

of resonator, for he found

name

results

the best

The

being

system.

micrometer

of Eeiss

form

modified

oscillator

the

by

emitted

waves

them

of

source

the air gap d electric radiations in the form of

the finite velocityof lightand all other ether
not

COIL.

the disruptive
discharge breaks

As

force.

It is

polished brass

two

terminals

the

other

or

oscillator.

between

distance

with

connected

wires

are

simpledevice,

an

INDUCTION

WITH

the
plates,

oscillator

spheres; " ", the

cm.;

OSCILLATOR

motion

form, by causing

used

Hertz

electric waves

HERTZ

in disappearing

strain

to the first.

his

"

the

particlesinto

terminology is called
diagrammaticallyin Fig. 19 ; a a are

which, according to

60

to

velocityby settingthe

creates
and

TELEGRAPHY.

by

wire

To
at

Fig. 21 A, or as in Fig. 21B; when the

2, secondary sparkswill also pass in the

in

ECTRIC

of the

gap

resonator,but if

WAVES.

the wire

23

attached

to the resonator

is

point symmetrical to the spark gap, Fig. 2 1C, then no

secondary sparkswill pass in the micrometer gap, though the
be taking place in the
most
vigorous primary sparking may
oscillator. According to Fleming this is due to the inductance of
the wire of which
the resonator is composed.1 Hertz found that
at

FIG. 21A.
OSCILLATOR

AT

without the wire

connectingthe

sparkscould

still be

set in motion

by the sparkof

to the resonator

concluded
or

"

creates

in the form

on

case

of

and

that

the energy

propagated
throughspace
Fleming

waves.
electro-magnetic

the electric displacement

as he calls it,
fillsits

the resonator

LATOR
OSCILTO
POINT.

Fio.

and
alternating
displacement

difference between

RESONATOR
POINT.

and oscillator secondary

resonator

the coil was

arrivingat

RESONATOR
ATTACHED
SYMMETRICAL
AT
A
an

OSCILLATOR
WITH
UNSYMMETRICAL
AT

"

obtained,see Fig. 2 ID,

that in this

electricwave,

FIG. 21C.

Fi". 2 IB.
ATTACHED

RESONATOR
ATTACHED
TO
POINT.
UNSYMMETRICAL

"

the terminals.

an

When

2 ID.

"

spark gap

OSCILLATOR
RESONATOR.

WITH

and

FREH

alternating
potential
this

reaches

certain

and a small spark

amplitudethe minute
is produced between the ball terminals of the resonator.
this may
However
the method
be, it is substantially
by which
Hertz discovered electricwaves
and found that they may
be propagated
in space or guided by wires,but in either case the time constant
of their velocityremained
the waves
unchanged. When
air insulation breaks down

emitted

by an

the aid of

oscillator

are

transmitted

guidingwires,they travel

Fleming, Journal

througha

in

dielectricwithout

straightlines

of the Society of Arts, January, 1901.

and

at

right

24

WIRELESS

anglesto the plane of

is horizontal

by the dotted lines,Fig.

/ is placed in such a positionthat its plane
oscillator platesb I, as shown, sparks will
pass

to the

the

air-gap of
the sparks of

from

FIG,

or

shown
oscillator,

If the resonator

22.

in

the

TELEGRAPHY.

equal

to

22.

"

the

if it is held

resonator

the oscillator where

PRODUCTION

length, if

wave

greatestamplitude; g g, is a metallic
and
producing stationarywaves; now
same
plane but at a greater distance

spark will
been

reached.

be determined
the resonator

vibration

that the

in

pass

or

the

Hertz

from

plane

that

with

the

resonator

away,

at

h, hf li

the

length of

De

la

and

that the nodal

position,upon

enlarging or reducing the

that

length was

wave

diameter

mirror

the

in
or

the
no

points have
waves

could

absolutelyby observingthe point where the spark in

is the brightest,
this being its greatest amplitude of
guished.
by noting the null points where the spark is extin-

However, Sarasin and

wave
length was variable

the

point of its
for reflecting

the

resonator, for here the nodal

concluded

originate,

waves

WAVES.

ELECTRIC

measured

distance

proper

the electric

STATIONARY

OF

at

of the

Rive" in 1891,

ascertained

pointschanged

size of the

resonator
four

approximatelyequal to

times

and
the

also ascertained
investigators
that the size of the oscillator platesaffected the secondarysparks or
the positionof the resonator
but very little.
By placingthe resonator in other planes different phenomena
are

with

exhibited.

resonator.1

Fig

23

shows

the oscillator ; if the

turned

around

until

These

the resonator

in

plane parallel

top of the resonator or

bottom, sparks at the oscillator will

spark-gapis

at the

at the

produce secondary sparks in the gap ; but let the resonator assume
it is at right angles to the oscillator plates,as
a positionin which
Sarasin

and

De

la Rive,

Comptes Rendus,

March,

1901.

WAVES.

ELECTRIC

at

b, then

sparkswill

no

pass,

25

though the gap may

be turned

pletely
com-

around.
the

In
of zinc

22,

was

originalexperiments conducted by Hertz

of reflecting
used for the purpose
the
the

When

FIG.

have

we
a

23.

OSCILLATOR

"

of such

propagated through
the

oscillator

sending out
tuning-fork of
and

the resonator
oscillator
is made
resonator

Another

DIFFERENT

IN

of

the

De

la Rive's

had

system

same

emitted

Fig.

be

might

ured.
meas-

of the resonator

PLANES.

acts

that the electric

those emitted

as

as

waves

by

the

the detector is said to be in

case

fork

tuning

syntony
vibratingin air

given length are reproduced by a second

size,tone and pitch as the first. After

discoveryrelatingto
the

upon

rate

same

radiations

for the detector

dimensions

system, just as

waves

wave

length

waves

of many

of the

resonator

it

the effect the

believed

was

size of

that

the

lengths,just as white light

admixture
of many
wave
lengths and that the
up of an
in tune with
it.
responded to the wave
length that was
view that gained considerable
credence
is that the sparking

in the micrometer
set up

waves

it at the

this is the

and

Sarasin

RESONATOR

AND

gap

exhibition of electrical resonance,

an

oscillator ; when
with

in the micrometer

sparks pass

closed circuit conductor

are

which

producing stationarywaves

and

g,

large sheet

gap

in space,

but

that

length corresponded to the

the

was

not

period of

resonator

itself.

due

to

stationary

oscillation

However,

or

it is

wave
now

that electric
generallyaccepted that the theory Hertz first advanced
waves
are
actuallypresentand that the resonator givesthe value
of these wave
is the correct one
and the approximate
lengthsdirect
estimates
the experimenter gave concerning their length,vibration
"

"

and

have
velocity

confirm

been

determined

his results almost

more

identically.

since
accurately,

then

and

26

WIRELESS

the

In
assumed

preceding experiments it is
oscillator s}Tstem produces electric waves
of a
thus differs from
a luminous
body emittinglight

following as

that

the

given length,and

well

for in the first the

waves,

the visible
The

spectrum.

the eye

lengths of

wave

many

of ether

is limited

to

of

waves

wave

which

and
stitute
con-

the invisible

materially
of sight is
organ
lengths from the
of the

circuit

the

definite

value

differs

for the

waves,

short
capable of discerninga great many
deep red to the violet of the spectrum, but
detector

sent forth

spark-gap resonator

detector

singledefinite

lengthsare

and

spectrum

of

are

wave

micrometer

as

the

as

waves

all the various

in the second

from

TELEGRAPHY.

like

length

Reiss

that

of

tuning fork.
To

doubtless,there

many,

in the nature

may

of electric and

exactly in accordance

considerable

gence
diver-

is
disparity

but this

lightwaves,

Maxwell's

with

to be

appear

electro-magnetictheory

of

A.

FIG.

light;it is

24."

MEASUREMENT

frequencyof

the

them, making
other

which

OF

cannot

waves

vibration

it

by freezing,a liquidat
by heating,yet, after all, it
One

travel with

equal facilityand

or

for

the

in
ether

space,

whether

is

The

alone.

the
ascertaining,

plateB

normal
is

wave

with
parallel

the

WIRE.

be

may

to do

things

made

into

temperatures,or

H20.

So

is it with

and

each

electric

ferentiat
that dif-

wave

waves

some

water

in common
properties
of
of the properties

attributes.

or

As

do.

IN

length of

and

possiblefor

solid

lengths; all have

WAVES

ELECTRIC

has

into

steam

ether

wave

its

especial

is that

waves

they

cuits
velocityin open or closed -wire cirmedium
interveningis a dielectric

method

length in

of measurement
a

wire is shown

A, but is not in contact

with

Hertz
in

devised

Fig. 24, the

it,the

distance

WIRELESS

but

in

show

miles

and

waves

second.

The

Leyden jar
the

and

is identical to

actingonly as

guide for

that

electric

waves

oscillator

in space

he

action

and

the

in free

air Hertz

the tests

FIG.
HERTZ

The

small

under

were

26a.
OSCILLATOR

attached

cm.

to

by

employed
the

the

AND

coil

and

those of

experiments with
a

shorter

action

wave

was

giving

spark-gapwas

FIG. 26b.
RESONATOR.
a

a,

in diameter

WOOD

Fig. 26",
and

parabolicmirror

wooden

larger the

the

lineal

cut

wave

light.

electric radiations

'in

length than

manifested

in wires.

maximum

spark

down

to 5mm.

of

when

way.

oscillator balls

rods b b 3

the

coil and

of

Immediately after Hertz had

of high frequency generated

discovered

In his

"

induction

length,but

electrical inertia

induction

an

system

or

be.

he had

described,wherein

or

arranged the proper apparatus for concentrating

if
ascertaining a further relationship

waves

APPARATUS.

in

jar

will

wave

of

system

the

HERTZ

4r5"j
cm.

self-induction

electrical oscillations

existed between

used

wave

the

greater

or

the

those

the

of the

proven

the length
determiningexperimentally

propagation in ether is 186.500

frequencyor period of oscillation may be
in miles
length of the wave
by the velocity

capacity of

dimensions

THE

of

that

by dividingthe

greater

He

wires

over

in space, the wires

the method

second/

per

found

waves

practically
agreed

waves.

electric

per

experiments have

of electric
velocity

of electric waves

Knowing
of

the

cases

that the

that
the

all

TELEGRAPHY.

were

FIG. 26c.
SUPPORTING

connected

REFLECTORS.

with

in

length,each.

made

of

planishedsheet

framework, Fig. 26c.

The

oscillator

the brass

These

cm.

13
c

FRAME

were

zinc supported

system

was

'There is, doubtless, a slight variation

in ihe velocity of ether wave
to be extremely difficult of experimental
as
lengths, but it is so small
than
of light travel slower
proof; for instance,it is believed that red waves
been
has
Institute
other
offering a prize
wave
lengths, and the Franklin
for many
for conclusive
experimental proof that it is so.
years

WAVES.

ELECTRIC

held in

placeby

sticks of

of four

means

of the coil led to the

29

The

sealingwax.
and

spark-gap spheresdirect

nals
termi-

the coil itself

arranged back of the reflector. It was suppliedwith

from three storagebatteries.
in Fig. 2Gb; it is of the open
is shown
The
resonator

current

was

circuit

Hertz chiefly
to the spark-gapresonator
type, in contradistinction
of a circle.
in the form
employed in his earlier experiments,made
of two straightpiecesof wire 50cm.
in this case
It consisted
long
5mm.

two

smaller

wires

at

other

each

parallelto

their

ends

right angles

with

the

arranged

with

diameter, separated at

in

and

were

5cm.,

from
wires

vertical

micrometer

which
and

spark-gap,

The
below.
top and a pointed screw
struction,
resonator
was
arranged within a parabolicreflector of similar conto that described for the oscillator. As Hertz
pointed
out in his paper
Electric Radiation,1 and Fleming by his later
on
apparatus has proven, there can be a considerable modification,as
of

formed

to form

brass

sphere at

the

with
interfering

size,without

and

the

successful

working

of the tests.

FIG.

having the
was

AUGMENTATION

SOUND

"

that there is

of the mirrors.

electric wave.

Here
When

other,as

polished surface and

other

like the
this way

system

we

have

an

the mirrors
in

Figs. 26,
found

were

points again
rarefaction
the

lWiedemann's

nodal

the

two

of sound

points and

Annulen,

bolic
para-

resonator,

RESONANCE.

BY

behind

manifestation

no

or

on

mirrors,

either

side

example of a shadow cast by the

were
placed so that their apertures
the

waves

sets of

wave

vol. 36, p. 769.

the

as

waves

weaken

indicated

crests

may

the

advancing waves

tuning forks,as

two

waves

reflected from

were

to reinforce

like the condensation of air between

At

concave,
and

axis of their oscillators in the focal line of the

found

face each

27.

By placingthe

"

of the oscillator

reflectors back

zinc

it

WAVES.

ELECTRIC

REFLECTING

in

be

in
one

Fig. 27.
another

Fig. 28;

in

distinguished

WIRELESS

30

TELEGRAPHY.

easily. Again, if the detector and oscillator reflectors are arranged

at Fig. 29, A and 5, no
as shown
sparks will pass in the resonator

FIG.

until

the

plane

28.

RAREFACTION

"

of metal

sheet

SOUND

OF

INTERFERENCE.

BY

C is set in such

right angle
the

positionthat the

obtained

was

aperture of

into the

mirror, and
of

this

change
and
FIG.

29.

REFLECTING

"

WAVES,

ELECTRIC

angle

flect
re-

lator
oscil-

the

from

waves

to

the

ceiving
re-

variation

sufficient to

was

direction of the waves,

the

thereby

the

cause

sparks

to

"

TJY^POT.
'

RECTILINEAR

PROPAGATION.

demonstrate

to

that

Among

"

electric

waves

the many
travel

tests Hertz
in

plied
ap-

straightlines,

place a sheet of zinc between the oscillator and resonator

in the positionshown
in Fig. 29, or between
the two mirrors.
With
the plane sheet of metal
in place the sparks in the resonator
appear,
disone

to

was

if

the

the sparking
path of the waves
in the detector
ceases
were
spark-gap,showing that the waves
Electric
insulators
and
waves
intercepted.
are
pass through all
by all conductors except in the case of liquids,which
intercepted
or

conduct
follow

in

person

virtue

the law of

of

when

they pass

constructed

"

their

electrolytic
properties,but

all this being in accordance

insulators,

fundamental
REFRACTION.

crosses

otherwise
with

well's
Max-

law.
To

from

ascertain

if the electric

the air into another

waves

refracted

were

insulatingmedium,

Hertz

sired
huge prism by chipping a cube of pitch until the deobtained.
This pitch prism had
angles were
a
refracting
of
30"
and
its
discern a
to
the
able
angle
by
use
experimenter was
a

refraction of 22".
exhibit the power
Fleming,
18, 1901.

on

With

Fleming's apparatus1 it

of insulators to refract the

Electric

Waves,

Journal

of

the

waves

is

quite easy

with

to

prism of

Society of Arts, January

WAVES.

ELECTRIC

much

of two

consists

The

oscillator.

Fleming's apparatus

boxes, Fig. 30, placedwith

metal

and

other

each

used.

Hertz

than

dimensions

smaller

31

boxes

Fio.

about

30.

"

of sheet zinc.1

REFRACTION

ends

apart. At A, Fig. 30,

50cm.

made

are

their open

OF

protrude zinc tubes and inside of

insulatingtubes, containing brass rods

WAVES.

these
8

is the

the sides of the

From

ELECTRIC

box

wards
to-

ebonite

are

other

length and

in

10cm.

or

or

terminating in brass balls forming the spark-gap; the balls are

in length. To the oppositeends of
adjusted to give a spark 1mm.
the brass
up

rods

rest of the

the

with
the

are

the

of gutta-perchacovered wire filling

long spirals2
tube.
The outer ends of these spirals
nected
conare

secondary terminals

of the

apparatusis in operationsparks pass

the electric waves
resultingemanate

and

induction

between

coil;when

the oscillator

from

the

balls,

aperture of

the

box.
The

box

containingthe

containing the

detector

is

exactlylike

the

described

one

Hertz
system; instead of the resonator
employed, Fleming uses a later product of science, a coherer of
simple form, with nickel filings.The coherer is inside the receiving
zinc box

oscillator

the wires

and

connecting with

it

brought

are

out

through

metal

tubing,this precautionbeing necessary to prevent extraneous

therein.
This
tube with
the
from
waves
manifesting themselves
inner insulatingconductor
leads to another
metal box containinga
bell,relay and battery,as in the ordinary wireless signalapparatus

described in

Now

if the

*Zinc

is

and

is not
2

The

later

chapter.

emitting and jeceivingboxes

usually employed

magnetic,

object of
system.

as

the

sheet

because
tin

spiralsis

it is very

(iron) would
to

increase

the

are

much

set up

with

cheaper than

their
copper,

be.

self-inductance

of

the

cillator
os-

32

WIRELESS

apertures

at such

TELEGRAPHY.

angle

that

it is bent

out

the

electric

emerging from
the oscillator system do not .pass into the aperture of the receiving
but on
box, the detector system is not affected,
introducinga
of
that it is in the path of
so
prism
pitch,glass,wood or paraffin,
the

an

electric waves,

of its

waves

and

course

is refracted

into

opening of the receivingbox. The objectin using paraffinor

under
vestigat
inpitch for the prisms is that the length of the waves
being greater than where light is used, a much
larger

the

prism

is needed

than

substance
with

by

having

readilyobtained
homogeneous

equal advantage. Fleming

of

means

employed

the

in all the

POLARIZATION.

This

he

did

the
axis

mirror

mirror

B;

sought for

consisted

waves

enclosed

of the
were

when

31.

"

and

found

that

ft

used
waves

apparatus
in which

and

the

at

are

method

he

to

tain
ascer-

like

light.
Af Fig. 31,

mirror

be

about

revolved

resonator

to the

plane

vibrations

it could

both

";

horizontal

foci A

the

sulating
in-

WAVES.

ELECTRIC

so

electric ray

the

the electric

by Hertz

of transverse

POLARIZING

detector

in the

be

may

paraffin. The

by polarization.IJe arranged the

FIG.

with

concentrated
of

glass. Any

structure

experiments made

Hertz

"

in

reflectors.

largezinc

if electric

has

lens
piano-cylindrical

also be used

may

the

be

may

emitter

rightangles to

and

the

and

the
other

each

mirrors

functions
as
an
perform the same
opticalpolarizerand anatyzer,or the crystalsof

tourmaline
as

mode

FIG.

32."

POLARIZER

WAVES.

If this

screen

of

an

or

the

boxes

analogue

the
polarizing

counterpart to
of a
by means

the

for

with

offered
partitions
polarization.Another

electric wave,

Thompson

wooden

the

frame

and

close

analogue, is
with parallelwires
rope

arranged 3cm. apart, Fig. 32.

is interposedwith the wires perpendicular
to the

WAVES.

ELECTRIC

-electric ray,

Fig. 33,

in

as

the

and

pass

waves

produce

detector,but

the

is set up

so

spark in

if the

screen

that the wires

will

rightanglesto the wave

front,the ray is stoppedrcom-

be at

Fig. 34.
is
If the receivingmirror
again placed as at Fig. 31,

as
pletely,

FIG.

at
the

45"

angle of

an

the

to the

action

of

the

and

horizontal,then

Here, then,

detector.

between

WAVES.

POLARIZED

33.-PLANE

is another

light and

at

wire

inclined

screen

in
sparks may be seen
most
strikingsimilarity

and

electric

Electric

waves.

waves

length from 10,000

miles, produced by the lightning
flash and having a period of approximately
be of any

may

oscillations

18

second,

down

through
spectrum,

invisible

violet

having

of

185

inch with

an

to the

radiation,

length of

wave

millionths

per

radiant

heat, the visible

ultra

J(

FIG.

34.

POLARIZER
WAVE
TO

"

ten

1500

RIGHT
AT
FRONT.

trillion oscillations

ANGLES

vibrations

or

per second.
short
so
Fleming have produced electric waves
to be measured
as
by the ten-millionths part of an inch; so short
they could be seen, in fact,they were lightwaves, and reversed,light
waves
waves.
know, electro-magnetic
are, as we
In all the experimentscited the productionof the electric waves
due to the surging of electric oscillations through the oscillator
was
system seekingto find its potentiallevel,and this was caused by the
disruptivedischargebreaking down the air-gap.

Lebedew

FREE
the

ELECTRIC

the

AND

electric

curvature

of the

resonator, two

of the rectilinear

HALF-WAVES.

SLIDING

of

phenomena

where
and

and

theories

wave

propagationof

been

free electric waves

slidinghalf -waves.
Blondel,1 Taylor2 and Fessenden3

the

between

advanced.

account

for

great distances

propagation over

earth intervenes
have

To

"

oscillator

first is that

The
and

the second

is that of

have

evolved the

slidinghalf-

in Wireless
Telegraphy. Archives, Academy of Sciences
Blondel.
Aug. 16, 1898.
2
Electrical Review, May 12, 19, 1899.
London
Taylor.
3
See also Fessenden's
1889.
Am.
Inst. Elec. Engs., Nov.
Transactions
and
work
in Wireless Telegraphy; Collins; Elec. World
Eng. Sept. 19, 1903.

'Syntomy

WIRELESS

34

described,is as
theory which, briefly

wave

where
terminals
to the

the

and

oscillator

surface

of the

that

the

vertical

and

PROPAGATION

"

of such

wire

the

oscillator

aerial
the
an

in the
is

that

arm

lower

half

image

wave

the

by

the

follow

earth

or

bent

author

has held to the

since there is
wave
can

can

be

no

be divided

formed

imaginary.

with

In

sphericalwaves,

so

These

in

that one-half

the

free

like

lightwaves,

electric

of

reflection

the

front
the

or

pendicular
per-

surface-

electric

free electric
that

waves

not

theory, it
emitted

and

tion,
propaga-

electric

an

of it is real and
wave

wave

the

other

is assumed

these

higher strata
conductor

and
electricity,

waves
as

are

that

of

current
also

OF

FREE

ELECTRIC

WAVES,

radiations

in

reflected,
the

Fig. 36, when

PROPAGATION

fied
rare-

of electric

then

indicated

half

becomes

of

non-conductor

wave

reaching

on

air, which

36."

the

electric
spherical

or
integrity

the

Fio.

tached,
de-

being

wave

as

or

direct visual line.

its

are

arm

conditions

but little whether

theory of

maintain

these

contour, just

of

opposite or

slidingover

experimental proof

and

the

half-waves

with

must

earthed

representedas

matters
are

they

the

Under

half-waves
its

closely

very

only portion of

case

since

of the earth

follow

wire,so that it

be
lines.

The

stations
sendingand receiving

The

is the

compared

would

the surface

over

water

when

earthed

have

It is contended

35.

in which

waves,

dotted

to its surface.
of

oscillator

an

raphy,
teleg-

HALF-WAVES.

SLIDING

it is of little consequence.

shown

slide

short

of the

In wireless

systems

Fig.

of half -waves,

nature

so

in

OF

capable of emitting electric

necessitybe

resonator^

shown

earth, as

35.

follows

wires,the spark-gapis located

aerial

high

FIG.

it

TELEGRAPHY.

impinge On

gram,
diathe
the

CHAPTEE

IV.

DISRUPTIVE

DISCHARGE.

HISTORICAL.

The

witnessed
of

Traustralian

by

cloud

another

and
the

until

the

its

The

by

Hawksbee
to

be

of

the

but

the

During

of

importance

broek,
To

But

he

been

the

earth

or

thought long
wrestled

the

with

in

and

preserved
in

Leyden
three

Kleist,

objects, but

1643,

and

were

considerable

the

again by
minute

so

fire was

more

jar

is not

with

known

in

Leyden,

and

Cuneus,

philosopher, and

of

is due

honor

certainty,

be

served

This

but

distinguished investigators of that

monk,

to

added

was

electricitycould

the

be

electrical

study of electricityin general

whom

to

given

the

quantities.

particular. 'To

as

experimenters

invention

the

early

as

they appeared

nothing

phial whereby

in

the
in

until

Philadelphia.
noted

restored

they

as

display,and

in

other

many

answered

not

and

electrical

of

name

as

inating
orig-

query

of the

observed

eye,

sparks

or

the

was

produced

Newton

by

unaided

jar

least,and

his kite in 1750

knowledge

1745, of

its claimants
were

and

the

zigzag lightning

to

cave

nature

sparks they

charged

disruptive discharge

these

had

the

the

to

the

at

ago

succeeding forty years

interest

inventing

ability.

flew

and

heat,

as

the

and

stimulate

his

electrical

he

the

witnessed

and

in

his

cloud

prehistoric being

the

the

to

origin

accumulated

for

this

Guericke,

visible

Germany,

of

of

identity,when

barely
same

from

within

years

established

von

equilibrium

the

brain

1705,

produced

to

of

limits

million

in

them.

of

shelter

terrific

the

saw

discharging

disruptive discharge

1602

Age

turbance
dis-

When

thought.

gave

air-

an

vain.

Franklin

therefore

in

sought

the

half

was

in

as

in

subject
That

he

within

hard,

air

he

across

first electrical

the

probably

which

to

man

spark springing

was

Post-Glacial

the

shatteringthe
to

electric

an

disruptive discharge,

or

gap,

of

phenomenon

it has

period;

Musschen

professor.
Sir

William

Watson,

however,
36

as

much

credit

is due

as

to

DISCHARGE.

DISRUPTIVE

the

originalinventor, for

coating the
well

as

surfaces

outer

conceived

who

he

was

For

dischargeswere

Ley den jar with

the spark upon
its

and

machines

This

in 1831.

led to the modern

induction

high degree of perfectionby Ruhmkorff,

was

obtain

possibleto

now

of
foil
tincharge.
dis-

the first to explain

were
Leyden, and Franklin
accumulator
of electhe jar as
the spark and
tricity.
an
nearly another century the observers of disruptive
confined
to electrostatic sparks produced by fric-

jars,in fact,until a new

opened by Faraday'sdiscoveryof the induction
tional

idea

of the

first to observe

the

the

of

of

action

be

to

as

Allemand,
the

and

inner

it

37

between

better

way

of

was

of electric currents

coil,brought
in

Germany,

series of

continuous

and

to such

1850; it

charges
disruptivedis-

the

In the next few years

secondary terminals.
the strikingor explosivedistance,as the distance through which
the
spark passes in a dielectric is termed, was greatlyincreased and a
coil constructed by Mr. Apps, of England, for Mr. Spottiswoode,
record
for many
gave a spark 42 inches in length,the longeston
years.
While

makers

the instrument
for

efficient apparatus

devisingmore

were

tists
production of disruptivedischarges the scienIn 1842
were
engaged in examining their nature.
Joseph
Henry suggested that the spark was not a unit in itself but that
each spark consisted of a number
of minute
sparks; in 1850 Lord
Kelvin
it, and in 1859 Fedderson
mathematically demonstrated
experimentallyproved it by analyzingit with a revolvingmirror.

While
the

the

improvements

in

of the

strikingdistance
the limit

Trowbridge

measuring
later

in

of
discharge1
a

an

misnomer

bolt,resemblingin

7 feet in

next

had

twenty years,
been

not

Elihu

cated,
dupli-

Thomson,

high frequencyapparatus invented

length.

succeeded

by Tesla, with
eclipsed

became

during the

Spottiswoode coil
of

means

inches

by him, sparks64
1880

in order

having seemingly been reached.

1877, produced,by

In

were

in

length,and
a

similar

charges
obtaining disruptivedisthese

spark lengthswere

high frequency,
tial
high-poten-

explosivelength so great that the word

it ; it

when

appliedto

every

the
particular

was

in fact

tortuous

path

spark

miniature

of ramified

lightning.
^Tesla

Lecture

before

the

American

Institute

of Electrical

Engineers.

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

38

PHYSICAL.

for obtaining a disruptivedischarge is

simplest method
electrostatic induction
of the electrophorus,
an
apparatus.
by means
bing
After the hard-rubber
plateA, Fig. 37, is charged by a brisk rubThe

with

and the

the

flannel

is touched

disc B

the metal

causing

piece of

cat's

or

with

the

finger
dissipated

to be
electricity

"

cover

disc B

or

to be

skin,

charged with

electricity.On the disc being lifted

and the knuckle
presented,as shown, the
4-

difference of

sufficient to

cause

the

potentialwill be
of
the breaking down

and

consequentlythe

Frictional electric and

follow
in

had

FIG.

37.

body

spark.
chines
platema-

other

practicallya similar

but
chargingand discharging,
store the electricity
recourse

or

air-gap

passing of the

course

to retain
be

must

to the

Leyden jar. To dischargethe

jar the fingeror other negativelyelectrified
brought closelyto or in contact with it. The

ELECTROPHORUS.

"

be

may

physiologicaleffect

of

from
discharge,even
"shock," and, if sufficiently
intense,is painful;
heart is weak

it is

dangerous.

in

small

jar, is
where

cases

the

avoid

To

the

unpleasant sensation
described,a
discharger,Fig. 38, is employed. It
usually consists of two pieces of brass
wire, hinged together with a pair of
insulated

handles

fitted with

brass

tinfoil should

be

and

spheres of
in

small

contact

with

FORMS

There

three

many

different

one

arm

The
of the

DISCHARGER.

outer

coating of

dischargerfirst.

DISCHARGES.

forms

of

dischargebetween

minals
the ter-

principal ones
discharge.

from

OF

diameter.

38."

jar or induction coil,and with the increase in frequency

potentialthere is a corresponding increase in variety. The
of

and

are

FlG-

terminals

the

the

The

disruptive,convective, and
convective
be seen
discharge may

are

terminal
positive

the

of

frictional

machine

or

an

tive
conduc-

glowing
induction

DISCHARGE.

DISRUPTIVE

is caused

coil,and

still

space,

the electrification of the air

by

being charged

on

39

the

projectedby repulsioninto

are

carrying the charge;

in Geissler

which
particles,

surrounding

and

tubes

tubes

other

Crookes
tube,
containing residual atmosphere, as the low vacuum
lowed.
and
be
the convective
closelyfoldischargeis easilyproduced
may
of a jar or coil
When
wire joins the oppositeterminals
a
and the potentials
are
equalizedby dischargingthe current through
it,a conductive
dischargeresults,the phenomenon being identical
to the
the

dischargethrough

other.

down

When

the

from

wire

terminal

one

potentialdifference

is

of

batteryto

great enough

to break

air,or other dielectric separatingthe terminals, a surging

before it is restored,the
takes placethrough the insulatingmedium
visible effect of which
in the spark. This
is the
is manifested
the

disruptivedischarge and
emission

of electric

The

least four

factors,and

and

important

electrodes

or

consist

metal

these

of

discharge for

suitable

most

the

waves.

of

initial energy

most

is the

the

disruptivedischarge depends

according to
of

terminals

these

of the

five.

upon
the

is, of. course,

in

wireless

The

first

potentialat

secondary coil, and

spheres,Fig. 39;

electrodes
spherical

Jaumann

these

at

on

the

usually

telegraph practice

called

are

the oscillator l)alls. If the

difference is

potential
gent
diversufficiently

FORM
FlG- SQ.-USUAL
SPARK-GAP.
quantity of induced
'current great enough, the spark is so intense
that it will disrupt
A charge is often so
the dielectric placed between. the terminals.
strain of the glass
excessive in a Leyden jar that the mechanical

and

the

OP

it
separating the coatings of tinfoil causes
dischargepiercingit breaks the vessel. With
spark from a coil,cubes of glassthree inches

give

to
a

or

way

10

in thickness

and

inch

the

heavy

are

easily

shattered.

DISCHARGE

THROUGH

DIELECTRICS.

through
Disruptivedischarges
and

glass,have

been

tested,with

but while
emitting properties,

fluid and

the

the

solid

dielectrics,
as oils

their
objectof increasing

break

is

more

sudden, there

wave

is

correspondingdecrease of energy available for sending out the

at the present time nearly,if not all,the
electro-magnetic
waves;
best wireless telegraphsystems are using the air as a dielectric,
for,

WIRELESS

"10

TELEGRAPHY.

Lodge clearlyputs it,the

as

and
as

the

upon

of every

passage

holds

This

again.

new

for
occasionally,

now

the

What

oil,which

for

good
this

good

feature

offered
of

resistance

oil,air

disruption is not known,

be great. One
good feature of

cannot

but

in

carbon

these
FOBMED

OF

oscillator balls in water

be

spark may

had

COLOR,

best

with

and

arranged between
the

the cotton-wool

is of electro-static
coil provided with

When

oil.

oil it is of

Bisulphide of

is very

bright; in
^
by gubmerging ^
short striking
distance,

spark
fc

in

having a very
little difficulty.
SHAPE

to the

OF

DISCHARGES.

of
working efficiency
careful

wireless
of

observations

the

of the

found

was

wide.1

canal 6mm.

Fig.

liquid dielectrics,and

by making

sound

In

it

mine
disruptivedischarge. To deterthe disruptivedischargeon the air,de Nikolarene
and this
two ebonite rings a layerof cotton-wool,
path of the spark; after dischargingthrough it

the effect of

placed in

is

value

the

spiritsof turpentineare

the

^^

AND

guide
practical

color,size,shape

Oil,

and

SIZE

telegraphtransmitter

he

of

40.-SPABK-GAP

spark.

is at the

tarnishing.

excellent

The

case,

any

spark takes place in

greenish-whitecolor.
and

of the

dielectric

dielectric

does

oil dielectric is that

the

balls from

effectually
prevents the oscillator
40 is shown
a
spark-gap formed

the

passage

in

than

is

largelycounteracted

other

or

used, and

been

insulation

is

the

during

of

moment

has

higher

partition

instantaneouslyas good

it is

offer

greater resistance
the exact

spark

self-mending

it does

air,before the break, but

by

air constitutes

The

to be

compressed

effect
explosive

origin rather

than

of

due

to

either

side

forming

disruptivedischarge
heat ; with

interrupterthe

ordinary mechanical

an

on

large

spark

is

color,zigzag in form, and producesa sharp crackling

coil is equipped with an electrolytic
sound, but if the induction
interrupterof the Wehnelt
type or a mercurial turbine interrupter

brilliant in

the

discharge loses

arc,

less brilliant

second
wave

factor

on

emitter

^Journal

de

these

in color
which

the

characteristics and
and

giving forth

effectiveness

depends,relates

Physique,August,

or

to the form

1899.

presents instead an
The
a
hissingsound.
of an
tric
elecinefficiency
and

dimensions

of the

DISCHARGE.

DISRUPTIVE

terminals

Fig. 41a, and

in

as

points are employed,

tance,
separated just beyond the strikingdis-

are

two

discharge,called

convective

luminous

Where

balls.

oscillator

or

41

brush

discharge,

and if the points

place from the positiveterminal especially,
are
so
adjusted that an occasional spark will pass, the brush will
of
be seen
streams
to act as a path for the latent sparks. While
electrified air precede the disruptivedischarge in any case, yet
takes

pronounced as to be visible it detracts largelyfrom

probablyby a lowering of the specific
emitting qualities,

where
its

it is

wave

resistance

so

of

the

air.

point and a disk b, Fig. 41, form

air-gapthe brush dischargeis brighterthan
Where

Fio. 41a.
SPARK-GAP
FIG. 416.
SPARK-GAP
"

WITH
WITH

"

unless

the

POINTED
POINT

the terminals
with

two

of the

points,and

ELECTRODES.
DISK.

AND

normal

cut down
the
strikingdistance is considerably
With a point and
dischargeis quite difficult to obtain.
disruptive
a
sphere, c, Fig. 41, the brush loses its visible propertieswhere

small

coils

used

are

Fio.

and

faintlyluminous

SPARK-GAP
WITH
SPARK-GAP

41c."

FIG.

is

41d."

POINT
BETWEEN

AND

with

largercoils,but

BALL.
Discs.

the

disruptive
dischargeis persistent.With two disks,d, Fig. 41,
there is a convective
dischargearound the periphery of each unless
theyare carefullyrounded, and, when the sparking distance is at its
maximum,

the

disruptive dischargesconstantly shift

From

positionto another.

best results the terminals

or
are

points to assist
the

usual

from

one

these facts it is clear that to obtain the

or

electrodes should

offer

no

sharp edges

convective

form, the

and so spheres of melal

discharge,
disruptivedischarge breaking down

the

air-gapsbetween the peripheralportions offeringthe shortest

strikingdistance. It was
believed,until quite recently,that the
of
length the electric waves
depended largelyupon the size of the
electrodes

the

wave

or

oscillator balls,but

lengthsvary

with

the

it has since been

inductance

and

determined

capacityof

that

the

WIRELESS

42

oscillator system, and

that

TELEGRAPHY.

the

by the oscillator spheres only

capacity of the system.
After

what

has been

of

length
in

so

the

far

the

their

as

said,it is self-evident

is influenced

waves

size

that the

alters

the

spark depends

oscillator balls

terminals.
or
largelyupon the distance between
When
the strikingdistance representsthe maximum
capacityof the
in
coil the sparks are long, ribbon-like,and attenuated, as shown
Fig. 42, which is a photograph of a 42-inch spark, from a meter

FIG.

42.

"

42-iNCH

SPARK.

spark coil made by Queen " Co., for the Japanese government for
cableless telegraphic
communication
and
between
Corea
Japan.
When
the air-gap
is cut down to 32 inches,the spark passes between
the terminals
in the form
of a pencilof lightof giganticproportions,
Fig. 43, with a wavy luminous effect,giving forth a blue
blaze of electrical energy and capableof emitting waves
of great
penetrativepower.
STRIKING

DISTANCE.

in the
greatestefficiency
the length of the sparkuntil the strikingdistance is approximatelyforty times less
gap
distance through which
the disruptivedischarge
than the maximum
takes place:1this,in the case
of the 42-inch
spark, would give a
working value of lA inch, or, with a standard 10-inch coil,a

It is necessary, in order to obtain the

productionof electric waves, to cut down

working spark of one-quarterinch. This ratio

and
potentialof different coils,and
the

dischargemay

give the best results

separated one-tenth

in

when

very

the

the

small

terminals

quency
fre-

coils
are

The
ruptive
heavy disstrikingdistance.
Fig. 43 is termed usuallya "fat" spark,

of the total

dischargeshown
and

with

varies

in

good heavy spark is the first requirement for the wireless

transmission
of intelligence.
a

This refers

only to

the

usual

high tension

induction

coil.

WIRELESS

44

that

crease
inno
high the potentialis raised,practically
is given with
is obtained higher than
a
spark
efficiency
how

matter

no

in

TELEGRAPHY.

length,as indicated by

horizontal

The

line b.

the

line

spark

in

vertical line

potential of

the

the

the

inches, and

indicates

representsthe radiation.
relation to Jaumann's

In

that

the

sertion,
as-

affected

spark is

by a variation of the magnetic

field,it will be omitted, as his
lished
estabtheory is not sufficiently
Fio.

45.

SPARK

"

CURVE.

POTENTIAL

to

improvement

in the

of
working qualities
OF

ACTION

The

curious

that

coil possesses the

the spark of a second induction

finallydetermined

fallingon
Hertz

one

found

that it

of the

spark.

LIGHT.

the

coil

by Hertz, who traced

of splendidexperiments and
made

was

long series
was

caused

the ultra-violet radiation

by

spheres. In
the electric spark itself was

that

oscillator

these

investigations
richest in emitting

the invisible ultra-violet rays, but that the flame of

near

one

cause

to

of the

terminal

sparking when

the

permit the spark to

candle if held

productiveto
spark-gap was sufficiently
strikingdistance was otherwise too great

pass.
The

employed by
searches
rephoto-electric

apparatus
in

Hertz

his

is illustrated in
An

5;

spark-gap at
parallelwith
that

the

smaller

and

second

coil C

having a
D

was

the

emitted

plane
larger coil,so

connected

46.

of E. M.

lWiedemanri's

F., and with

Annalen,

vol. 31.

an

in

both

series

interrupter/

from

waves

primaries of

duction
in-

very small

set in

oscillators will receive

The

is

the oscillator system

with
a

Fig. 46.
coil A

ordinary induction

connected

source

the

way

any

disruptivedischarge of one
property of increasingthe length of

observation

phenomenon through

the

ULTRA-VIOLET

induction

the

in

assist

the

waves.

coils

with

common

both

were
mon
com-

to both

DISRUPTIVE

coils.
sheet

When
of

much

the

the

visible

The

of

invisible

ultra-violet

Hertz

states that

sparkscannot
to 4

and

the

lightis cut out.

lighthe

By

visible luminous

wireless

the

electric

the

tremely
ex-

at

and

far

apart that

distance

of from

when

cease

in front

the

arc

of the

arc

cause

the

the

from

found

that

the

cause.

normally
having a tendency to abspark, likewise decreases the

wave

of the

working

patents in the United

radiations,which

not

was

emitting system, and, therefore,the

the oscillator balls is detrimental
falling upon

ultra-violet radiation
to the proper

so

aperture held

of

length

very

increasing them.

or

drawn

are

pass

direct

telegraphyany

disruptivedischarge,the

glowing carbons,and

the

was

the

to

an

it

separate the ultra-violet radiation

of the

rays

increase
of
efficiency

of

that

property,but

started

lightis

arc

means

ultra-violet radiation
In

an

to

this

producing sparks

sparks begin

enabled

was

the latter became

to the

if the oscillator balls

pass

meters,

of

by

waves.

light is,next

arc

that of D

to conclude

lightthat produced

effective method

most

from

screened

was

this effect led Hertz

waves

electric

45

sparks dischargingacross

and

rapid

spark-gapB

glass,the

smaller

DISCHARGE.

States

he does

by

apparatus. Lodge

and

for

England
of colored

means

secured

has

excluding

these

glass encasing the

oscillator balls.

Sparks of
of

largelyby

irregularform

an

the

metal

unclean

perfectlyclean

from

vapor

terminals; the

and

should

be

be

may

traced

the

to

an

and
electrodes,

oscillator

polished frequently.Since

in character, different
dischargeis electrolytic

been

tested
;

the best

with

view

of

is caused

should

balls

ascertainingthe

spheresof copper and aluminium

results,although brass terminals

been

kept

the

ruptive
dis-

metals

found

almost

are

be

have

consistent

most

have

tribution
dis-

uneven

minals
ter-

yield
universally
to

employed.
DIRECT

An
break

intermittent
of contact

ALTERNATING

AND

either

sensitive

by

coherer

experiments in New York

sparking of a trolleyas
Although

between

direct

or

of considerable

produce electric waves

of

formed

arc

CURRENT

the

metals

resultingfrom the
alternatingcurrent suffices to
and
intensity,

will affect it.

City,the author
it passed an
uneven

distance

was

EFFECTS.

While
had

if in the

imity
prox-

conducting

to contend

with

juncture in

the

nearly one

hundred

some

the
ductor.
con-

feet, yet

46

WIRELESS

cohered

spark

every
extraneous

for

coils.

these

To

an

is

the

test

electric

sparks

length,
radiator

long

while

.With

electric

may

waves

be

capable

produced.

be

of

intense

set

detector

radiator

the

will

in

or

found
has

density
an

penetration

the

brightness

be

proper
up

coil

given

spark-length

the

choking

observing

balls,

of

easily
of

The

of

and

length

value

may

devices.

and

plane

discharge

tapper

spark-gap
detector

from

and

for

adapted

oscillator

maximum

disruptive

oscillations

powerful

distances

the

when

relay

employment

their

as

trouble

receiving

the

the

the

well

as

the

horizontal

adjusting

the

to

micrometer

setting

same

sparks

clearly

and

the

Eeiss

due

best

distance

By

in

of
is

of

source

is

effects

emitter,

detector

obtained.

circuits

convenient.

most

secondary

indicate

battery

striking

wave

system

the

currents

untoward
the

oscillator

of

the

Another

filings.
direct

by

breaking

remedy

as

the

sparking

contacts

TELEGRAPHY.

open

to
been

and
circuit

traversing

V.

CHAPTER

OSCILLATIONS.

ELECTRIC

HISTORICAL.

the

In

observed:

are

the

(2)
low

of
as

of

high frequency, high potentialcurrents

through

as

the

who

current

when

needles

Joseph
in

June,

found

repeated

polarity always conformable

the

that

that

of

oscillations

spark,
the

himself

Henry

that

but

admit

and
more

then

feeble

the

says:

"The

existence

several
than

employed
the

the

charge
disin

increase

This

important

the

reflex

discharge

from
of

covery
dis-

several

correctly

not

jar

to

the

principal discharge

in

one

one
a

is

actions

preceding,

side

of the

and

backward
until

the

Edinburgh
American

Journal

of Science,

Philosophical

equilibrium

47

October,

Society, June,

sented
repre-

other

1826.
1842.

tion
direc-

each

forward,

'Proceedings

helix, and

only after

attained

was

instantaneously

not

was

an

No.

with

polarity.

in

by

up

ordinary

current.

by the single transfer

must

it

in small

of

direction

the

changes

equilibrium

in

magnetizing

the

jar.1

experiments

were

finally cleared

was

electrical

an

by the

effected

fine needles

very

of

motion

anomalies

to

ruptive
dis-

the

Philosophical Society

some

to

electricityproduced

the

of

force

when

puzzling phenomenon

we

them

that

Leyden

the

Savart's

of

spoken

is

magnetization
a

nomenon
phe-

Savart, of France,

Felix

the

to

paper

the

1806,

fro

and

to

investigations of
He

in

suggestion

discharge of

the

by

his

on

induction.

and
the

the

irregularity of

sewing needles, subjecting

first

the

by

contributed

Henry

1842,

electrical
and

affected

jar.

or

lightning discharges

in

caused

the

coil

distinctlyexpressed by

was

perplexed by

was

in

of

system

But

was

wire

Physilc,published

der

occurrence.

discharge
electric

oscillator

"back-stroke"

the

of

coils

by moving

Annalen

common

alternating

frequency

field, and

Gilbert's

In

classes

two

magnetic

surging

resistance

low

commercial

of

oscillations

electric

of

retrospect
that

(1)

produced

currents

historical

is

tained."
ob-

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

48

Five

later,in 1847, Helmholtz

years

his

communicated

views,,

evidentlyindependent of those of Henry. In his paper,

Ueber die ErJialtung der Kraft, Helmholtz
suggested the electric
oscillations and said he assumed
the dischargeof a jar not a simple
which

were

in one
direction,but a backward
electricity
which
the coatings of oscillations
between

motion

until

smaller
of

Kelvin,

deduced

the

again, five

conclusion

at the

with

ordinary frictional

same

and oxygen

in

rose

due

was

Fedderson

suggestedby
made

been

some

electric

machine,

condition

the

Kelvin.

Lord

wanting in
exceedingly

either

ciding
coin-

Faraday
water

fine

Yernon

photographsof

the

first

as

oscillations

Boys,
the

1859

discharge

revolving mirror,

years.

gen
hydro-

electrode,and

electric

Photographic proof of
recent

that

discharge. In

of the

Wheatstone

sum

results

showed

and

of the

nature
oscillatory
in

the

(in 1852), Lord

Helmholtz.

from

to electric oscillations

proved

tinually
con-

by decomposing
experimentally

mixed

by observing the spark

not

destroyedby

later

years

forward

become

the
mathematically,

phenomenon

arrived

that this

vis viva is

exactlywith Savart, Henry and

almost

an

entire

the

resistances,1and

the

has

and

of

motion

in

1890,2

principaland

supplementary sparks of the discharge,each of which left a welldefined and separaterecord on the negative. Trowbridge obtained
photographicproof that the long seven-foot sparks were oscillatory.
Some
been

very
made

and

without

within

the

of electric

electric oscillations have

interesting
photographs of
by

E.

Dr.

iron

W.

cores

Marchant

in the

with

coils.

Many

revolvingmirror, with
facts have

been

added

years, and the laws governing the emission

part, quite well known.
are, for the most

past two
waves

PRACTICAL.

Low

FREQUENCY

generatorsthe

CURRENTS.
current

flow

"

In

commercial

rent
alternatingcur-

direction from

reverses

50

to 300

of polar projections
By increasingthe number
be
the speed of the armature, or both, a higher frequencymay
or
In telephone circuits the
obtained,but the limit is soon reached.

times

per second.

frequencyof reversal may be 1,000 or more

per second.
simple periodiccurrents having characteristic curves.
Scientific

Memoirs

of Helmholtz:

edited

^Proceedings Physical Society, London.

bv
1890.

Tyndall, 1853.

These
A

low

are

fre-

OSCILLATIONS.

ELECTRICAL

of time for the

alternatingcurrent requiresthe element
negative potential,
positiveto change to the maximum

quency
maximum
and

vice

and
at

the

versa;

f.

in.

e.

strengthare kept
value
constant
by the

current
a

generator,hence

usually

follow
in

as

Curve,

HIGH

the constants
smooth

some

Fig. 47.

of reversal

CURRENTS.

be

must
which

by

obtain

CURVE.

CURRENT

ALTERNATING

"

To

"

is but

employed. There

electric oscillations of the

of electric

emission

47.

electric

an

waves

exceedinglyhigh frequencyhaving a period

cal
greaterthan can be produced by mechani-

of
times

many

means

science

FIG.

FREQUENCY

alternatingcurrent

the

49

waves

be had.

may

method

one

known

to

requisitefrequency for
This is by discharging

system through a circuit of small resistance

and allowingthe maximum
positiveand negativecharges to restore
the electrical equilibrium through a
disruptivedischarge, this
the spark passes a conductor
of low resistance,
forming at the moment
a

condenser

oscillator

or

there

is then

currents, the
ten and
on

hundred
the

set

duration

out

are

oscillator

of which

thousandths

part of

capacity,inductance

will oscillate to and

the

in

up

and

system high
be measured
by

may

second.

In this

before it is

of the resistances.
by the sum
Alternating and oscillatingcurrents, of
of
governed by the electrical dimensions

and

factors,i.e.,ohmic

these

rent
cur-

finally
damped

whatever
the

the

ing
depend-

of the circuit the

resistance

fro several times

case

quency
fre-

frequency,

oscillator

resistance,inductance,

and

system,
static
electro-

law
capacity,all tend to slow down the frequency. Ohm's
does not apply to the circuit,but its value largelydepends on
the frequency with which
the reversals take place,and, in circuits

containing iron
the current
and

the

ohmic

ANALOGUE

e.

f.

m.

the frequency of
By increasing

decreases

resistance

capacityincreases.

frequencycurrents
of resistance

the

upon

is

are

induced

usuallyso
OF

by

small

ELECTRIC

In
a

oscillator

shown

in
in

an

oscillator

Fig. 48.

Fleming,

Cantor

system

at

It consists of

"

systems where

mechanical

the electric action

the moment
a

ductance
the in-

higheffect

negligible.

OSCILLATIONS.

designedby Fleming,1 illustrates

place

while

disruptive
dischargethe
to be

as

in value

glasstube

of
bent

logue,
ana-

taking

discharge;it

is

in the forpi of

Lecture, Jan., 1901, Society of Arts, London.

WIRELESS

50

is

tending

to

the

cause

this force is allowed

the

upon

is allowed

force
the

If

if

But

denly,
sud-

to act

of

in virtue

mercury,

the

density,flows beyond

its

of

equalize.

oscillation.

level,without
the

b;

will find its normal

slowly the mercury

to act

and

columns

two

levels to

low

and

high

displacedthat

so

paralleltubes

the

exerted

is therefore

force
gravitational

is

which

mercury,

of level between

difference

mercury,

with

filled
partially

U ; it is

there

TELEGRAPHY.

level,indicated

mal
nor-

the dotted

by

returns, its inertia

line,and then
Positive

Negative

fluid metal

Secondary

If the

98mary

friction

has

FIG.

48.-ANAix"Qt,"

has the effect of

slowing

or

in other

of the

will

circuit;the denser

be

of the
the

effect

of

discharge the

Place5

tions

the

the

in

by the

liquidin

less the

ohmic

of the

abrased

The

surface

the tube

of the

less

tube,

resistance

appreciable

higher frequency

the

circuit affects

of the

resistance

tem
sys-

resistance

ohmic

the

to

OScilla'

electric

inductance

friction, likewise

the

oscillations

oscillations.

the

permits

oscillations.
If

are

the

take

to rest.

mercury

effect and
two

or

the

to

friction,corresponds to the

the

words,

one

down

offered to the flow of the mercury

offered

only

coming

rough inside, the

is

damping

OSCIL-

ELECTRIC

OF

I'ATION8-

before

tube

of the

oscillations

causing several

v"

the

contains

glass tube

air will

hermeticallysealed,the

of the

mercury

oscillator
mechanical
is that

of

to return

and

acts
It

system.
body, as

that

to

to the level from

fro in accordance

with

having

this

PROPERTIES
oscillation

OF

attained

ELECTRIC

by

For

possess

low

the

the

first

ends

impact

oscillations

displacedit

the
in

requisite
will tend

will oscillate to and

and

system must

capacityand

and

is

the

capacity of

system, the

it started

tendency.
the

electrical

coefficient of inductance

produce

the mercury

which

in electric oscillations

bodies

electrical

in the U-tube

when

and

mercury

compressed by

be
the

is evident

that

the

similarlyto

mercury

density,so

air above

obtaining the
be

composed

system

must

best

sults
re-

lic
of metalhave

the

resistance.

OSCILLATIONS.

"

high potentialcurrent

The

frequency

through

the

of

dis-

waves

in the

as

an

and
oscillator,

circuit

open

take

may

thirtyor

so

system before the energy

termined
damping coefficient has been de-

place in

value of the

The

out.

damped

of

case

forty oscillations
is

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

52

the

mathematicallyby
V.

from

Bjerknes1
of

or

tune

closed

FIG.

51.

"

ELEC.

AMPLIFIED

tion
persistencyof oscilla-

the

detector

is that of transformation

commercial

down,
higher

the

as

will

be very

Fig. 51,

curve,

lations
property invested in electric oscilor conversion
; justas low potential

Another

"

micrometer

shows.

OSCILLATIONS.

TRANSFORMATION.

syntony

the

detector

great

is in

Eeiss

"a

oscillator

If the

system

with

in

inserted

air-gapof

micrometer

Reiss detector.2
of

tions
calcula-

electrometer

an

the

in

the

Herr

alternatingcurrents may be stepped-upor steppedbe transformed

currents
into a
also, may
oscillating
of alternating
current
lower potential;
the principles

so,
or

transformation

are

well known

and

consist

in

passing

current

the space between

the turns of
primary coil which causes
wire to become
alternatelycharged and discharged with magnetic
flux,the coil and core thus being magnetized in oppositedirections ;

through

magnetism of the core induces an e. m. f. in the

secondarycoil,increasingor decreasingthe potentialaccording to

this reversal of

of

number

the relative

of

turns

wound

wire

secondary coils,the frequency remaining

of

true
To

the

primary
This

same.

and

is likewise

electric oscillations.

increase

the

frequency of

be resorted

must

the

on

system the frequencyof

the vibrations of the

oscillations the

the

to. Before

the

the current

spark passes

is the

interruptionwhere

same

as

charge
disruptivedisin

the

direct current

an

oscillator

frequency of
is

employed,

secondary equals that in the

primary circuit where a primary alternatingcurrent is used. This
verting
frequency is enormously increased when the spark takes place,conor

the

alternations

the
hundreds

of current

period of

of

thousands

in the

reversals
per

from

second.

iBierknes, Wiedemann's
Annalan,
Chapter II of Hertz' Electric

*See

few

44:

1891.

Waves.

hundreds

per

second

higher potentialmay

to

be

ELECTRICAL

53

OSCILLATIONS.

produced by connecting the secondary terminals of the coil 7 in

ing
of condensers, L L L L, or Leyden jarshavparallelwith a number
the

sparks in shunt,

as

Fig. 52,

in

shown

inside

the

that

so

by both terminals of
coatingsof both series of jars are connected
with
the outside coatings are connected
a
the secondary coil and
wire forming the primary P; if now
a second
few turns of coarse
of turns of fine wire, and
frame
is wound
with
a larger number
this

is

secondary transformer

first

the

of

that

placed parallelto

will be very greatly

current
potentialof the oscillatory
cuit
increased;if a Leyden jar M is introduced in the secondary cirand a spark-gaparranged at F, a second disruptive
discharge
and the frequencyobtained by the spark S will also be
will occur

coil the

increased
results.

fold,and

many

The

high-potential,
high-frequencycurrent

Tesla-Thompson effects are produced in

Fio.

52.

that any

it is evident

TRANSFORMER

"

OSCILLATIONS.

FOR

potentialand

and

this way,

be

frequencymay

any

easily

produced.
KATE
circuit

oscillator

employing
he

was

enabled

36,000 volts.
oscillator
At

the

motion

cm.

to
Just

ENERGY.

"

The

in the

its energy

oscillator 30

cm.

at which

rate

form
of

following deduction

dumbbell

spark-gapof

OF

emits

the

as

enormous,

RADIATION

OF

an

of electric

Hertz

will

in diameter

open
is

waves

show.

By

connected

with

in length
of two rods each 50 cm.
by means
charge the system to a potentialdifference of

before

it breaks

amount

representsan

spark

moment

the

in the

oscillator

and

down

of energy
passes

the

the

air-gapof
equal to f^

electric

it radiates energy

the

charge
in each

of

charged
a

is
half

joule.
set
of

in
an

WIRELESS

54

oscillation

equal

to

TELEGRAPHY.

2,400

indicated

-^~ joules as

or

ergs

the

by

formula

ax3

where

charge of each sphere, I the length of

the length of the wave
emitted, which

is the

rods, and

the oscillator

oscillations

half

before

that

the

will

energy

radiates

the

since

480

will

length

size of

cm.

equal to

joules,then
electrical

the

it is evident

all
completed practically
electric

into

of

connecting

for the

complete cycleshalf of
have
been emitted, and

5%

transformed

been

to be

energy

complete cyclesare

10

have

that

shows

or

oscillator

of the

charge

ascertained

was

half oscillation

If each
in 11

employed

the

the

is

wave

Fleming

waves.

480

the

the

and

cm.

velocityof propagationis 3 X 1010 cm. per second, the period

millionths
of time occupiedby ten oscillations is sixteen hundred
of a second, and in this exceedinglyshort space of time the oscillator
has

emitted

almost

its

horse-power. As

45

oscillator

would

continuous, it
500

be

required,an

stated

16-candle-power100-volt
But,

as

matter

to

energy

emission

the

joule,or

at

of

the

keep

waves

to that

up

would

25,000 foot-pounds per

that

rate

of the rate at which

illustration

equal almost

amount

of

of

~~

supplied with

that

so

be

may

an

to be

have

output

enormous

would

equal to about

energy

of
the-

with
be

second

requiredto light

lamps simultaneously.
oscillator system of an ordinary

incandescent

fact, the

with
telegraph system sends out trains of electric waves
them, while the secondary is charging the
long intervals between
train of waves.
oscillator preparatoryto sending out another
wireless

DECREMENT
electric

OSCILLATIONS.

"

The

decrement

circuit

of

oscillators,

or
oscillators,

the rate of

damping

in open

of

amplitude

for

has
successive oscillation,

showing the
been

ELECTRIC

OF

ratio

determined

by Plank

and

each

.others.

From

the formula

_16ir*/2C
3X"

/ the length of the connecting

capacityof the oscillator,
rods, and X the length of the wave, it will be seen that large
large inductances, or both, are essential for prolonging
capacities,

in which

C is the

the oscillations.

OSCILLATIONS.

ELECTRICAL

SKIN

EFFECT
and

Hopkins
or

other

large

conductor

would
An

extend

and

to

the
and
of

the

skin

of

gold

Lord

1886

of

length

Fleming,
2Chnnt,
3Self-Induction

1886.

effect.

made

of

leaf

equally

of

the

magnetic

the

quired
re-

If

magnetism

the

of

wire

of

their

when

mm.,

and

metallic

oscillator
in

the

form.

for

inductance
traversed

lets
doub-

solid

formula

effective

cylindrical

found
those

vails
pre-

investigation

both

mathematical

condition

compared

as

current

fraction

and

efficient

as

and

per

by

an

puting
com-

unit
nating
alter-

frequency.
the

Society

Journal
and

he

metal,

section

known

Journal

in

such

tested

forms

resistance

American

placed

experimental

an

Chant2

solid

when

only

In

gave

circular
of

current

centre.

high-frequency

metal

these

Rayleigh3

system

oscillators
In

effective

iron

force

the

polarity,

when

the

skin

in

those

the
of

the

was

by
of

magnetizing

changed

oscillator

an

conductor

reach

to
and

produced1

penetrates

effect

with

diameter

rapidly

is

oscillators.

made
In

in

termed

is

spherical
shells

fro

by

flux

the

in

experiment

centre.

effect

current

this

the

that

produced

for

and

to

analogous

surges

field

certain

constantly

not

showed

1895

value

time

exceeded
which

field,

in

magnetic

interesting

"

Wilson

metal

An

OSCILLATORS.

IN

55

Resistance

of

of
Science.
of

Arts.

1900.
1901.

Straight

Conductors.

Phil.

Mao.,

VI.

CHAPTER

OSCILLATORS.

PHYSICAL.

DEFINITION

the

applied

is

telegraphy,
charge

and

to

moves

level

potential
and

maximum

at

high

electric

minimum

of

rate

Here

at

restoring

in

has

body

the

different

two

the

where

body

alternation

equilibrium.
charge

wireless

oscillator, in

term

electricallycharged

any

fro
or

OSCILLATORS.
of

forms
down

the

at

points

considered

although
from

the

disturbed

length

size

and

conditions

of

sake

Between

the

and

spark-gap,
and

the

means

of

an

the
the

or

outside

charge

of

into

body

to

motion;

other

oscillations
the

charge.

telegraphy,

wireless
a

all

matter,

reversal

charging

produces

and

waves.

of

atom

until,

its
this

an

paratus
ap-

maximum
is

plished
accom-

oscillator.

"

difference
wire

the

light

potential

its

quickened

is

vibration

each

for

for

electricity,when

disturbed, produce

of

period

oscillations

SYSTEMS.
the

is

tions
calcula-

by

agitates

oscillation

an

tally,
experimen-

electricallycharged

with

means,

and

waves

frequency, and, therefore,

visible, or

are

observed

an

termed

now

charge

the

in

as

charged

the

mass

setting

then

OSCILLATOR
that

it is

employed

be

must

inside

when

definite

produce

by

as

it

other

or

corpuscle.

or

determined

definite

it atom

and

largest,

electro-magnetic

been

atom

that

sun

be

been

of

is the

which

sun,

never

has

minute,

very

waves

degree

in

potential

so

clearness,

bodies,

differing

shown

of

oscillations

by heat, impact,

electro-magnetic

charged

have

they

wave

level, and, being

the

that

given length." The

of

the

oscillator,emits

an

the

sphere, producing

To

as

great length

waves

from

of sizes

infinite number

almost

an

are

particle of matter,

smallest

the

sun,

such

There

"

oscillators, ranging

to

The

ior

to

The

"

instant.

same

of

OSCILLATOR.

OF

In
of

the

discharge

potential was

tongs forming
of

the

jar.
56

the
This

of

Leyden

jar

it

equalized through
conductor

constitutes

connecting
the

was

the
the

oscillator

OSCILLATORS.

of

system

Leyden jar.

oscillator

is

system

the

to suit

employed by

Hertz

In

the

dischargeof

modification

of

exigenciesof
as
consisted,

the

spheres,A, A', Fig. 53,

the

with

of the
a

part

brass

of the oscillator
it and

between

the

oscillator

not

the

OSCILLATOR.
devised

B' may
Hertz

though

be

by

and

the value
thus

system
detector.
30

cm.

in

D, D'

but

induction

system as

coil,and

favored

In

B'

are

the

Another

"

Hertz

the

54.

"

or

Hertz

To

connection

of

charging the

the

dividingline

transformer

or

obtain

the

been

used

as

the

results

spent

individual

on

forms

and

best

effort has

much

form

not

by

of

form

parts
Hertz

shown
oscillator,

for his first experiments. The

any

shape

or

size

adjustableoscillator

HERTZ'S

arranged to

of inductance
tuned

coil

different

do

merely the

are

whole, but

binding posts

the

are

presenttime.

replacedby

FIG.

where

B, B', connected
spheres,

induction

of energy,

to the

successors

Fig. 54, was

and

binding posts.

the oscillator

HERTZ'S

the

amount

brass

two

SYSTEM.

proper,

followingrepresent the

his

by

shown, merely of

largermetal

system

is the

minimum

only on

and

OSCILLATOR

of the

secondary of

ranged
ar-

oscillator system

the

system

of it ; the

The

secondary coil,for the purpose

Thus
to a high potential.
electricity

with

system

coil the

jar just cited, but

case.

rods, C, C'

and

induction

an

"'n

"

two

secondary terminals

between

with

wires

53.

the

has been

HP
Fio.

57

and

having capacity,

shown

capacityto be varied

oscillator

the

diameter, the spark-gap balls

in

the rods C and

on

syntonizedwith

spheres
Fig. 54,

OSCILLATOR.

ADJUSTABLE

slide

in

the

resonator

spheres were
3

cm.

C'

ting
permit-

at will and
or

of

in diameter

the

spark-gap
sheet

zinc

connected

WIRELESS

58

with

rods

50

TELEGRAPHY.

is called

form

This

long.

cm.

the

Hertz

dumb-bell

oscillator.
RIGHT'S

OSCILLATOR.

oscillator

the

devised

Auguste Righi

"

FIG.

two
in
A
are

from

emitted

leading to
oscillators

A' ',with

the

OSCILLATOR.

is shown

Lodge

in

only

central

one

is

It consisted

55.

of

OSCILLATOR.

spheres B, B'

letters A
a

C D

the
E

56,

56."

two
the

When

side.

either

Another

"

Both

of these

the

oscillator

to

devised

but
Righi's,

by
has

OSCILLATOR.

LODGB'B

of

smaller

two,

is much

which

in close

spark balls

disruptive discharge

larger

proximity
lates
oscil-

current

system representeddiagrammaticallyby the

emitted
by the system from A to F,
are
F, waves
another

train of

waves

side to side

with

quickly,since it
such a chargedbody is a good radiator for the
the
three oscillationsonly will take placein
or
the

sets of

system,
propagation.

of oscillator

is similar

secondary definite charge surges from

D, sending out

including the rods

line of

form

nnd

sphere, instead

supportedbetween
through

but

researches
photo-electric

smaller

Fig.

FIG.

Fig.

secondary terminals C, C'.

of course,
in alignment with

the
are,

LODGE'S

but

RIGHT'S

"

is,the surging takes place along the

that

on

in

his

1 mm.
them
spark-gap between
length and two secondary terminal spheres,B, B' ',a cm. from
and A' respectively.In this oscillator two sets of electric waves
the large spheres A, A' and
emitted, those emanating from

large spheres,A,

those

and

55.

shown

in

oscillations die

out

on

the ball

considerable vigor,
is

readily seen

electric waves.
ball when

the

that
Two

charge

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

60

sphericaloscillator

of

FIG.

secondary coil end

58.

small

in

OSCILLATOR.

DUMB-BELL

"

balls,oppositelydisposed,and

brass

them.

with the oscillator between

BOSE'S
Bose

OSCILLATOR.

FIG.

59."

EXPERIMENTAL

work,
of

one

OSCILLATOR.

emitting 300
meter,

million

is shown

A, B, each of which

in

has

FIG.

connected
6

cm.

in

balls

of

form

An

"

and,
With

producing

ceedingly
ex-

is illustrated

small

ball

of

supportedbetween

of

it is

metal;

same

Lodge's oscillator,

waves

per

sphere8

60.

"

second,

It consists

Fig. 60.

cm.

EXPERIMENTAL

experimental

having

of two

length

identical arms,
at the end

and

OSCILLATOR.

bar

cm.

be

and

in diameter

1 cm.

spark-coilshould

15-cm.

each

in diameter

with

with

for

oscillator

spark-gapballs by a brass
length; the spark-gapballs measure

used

the

Chandler

previouslydescribed. With this oscillator Bose

has polarizedthe electric waves
of
by means
asbestos,epidote and other fibrous minerals.

OSCILLATOR

BOSK'S

in diameter

miniature

reallya

of

consists

mm.

smaller

two

for

J.

lengths. It

wave

Fig 59, and

platinum 2

Prof.

"

oscillator

designedan
short

in

of the

terminals

the

Lodge, i.e.,by having

in diameter
set

each,

apart.

mm.

apart,and used with

smaller coil the gap should
be correspondinglydecreased.
it
Instead of employing the large spheres for the oscillators,

often
or

largercoil they should

more

convenient

oblong plates may

specificinductive
these

values

be

practicalwork

circular disks of sheet metal, or

use

of

The

used.

capacity and

will be found

experimental forms
for

to

be set farther

its

in the

for

permeabilityor
now

or
telegraphy,

come

that

is

square

obtaining the
of

inductance

followingchapter. Leaving

we
oscillators,

in wireless

formula?

to those

the

designed

class found

neces-

OSCILLATORS.
for

sary

radiatingwaves

as

are

at least to such

great distances,or

to

commercial

requiredfor

MARCONI'S

61

purposes.

Marconi

To

OSCILLATOR."

belongs
the

been

having

credit for

the

form
wireless
It

plest
sim-

The

for

telegraphyis shown in Fig.

consists merely of a vertical
hundred

one

terminal

the lower

feet in

into

the

of which

is

extending

length, and

air,
nected
con-

spark-ball2; a
spark-ball,
3, separateda few
with

from

mm.

fulfill

to

oscillator
practical

of

wire, fiftyor

second

the

first to discover

requirements necessary
these exacting conditions.

61.

tances
dis-

forms
the first,

4, and

gap
the earth

this

from

the

wire

spark-

leads to

at 5.

OPEN
SYSTEMS.

the

CLOSED

AND

All

"

oscillator

the

described

OSCILLATOR

above

are

known

tems
sysas

oscillator systems, that

open-circuit
is to say, they have
free period
a
of

with

waves

oscillations
There
Fio.

61.

"

MARCONI

radiate

though the
quicklydamped out.

great energy,
are

is another

termed

RADIATOR.

therefore

and
oscillation,

class of oscillators

closed-circuit oscillator systems,

in which

the

periodof

tion
oscilla-

is limited to the size of the circuit if this has a natural period

;
that
of
to
the
oscillations
these will be prolonged
equal
impressed

for

considerable

length of

closed-circuit oscillators are,

time

before the

therefore,
very

energy

feeble

is

dissipated;

emitters

of electric

waves.

Lodge

in his researches
one

the

action

is shown

is
especially

of closed
the

on

circuits

oscillator

the

lightningrod1 devised

of interest

forming

system

of

here, bearing as

oscillator

systems.

many

periments;
ex-

it does
In

on

Fig. 62

Lodge's syntonicjars; 1

is

an

ordinaryLeyden jar, the inner coating of which is connected to

one
ball,forming the spark-gap2 ; a circuit,rectangularor of other
JThe

Lightning Rod.

O.

J.

Lodge.

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

suitable

shape and

terminates

If the

in

jar is

now

dimensions,

outside

waves

that

power,

for,

such

coatingof

fro

as

times

many

before

little

penetrative
previously pointed out,
but

have

spends

its energy in

of in radiation.

instead

oscillation

jar.
dischargethrough

to

closed circuit

the

oscillations will be very

spark-gap2 and the circuit of wire, the

in the circuit,
surging to and
persistent
emitting

ball and

upper

OSCILLATOR.

the

reaching 0, and

the

allowed

CIRCUIT

CLOSED

"

the

then

and

charged

62.

from

with

connection

FIQ.

leads

Slaby, during

his

early experiments,

oscillator system in his transmitting

employed an

apparatus for practicalwireless

telegraphywhich was similar to the Lodge
jar,except that its proportions
much
larger and its energy

syntonic emitter
were

supplied by
An

top for
of
and dissipating
all electric waves
away
a
length greater than those required to

:
(.o\tt

fulfill the

by the
a

FIG. 63."
CLOSED
EMITTER.

abandoned

this

of harmonics

law

It will be

B.

end,

closed
practically
A

circuit

C D, the earth

CIRCUIT

between
form

for

an

open

represented

of the vertical wire

terminal

the earthed

SLABY'S

coil.

coil,E, Fig. 63, was added

of conducting
the purpose

inductance

at the

TO

large induction

very

and

oscillator

D.

was

A, and

seen

formed

that

tween
be-

cuit
closingthe cirSlaby has now

system, based

on

the

originalsinglevertical wire.
Nevertheless,in wireless telegraphywhere syntonizationor a
tuned system is desired,it is quite advantageous to operate with
and
closed-circuit oscillators,

produce a

commercial

Marconi

in

his

recent

syntonicsystem has evolved from

attempts
the

to

simple

OSCILLATORS.

63

Leyden-jar circuit of Lodge an apparatus so constructed as to

and the closed-circuit
effect a compromise between
'the open-circuit
oscillator,producing in turn an emitter having an intermediate
oscillation of the openthe severelydamped
amplitude between
circuit system and the prolonged period of oscillation of the closedcircuit

system,

thus

power.

In

terminal

one

the earth
if the
and

or

arm

elevated

the

conclusion

midway

between

the

oscillator

capacityand

in

will

open-circuitsystem. This oscillator

head of Syntonization,
Chapter 19.

FIG.

SYMMETRICAL

AND

Oscillators,where

the

65.

DISSYMMETRICAL

"

are

arms,

the

grounded
under

the

SYSTEM.

DISSYMMETRICAL
arms

of

described

be

that

inductance,

that

to
equal in efficiency

be

effect would

resultant

Lodge

use,

deemed

deduced

balanced

mutually

were

is earthed.

and

unnecessary,

spark-gapwas

trative
pene-

in actual

systems now

oscillator

of the

of considerable

waves

nearly all commercial

connection

these

of

yieldingtrains

SYSTEMS.

OSCILLATOR

"

ductance
equally in resistance,in-

balanced

and

capacity,as in the open-circuittype of Hertz, are

symmetrical systems. Where the coefficients vary in value
of the same
symmetrica
disopposite arms
system, they are termed

termed
in

the

systems.
since

the

connected

arm

capacityby the
attributed

All

commercial

with

condenser

systems are

the earth

is loaded

action of the earth

dissymmetrical,

with

an

additional

itself. This

may

be

factors;(1) the capacityof the earth slows down

and
ing
alteroscillations,
(2) Hertz has shown that by physically

the

to two

the coefficients of

with
capacityand inductance,1 in accordance
relation or syntonization
deductions2,a harmonic

Lord

Kelvin's

could

be effected between
and

resonance,

diagram Fig.
Leyden jar
an

or

inductance

and

arise in
1

illustrates

detector

systems,due to
materially.The

dissymmetrical oscillator,having a
and
condenser,A, inserted in one arm
glass-plate

65

may

Electric

'Kelvin, Transient

in the
be

oppositearm.

made

practicerequiredby

Hertz's

and

therebyincreasingthe efficiency
very

coil,B,

inductance

the emitter

to

the law

fulfill any
of

resonance.

Waves.
Electric

Currents,

1853.

Variations
condition

of

capacity

which

may

CHAPTER

CAPACITY,

VII.

INDUCTANCE,

RESISTANCE.

AND

HISTORICAL.

HISTORY
been

Bince
series

given

of

as

surface

of

of

In

spheres.

the

brought

hypothesis

to

Faraday

in

strain

Leyden jar, as

and

improved

mathematical
dielectric

Green.
in

his

the

bodies

well

in

upon

in

to

1Green's

the

and

of

Biot

conclusions.

with

he

in

transparent

of

of

Coulomb.

that

the

dielectric

of

that

the
of

Mathematical

64

that

positive and
the

dielectric.
of

the

who,

with

electrostatic
the

great

strain

of

theory annunciated
of Maxwell.

fully elucidated
medium
media

enlarged

were

Kelvin,

which
whose

unity the

of refraction

index

electric
di-

polarized and

atoms

researches

the

law

deductions

the

of

of

Application

how

the

tended
ex-

charge of the glass.

Lord

Magnetism,

nearly

two-fluid

mathematically

between

Faraday's

are

these

Green1

1828

and

place was

residual

by

the

Poisson

the

insight,concluded

polarized

accord

Kelvin

In

the

on

retically
theo-

upon

piercing of the glass dielectric

1845

absolute

is very

based

inverse

electricityon

on

tricity,
elec-

of

the

enlarged

Laplace

takes

showed

action

square

the

in
and

proposition that

equal

and

in

by

investigated

analysis based

intuitive

in the

as

Electricityand

capacity

under

by the

seen

Following

theory of the

varies

likewise

transmitted

was

power,
was

He

has

name

hypothesis

charge

mathematical

induction

theorems

Green's

two-fluid

distribution

theory

his

stress

is often

strain

the

Poisson

1837, with

negative charged
This

the

whose

quantity, proved

higher degree of perfection.

or

on

Laplace

subject

through which
the

electrical

important

electrostatic

the

of

distance.

1782

analysis of

the

evolved

the

Coulomb,

1776

electric

an

experimentally

researches, deducing
next

of

action

square

and

unit

tests, based

the

the

In

"

the

to

brilliant

that
ratio

CAPACITY.

OF

Analysis

In

1873,

is contained

dielectric

to

by

his beautiful
in

tive
induc-

magnetic

for

capacity

is

light of infinite

Electricity

and

netism.
Mag-

length.

wave

the

HISTORY
is

INDUCTANCE.

OF

historyof self-induction,
or, as it
Joseph
only to Henry's time.

The

"

termed, inductance, extends

now

therefore

and

be modified

could

capacitythe electric oscillation

emitted.
length of the wave

the

65

experimentallythat by varying

determined

Hertz

RESISTANCE.

AND

INDUCTANCE,

CAPACITY,

Henry observed the phenomenon and publishedan account of it as

had an
fact that a long conductor
remarkable
The
early as 1832.
if the wire
intensifyinginfluence on the current, and especially
of a spiraland interposedin the circuit,
wound
in the form
was
Henry attributed to the long wire becoming charged with electricity
*

which

its reaction

by

is broken1.

The

same

Fleeming Jenkins,
was

to obtain

able

in
when

the

coil

the

on

who

shocks

asserted

wire

without

and

removed.

was

when
that

that the

that
very

when

In

law

same

magnetic

similar

effect,
though
due

was

to

fact that

by
he

magnet
electro-

an

self-induction,

on

simple coil of
substituted for the electro-magnet,

was

long straightwire

the

when

in evidence

was

core

later

two

or

appreciableeffect was obtained

1834
Faraday publishedin the

no

the result of his researches

self-induction

the connection

coil of

the

included

he

circuit,though

PhilosophicalMagazine
and

projectsa spark when

discoverywas made a year
to Faraday
communicated
itself

was

less

pronounced,was
employed. Faraday

magnetism,

and

that

the

obtained
believed

current

in

of lines of magnetic force

risingin the circuit produced a number
which
opposed that of the battery and caused the current to rise

slowly.

He

believed

the number

also

that, when

the

current

begins to decrease,

duction
beginsto decrease and the e. m. f of inening
forth, which tends to prolong the current, weak-

of lines of force

is called

startingand exaltingit at stopping. Edlund

on
investigatedthe integrale. m. f. of inductance
making and
well
Maxthat
equal.
breaking the circuit and found
they were
the

e.

m.

treated the
and
and

subjectexhaustivelyfrom

introduced

measuring

Helmholtz

f. at

was

the
the

convenient

inductance
first to

treat

method

point,
stand-

mathematical

for

showing

the

effects

bridge.
by using a Wheatstone
the subject experimentally and

Kelvin
in the
mathematically. Lord
published his deductions
Electric
PhilosophicalMagazine in a paper entitled "On Transient
Currents/'in which he discussed the dischargeof the Leyden jar
and

elucidated

recognized the

other

important phenomena. For instance, he

influence
which
the electro-dynamiccapacity,or,

1PhilosopMcal Magazine,

November,

1832.

WIRELESS

66

as

we

term

now

and
discharge,

it, inductance,

he established

the fact that the

energy

dissipatedas
current

as

Rapid

heat

Electric

in

of

Ohm

which

and

of

at any

instant

enunciated

in

the

expresses
is

partly conserved
his

theory

inductance

"Very

paper,
of

Kelvin,

is considered

Before

"

his

in

and

the

terms

great law

the

1827

year

of

nature

of

intensityand quantity.
relatingto the resistance

steady direct current,which, fullystated,is

partly

experimental research.

expressedin

was

which

and

the

upon

energy

Hertz,

the

had

capacity,in electrostatic measure

cases

RESISTANCE.

OF

circuit to

oscillator

equation of
charged body

circuit.

Kirchhoff, in

the electric current

1827

the

dischargingcircuit

that

electro-magnetic'
r^asure,
them
actual
to
applied

In

of

Oscillations,"1considers

and

HISTORY

an

of the

in the

energy

Helmholtz

TELEGRAPHY.

=
-

The

verification
in

due to

theory

of

the

electric

for

instruments

by

and

current

resistance
others.

In

provements
im-

largely

are

Joule

1841

relatingto the heat evolved per second with

strength and the resistance of the wire, which may be

the law

current

stated

Ohm's

measuring
Wheatstone, Kelvin, Matthieson,and

established
the

of

the

formula

H=RPt.
insure

repeatedto
carefully

experiments of Joule
by Becquerel,Lenze and

The

accuracy

were

Botts.

THEORETICAL.

succeeding explanations,
formulae and
examples,the term capacity will be understood to
otherwise
electrostatic capacity, unless
mean
designated. The
DEFINITION

CAPACITY.

OF

electrostatic

capacity of

which
electricity

be taken

gas-tankmay

as

will produce
electricity

depending

it at the

upon

The

its

system is the quantity

potentialto a definite amount.

analogue for

an

in

its

on

oscillator

an

terminals

which

to
directly
proportional

it will

hold

at

Electric

'Kirchhoff
a

in

circuit,which

the

of potential
erted
ex-

conductor, condenser,

it.
or

Q,
quantityof electricity
K

or,

oscillator to

or

the

is
given potential

Waves.
1849

he

of mutual

induction,

oscillation

of

difference

of

The

the electrical pressure

given potential V;

to charge an
quantity of electricity
'Hertz'

electric oscillator.

secondary coil charging

of the

of

an

system

size,form, and

capacity represented by K,

oscillator is

the

oscillator

an

will raise

In

"

the

was

did
the

by

time

galvanometer.

"

actually to measure
comparison of a resistance
measurement
being that
first

Enoy. Brit.

of
resistance
coefficient
with
a
the
of
period of
the

WIRELESS

68

TELEGRAPHY.

the inductance.

pliedby

The

representingforce, hence
dimension

of

to
therefore,

length;
a

have

unit of inductance

formed

are

is

has

constant

correspondsto
of

metal

some

likewise

are

the oscillator

system.

oscillator is

In

this

limitingcase

proportional to

magnetic resistance.

In

109 cm.,

the

the

one

as

cm.

metals

or

that

usuallyexposed
the size and

in

the inductance

shape of

the total inductance

of

and

the

force

magnetizing

construction

and

known

magnetic permeability; where

constant,its value dependsonly on

the

corresponds,

quadrant,or
secohm, but is now

or

the factor

representedby

earth's

magnetic properties;they

no

be

must

practicalunit of inductance

quadrant

oscillators

free air,which

the

the

henry; the absolute

Usually

inductance

lengthequal to the

formerly called

was

oscillating
current,then,is

of

high

for

oscillators

flat stripsof
frequencies,
it has been
offers

shown

for

equal cross-section.

an

air than

the

absorptionto

When

round

ductor
con-

geometric form

the

oscillator remains

an

and

greatersurface

having
of

that

be used
to advantage, as
copper may
form of this type is a good emitter,since it

the

unchanged, as it does in all practical

cases,
electric
magnetic force pass through homogeneous di-

lines of

the air,and

as

oscillators

should

be

made,

permeabilityof
lines of

stated

thus

and

the

is the

netic
mag-

to the
conductibility

its

on

producing

The

is constant.

ratio between

force

^,where

inductance

the

The

the

diamagnetic metals, of which

body depends

forces.

magnetic

induction

uniform

intensityof

the

netic
magbe

magnetization may

the

the

B
permeability,

produced

magnetization,and H the magnetizing force. The permeability

of oscillators,
of non-magnetic metals,
assuming them to be made
is practically
that of air, and as the magnetization increases the
magnetic permeabilitydecreases.
DEFINITION
Ohm

for

e.

OF

direct

EESISTANCE.

The

"

is that

steady currents

stated

of resistance

law

the

by

equals the

resistance

m.

divided

by

of resistance is the

the

current

equal to
for

flow

Another
of

second

heating

law

power

laws

of

of

j,

per

law

must

of

or,

second
be

as

current

for

Joule's
is

one

when

|-.The

unit

would

limit

ohm

the

e.

f. is

m.

the action

recognizedin

high frequency,as

resistance

is known

resistance

coulomb

one

currents
alternating

absolutelythe
the

current, or

ohm, and

to

volt.

one

the

these do not

follow

low-voltagedirect currents;
law, and

proportionalto

asserts

the

that

the

product

of

the

and

resistance

pointed out,1 in
agree.

the

current

electric

EFFECT

THE
ELECTRIC

of

of

agree;

included

are

of

energy

Kelvin

the

in the

circuit.
of

for the

the

in

given

of

deductions
of

of

part

of
the

RESISTANCE

AND

to the rate

action

do

resistance.

has

Kelvin's

the

form

the

ON

his paper,

charged jar is at any instant

in the discharge circuit,or, as

experimental evidence

equationshold good

in

equation showing that

an

dissipationof energy
termed, the oscillator system, added
energy

of

INDUCTANCE,

Lord

"

the

kinetic

has

dissipationand

heat

the law

in

CAPACITY,

OF

the

small

very

larger portion

Both

Electric Currents/'2

release

ited
lim-

strength. In
but
as
Lodge

dissipatesa

much

space.

OSCILLATIONS.

"Transient

laws

in action

and

into

radiation

current

09

of
varying magnetic induction, some
the two
definitions
and
not
dissipated,

is

heat,

as

the

RESISTANCE.

of

cases

radiated

waves

Joule's

oscillator

An

not

of

square

and

stored, all

is

energy

the

Ohm's

cases

AND

INDUCTANCE,

CAPACITY,

the

rate

it is

change

based

were

now

of the

Leyden jar,but

to

equal

on

the

oscillator

systems of induction coils as

Let the capacityof a jar or oscillator be expressedby C, its
well.
resistance bv "R, its inductance
by L, the quantity of electricity
in the condenser

circuit
above

at any

time

by

q, and

and

stated thus:3

is written

second

time

", TT,

for

derivatives

of

q.

evident that the constants

describe

describe

curve

smooth
which

may

curve

is

be
in

so

"2 and

and

CE,

for

" for
of

solution

The

equation enables the value of the quantity

charge of the jar or in the system to be found

may

have the

by I, then by the followingdifferential equationwe

where

in the oscillator

the current

of

at any

periodicand

or

the

alternate

of Electricity.
Views
dodge's Modern
^Philosophical Magazine, 1853.
of the Society of Arts,
'Fleming, Journal

1900.

the

above

or
electricity

proportionedthat

reaching zero,

the first

instant.
the

the
It is

discharge

dischargemay

until it reaches

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

70

The

zero.

of the

solutions

two

rectangular coordinates

equation
and

Figs. 66

in

shown

are

Fig.

67.

graphically in
representsthe

66

"/V-,
/

\TIME:.7^\T

U-'

FIG.

66.

"

DISCHARGE

LAROB

THROUGH

discharge through
through

small

FORMULA

large resistance

of the
be

may

to the

resistance.

inductance.
number

the

67

discharge

occur

if

latter

case

the

For

"

cal
practition,
oscilla-

period of

the

Let

of

oscillations

second.

per

if

occur

ML
IT

this

Fig.

following formulae.

R"!*

In

and

governing

oscillations will

not

SMALI.

capacity.

will

THROUGH

DISCHARGE

CONSTANTS.

THE

constants

had

and

"

RESISTANCE.

CALCULATING

determination

Then

67.

resistance.

FOR

recourse

FIG.

RESISTANCE.

unidirectional

will

current

reach

zero

gradually.
The

frequency

be obtained

In

have

the formula

practice the

considered
we

from

of oscillation of the

resistance

charge

oscillator may

of the

is

usually

small

very

negligible; and, therefore, making

and

may

0 in the

be

above,

CAPACITY,

FORMULA

often

to

necessary

definite

depend

the size and

on

construct

case

let

length of

rod

(a

In

for

oscillator

an

diameter

71

OSCILLATORS.

OF

shape of

this

frequency.

RESISTANCE.

CONSTANTS

CALCULATING

FOR

Since K, L and

of

AND

INDUCTANCE,

the

"

it
oscillator,

is

producingoscillations

Fig. 68).

of rod,
of

radius

distance from

b' and

spheres(b

c'.)

c,

to center.

center

then

and
the

Where

%rl

capacity

of K

the value

is for

'-l).

(lo?

L=21

of

are

areas

forms

other

than

the

sphere

thin circular disk,2 radius.

IT
"

thin square
thin

"

oblong

MEASUREMENTS.
and

of these

value.

The

oscillator

calculations

"

CONSTANTS

and

usuallyof

are

be

is small

in

deductions,the

be

it may

oscillator

very small

easilymeasured,

the frequencyof
ascertaining

as

area.

OSCILLATOR.

OF

system may

value,but where

for

measurements,
to include

68.

quantitiessince

its

same

the inductance
quite difficultto measure
systems by comparison with standardized

resistance of the

small

square of

It is

FIQ.

units

square.

slightly
greaterthan

"

capacityof

side of

0.36

neglectedin

oscillation.

system

ever
how-

In

all

is understood

the

connecting wires leadingto the binding posts. In

measuring oscillators such as spheres or isolated systems the
terminals

with

the

where
i.e.,
of

the

of

testinginstruments
surfaces.
oppositeperipheral
a

as
spark-gapintervenes,

each

arm

may

to the

be measured

should
In

be

placed

discontinuous

in the

from

in

contact

oscillators,

Hertzian
the

stants
type,the conterminals leading

be
binding posts of the secondarycoil,and each arm
may
measured
separatelyor the gap bridged by causing the spark-gap

balls to form

contact.

72

WIRELESS

CAPACITY.
electrostatic
deflection
Siemens
the

There

"

Thomson

dischargefrom
MEASUREMENT
with

CAPACITY

OF

the

bridgemethod

direct-deflection

in

capacity,as
be used.

may

the

of

case

If the inductance

6.
FIG.

standard

condenser

magnitude
of

69.

R4,

periodiccurrent

and

close the

variable

"commercial

not

burning

out

fee obtained

"ohms

are
or

the
more.

CAPACITY

MEASUREMENTS.

of

Wheatstone

bridge of
current

the
be

can

of

an

the resistance

ampere,

alternatingcurrent
arm

the

is shown

mains
of the

in
and

key

supply

prevent

current

will be

too

should

danger of
result may

Fig. 70,

where

bridge is,in

to open

to

of

source

The

used
to

form.

method

in

fixed and

the

desired

The

safely by

arrangement
sixth

there

coils of the box.

and
satisfactorily

The

otherwise

A,

box

precautions are taken

passing through the bridge. This

tenth

shown

as

resistance

neglected
Leyden jars,

able
resistance of suit-

telephone receiver,and Kf
Rs and R4 can convenientlybe

T,

pared
com-

be

be

non-inductive

if proper

This
m2

K.

non-inductive

the

capacity; C2,

S/

constant

alternating 110-volt

current

exceed

FOR

variable

circuit

periodiccurrent
large

Rs,

resistances

BRIDGE

"

not

discharge

is small

some

of unknown

condenser

is the

C^

though

cannot

comparison with the capacity,as in the case of

be used.
must
the ballistic galvanometer method
In the bridge method, the arrangement must
where

Grott,

plate condenser,the

in

IPig.69,

the

the

If the inductance

"

direct

method, where

capacityis compared with

capacity.

of known

the

; the least difficult way,

the

unknown

an

condenser

usuallyemployed are
discharge method, and

methods

accurate, is by

for measuring

those

capacity;among

and

excellent methods

several

are

method, the divided

most

from

TELEGRAPHY.

resistance

the
m^

tentiomet
po-

and

of 100

this case, attached

to the

two

of

the

small

secondary of

coil is used

to

the coil is inserted

in

FlO.

In either

EI

must

case

the circuit is closed

be

taken

sound

which

When

no

in the

by the key, Tc. Sometimes

makes

this value of

the

sound

this

R4

has

sired
de-

the resistance,
capacity,

is heard

entirely. In

any

METHOD.

the unknown
sound

this way

In

current,
generatethe periodic
of
A
in
69.
Fig.
place

POTBNTIOMETliR

"

to determine

be varied until

get rid of the

70.

73

obtained.

be

potentialcan

induction

RESISTANCE.

resistance.

b of the

points a and

difference
If

AND

INDUCTANCE,

CAPACITY,

telephone,when

it is

impossibleto

that value of #4 must

case

minimum.
found

been

we

have

the well-known

relation,

that is

R4XC,
R,
That

is,the unknown

FIG.

multipliedby

capacityis equalto

71.

"

CURRENT

DIRECT

the variable resistance

the

standard

capacity

METHOD.

and

divided

by

the constant

resistance.
If it is inconvenient
a

battery,B,

and

to

use

galvanometer,G,

periodiccurrent
may

be used

as

and

shown

telephone,
in

Fig.

71.

WIRELESS

74

value

of

R4,

key, Ic,there
In

such

that

Fig. 72.

key, fcx;see

on

galvanometer method,

measured, C19 is put in series with

and

opening and closingthe

galvanometer.

deflection of the

no

ballistic

the

found

is then

is

TELEGRAPHY.

battery,E,

second

the

condenser
a

be

to

galvanometer, G,

key, Ic2,is put around

the

Ka.

Fio.

condenser
In
the

C19 so

72.

that
the

making

it may

C^

the deflection d

desired.

discharged when

be

is

METHOD.

GALVANOMETER

deflection

the

measurement,

key Jc^is opened.

and

BALLISTIC

"

replacedby

now

is noted.

When

d"

when

is noted

condenser

the standard
have

we

d,

C,

C2 X
CAPACITY

OF

AERIAL.

AN

a, is the
c,

g,

b,

following diagram, Fig.

the

In

"

73

antenna;

(rotating)
;

commutator

galvanometer ;
battery;

E, the earth plate.

The

the

every

charging

galvanometer
through

the

steady deflection
value

of which

by
Call

E
Fio.

73."
AN

CAPACITY
AERIAL.

OF

wp
" e

charged n

rotatingcommutator

After
the

is

antenna

this

it is
The

g.

from

on

by

battery b.

dischargesa

of amperes

of the

ond
sec-

produce

galvanometer,

calibrating the
value

second

discharged through
n

the

the

galvanometer

in terms

current

4-|lpn
y.oyp
uien
nave

times

can

the

be determined

galvanometer.
deflection

A;

WIRELESS

76

In order that there

arms,

that

must

have

other, and

shall be

there

is, that
the

at the

of

complete balance between the four

be no
sound
in the telephone,we

the
the

time

same

shall

resistances

that
the resistances,

to

TELEGRAPHY.

four

inductances
have

must

is,we

proportionalto each
be proportional
must

arms

R,

R.

and

there is

sound

no

If it is not
a

convenient

INDUCTANCE

ends

to

use

OF

AN

AERIAL.

be used

the

this is the case,

in the

as

have

we

of the

case

suggestedby Maxwell,
in the bridge.
be connected

bridge method

of the conductor

must

denser.
con-

that aerials cannot

It is obvious

"

"4 until

telephoneand periodiccurrent,

batterymay

directlyby

measured

telephone.When

in the

galvanometer and

both

by alternatelyvarying r and

result is obtained

This

be

since
It is

ple
single,multiother form
of aerial indirectly,
by measuring its capacity
or
its inductance
from the
and its wave-length and then .calculating

however,
possible,

to

the inductance

measure

of either

formula
A

TT

VLG

where
X"
v

solvingfor

length of the aerial.

velocityof light.

wave

L=

inductance

of

G"

capacityof

the

the inductance

the

aerial.

aerial.

get

we

V2C

4^
so

that if the

be

obtained, the inductance

The

capacitymay be
wave-length can

and

the

the

latter

is due

very

New

and

Standard

de

and
L

be

may

found
one,

Forest

of the aerial

can

be also ascertained.

by
by

the
one

based

on

method
of
the

Ives, and

and

Engineer, for
of Wave

capacityC

the

measured

excellent

to Drs.

Electrical World
'On

length

wave

June

Length.

By

several

methods;

phenomena
is described

4, 1904.1
Dr. James

above

described

V~i
E. Ives.

of

of

nance,
reso-

in the

CAPACITY,

RESISTANCE.

of

when

the

parallelogram
from

current
the

than

to

be

the

plug

If
it

is

that

small

the

in

resistance

the

the

ohm.

arms

are

the

variable

Next,

unplug
the

balanced

and

of
that

circuits

arms

For

variable

and
id

resistance
X

the

resistance,

lations
calcu-

ohms

1,000

of

terminals

and

resistance

low

very

obtained.

the

and

arms

of

that

so

circuit

the

stituting
con-

let

it

arm;

be

sup-

MEASUREMENTS.

several

ohms,

10

needle
the
the
the

with

compared
making

now

swings

5-ohm

plug

total
to

and

too

the

of 15

+,
the

of

known
un-

ohms

showing
needle

indicating

galvanometer,
resistance

shows

this

degrees;

resistance

replace

division

the

the

variable

the

and

arranged

value

the

deflected

high;

too
the

on

is

of

having

RESISTANCE

"

resistance;

resistance

remains
the

variable

given

to

from

needle

resistance.
in

connected

75.

is

measuring

four

are

through

value

is

for

The

deflection

lowest

oscillator

an

equilibrium

arm

removed

is

FIG.

posed

actual

bridge

ohm.

measured

5-ohm

the

and

no

77

connections
75.

flows

shows
and

the

Fig.
R

battery

other

each

i.e., 1 ohm,
of

the

galvanometer

neutralize

that

diagram

the

in

RESISTANCE.

arrangement

bridge,

Wheatstone

given

lower
R

convenient

most

are

of

needle

the

is

which

The

"

resistances

AND

INDUCTANCE,

that

VIII.

CHAPTER

MUTUAL

INDUCTION.

HISTORICAL.
,"fi.;-..

'"

Mutual

induction,
another

on

of

their

when

of

right angles
and

Ampere
In

the

to

direction

first to

the

wire

copper

connected

to

closely
inch

mutual

current

that

in

the

broken,

the

either

To.

case

of

each

in the
in

this

Memoirs

of

which

In

the

the

and

again deflected
had

current

action

of

Henry.
78

magnet1,
electroU-f orm,

small

1831,

of

one

magnet
electro-

phenomena

the

apparatus

coil

circuit.

the

circuit

in the

only

coil
the

the

key

passing

of

the

latter

opposite direction.
a

was

opposite direction

the

in

posed
inter-

was

When

showed

of

coils

two

including the opposite

the

and

one-thirtieth,

wound

circuit

current

one

in

galvanometer

when

into

it.

value.

his

wire

copper

were

break

and

izing
magnet-

around

illustratingthe

circuit, but

coil;

was

Joseph

on

circuit

bent

exhibited

by Faraday

make

second

induced

explain

experiment

the

coiled

at

1820

looselyin eighteen turns,

silk-covered

other.

to

primary

the

Henry

first circuit

the

needle

1828

In

wood

; in

key

it

made

was

galvanometer

pressed

was

of

described

wire

iron

around

first

spool

battery and

of

The

parallel with
a

of

In

theoretical

1825, Sturgeon

with

induction

consisting
wire

wound

wound

diameter.

in

deflected

current.

wire

observations

piece of heavy

battery.

the

that

parallel

held
be

would

of

through

these

give

dated

consisting of

having

flow

the

current

communication

needle

that

1819
found

He

discovered, independently, the method

by passing

was

of

field.

make

to

in

flowing was

was

the

Oersted

first

The

Faraday

of

magnetic

current

enabled

discovery

needle,

compass

Arago

iron

the

was

which

through

ordinary

Davy

finally

electricity
produced

wire

a
an

of

which

interaction

Faraday.

by

ductor
con-

one

mutual

the

discovered

in

current

by

current

fields,was

sweeping observation

of

action

second

experiment

current

to

the

or

or

magnetic

remarkable

this

i
.

momentary

upon

another,

to
was

In

duration.

Faraday

MUTUAL

evolved

his curved

for

determination

the

INDUCTION.

lines of force.
of

the

79

his law

deduced

Lenz

in

1833

direction

of

currents

produced by

theory of Ampere ; this law follows cothe principles

of Faraday. Henry in 1840 investigated
incidentally
the nature of mutual
induction, devisingfor the purpose a series of
mutual

three
a

induction

coils,and

"current

the

from

named

of the

third

order''

Ritchie
about

the

developed the

time.

made

mathematical
In
law

Reymond,
year

of

Lenz,

theory of

the

action

Weber

1846

of

of

currents

mutual

and

of

in 1849.

practical
purposes
introduced

The

the automatic

this coil he

made

1845

linear

one

the

upon

The

rent
cur-

nometer
galva-

first attempt

secondary circuit
duction
applicationof the in-

in the

first

probably made

was

in

mathematically and

improved

current

induction

Neumann

testinghis conclusions.

by Kirchhoff
who

verified

of induction

value of

; with

1850

laws

the

the absolute

coil to

induced

experiments in

some

From

for the purpose

was

"current

coil,a

searches
Becquerel described in detail Henry's reand Magnetinduction
in his work, Electricity
ism.1

experimentallythe
to ascertain

coil

order.

another.

on

second

the

in

that in the third

order'"

also conducted

same

obtained

current

et cetera, producing successive

mutual

on

the

second

to the seventh

up

the

make

his famous

and

by

break

DuBois-

about

the

electro-physiological

experiments. Wagner subsequentlyimproved upon the interrupter,

using an independent electro-magnetin the form of a horseshoe
worked
A year later Helmholtz
to interruptthe primary circuit.
of limitingcases,
out the theory of induced
in a number
currents
as

did

Felici in 1852.

coil what

if is

circuit.

In
To

by

1855

In

1853

Fizeau

made

the modern

induction

his

in the primary
applicationof the condenser
Foucault designed the interrupterwhich bears his
is due

the

of

having devised the method

of building up the secondary coil,by winding a number
of layers
and then joiningthem
together,insulatingthe segments from each
other.
Ruhmkorff, a German
mechanician, residing in Paris,
coils having the greatestdegree of efficiency
constructed
induction
name.

and

added

Ritchie

the

credit

for

reversingthe current.
Finally,in
magnetic
1864, Maxwell, with his wonderful conceptionand grasp of electrophenomena, deduced the principlesof the electric field,
commutator

induction, but every phase of statical

including not only mutual
and
on
which, as a whole, he constructed
dynamical electricity,
the electro-magnetic
theory of light.
lrTraite experimental de

l'Slectricit"

et

magngtisme,

vol.

5.

WIRELESS

80

INDUCTION.
closed

circuit

if the conductor

magnetic force
acceptedthat magnetism
whirl

in the

flows through
electricity

outside

the

is wound

in

produced

is

of

of

current

there

and

magnetism
lines

When

"

TELEGRAPHY.

conductor

coil the

field of

of

number

is

If the theory is.

greatly increased.
in rotation,constituting
merely electricity

is

dielectric

it is easy

medium,

for the

to account

tion
analogues of electrodynamicinducthose of static induction and magnetic induction
be given.
may
To electrify
it is not necessary
that it be
a body by static induction
brought into actual contact with the charged body; for instance,
let A, Fig. 76, be a body charged with positiveelectricity
and let B

be

As

of induction.

phenomenon

pith ball suspended near

FIG.

this

in
dielectric,
the side of B

side of B

current,or
helix of wire

may

force of both

are

steel bar

effect

similar

is

bodies, and

two

opposite

the

produces electric separationby

all the characteristics of
to

words,

respect. If

brought

near

tional
rota-

pole of

end

lines of

curved

the

the

the

flowingthrough a

current

; in other

in every

magnet, A,

polarizesthe

INDUCTION.

magnetic field due

be exhibited

and
charged negatively

magnetic induction

In

charge of

air, separating the

will be

positively.This

induction.

STATIC

"

the

case

nearest

76.

The

it.

of

nent
permabar of soft

magnet without
actual physicalcontact
with the permanent magnet by induction,
with
and
its poles oppositely
disposed to those of the permanent
the

iron, B, Fig. 77,

magnet.

If

of

sheet

FIG.

iron

magnets

and

will arrange

force

by
the

iron

glass or

77.

themselves

curved

"

temporary

paper

MAGNETIC

is

placed over

in the

beyond

lines of force

the steel

or

INDUCTION.

are
filings
sprinkledon

extending far

these

becomes

iron

direction

the ends
the

its

of the

of the

strains

surface,the particles
lines

magnets

and

of

and

netic
maging
show-

stresses set up

in

direction

of

surrounding space.
An

apparatus

for

detectingand

determining

the

INDUCTION.

MUTUAL

induced

an

the

battery1

the

and

key

FIG.

part of

In

its conductor

circuit B

the

if the

Now,

key

in

is shown

current

2 ;

78.

is

Fig.

placed a

is made

is broken

it is

lines

of which

FIG.

at
the

the

instant

second

coil

79.

the

"

in circles

e.

an

are

MAGNETIC

lines
m.

flow

will

current

the

when

on

from
f
.

tubes

or

in

the

reverse

closingthe circuit
curved

or

of force, as

shown

B;

FORCE.

OP

first circuit

the

current

to inclose the coil

large enough

LINES

will

current

in rotation
by electricity

spreading out

Fig, 79, some

momentary

to the fact that

is due

instantlysurrounded

magnetic
in

momentary

This

in B.

direction
A

second

then

the current

A, and

circuit

oppositedirection,and

in the

in B

set up

to close the

flows in the direction of the arrow,

be

arrangedthat

so

portion of the circuit A.

galvanometer or telephone receiver,3.

with
parallel

is

is

circuit B

CURRENTS.

INDUCED

"

includes

circuit A

The

78.

second

81

proportional to

thread

the

rate

through
which

at

they

link

current

be set up or induced.
If the circuit is
turns of wire instead of a singleconductor, and

many

circuits
will be

with

the

second

circuit

the

causes

to

are

enlarged,the

induced

is

effective

distance

proportionatelyincreased.

at which
This

momentary

composed of
again

if the

the

currents

is the

method

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

82

by which

Sir William

distance
when

of

succeeded

been

the

induced

in the extension

currents, but

of transformers

and

induction
inserted

in

inserted

in

engaged upon

in

his

spark-gapand

each

the

in their

into

in this

action

when

it will be
which

iron

well

the

iron

will become

properties are

lines of force

produced by
mutual

the

as

the

the

magnetized by

result of this combination, i.e.,

an
causes

is

core

the turns

induction

now

iron

core

to be

greatly

of wire

acting

exerted

by

consists

coil

one

of many

greatlyincreased.

is

PRIMARY

SECONDARY

AND

constructed

one

CURRENTS.

by Faraday,

"

A. A

B.Ek'

coil shown

The

"

and

induction

is the

basis

of the

latter

Henry

than

was

to

of
INDUCTION

SO.-FIRST

of the

e.

f.

m.

evolution

directlydue

more

The

Faraday.
is formed

impressed

BB

of

iron
the

on

Fig.

modern

core,

second-

small

the

C;

inductor

mary
pri-

of

wire

or

to

of wire

large cross-section,and the

ondary coil
well insulated,and
soft
a

cross-section
values

COIL.

in

of the

coil,although the

winding, AA,

coil and

soft

if the secondary coil

another,especially

on

of electromagnetic

phase
a

permeability; new

field

in the

relations,as

proper
Another

case

have

inducing and

the

coils.

degreeto

the inductance

other, as

of wire

rather

The

its

magnetic

intensified and

FIG.

was

distance between

wire;

termed

acquired through

is

at

he

of the

is called

coil of

is

magnetic

80

interestinghim

induction

lines of force.

magnetic

turns,

in

method

indications

practicalapplicationsof electro-magneticinduction

not

on

the

was

to obtain

system.

The

case

enabled

was

eight miles, and

Marconi

coherer

Preece

tive
rela-

primary

that

produced in the secondary coil is called the ratio

of transformation. This ratio is directly proportionalto the
number

of turns

small
of

of the inductor

loss in transformation

secondary coil
primary circuit. As
a

"

on

then

the
the

secondary
increase

inductor, but

the

less.

is very

m.

current
This

the

nearly equal

energy

to that

be

1,000, and

f. is 100
or

that

times

quantity

of

ratio is called the

that

on

at the

for

number
the

of the

very

terminals

impressed

the

illustration,
suppose

an

e.

secondary,except

; therefore

coil to
in

and

on

the

of turns

primary 10,
primary

or

will be proelectricity
portionat
coefficient
tion.
of transforma-

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

84

of air.
than

Iron possesses

that

of air.

As

100
permeability

magnetizationof

the

10,000

to

the

times

greater

increases,its

core

be completely
soon
permeabilitydecreases so that a core
may
with magnetism and additional magnetizing force will
saturated
have no further effect. In soft iron the limit of magnetic saturation

60,000 lines of force per square

is about

of cross-sectional

cm.

area.

HYSTERESIS
an

inductor

an

induction

"

When

coil there

is

retardation

of

currents

by an interrupterof
lagging of the magnetizing

or

the iron

effects in
demagnetizing

the

core

due

to molecular

is called

stress;this

of an
permeability
than
is decreasing
be

CURRENTS.

operated intermittentlyas

are

and

EDDY

AND

done, and

this

and
Ewing1 has found that the
hysteresis,
iron core
is greaterwhen the magnetizing force
when
work
it is increasing,
and thus some
must
cates
takes the form of heat; the curve, Fig. 83, indi-

this difference.
INDUCTION.

MUTUAL

composed of
circuit,as

shown

total induction

The

"

developed in

ondary
sec-

singleturn of wire wound on a closed magnetic

in Fig. 84, is (seeLodge2) independentof

FIG.

83.

"

its size or form

; if the

total induction

is,of

the number

FIG.

CURVE.

HYSTERESIS

secondaryis wound

course,

ri times

of lines of force

84.

"

MUTUAL,

ri turns

with

this. The

INDUCTION.

of wire

total induction

the
,

or

cuttingthe secondarycoil is equalto

AI
10

where

ft

is the

wire in the

of the core, ri the number

permeability

primary,A

the

area

^wing, On the Magnetization

24, 1887.
Royal Society,March

"Lodge'sModern

Views

of

of turns

of the cross-section of the

of

Iron

in

Strong Fields.

Page
Electricity,

389.

of

primary

Proceedings

INDUCTION.

MUTUAL

85

in square

in amperes, and Z the length.

/ the current
centimeters,
of the primary coil in centimeters.
This formula
indicates that the
induction
be simply expressedby
is mutually reactive,and may
induction
between
the primary and
secondary
MI, the mutual

coils being represented

by M,

When
an

or
interruptedcurrent flows in the primary
alternating
to the rate
f. is produced in the secondary proportional

an

e.

or

m.

it from

the lines link with

at which

the

primary thus,

d4"
e

and

the

dt'

e of the induced
potential

factors,namely,

two

on

d*

MdT

These
of

the fundamental

are

transformers,and
be obtained

may
on

the

of the current
interruption,

or

_
--

ioT~

dt'

underlying the construction

principles
sired
evident that as high a potentialas de-

by increasingthe

number

of turns

of wire

secondary.

FUNCTION

of

OF

an

those

termed

interruptedcurrent

and break

phenomena, which

is

feature of
differentiating
lies in the employtransformers
ment
"

and

The

condenser

in shunt

with

the

theoryof induction coils having these

involvingnew and complex
quitecomplicated,

device.

factors

additional

CONDENSER.

THE

coils from

induction

make

it is

of wire in the

4imn'uA, dl

dl
._

l=dt~

pends
secondarycoil de-

of turns

number

the

of alternation

secondaryand the rate

in the primary, or,

in the

current

The

render

the

construction

of coils from

mined
predeter-

if not, indeed,impossible.
exceedinglydifficult,
induction
an
Fig. 85 shows diagrammatically
coil in which
an
interrupteris connected in
j
p
i
series with the primary winding and a condenser
|
with
the interrupter;the
in shunt
'
'
\AAAA/WVV^
inductance of the primary coil is represented
ky ^i, the inductance of the secondaryby L2,
r~~\/\/\/\/^
the e. m.
f. by E, the capacityof the conQ
I. j
""*
denser
the make
around
and break by C^.
E
The
objectof the condenser is to produce a
^J
greater difference of potentialat the terR"'
niinalsPPf by permitting the primary current
So7T0)EiL.lNDUC"
while the break
to charge the condenser
is taking place at the interrupterX; the more
quicklythe break

calculations

"

"

"

"

"

"

~^"

WIRELESS

86

takes

place the

smaller

TELEGRAPHY.

the

the condenser

capacityof

be.

may

Lord
a

Bayleigh has shown1 that if the primary circuit is severed by

the conditions approachpistol-shot,
very closelythe ideal break,

i.e.,absolute
for

time

condenser

the

reached

instantaneousness,

the

may

be

potentialof

the

it

produces an

of

being broken, is

of the air due

prevailthe

maximum

to its minimum

current

is

value

this

ideal

which

rise to
the

case

the gap

point

there

entirely,as
to

across

value

is

is
no

where

current, instead

by

the rarefaction

these
spark itself. When
prevented from dropping from its

heatingeffect

conditions

the

primary

still conducted

to the

when

eliminated

spark,in

abnormal

and

of the

in the

shortest

possibletime

and

potentialdifference in the secondarycoil is likewise diminished.

In all interruptersthe period requiredto effect the break i"

exceedinglylarge,compared with zero,

turbine or electrolytic
vibrating,
type and
proportions is
when

the

necessity.Dr.

whether
a

E.

James

FIQ.

87.

primary becomes

"

86.

"

OSCILLATING

CONDENSER

CURRENT

DISCHARGE

IN

are

Ives

of the proper
shown2 that
has

the current

PRIMARY

THE

indicated
as
alternating,

CIRCUIT.

in the curve,

Fig. 86, as a
Fig. 87 is the

current action of the condenser.

alternating
of a direct current through the primary
dischargecurve
the

dischargeof
oscillatory

the

Philosophical Magazine, Vol. II., 1901,

2Ives,Physical Review, vol. 15, 1902.

in the

DISCHARGE.

resultant

by

of the

condenser

primary circuit is thus slowlybroken

FIG.

they

page

condenser; the
581.

lowed
circuit fol-

periodof

INDUCTION.

MUTUAL
alternation of the current

by

the

The

in the

primary

87

circuit may

be ascertained

formula,

capacityshould

excessive

be reduced

small

as

value

capacity,as

Johnson

has

the

termed

inductance
spark, depends chieflyon
primary coil. The potentialdifference of
the

coils and

the

mutual
relative

coils ; the
and

the

Now

let

wound

the terminals

longest
of

the

pends
secondary coil deprimary and secondary

of

distributed

mutual

distributed

the

of

capacity of
the

the

primary and
secondary, Lx the
the

inductance

be found

secondary may

this

equation the damping factor due

coils is neglected.In the primary,as well as
are

set up,

having

the

secondary I0, the initial

inductance

primary coil,L2

of the

currents

the

resistance

of the

Cj the capacity of the condenser, then

coil,and

optimum

capacity resultingfrom
closelytogether.
a

the

the

of the

The

the

the

Y2 equal the potentialof

secondary, C2
inductance

of

diminished

be

ondary
capacitiesof the primary and secprimary capacityis the capacityof the condenser,

primary current,

In

values

secondaryhas

of wire

turns

inductance

and

prevent

is needed

than

capacitygiving

the

on

will

as

greatercapacityis employed
to fulfill this requirement the secondary spark will
and
its efficiency
decreased
instead
of increased.
sparking;

if

to

by

to the

the

the

secondary

potentialat

equation

resistance

of the

in the

periodin

cillating
secondarycoil,osthe primary given by

T^aryT^d,
and

in the

The
may

be

secondaryby

distributed

secondary is so small that it

for the secondarypotentialthen
expression

capacity of

neglected. The

the

becomes
t

Again,

in

properly constructed

lines of force of the

circuit is

and

the

primary

interruptedand

equationreduces

to

cut

coils
the

practicallyall
secondary when

the

the

magnetic
primary

WIRELESS

88

TELEGRAPHY.

In J^sin

which

potentialat the terminals of the secondary;

which
the length of the disruptivedischarge
value is given by

is the difference

it is this factor

of

upon

Its maximum

depends.

V3max=I0^^
It

is

of

the

obvious, therefore,that the

potentialdifference

maximum

secondary is the resultant of (a) the value of

the primary before interruption,
(b) the inductance
coil,and

(c)

of the

the square
to

the

of the

root

of the

root

ascertain

condenser.

the
as
secondary varies directly

the square

as

capacityof the

the

inductance

reciprocalof

C1?

Klingelfusshas deduced

of

initial

primary

rent,
cur-

of the

and

indicated

as

the

the

by

capacity of

the formula

followinglaws,which

the

last

hold

denser
con-

given.

for coils

ruptive
spark-length1:(a) the length of the disof turns
discharge is directlyproportionalto the number
wire on the secondary coil; (b) the e. m.
in the
f. induced

primary
e.

ference
potentialdif-

potentialof a coil of any

initial primary current I0, the

the break

to 100

The

difference of

maximum

only necessary to know the

of the secondary coil L2,
inductance

of all sizes up

of the secondary

secondary and as
primary capacity.In order

the

;size it is

around

in

the current

is

proportional to

f. induced

m.

primary

cm.

primary current; and

(c) the
the secondary is likewise proportionalto the

in

current.

coils

In

FIG.

email

current

JAnnalen

may
and

der

be
then

Physik,

having

88."

consequentlythe inductance
the inductance

the

iron

STRAIGHT

vary

with

determined
with
5:

cores

CORE

the

the

COIL.

strengthof

the

current

ascertainingits value

by
large current, and

p. 837, 1901.

and
permeability

taking the

with
mean

;
a

INDUCTION.

MUTUAL

value

the

as

with,

those shown

but

FIG.

to be the most

shown

curves

89.

efficient.

varying number

of turns
in

of

Coils

normal.

Fig. 90

and

Figs. 88

in

have

forms

various

HORSESHOE

"

8S"

TYPE

been

have

89

mented
experi-

been

found

COIL.

OF

Klingelfussin testingthe relative values of

of wire on the secondary coil obtained
the
; I is the curve

obtained

with

the horseshoe

ICO

90
III
80

10

20

30

60

50

40

70

Turns
Fio.

type of coil;II

the

cross-section;curve
with

core

45

cm.

that

square

spark.
the

From

horseshoe

90.

"

EFFECT

III

was

obtained

type

of

curves

120

110

SECONDARY

straightcoil

and
cross-section,
these

100

90

VARYING

OF

results for

80

130

140

150

(thousands)

with

IV

TURNS.

with

core

straightcoil

of

large
having a
giving a

by a large coil
plottedby Klingelfussit appears

coil is the

most

but
efficient,

is not

TELEGRAPH.

WIRELESS

90

air-gapof
The
iron

the

magnet.

Fig. 91,

curves,

in the

the

sparks take placeacross

the

for high potentials,

as
practicable

are

due

is increased the

core

Ives, and

to

show

the

of
potential

that

when

the

secondary rises very

70

CO

50

300

400
of wires

Number
Fio.

rapidlyat

first and

91."

more

EFFBCT

OP

IRON

CORE.

IN

slowly afterward.

The

Fig. 92,
the break, are by
curves,

varying the capacityaround

and
demonstrate
graphicallythe value of increasing.the
capacityof the condenser to the critical point of optimum capacity,
when the disruptive
length,and that any
dischargeis of maximum

showing
Mizuno,

the effect of

increase of

length. The

capacity above
phenomenon

coil is difficult of
the

this value

tends

of distributed

elucidation,as

primary current, but while

well

these

as

and

to decrease

capacityof
the

law

the

the

secondary

of the

other obscure

spark-

break

factors

of
are

pale of mathematics, the theory of the induction

coil with all its complexitiesare
fairlywell evolved, and from the
foregoing formulae and equationsthe determination of the elements
yet

without

the

IX.

CHAPTEE

INDUCTION

COILS.

HISTORICAL.

While

of

coil, the development

due

to

coils
an

without

and

revolving
drawing

he

end

one

and

secondary

that

is,
to

in

1836,

of

two

wire

iron

"vibrating contact

electrical

dipping

for

into

the

disk

core

cup

and

'Silliman's

of

and

the

in

second

the

540

coil

much

American

the

better
Journal

; this

per

he

of

results.

the

end

case

of

of the

Henry

fine

Sturgeon,

of

influence

of

consisting
revolving

cam

plied
apwire

and

subsequently changed

powerful
iron

1836.

placed

then

for
also

After

shocks.

wires

Bachhoffer

of Science, October,
92

lies in

Sturgeon

second; he

obtained

bundle

thin,

of the metal

action.

operated by

breaks
and

other

circuit.

arrangement

breaks

per

made

being

joined to

was

magnetic

break

and

substituted

"

as

regards the thickness

as

Callan,

"electro-magnetic repeater," or

and

36

obtained

coil

dered
sol-

then

peculiar construction

circuit,as

of mercury

in

trials he

wire

an

display

make

core

some

the

one

soft iron

obtained

iron

thick

one

and

electro-magnet, investigated the

and

solid

thin

or

devised

also

full

producing
a

wires,

continuous,

secondary.

his

by

primary

The

helix,

thin

of

construction

circuit

made

year

rapidly

the

file.

a
were

long

by

broke

over

same

ington,
Page, of Wash-

S.

circuit

into

together,but

on

coil

to his

S.

Page

was

they formed

the

currents

requisite for

Prof.

the

in

breaker," for interrupting the

of

inventor

and

this

the

Callan

and

and

directly

more

experiments with

1836,

first wound

secondary

that

so

Page.

lever

wire

been

some

battery

battery
Henry

of

core

the

the

later

separate insulated
an

by
made

was

describes

wire,

the

of

terminal

one

fact that

and

and

the

coils

thick

on

thick

of

in

cores

interrupted

made

induction

modern

have

to

seems

made

was

wheel,1

spur

iron

advance

important
when

the

latter

the

the

of

prototype

Henry's flat spirals. Sturgeon

with

wound

is the

Faraday's ring

the

noted

solid
the

COILS.

INDUCTION

conditions.

same

that

and

time,

the

Sturgeon'scoil
the

was

general form

advance

an

he

93

it has

gave

those

over

been

made

at

retained

to

presentday.
in

Callan,

September 11, 1837, and printed in

"In
of Electricity,
making electro-magnets
says:

Sturgeon'sAnnals
(coils)which
increased

In
and

of

designed

Barker

arranged
this time

Bachhoffer

this

is the

interrupter. Callan advanced

circuits of
with

the

number

at that

forces of

vessel

of Barker's

name

applied to

the

wire

to Callan

mary
pri-

this

year

of

star

an

About

self-acting
automatic

idea of

connecting the secondary

paralleland Fleming credits him
of

date

adding

the electro-motive

up

number

of distinct coils.1

In

another

great improvement

in the method

contributed

thick

wheel.

to

the

of mercury,

his coil

earliest reference

of coils in

knowledge

into

projectionsdipped

In
form

the

solder

having

wire.

in

obtaining

projecting."

the

coil

fine

device

states that he

contact-breaker,and

of the wire

induction

an

since retained the

ever

to

separate spools,so

on

break

and

not

purposes

secondaryof

make

that the

so

this has

and

be wound

and

ends

of

purpose

taken

that for lecture

should

wire

thick

be

must

only this form, but

not

owe,

for the

to leave both

wire, but

wire

the thin

we

intensitycare

he recommends

note

to be connected

are

electric

thin to the thick

dated

paper

of

paper

1837

Callan

ing
of construct-

induction

coils;this consisted of increasingthe insulation of

the secondaryby drawing the wire just prior to winding through a
hot

bath

To

Poggendorf

of melted

winding
so

that

immediate

could

thin

built.

flat coils,after

coil. In 1838
an

automatic

in

make

was

of mercury.

is credited

break

He

formed

1863

and

of

gave

preservedin Maynooth
his

rocking-magnet

with

the

most

efficientcoil

discoveryof the

invided
di-

operatedby
of a vibratingspring dipping
untoward
effect of the spark

noted

the

to the

continued

Current

the

to the advent

completed in

Page invented

1837

point of break, due

Fleming's Alternate

suggestion of

in series.

It is still

he constructed
and

use.

insulatingthem,

largestcoils,up

It

length.

he

many

is still in

for the invaluable

of the

one

In

mode

between
great difference of potential

no

inches in

15

terruptor. By

be

of

ever
telegraphy,

College,England.

at the

indebted

are

constructed

spark of

cup

beeswax, which

coils,and then connectingthem

Callan

we

and

large number

there

wireless

resin

passage

Transformer, Vol. II.

of the

current

WIRELESS

94

caused

by the mercury

surface

of the mercury

TELEGRAPHY.

and

vapor,

by flowing the

this

Page was likewise the first physicist

to show
that the secondary dischargeof an induction
coil was
lar
simiin every respectto a static discharge,
and that electrostatic tensions
could be obtained,Ley den jarscharged,the leaves of an electroscope
diverged and many other phenomena produced heretofore
observed only with electrostatic machines.
Page also noted that
the

spark could

obtained

when

also the

out with

loud

Wagner

now

Page's mercurial break in

with platifamiliar vibratingarmature
num

this

invention

Neef

improved

With

contacts.

completed with
Ruhmkorff

that

report.

and

by designing the

1840

greatlyimproved

with

glass disks

provided also
with

stands
one

as

of the

the
end

at either

by carefully
of a glasstube

wire

in

place.

reversing the current, and

The

last

made

by

Fizeau1

greatestimprovements

The

of oiled

condenser

was

Ruhmkorff

silk or

thus formed

opposite terminals
In

giving sparks40
devised

in
oil
any

or

method

at

took

once

in

for

turpentine.
process in

lComptes

Rendus,

coil in

also baked

1853.

and

previous to

vacuum,

made

his

the coils and the

rupter.
opposite posts of the interhis chef-d'oeuvre,
constructed
coil
a

length. M. Jean,

moisture

made

the

an

thus
Fizeau.

coil

amateur

securingbetter insulation

He

and

and

interveningleaves of tinfoil.

with

to

Ruhmkorff
cm.

the addition

by

the work

up

placedin the base of

was

immersing the whole

remaining

whole

paper

connected

1867

gether
to-

important and

designed condensers especially

adapted for the purpose
them
dimensions.
Ruhmkorff
with carefullyproportioned
condensers

He

the

symbol for high-tensioncoils.

of the condenser.

1851

coils

means

the

tically
prac-

In

came
vibratinginterrupterhe beof induction coils,
and to-day his name

maker

was

condenser.

the

to hold

for

coil

induction

primary by

improvements of

as

the

of the
efficiency

the

the commutator

his

famous

upon

exception of

the

the secondary from

insulating
and

charge
dis-

tween
beextinguishedby introducing the terminals
a
powerful magnet when the spark was blown

poles of

length with

in

lator
oscil-

the

spark of ^r inch in the air. He

the spark of a primary circuit,

maximum

phenomenon

broken, was
the

air between

inches

spark 4%

givingnormally a
observed

oil.

lengthenedby heating the

be

balls,and

with

remedied

in 1854.

This

liquidinsulator

dried the

immersion

such

sisted
conas

coil to eliminate

and

avoidingcontact

builder,

performed the
with

the air in

INDUCTION

the

transfer

of the

COILti.

95

Taking advantage of all these

improvements in the building of coils,Alfred Apps, a London
the famous
maker, constructed
Spottiswoode coil1 giving a spark
inches
42
in length.
coil to the

oil.

PRACTICAL.

In

the

telegraphya heavy
importance.

and

induction

lines somewhat

different

is to say,

and
excessivelyhigh potentials,

slightreaction

but

little

is made

these

with

the

wire

from

the

to the

much

is

since every

potentialadds
secondary

its

wireless
"

in

core

is
i

It has

Swedish

been

possible,which

is

uptor is employed
with

reaches

soft iron

found
its

obtain

largecross-

heating due

to

alternating

should

the

be
the

doubly

lated,
insu-

induction

coil

heavy demands

of

mercial
com-

that

in connection

lengthsand bound
the
by increasing

fully
care-

into

compact

diameter

of the

by

force

interelectrolytic

an

with it,since the

even

value of 10,000

magnetic lines of

of

be made

of No. 18, 20, or

wires,preferably

great advantagewhen

littleretardation
a

coil should

length a greaterfrequencyof interruption

of resistance offered
of the

to

of

points of

induction

an

cut into suitable

proportionto

described

of

core

22 B. " S. gauge,

bundle.

resistance

an

telegraphpracticepractically
impossible.

The

annealed

disruption under

ohmic

than

of wire

use

coil

strengtheningthe weakest

rendering
CORES.

the

secondary

primary coil

absolutelyrequiredto

not

minimum

The

currents.

thus
and

to

or

largercross-section

to the total resistance ; the

also reduces

section

of wire

turn

offering

proportionatelyshorter

ordinary coil,therebydecreasingthe losses by

minimum,

exercise

primary current.

secondary coil
a

structed
con-

to obtain

force, thus

features the inductor

having

be

should

secondary coil
lines of

prime

usuallyfollowed

be wound

not

of

should

those

they need

magnetic

desirable

quitelong and

is wound

and

the

on

opposing influence

obtain

To

practicalwireless

for

coils for this class of work

ordinary coils,that

but

coils

secondary dischargeis

continuous

Induction

upon
in

of

construction

per

coil of

when

the

B H

curves

frequencyof

minute; this

is due

largecross-section

are

ruption
inter-

to the decrease
to the flow

through it. This magnetic reluctance,

Philosophical
Magazine, January, 1887,

p. 30.

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

96

termed, is the divisor where the magneto-motive force is

the dividend,and the quotientis the magnetic flux,or it may be expressed
it is

as

thus

The

magnetic

flux

six

number
is

of the coil should

core

eight inches beyond

or

of lines of

greater at
be

may

the

middle

COILS.

PRIMARY

interrupter. To
coil is made

is the

on

gives better

the

The

core.

effects when

this

cotton

or

silk

secondary

therefore less wire

and

in

or

two

magnet wire

between

the

excessive

wires, the multiple

singlewire of large diameter.

virtue of a closer winding of the wire

in

inductor

inductance

of small

of turns

number

results

wound

of the

the

sparking at the
feature, the primary
objectionable
of

cause

winding is equal in conductivityto

This

ends,

large coils the

In

"

at the

turn

to

secondary.1

overcome

of

up

than

the

wire

of

long and extend from two

secondary;by this arrangement

the

be

magnetic force cuttinga

employed in

local turns

force.

reluctance.

The

The

Magneto-motive

primary
layers on

may

be

coil

givesthe

the

used, and

coil.
the

best inductive

Double-covered
size

depends on

sparks and the kind of discharge desired. In

wireless telegraphywhere
thick dischargesare
spondingly
required a correflow through the inductor, and
heavy current must
thus a wire of large cross-section should be used.
The strength
of the disruptivedischargeis subjectvery largelyto the degree
of magnetization of the coil,and this,by the number
of turns of
wire on the inductor,providingthey are in close proximityto the
coils,in virtue of the law of ampere
turns, which, simply stated,
is that a current
of turns of wire is
flowingthrough a number
of amperes
equal to the number
flowingthrough a singleturn
of turns of wire.
multipliedby the number

the

length of

In

the

the construction

inductance

of inductors

it is desirable to minimize

the

of the turns, since the effect of this local self-induction

primary current,therefore wire of

large cross-section is employed together with a double layer of
be expectedin the
may
wire; if the wire is too large difficulty
of excessive sparkingat the interrupter.For wireless telenature
is to

producea

retardation of the

iphysicalReview

Ives

Vol. XIV.,

1902

INDUCTION

for the

suitable

"

-i
ofe coils

c,.
Size

1 inch

to

inductors:

No. of wire.
" S Gauge

to 4

inches

No.

14

inches

to

inches

No.

13

inches

to

12

No.

12

inches

should

inductor

coil,and

the

COILS.

to

treated

then
To

"

wound

be

obtain

to

the

coils found

induction

of wire should
coil thus

in

coat

constructed

secondary coil

the

and

same,

be wound

should

than

in

ordinary types

with

the

to increase

give its

of

number

the

market, yet

that it will

so

of insulation.

charge
heavy and rapid disruptivediswith
wire
be wound
having

the open

remain

nearly the entire

occupy

secondary coil should

fiftyper cent, greatercross-section

at least

15

inches

the

of

No.

SECONDARY

turns

16

inch

length of

inches

No.

The

of

followingsizes

the

spark length

to

!/2inch

97

found

of coils have

graph transmitters/makers
of wire

COILS.

output

efficiency

maximum

of turns

the least number

and yet be capable of producing a given length of

possible

of wire

spark, since

its resistance and

increases

of wire

turn

absolutelynecessary
of the secondary
the amperage

decreases

not

proportionatelyincreasingthe length of

without

current

additional

every

Coils for wireless

in

telegraphyare,

spark.

the

the

larger than

consequence,

types; but this feature is compensated for in virtue of its

giving heavy,white and powerful dischargeswhich are capable of
usual

the

in

setting up

radiator

of

system oscillatorycurrents

great

power.
In

order

to obtain

the best method

coils made
core

and

of

in the

plottedwhich
and

amount
coils

giving2

few turns

distribution
inch

in this

of wire.

sparksand

under

layer,until the
; the

manner.

may

proper

cheapercoils to
But

intervals

; curves

determinations
The

in

the

ondary
sec-

spark length of single

placedat

give fairlyaccurate

is used
Bpark-length

built up

and

the

magnetic field of the. inductor

will

wire, layer upon

is to ascertain

of wire

of wire

distribution

the proper

secondaries
be wound
amount

be found

for effective work

may

along the
then be

of the proper
of induction
of continuous

of wire

per

in the market
in wireless

given
are

teleg-

WIRELESS

98

TELEGRAPHY.

raphy the winding of the secondarymust be composed of sectional

disks. In coils of 1 inch spark-lengthtwo or more
be
sections may
employed, and these sections should decrease in thickness,increase
in diameter

be

and

added

Sectional
for coils

to in number

iV inch

disks

givingsparks 12

In

winding these
insulatingcompound

in thickness

inches

to 18

the

sections

the

as

coil increases.

the most

are

suitable

length.

is drawn

wire
of

composed

in

size of the

three

through

parts

of

melted

and

resin

one

part of beeswax ; the silk insulated magnet wire, with this additional
still hot upon
insulatingmedium
it,is reeled into a thin flat coil
between

brass

two

that

so

disks

FIG.

93.

are

then

"

CONNECTING

DISKS

shown
as
series,

practiceis

of wire

FIG.

SECONDARY.

OF

the

to connect

94.

OF

"

when

terminals

outer

sectional disks.

The

TERMINALS
CONNECTING
DISKS.
SECONDARY

terminal
one.

of
A

one

section

more

recent

first two

of the

in

connected

they are

of the next

terminal

and

thickness

same

it.

on

the outer

Fig. 93, where

the inner

the

justed
carefullyad-

and

surfaces

have

assembled
partially

in

with

shall

amount

same

dried and

is connected

surface

each

c^pproximatelythe

having planed

sections

togetherand then the inner terminals of the next two, as shown in

Fig. 94; in the case illustrated in Fig. 93 the terminal of one coil
is

brought

with

down

the inner

tendency
individual

to

of wire
so

that

terminal

the sections
the next

of

section

sections.

makers

the

This

induction

in the sections

it will

direction

same

of

be

is obviated

to

which

much

sparking

to occupy

larger and

the

this

has

between

method,

the

the
rent
cur-

all of the sectional disks.

coils increase
are

it, and

in the latter

through

connection

to make

in order

and
produce short-circuiting

flowingin
Some

between

the

number

the middle
amount

of

of

turns

of the core,
wire

much

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

100

ASSEMBLY

PARTS.

OF

interrupterand

the

After

"

condenser

are

an
properly mounted
adjuncts to complete the

coil is

necessary

be
interrupter should
uniformly without
regard

constructed

The

equipment.
smoothly and

to

operate
of the
variability

to the

should
be
The
condenser
disruptivedischarge while in action.
adjustableso that sparking of the interruptercontacts may be
with the laws of capacityand
reduced
to a minimum, in accordance

Interlocking switches
etc. By
prevent short circuits,

elucidated.

already

inductance

placed on largecoils,which
to
it is impossiblefor the current
the interrupteris in operation.
SOURCES

ELECTRO-MOTIVE

OF

flow

through

FORCE.

their

use

primary until

the

coils may

Induction

"

now

are

be

operated by primary cells,

storagebatteries,or by a direct 110-volt
to operate
current.
In wireless telegraphpracticeit is preferable
coils from

110-volt

givesa

energy

employed
will be
be

heavier

inefficient.
since

coil and

the

the

large excess

enfeebled

the

therefore

and

current
the

reaction

operator.

be

must

Where

primary

discharge
rating,will

to

220-volt

direct

are

the

and

its make

batteries

operate coils on 220-volt

primary is dangerous alike to

the

on

lations
powerful oscil-

more

provided,or

coil,whatever

advisable

It is not

Where

radiator.

increased

the

as
practicable,

discharge,and

in

set up

are

where

circuits

current

cuits,
cirthe

is available

motor-generatormay be installed;that is to say, a direct

current
motor
nected
operating on a 220-volt circuit may be directlyconto a 110-volt dynamo, which
suppliesenergy to the coil,or a
A motor
be used.
motor-generatoranswering the same
purpose
may
at 220
with two windings on
its armature, one
to take the current
a

small

at 20
generatea current of 15 amperes
volts,may also be used. An alternatingcurrent cannot be employed
that the rate of
directlyto operatean induction coil,for the reason
has a time
constant
too high to givealternation of the current
or

volts and

500

efficient
currents
well

designing the induction

liquid interruptoror
converter

SELECTION

into

to

disruptivedischargeswithout heating the coil. Alternating

in the circuit a Caldbe used, however, by utilizing
may

Grisson

for

the other

wireless

be

may

AND

CARE

OF

give,and

the heavier

ratingof

an

induction

Coils
the

so

that

introduced.

telegraphythere

consideration.

coil

are

COIL.

A
are

ordering induction

In

of factors

number

rated

dischargethe

coil should

"

by

the

whiter

be made

to be

coils
taken

length of spark they

the spark appears. The

when

the coil is

operated

INDUCTION

normally, and

not

by

the

COILS.

length of

mere

working with a current of 15 amperes

should
completelyfill a spark-gap one
of

made

It is often

i/^-inchdisks.

101

singledischarge. A

at
inch

volts

20

long

between

to know

convenient

300

coil

watts

terminals
the

polarity

secondary discharge. This may be easilyascertained,since

positiveterminal is always cold,whilst the negative terminal

of the
the

is hot
the

when

coil is in action.

the

terminals

positiveglows with
bluish violet light.

FIG.

best

proper

results,and

bestowed

ORDINARY

"

must
unless

other

on

will not be
and

care

96.

be taken
handled

fine mechanical

satisfactory.The

the surfaces of the

Geissler

the

negative with

The

If

is attached

purplish red light and

INDUCTION

of

tube

to
the

COIL.

induction

coil to

get the
with
the consideration
usually
electrical appliancesthe reor
sults
should
be
clean
interrupter
kept
an

platinum contacts

smooth

and

parallelwith
each other; when
an
adjustablecondenser is employed care must
be exercised to obtain the proper
capacity.If too large or too small
a
will be rencapacityis used the performance of the interruptor
dered
variable,and excessive sparking will result. One of the most
common

causes

directlydue

of failure

to insufficient

in

the

operation of coils is, however,

current;

if batteries

are

utilized

as

the

WIRELESS

102

source

of current

large excess,

very

of

currents

TYPES

each other
are

for

made

vital

be

by

large amperage.
which

layersaround

is

the

"

primary.

givingfrom

FIG.

97.

"

The

layersare

Coils constructed

by paraffine
paper.
in sizes

In

Fig. 96 is shown
formed
by winding a

COILS.

INDUCTION

OF

in several

importance that there should

effective dischargesare only obtained

it is of

secondary of

coil the

TELEGRAPHY.

14" spark

MODERN

to

INDUCTION

on

2"

2" induction

continuous

wire
from

insulated
this

simple plan
coils

spark. These

COIL.

singlevibratingspring interruptersand paper

condensers; they give quite satisfactoryresults for experimental
work
By way of comparison,
providedthey are carefullyhandled.
a 2" coil of modern
design,is given; in this the
Fig. 97, illustrating
are

equipped with

built

secondary is
The

interruptoris

is shunted
A
98.

up

with

ten-inch
This

is

of disks and

of the double
mica

coil built

with

wax

rosin.

and

spring vibratingtype and the

break

condenser.

by Foote,

equippedwith

successful

insulated

Pierson

"

Co., is

all the latest modern

operationunder

strenuous

shown

in

Fig.

suring
improvements, in-

conditions; it includes

INDUCTION

an

fuse

COILS.

103

independent multipleinterrupter,interlockingswitch, safetyblock,adjustablemica condenser, specialswitches,posts for

electrolytic
interrupters and

series

inductor.

Fig.'99 picturesthe exterior appearance

Lodge-Muirhead system,the construction of

in the
to that

The
their

indicated

in the

Kinraide

coil

precedingportions of
in

primariesconnected

potentialterminal

winding

the inductors.

the

of the coil used

which

this

is similar

chapter.

separate secondaries with

series. Each secondaryhas a high and

FOOTE-PIERSON

DELTA

resultingfrom

the

"

The

COIL.

positionand method

primary of each side

The
object of this is

is wound

Arco

the

Fig.
and

coil,Fig. 101, follows the specifications

given for properly

designed coils
wire

of

outside

to overcome
secondary winding.
tendency of the secondary to dischargeinto the primary coil.
100 representsthe coil photographically.
The Braun-Siemens

Halske

the

consists of two

FIG. 98.

low

of

parallelarrangement

for

heavy service,the secondarybeing wound

with
having 50 per cent, greatercross section,with double the insulation
of ordinarycoils. The physicalcharacteristicsof the Slabycoils

are

the
practically

same

as

those of the Braun

type.

In

WIRELESS

104

ITig.102

reproductionof

It will be observed

that the

FlG.

FIG.

It

has

secondaryto
been

coil

designed by

and

core

Fessenden

primary extends

on

is

given.

either side

-B. Ink-

of the

TELEGRAPHY.

shown

99.

100.

LODGE-MUIRHEAD

"

distance

THE

COIL.

COIL.

KINRAIDE

length of the latter.

additional secondary coils

several times

by experiment

that

the

INDUCTION

near

the ends of the

of the current

101.

shown

in

BRATJN-SIEMENS

"

102.

coils
Two

Fig. 103.

FIG.

Queen

to

very

105

small

extent

the

output

secondary.

largestinduction

The
are

enhanced

core

of the

FIG.

COILS.

"

ever

COIL.

HALSKE

AND

made

for

of these immense

FESSENDEN

LONG

CORE

wireless
coils

were

telegraphy
built

by

COIL.

The core
ductor
of the inJapanese Government.
of iron wires,making a bundle measuring 5 inches
is formed
in diameter, having a length of four feet and weighing 200 pounds.
"

Co., for

the

WIRELESS

106

This
latter

divided

being

containing
when

12

projects

core

100

miles

completed

interruptor

platinum

which

breaks

provided

to

down

may

when

used,
maximum

or

two

of

fine

25

of

103.

QUEEN

"

under

volt,

spark

the

METER

20

of

heavy disruptive discharge

42
may

be

insulated

variable

in

disks

magnet
15

inches.

heavy

mica

Either

and

wire;
The

pieces

length

obtained.

or

condenser
110

from

current

inches

sectional

the

of

COIL.

sparking.

ampere

of

secondary,

actuating

SPARK

oil,-while

of the

measured

coils

motor,

undue

any

up

carefully

electric

an

built

parts,
and

end

either

beyond

into

by

FIG.

be

inches

outside

the

is driven

cut

TELEGRAPHY.

volt

is
d.

c.

storage battery
an

exceedingly

WIRELESS

108

TELEGRAPHY.

As to the
turbine, and (d) electrolytic.
rotating,(c) mercurial
best type of interrupterthere is a wide
difference of opinion everi
vibratingis the simplesttype,
experts,but the mechanical
among
and
in adjustment, and
therefore
extremely
easy to keep clean

ordinary classes

suitable for all

desired,as

is

electrolytic
types

in wireless

Where

telegraphy,the

the

105.

CONDENSER

"

SHTJNTED

ciency
highest effiturbine

mercury

especiallyserviceable, and

are

FIG.

of work.

since

trained

BREAK.

AROUND

operators are in charge, the care and manipulationof these

complex devices become a secondary consideration.
SIMPLE
the make
one

end

armature

Fig. 104.
coil and

VIBRATING
and

break

of which

INTERRUPTOR.
is

"

accomplishedby

is held

the

vibrator

battery,and

is connected
is

core

in

more

this

type of interrupter
of a vibratingspring,

means

while
stationary,

magneticallyoperatedby the
This

In

or

its free
of the

end

carries

coil,as

shown

series with

the

an

in

primary

when
is
current
no
arranged
flowing through the circuit the spring carrying a movable
tact
conpoint closes the circuit through a stationarycontact point;
when
the current is permitted to flow through the circuit the core of
so

that

INTERRUPTORS.

coil is

the

magnetized and

109

the

attracts

armature, causing the

cuit
cir-

of the spring pullsthe points

elasticity
is shunted
condenser
into contact, closing the circuit again. A
This type,known
the
around
the break, as per diagram, Fig. 105.
as
when

to be broken

10

12-inch

and

been

has
interruptor,

hammer

Neff

the

but

"

is not

employed on

large coils

for

device
satisfactory

very

"

up

to

standing
with-

it is subjected in wireless
heavy strains to which
telegraphy,although it is employed extensivelyby English makers
the

and

used

was

Marconi

by

FIG.

This
Its

106.

"

in

of his most

many

DOUBLK

SPRING

successful

tests.

INTEKKUPTOR.

universallyused in coils up to 4 inches.

ited
of interruptionis variable only through a very limperiodicity
of vibration,
it has a tendency to stick when
rents
heavy currange
is
interrupter

used,

are

and

almost

its vibrations

are

sinusoidal,which

affects the

of

discharge;oppositelydisposed,its frequency is fairlyhigh

A high or
and may
be determined
by the musical note it emits.
low period of vibration can be arbitrarily
given it by the maker by
are
employing a thick, short spring when
very rapid movements

rate

desired,or

long,thin spring if

the most
the

coil,the

per minute.

range

suitable value
available

slower

of

rate is necessary,

thus

taining
ob-

frequency for the operationof

being from

0 to

2,500

makes

and breaks

WIRELESS

110

DOUBLE-CONTACT
of

the

both

above

sides

TELEGRAPHY.

INTERRUPTOR.
but

vibratingtype,

of the

spring,the

"

This
has

is

modified

platinum contact
on
taking place as the amplitude

make

spring reaches its maximum

of the spring moves
elasticity

of the

in both

directions,the

the

toward

0.

frequencyof

the

per minute.

The

form

this

By

break

as

the

means

interruptionmay be increased to 5,000 vibrations

with this form is in its sticking
greatestdifficulty

propensities.
DOUBLE-SPRING
the

INTERRUPTOR.

movable

contact

FIG.

midway between

its

107.

"

"

In

all

point is secured

INDEPENDENT

rupters
single-springinterto the spring
directly

INTERRUPTOR.

stationaryand

its free

rents
end; where heavy curvery often stick,due to

employed the platinum contacts

welded together,
the fusing of the points,which
on
coolingbecome
rupter
rendering the device inoperative. In the double-spring interare

into
called
play, the
(Fig. 106) two
springs are
small
one
carrying a movable
platinum contact, projecting
acts as the vibrator
through a collar in the large one, which
in contact
When
the
spring proper.
platinum points come

with

each

other

but

is

thus

giving the

carried

the

large spring

forward
contact

spring is returningit
breaks

the contact

with

until

it

pointsthe
strikes
all its

the

arrested

is not

its

reaches

benefit
collar

of

in

full

long make

of the

acquiredmomentum

small
at

its

action,

amplitude,
; when

the

spring and
full speed.

INTERRUPTORS.

This

improvement on the simple-springvibrator,since

latter the break takes place at the instant the spring begins
In the double-springinterrupterthe force is sufficient

is

in the
to

Ill

move.

decided

to break

always

the

INDEPENDENT

be inferred

at the contact

slightweld
INTERRUPTOR.

that

this

"

type of

By

vibrator

points.

the

term

is

complete device

independentit

is to

itself,

in

although a subsidiarypiece of apparatus of the induction coil. It

rupter,
all the improvements of the double-springinterusually embodies
and, being operatedon a shunt, it may be started or stopped
the current
at will and
completely
flowing through the inductor
made
broken
or
or
intermittently
interrupted"as the specifications
of some
wireless
telegraph systems
call for

per
C2Z3

photographof
v

lt

standard

interruptor,and

V//////A

Fig.

where

connections

"3.

vibrator,is

short

interruptormagnets

the

shows

108

; 1

is

independent

independent

an

employed

for the

contacts

Fig. 107

desired.

as

"

representsthe
circuit; 2

; 3 the

the

tacts
large con-

primary circuit; 4, 41
the primary coil in two
layers and
5 the source
of e. m.
f. Independent
adapted to
interruptersare especially
for the

TIG.

108.

CONNECTIONS

"

OF

operate coils on
the type shown

PENDENT
INDE-

INTERRUPTOR.

to

the

110-volt
a

circuits.

vertical

free end

and

of

rod
the

In

is attached

large

carries a slidingweight
vibratingspring
position
by a set screw.
By adjusting the weight the period of vibration
be varied within
certain limits,offeringa decided advantage
may
in adjusting it to the requirements of wireless
mission.
telegraph transOther
action

is

features

independent of

coil, it gives
An

retained

clean-cut

adjustablecondenser

with
where

the
a

of

in

this

the
and

its
interruptorare as follows:
heavy current
flowing through the
stick.
sharp break, and it cannot

is very

"

often mounted

on

the

same

base

interruptor,and is an important feature

ruption
speed takes place,since different periods of inter-

independent
variable

The
requirecapacitiesof different value.
magnet of the
wound
for the current
should
be especially
with which
interruptor
it is to be operated. The
adjustablecondensers usually have a
total

capacityof

or

5 microfarads

subdivided

into

fifths,so

that

112

in

WIRELESS

suitable value

using

it in connection

Another
with

two

just clear

the

in

that

positiveand

This

amplitude
powerful.

FIG.

109.

MECHANICAL

"

that

be

POLE

the

or

the

called into

INDEPENDENT

vessel of mercury
coil.

The

utilized
mechanism

Bichat

operated by

electro-magnet,Et with
bell

working

to which

on

shunt

the

of

with

the

feature of
in
a

1875,

who

magnet,
automatic
circuit.

is fastened the contact

adapted

as

in

coils

point T.

play, so
it very

the

armature

plunging

it to

was

reciprocating

It consists
like

carries

mercury

primary
break

and

and

into

inductor

batteryand

Fig. 110.

The

experimenters

of

interruptor,B,
The

nets,
mag-

testing the

In

"

make

mercurial

the

INTERRUPTOR.

terminals

is in circuit

which

fundamental

by M.

of

one

will

spring

action, making

interruptionon the coefficients of

usually employ the simple and efficient method
removing, by hand,

coils.

design it

unlimited

an

INTERRUPTOR.

BECIPROCATING

and

to

polar projectionsof
spring

arise

may

largestof

armature

of

action

which

is
type of interruptor

gives the

may

DOUBLE

smallest

of the

surfaces

109.

the

so

condition

every

in this

arranged

inner

Fig.

its full

for

with

improvement
magnets

as

had

be

may

TELEGRAPHY.

is

of

an

vibrating
the

rod

Lf

represented

INTERRUPTORS.

by

the

while

black

bottom

vaseline

of the

vessel

and

is marked

"

point forms

the contact
with

at the

space

113

the

terminal

prevent sparking

to

and

; the

mercury

ia

ered
cov-

oxidization.

UJ
FIG.

MECHANICAL

ROTATING

interrupterdesigned by

FIG.

cretet

are

much

motion

used

INTERRUPTOR.

Bichat

111.

110.

"

and

ROTATING

in France.

of the movable

the

"

The

mercury

rotary type

made

type of
by Du-

INTERRUPTOR.

In

contact

the

latter device

point

is obtained

the

cating
recipro-

by the

ro-

of

tary action

shaft Am

The

Ex, operating in

cam,

the

attached

with

contact

point

of the armature

this

adjusted;

is

vessel

in

as

Covering

petroleum

in which

Fig. Ill,
makes

and

in Bichat's

the

the

breaks

interrupter.
a
layer of

is

mercury
alcohol

to

prevent
interrupter has a

or

sparking. The
periodicityof

an

provided with
plate to which is

point

here, as

on

is

longitudinalslotted

in the

mercury

is mounted

motor, P,

the collar,T,

t and

rod

contact

platinum

The

electric motor.1

an

standard.

insulated
a

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

114

600

to

800

ute
min-

per

operated by the motor.

Fig. 112 is a diagram of the interBf
adjusting screw,
ruptor. An
when

to raise

serves

lower

or

require. The

make,

as

the

speed

is

governed by

rheostat,R,

may

and

its

it

manipulation,
sharp break
device

low-speedinterruptionscan
FIG.

112.

SCHEME

"

to

ROTATING

OF

to

The

where

used

be

advantage.

INTERRUPTOR.

TOR.

the

of

ease

serviceable

of

means

and
reliability,
make

periodof

shorter

giving a longer or
case

the mercury,

MERCURY

TURBINE

INTERRUP-

mechanical

interruptersdescribed are exceedinglyeasy

manipulate, require little attention, and are
always ready
"

for use, and

sale

coils for

time

reasons

the

in

results

practice better
smaller

these

for

instantaneousness
of

device
10 to
under

this character

10,000
the

obtained

and

which

of

break.

with

revolved

by

Mercury

is contained

motor

rotated the mercury

interruptorshaying a
therefore
more
nearly approach
The

hollow

not
in

is drawn

but

well

belted

to it

below, and

upward

*Comptes Rendus, Academy of Sciences,

Electrical
World
and
Engineer, October

H.

R.

and

by

when

forced

shows

worm,

the
It

P,

pulley at 8.

the

outward

14, 1897.
12, 1901.

June

break

Cunningham.2

spindlecontaininga steel

shown,
the

and

of make

cut, Fig. 113,

Dr.

is

interruptionfrom

of

range

The

turbine

mercury

the relative times

of the

of
essentially

with

offering a

minute,

control

tion
generallysupplied with inducIn
wireless
market.
telegraph

operator.
jet interrupterdesigned by

mercury

consists

per

open

are

constant,

are

spindleis
through

116

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

cury

jetsQQ'}

the

TT,

attached

to

this well
about

cleaned

cavityprevent the

or

pounds of mercury
operationfor a month

by washing

FIG.

driven

by

114.

may

operatedby an
dischargesresult
be shunted

ELECTROLYTIC

the

been

consist

square

of
mm.

very
a

off,and

and
A

and

lead

requires

"

In

unidirectional

cathode

When

capacity

the best results.

systems,

wireless

of
the

Wehnelt

raphy,
telegtrolytic
elec-

attained

the

results

the

electrolytic
type

of

surface

having

the

disruptive

of small

obtain

favor, and

having a

parts

coil may

induction

manufacture,

with

the

it has

flowingin

wave

any

satisfactory.Interruptersof

platinum anode

It

potassium.

condenser

interrupterto

of German
met

thus

of

INTERRTTPTOR.

the crest of each

INTERRUPTOR.

interrupterhas

of

cavity

bottom

and

removed

ELECTROLYTIC

spark-gap.

across

be

of bichromate

alternatingcurrent
at the

the

charge the turbine, and after

FOR

be sheared

those
especially

have

WORM

the

of the mercury.

it should

solution

COOLING

"

be

should

in

the mercury

into

projectionson

rotation

to

synchronous motor

direction

same

radial

tips. After

it falls back

sectors

The

six
in

been

again.

used

to be

of their

out

projectedagainstthe

been

ready

the

air-blast is forced

velocityan
has

compressed by two trumpet-shaped pipes,

spindle Pf and as they revolve at a high

air is

approximately4
surface
approxi-

INTERRUPTORS.

117

both
being immersed
mating 300 square
cm.,
of sulphuricacid 1 part,and water 5 parts. When
connected

are

in series with

potentialof

having

formed

on

current

; the

of the

platinum

very

which

if continued

For

these

the

reasons

suppliedfrom

tubing.In the

electrodes
of

source

e.

and

which

f.

m.

non-conducting gas

anode

are

interruptsthe

burstingof

the bubbles
the

area

this

to 150

of

type
3

interrupteris not theoretically

this
is required,and
amperes

of

or

watts, due

affects the

break, and
the

INTEKKUPTOR.

rate of

sometimes

solution

should

heating of the solution,

the
diminishes
interruption,

to the

results in absolute
be

temperature,and in practicethis may be

of a coolingworm
having a head of water
is shown
generalarrangement of the worm
be

these

employed, and inverselyas

ELECTROLYTIC

"

current

loss of 100

causes

sharpness of

115.

large coils

since
efficient,

f.

of

platinum

the formation

m.

e.

and

solution

surface.

FIG.

On

of the

frequency of

directlyas the

inductor

volts,bubbles

40

the terminal

varies

the

in

the

street mains

Braun-Siemens

and

or

kept at a uniformlylow
accomplished by the use

flowingthrough it; the

in

Fig. 114,

by using

Halske

failure.

and

siphon

it may

of rubber

intertype of electrolytic

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

118

ruptor

the

containing vessel

concentric

in two

is swung

rings,or

be maintained
times, and
may
gimbelsso that its equilibrium
useful for marine
work, where the rollingof the boat
is especially
at all

trolytic
elecan
interrupteris shown in Fig. 115. When
interrupteris employed the usual condenser shunted around
and break is not necessary, as the interruptoritself has a
the make
action, and termed
certain inherent
capacitydue to electrolytic
affect it ; this

would

FIG.

116.

"

INTERRUPTOK.

ELECTROLYTIC

DOUBLE

electrolytic
capacity,which

is sufficient to

relations of the coefficients.

of the
water

An

containingvessel and
or

an

alkali solution.

alternatingcurrent

vent

should

attached

Fig. 116

may

be

to
is

a
a

used

maintain
be

the

proper

providedin the

top
with

dampened
ruptor.
interdouble electrolytic
sponge

in

connection

with

an

electrolytic
interruptorfor the negative current impulses have no
while
the
the positiveimpulseswill electrolyze
appreciableeffect,
solution and

gas bubbles

will be formed

as

in the

case

of the ordi-

INTERRUPTORS.

direct current.

nary

reduced

when

cathode

and

The

platinum point is,however, very rapidly

alternatingcurrent is used, for the negativecurrent

an

like

acts

direct current

the lead

it may,

by

at least 40

this

volts

and

Caldwell

is

there

solution

or

and

its maintenance

two

the

is therefore

service.

only
In

is

tice
prac-

good results,and

the

1,000 to 10,000 per minute.

This

interrupteris due
essentially electrolytic
in action.1

are

made

alternatingcurrent

required to obtain

"

FIG.

Fig. 117,

an

platinum point is

method, be pressed into

are

INTERRUPTOR.

LIQUID

the

where

interruptionis from

rate of

when

platethe anode,

quite expensive; but

available

119

117.

"

the
electrolyte;

In

E. W.

this type,

INTERRUPTOR.

LIQUID

metal

to Mr.

electrodes

immersed

electrodes

are

in

ing
conduct-

separatedfrom

each

in action the
punctured insulated diaphragm. When
current
flowing through the circuit has a greater density at the
is formed
orifice of the diaphragm, with the result that a bubble
which
in the
as
interruptsthe current; the bubble then collapses,

other

by

Wehnelt

rapiditywith
the amount
of the

which

the

make

and

break

.takes

several

so

The

on.

place varies

with

flowing in the circuit,its inductance,

diaphragm, the depth of the electrodes in

of current

orifice in the

solution,and

and
again,disrupted,

be formed

type,only to

other minor

^Electrical Review, New

York,

May

factors.
3, 1899.

Like

other

size
the

electrolytic

120

WIRELESS

not
interrupters,

less than

an

alternatingcurrent

not

available.
ROTARY
in

the

volts

40

be

may

INTERRUPTOR.

impulses

TELEGRAPHY.

inductor

in

are

if

employed
all the

In

"

required to operate it,and

are

the

direct

current

is

foregoing interruptorsthe
direction, and

same

rectional
unidi-

connected
to the
dischargesresult between the spark-balls
of the secondary coil. Rapidly alternatingcurrents
terminals
may,
of the rotary pole-changinginterrupter.
however, be produced by means
This

compound

disks

are

mounted

are

these

118.

"

on

ROTARY

of

source

series

e.

through

brushes

in

are

through

the
of

movement

degree

of

arc

of the

These

dynamo.

f. B,

m.

and

primary Pt so
the positionindicated

the

in the

to

poles takes

are

lating
insu-

an

in

Fig.

insulated

or

wheels

the

direction

like brushes
in

are

wheels

that
in

brushes, 1, 3, 2, 4,

carbon

are

when

Fig. 114
of the

the
a

circuit

connected
wheels

current

arrow,

on

but

the
with
in

and

will flow
upon

the

through a
operate synchronously,
the peripherallength of a segment a reversal
flows through
place and the current now

wheels,

equal

shown

8, and

brushes

the

inductor

filled with

are

INTERRUPTOR.

other; two pairs of copper

arranged to press firmly on the
of

and

motor

Wb,, segments of which

shafts, 8

each

commutator
the

wheels, Wa,

by

segments of vulcanite,as

with

FIG.

from

or

and
peripheries,

or

wheels

the

118;

device driven

purely mechanical

of their

out

cut

brass

of two

consists
are

is

which

In adjusting the brushes

opposite direction.
1 and
2 do not touch
be exercised
that the pair marked
must
care
the brass portion of their respectivewheels
simultaneously with
these should
the inrest on
the brushes 3 and 4, but alternately

the

inductor

in the

INTERRUPTORS.

121

the rotary interrupteris in action,as the

segments. When
from
the
first pair of brushes, 1, 2, forms
contact, the current
positivepole flows through the disk Wa and the inductor P, thence
sulated

through

the

wheel

Wb

instant the brushes

and

brush

1 to the

2 will occupy

1 and

3 and

the

will form

battery. The
the

contact, when

segment

and

will flow

through the brush 3, traversingthe wheel

the

positionon

next

insulated

positivecurrent
and

Wa

back

to

through

the

mmmmm..v
AAAAAAT
FIG.

the

119.

this

battery; by

inductor

as

times

as

these may

the wheels

of alternations
DISRUPTIVE

the

are

per

current

revolution

rotated

DISCHARGE
the

the

DISCHARGE

as

INTERRUPTOR.

is reversed
there

are

representa large number

through the

based upon

by

DISRUPTIVE

means

many

wheels; and
at which

DIAGRAM

"

may

inductor

be very
per

INTERRUPTOR.

of rendering an
principle

may
new

the

speed

be obtained.

type of

air gap

discharge,is the invention of Thomas

disruptive
current
diagram Fig. 119, a direct or alternating

and

in the

rapid,a large number

second
"

segments

J.

rupter,
inter-

conductive

Murphy.

In

generatord, is

WIRELESS

122

connected

length
by a can
having

the

down.

the

to
To

for

an

been

air has

angles to

the

induction

coil

the

across

sparks from

is mounted

with

its

carbons, thus forming the

the

potentialdeveloped
representedby DEF

heads

of the

secondary,

the induction

coil

the

; the

arc

sends

generatora

netic
mag-

polar projectionsat right

magnetic

field

the
disruptivedischargetherebyinterrupting

in action

When

the

spark-plugns;

spark-gaps H
principalair-gap,EC, through
flowing continuously from
prevent the current
indefinite period after the initial resistance
of the

NS

the

than

the

the arc, the

on

Q, shunted

disruptedby

blowout

BC, forming

greater

small

condenser

HH1!!1.
to

is much

gap

break

connects

to the terminals

by AAf

of

TELEGRAPHY.

current

acts
re-

rent.
cur-

into the circuit

FIG.

AAt which

DISRUPTIVE

"

DISCHARGE

air-gap B

the

traverses

the induction
main

120.

INTERRTJPTOR.

C, along with the sparks from

coil,and there will be

as

interruptionsof the

many

sparksthrough the gap from the induoing

tion coil. This interrupter
be utilized for making and breakmay
currents
having a potentialof 500-volts;it operates most
circuit. A very small induction coil may
on
a 220-volt
efficiently
be employed to primarilydisruptthe air. A photograph,Fig. 120,
presentsa general view of the Murphy interrupter.
current

EOTARY

as

there

CONVERTER.

rotary pole changer

Electric

are

Company

apparatus. It

has

of

is known

"

A
been

Berlin
as

modified

28, 1903.

market

the Grisson

above

by

the

type of
General

Slaby-Arco
current
direct-alternating

connection

^Murphy High-PotentialInterrupter.
Nov.

the

placedon
in

of the

form

Collins.

with

Elec.

the

World

and

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

124

the

tact with

segments

wheels, reversingthe

of the

current

completed through the inductor. The direct current

Bz
P1P2
for the period of time the brushes
inductor

circuit is
to

the

with

contact

of the metal

one

segments

of their

inductor

and

flows

through

reached
of

the

the

inductor;

with
polarity

f.

m.

at P2P3

is

every

the brushes
brush

and

thus

broken

maximum

122.

produced by

the first

in

begin

to form

the current
This

value.

6,000 alternations

per

the

this

of the

; the

"

iron

total

in

voltage

critical value

change

core

are

insulating

of

the

is

position

current

is

of the inductor

alternation of current, and

counter

CONVERTER.

ROTARY

current

cutting off the

of

means

circuit,and

the current

instant

flows

includingthe

circuit

insulatingsegments, and

FIG.

e.

the

in virtue

in the inductor

in direction

of the

one

closed,and

is
the

but

is reversed

conducting and
its

when

of energy

source

current

the

changed
reverses

respectivewheels

the

and

segments

the

as

segment approachesand
the oppositesegment leaves its
one

as

contact

is 'reduced

to

0;

in the

second

converter

has

circuit
a

minute, and

when

the

first circuit is

quickly reaches

frequencyof

while

this

from

is lower

400

its
to

than, the

be used.
heavier
currents
periods of electrolytic
interrupters,
may
disks are
of a small motor, M,
revolved by means
The
contact
mutator
operated by a shunt from the leads,LL1; C representsthe com-

and R
disks U1U2,

so

of

frequency.

in

Fig. 122.

that
The

the

converter

Grisson

controllingthe speed of

for

variable resistance

comparativelywide range
is illustrated photographically

has

converter

the

INTERRUPTORS.

MERCURY
are

includes

the

designed

123."

FIG.

in

of

the

DIAGRAM

124.

"

diagram

Fig.

The

coil

by
123

the

Peter
in

primary
source

VAPOR

VAPOR

and

described
foregoinginterrupters

and

MERCURY

MERCURY

interrupterinvented
the

"

placed in

be

to

inductor

FIG.

new

INTERRUPTOR.

VAPOR

125

circuit

of

e.

m.

which
f.

INTERRUPTOR.

INTERRUPTOR.

Cooper Hewitt, is
half

tone

at

shown

Fig. 124,

WIRELESS

126

This
in

interrupter
the

of

as

inverted

contain
wires

through

the

to

the

it

difference

of

drops

positive

electrode

Eeferring

to

2'

4',

in

aerial

of

means

depends

in

voltage
20,000,

The

earth,

of

of

shape
the

the
to
and

the

size

potential

of

the

the

required.

of

and

the

erator
genformer;
trans-

the

the

with

coefficients

the

obtained

by

interruptions
of

capacity
is

from
of

the

oscillating
and

spark-gap,

varies

minals
ter-

interruptor

is
the

the

value.

high

step-up

condensers
with

and

of

circuit

8,

interruptor
tube

resistance

connected

rapidity

oscillator
the

operate

closed

coil,

from

discharge

ordinary

negative

transformer,

the

are

The

8.

of

3, 3', with

7, but

and

normally

primary
of

When

alternating-current

condensers

inductance,

3'; the

its

an

condensers

inductance

required

determining

the

the

winding

the

to

the

is

flows

current

positive

to

represents
with

thereto.

case

the

difference

opposition.

potential

increased

secondary
lead

the

3,

critical

instantly

variable

on

the

minimum

negative

high-potential

the

no

the

necks
with

the

potential

or

globe

The

the

and

little

general

connection

to

down

spark-

glass

action

critical

between

series

In

resistance

breaks

of

same

of

make

system.

maximum

alternating

exhausted.

is

and

high

the

placed

is

form

consists

air

mercury

potential
a

6, and

condensers
as

the

shunt

wire,

of

and

the

with

in

which

of

4,

is

which

diagram,

connected

on

conductor

is

the

to

constructed

lamp

suddenly

gaseous

electrodes

is

oscillator

until

current

modified

as

it

the

interrupts
a

serves

exceedingly

an

when

reached,

from

quantity

offers

alternating

but

that

in

types

only

not

vapor

necks,

leading

electrode

the

mercury

small

it

interruptor

other

all

and

potential,

mercury

principles
with

circuit,

high

The

gap.

from

differs

secondary

current

TELEGRAPHY.

2,000
the

the
to

circuit

XI.

CHAPTER

GENERATORS.

CURRENT

OSCILLATING

PRACTICAL.

One

of the fundamental

wireless
of long-distance
current.
potential

This

may

requirementsfor the successful operation

is a high-frequency,
hightelegraphy
of different
be producedby a number

described,i" the
methods,of which the induction coil,previously
best known
the

; others

are

the frictional machine, the Tesla

oscillator,

Thomson

former.
high-frequency
apparatus,and the Fleming transquencies
that enormously high freExperiencehas shown

at first
not so desirable as they were
are
potentials
believed to be,but that oscillating
of
currents having a periodicity
of 25,000 to 50,000 volts give
100,000 per second and a potential
the best results,
since the former produceslongerwave
lengths,
with
which are more
current
latter
the
and the
backs up
penetrating,
sufficient pressure
to produce a heavy discharge,this giving
rise also to penetratingwaves.
and the
The frictional machine
Tesla oscillator are not, therefore,
in the presentstate of the art,

and

less
satisfactory
generators,but the advances in the evolution of wirethe
are
on
so rapidthat either of these devices may
telegraphy
is therebe found useful. A description
fore
of these methods
morrow
appended.

FRICTIONAL

MACHINE.

Otto Guericke consisted of

revolved

by

The

"

frictionalmachine

globeof

as

invented

mounted
sulphur,
axially

by
and

effected by
was
generationof electricity
the friction of the hand againstits surface. A glassglobewas
stituted
subby Bose, of Wittenburg,who also applieda smaller wheel
with

crank; the

crank and belted it to the

speed; the
collected on a metal tube. The plateglass
electricity
was
machine,
shown in Fig.125, was
devised in 1787, and comprisesa plateglass
disk,A, revolved on an axis by a crank havingan insulated handle.
The friction is appliedthroughthe rubbers,
D, pressingagainstthe
disk of glass.The disk,rubbers and prime conductor are mounted
a

127

globeto

increase its

WIRELESS

128

TELEGRAPHY.

glassstandards;the prime conductor, Pf consists of a

separate
comb
metal spherecarrying
a metal
extendingon either side of the
on

disk.
The

lower

portionof

prevent the leakage of

be coated

to the collectors.

the rubbers

from

revolution

glassdisk is covered with a silk bag to

from
the plate during its half
electricity
the

with

an

amalgam

made

The

rubbers

should

partsof zinc,3 partsof tin,

into
and made
together,pulverized,
of 5

melted
partsof mercury
lard.
Before the macli ine is used it should be dried in
a pastewith
a warm,
placeto expel all moisture.
is revolved toward
the right,
In action,the plateglassmachine
When
when
is generatedby the rubbers.
the charged
electricity
within the field of the collectors the electricity
is accumudisk comes
lated
thus
dischargingthe glassdisk,which
by the prime conductor,
and

Fio.

125.

"

FBICTIONAL

MACHINE.

tion
negative,due to the loss of its charge. During each revoluof the plateevery portionis alternately
charged and discharged,
the lower half being constantlypositiveand the other half at zero
except its residual charge. The energy generatedby a frictional
disk.
of the plate-glass
machine
is proportional
to the surface area

becomes

spark is not a true index of the energy generated,

than a long,
since a short,thick spark may
representmore
energy
The greatest
thin one.
cessively
objectiont" the frictional machine is its exlow current strength;
high potentialand proportionately
feature is the variation of spark due to
coupled with this untoward
the humidity of the air and other atmosphericconditions.
When
should be providedby
a spark-gap
employed in wireless telegraphy
a
mounting a metal
sphere on
separate glass standard; the
The

lengthof

the

aerial wire

is connected

side of the

spark-gapto

HoLT-ToPLER

to the

prime conductor

and

the

opposite

the earth.

MACHINES.

"

In

1865

Holtz invented

machine

OSCILLATING

to

CURRENT

by
generateelectricity

operatethe machine
external

some

it was

is mounted

axiallyon

drivingwheel, to
revolvingplateare the

small

M;

giveit an

to

necessary

the

shaft and
which

collectors V
and

collectors K

to the left

is attached.

and

by

by

means

of

I,n front of the

to the ebonite

attached

insulated

are

chargefrom

designby making
type, Fig. 126, the plateA

revolves

crank

initial

the

Topler improved upon

source.

129

static inductive influence. To

its mutual

self-exciting.In the Holtz

the machine

disk

GENERATORS.

the

ebonite rods

extending from M ; these collectors are connected to the Leyden

spark-gapP, R.
jars,C, D, and with the adjustable
staThe glassplateB is fixed on ebonite supportsand remains

FIG.

126.

revolvingand the stationaryglass disks are

coated with shellac ; the stationary
disk has two openings cut in it
immediately oppositethe combs K, L; two inductors,T X, made
is
of paper, are cemented
its rear surface. The Topler machine
on
tionary.

the

Both

constructed
cemented

on

on

the

same

as
generalprinciples

its front surface

that of

Holtz, but

of tin-foil disks

number

or

has

carriers,

glassdisk revolves;
two of these brushes are connected to the stationary
plateand two
thus making the machine self-exciting.
to the uninsulated
collectors,
which

form

When

contact

with

wire

in action and the

come

in contact

each

oppositepair

brushes

plateA

the brushes

with
of

carriers

is generated
by
Electricity

is

as

the

revolved,the

E, F,

oppositebrushes touching

at
successively

the friction

tin-foil carriers

the

producedand

same

instant.

the carriers on

WIRELESS

130

well

charged as

are

is insulated from

as

TELEGRAPHY.

the inductors

the inductor

by

the

on

B;

the instant the carrier

partialrevolution

of the

plate

and the process beingcontinued,

they act on each other inductively,
the charge multiplies,
municates
charging the glassdisk,which comfinally
the
its charges to the Leyden jars. When
potential
difference between
the inner and outer coatingsof the jarsbecomes
great enough through the cumulative action of the charged disks
the disruptivedischargetakes placebetween
the spark-balls
and

oscillations surge
through the circuit. For wireless telegraph
transmission the vertical wire is attached to one side of the sparkand

gap

the earth

induction

side
opposite

TRANSFORMER.

described

but
transmission,

is

in

This

"

connection

method
with

probablydue

to Dr.

current generatorconnected
alternating

winding

of

in the

case

of

an

the

of

oscillations
producing-

DeForest

system of

It consists of

Fleming.

in series with

the

an

primary

oil insulated

an

connected

are

as

coil.

FLEMING
is

terminal to the

in

transformer;the secondaryterminals
sers
series with a batteryof Leyden jarsor oil conden-

the condensers
having a spark-gapin shunt thereto. When
are
charged to their maximum
capacitythey dischargethrough the
into
currents
spark-gap,convertingthe alternatinghigh-potential
oscillations of greatintensity.This method
sally
bids fair to be univerof transformation
for sending stations,
adopted as a means
and

possesses

many

desirable

features

over

the

induction

coil;

of energy,
utilizing
any quantity
which
in the induction coil is limited by the interrupter.The
transmitters
at Poldhu, Cornwall, England, Glace
great Marconi
Ba)',Nova Scotia,and South Welfleet,Mass., are equippedwith
this type of apparatus.
these may

among

TESLA

OSCILLATOR.

frequencyand
coil

or

be cited that of

even

"

In

the Tesla

oscillator

obtained
are
higherpotential
This

static machine.

than

result is

higher rate of

by an induction
accomplishedby

of
by means
second transformer
coil and
a
stepping up the frequency of
oscillation by means
of a second disruptivedischarge. The Tesla
oscillator beginswhere the Fleming transformer leaves off,while it
differs from the Braun
system of transformation in that it employs
a second
spark-gap.A comparison of the diagrams A, B, C, Fig.
127, illustratesthe physicaldifference in the apparatusof Fleming,

steppingup

Braun

^nd

the

potentialof

ordinarytransformer

an

Tesla.1

Martin, Inventions

of Nikola
.

Tesla, 1894, p. 207.

WIRELESS

132

and

TELEGRAPHY.

is attained by means
frequencyor ordinary periodicity
current is again stepped up by
2, the oscillatory
spark-gap,

of the

transformer, 3, when

the

of

means

the

potentialmay be further increased to

million
current
volts, and by discharging this high-potential
a
be further stepped
the spark-gap, 4, the frequency may
across
until

up

it

approximates 10,000,000

FIG.

the current

static

and

distinct

machine, but

telegraphyto
The

the

from

it has

not

construction

This

box, B, of

of

of

rubber.

Each

of
cm.

FF

hard

coil consists

distance

square,
of about

wood

of two

10

cm.

produces phenomena

propertiesand

been

proven

induction
of

value

coil

or

the

wireless

in

presenttime.
Tesla

"

COIL.

TESLA

that of the

discharge-coilis shown
In

"

altogethernew

assumes

new

128.

cycles per second, when

cm.

oscillator
"

in the

encased

in

that

is,the second

ruptive
dis-

sectional

drawing Fig. 128.

sheet zinc,the coil is placed.

spoolsof hard rubber, R,R,

by bolts, c, and nuts, n,

held
also

apart at
of

hard

eter
spool comprises a tube, T, having an inside diam3
and
mm.
thick, the two
flanges,F, F, 24

being screwed
3

cm.

The

thereon, leaving

between

space

secondary winding,

s,

sf

of the

wire, has

best rubber-covered
halves

of

the

The

primary

oil

Each

through

half

rubber

of the

26

layersof

wound
both

and

129.

being made
in two

the

four

positionin

least

cm.

the

ELIHU

"

THOMSON

thickness

two

connected
the

parts and

terminals

The

each.

are

in

primary.
oppositely
led out

of

MACHINE.

tubes, t, t, having great dielectric strength.

coil has

primary

oil

over

four

layersand

in
layer;both of these parts are connected
and secondarylayersare insulated by cotton
in

turns

10

133

oppositelyand

P, is wound

spool,W

FIG.

the

are

between

coil,P

wooden

the

upon

secondary

connection

series,the

GENERATORS.

CURRENT

OSCILLATING

on

wooden
of

oil

24

series and
cloth.

supports and

The

to the

turns
the

primary

coil is held

there should

surrounding it.

Either

be
a

com-

at

WIRELESS

134

TELEGRAPHY.

transformer, as that employed in

mercial

coil

having
ordinary induction
for the primary transformation
as
givesthe most uniform effects.
an

ELIHU

APPARATUS.

THOMSON

the

Fleming method, or
spark-gap,may be employed
desired,although the former

The

photograph,Fig.129, shows
machine
is composed of a
the Thomson
complete. The machine
wooden
casing,with glasssides and top,part of the ends, however,
being made to supportthe shaft projectingtherefrom. There appears
is upon the shaft of a small
to the rightof the figurea pulleywhich
direct-current motor
secured
to the iron base, and occupying the
lower right-handcorner
of the case.
This motor also bears a pulley
with projections
studs carried on its face for engaging with the
or
and passingover
another
perforatedbelt risingfrom it vertically,
similar pulley on the connector
frame
of the shaft,which
will be
alluded

to later.

The

motor

"

used

bi-polar,
having slipringsand
single-phase
alternatingcurrent.

is

winding for taking off

It is,therefore,
not only a motor, but an
inverted rotary converter,
nating.
altercurrent
to single-phase
convertingfrom continuous
The cyclesare
25 per second; this,of course,
a little over
be
which
in turn may
depending on the speed of the motor itself,
On the lower
regulatedby the strengthof the field of the motor.
left-hand portionof the case is a step-uptransformer
taking the low
voltagecurrent from the motor or rotaryconverter and transforming
taps to

it to

its

15,000

to

20,000

volts in the

former
secondary.This step-uptrans-

is

for
The

made and insulated securelyin the best manner

specially
these high potentials,
solid asphaltbeing employed in insulation.
secondaryterminals are led upward within the case to the left,

and
other

are

connected

to two

arc-shapedpieces,insulated from

each

and

close to, but not to touch, two pins

arranged to come
the revolvingconnector
frame
To the rightof these
on
justbelow.
piecesare a set of similar piecesarrangedin two series,
arc-shaped
correspondingto the two terminal piecesand having connections

led from
The

which

upwardly to the coils of a set

and
connections
arc-shapedpieces seen
correspondto the positivefoils,and
them

of
in

glasscondensers.
front

those

at

are

the

those

back

correspondto the negativefoils. On the assumptionthat the

arc-shapedpiece connected to the secondary of the terminal,and
in front to the left,is a positive
seen
terminal,it is,of course,
anomalous
to speak of positive
and negativeterminals in dealing

would

of the use of this

significance
connector
it is understood that the revolving

with

currents; but
alternating

term

will be

seen

when

the

OSCILLATING

CURRENT

GENERATORS.

135

pins whereby the terminals of the highsecondaryare brought into contact with the condenser foils
potential
of 15,000 to 20,000 volts
so
as to charge these foils to a potential
to polarity.This is accomplishedby making the conas
nector
definitely
frame
in its rotation synchronous with the rotations of the
motor
or
tion
rotaryconverter,and giving it a positionto afford connecthe alternating
its
when
is
at
to the condensers
or
wave
near
maximum
in one
the oppositepositionis
direction only. When
reached, the frame is turned to a positionsuch that no connection
frame

can

and

bears connections

be afforded

to the condensers.

alluded
as above
charging of the condenser platesor foils,
to, takes placethrough a minute
spark-gapbetween pins upon the
frame
and the stationaryarc-shapedpieces connected
connector
with the foils. This avoids the noise of mechanical
play or rubbing
and saves
the wear
take place. The
which might otherwise
nector
conThe

frame, therefore,revolves with

be
so

the connector

that

seen

with them

however,

on

in

as

the other in series so

in

one

of the frame

semi-revolution

It will thus

charging the condensers does

The condensers,
largecondenser.

frame

or
parallel

freedom.

entire

connected

arc

one

with

togetherthe potential.
connection
is made to the terminals, consisting
of slide
The same
rods and suitable supportson top of the machine, and bearingbrass
balls and

insulated

to add

as

handles.

If there

are

ten condensers

multiplying of the potentialis, of course,

which
given to each condenser individually,
volts would
As

times

in the

case

set,the

the

charge

of

15,000

be 150,000.

there

ordinarilyabout

are

of the condenser

of

being varied
intensity.
The

ten

in

over

are

25

charges
revolutions per second, the dis-

at that rate, but

wide range, both

of

in number

course

are

per second

capable
and

in

is well

adapted to wireless telegraphy,as it

the vigor of the dischargesmay
does not reverse
its polarity,
be
regulated,and its operationis not dependent upon the weather;
and can
be used whenever
the machine
is portable
a direct
besides,
current

machine

of sufficient voltageis at hand.

It may

employed,as is evident,simply as a motor by

the primary
right-handpulleyand open-circuiting

also be

beltingfrom

the

of the terminal.
enable
can

various

The

terminal

connections

to

posts,as seen on the front board,

be made whereby the speedand voltage

be controlled.1
better

from

Elihu

Thomson

to the

author, May 20, 1903.

CHAPTER

XII.

WAVE

ELECTRIC

ACTION.

HISTORICAL.

Prior
electric

time

the

to

had

waves

such

reference

earliest

by Guitard
electrified
that

from

the

under
of rain

action

of

thus

the

particlesof

into
rise

giving

described

his. observations

of dust

composed

of

did

not

venture

Hughes

the

their

material

made

large

his

based

on

the

wireless

carbon

existence.

In

which

due

be

to

joint

as

of

Hughes

could

but

the

divers

filingsunder
researches

conductor
of

the

knowledge
induction.

of

to
a

circumstances

the

point

frictional

resistance

of

of electric

waves

In

*Lodge, Electrician,

and

and

Nov.

in this

ascribed

employed

London,

tube

his

way

particles;but

metal

the

and

conditions,

connecting

machine,

Hertz

1888

of

and

the

metal

12, 1897.

the

was

the

ring

Elec.

carried

the

obtained
Calzecchi

action

of metal

even

with

prove

made

coherer,3 and

physicistto investigate the variability of conductivity

prime
ing
lowerhad

of cohesion

for

World

*Nuovo

Cimento.

British

Association

Reprinted

(Liverpool

in Elec.
136

World

and

no

to

the

detection

and

Eng., May

10, 1902.

2Varley's Paper,

pected
sus-

not

Calzecchi-Onesti

called

he

but

distance

first

to

with

Prof.

device

come

mass

1879

In
at

S.

of moderate

contact,

detector.

waves,

Temistocle
be

loose

first

his

has

loose

A.

experiments

action.2

such

electric

to

Dr.

1884

of

ning
light-

Mr.

currents

of

number

of

drops

the

1866

to electric

signaling apparatus

microphonic

action

of

In

opposition

principle

explanation

an

operated

mile, using

conducting

Varley

lightning bridges

the

on

small

process,

shower.

was

snowflakes

of
that

same

dust

strings and

into

and

the

The
made

was

with

formation

electrification

thunder

the

to

cohered

the

large drops by

Varley

tension.

dust

in

occurs

air laden

when

the

but

speculative.

influence

electrical

of

effects

the

1888,

purely

was

that

atmospheric

cohered

are

observed

in

varying conditions,

under

under

phenomena

same

the

who

point

researches

phenomena

cohesion

to

in 18501

Hertz's
observed

been

producing

cause

of

meeting) 1870.
Eng., Dec. 2,
,

1899.

the

of

electric

classical paper

waves,1

Influence/' being

the

radio-conductor, that

impinging

electric

and

in

show

cohesion

of

Eduard

Branly

Conductivityunder
by means
conclusively,
metal
filingswas the

also made

He

137

of

first to

waves.

M.

1890

Variations

"The

on

ACTION.

WAVE

ELECTRIC

the

known

his

read

Electrical
of his
effect of

process of

storing
re-

by percussion.
normally high resistance of the filings
In 1894 Lodge read a paper before the Electrical Congress "On
Hertz
of Transmitting Signals with
the Possibility
a
Kadiator,"
employing a device modeled after Onesti's tube and Branly'sradiothe

conductor.

In his researches

of

waves

electric
drawn

were

to the

metal

on

with

into contact

tube the

phenomena relatingto the action

filingsLodge found that the particles
the

on

each

other

cohered, and

or

coherer, which, though not

name

so

he gave

euphonious as
popular sentiment,
inseparablylinked
as

terminologyof Branly,struck the key-noteof

form
to be
and in its new
came
Lodge's name
the first to apply the electro-mechanical tapper
with it. Lodge was
for automatically
an
decoheringthe filings,
arrangement
as a means
which
is in general use
to-day in wireless telegraphy. Marconi
in 1897 improved the coherer to such an extent that in its present
it is at once
form
simple,sensitive,and fairlyreliable,and is
the

typicalof the evolutionaryprogress

An

anomalous

of scientificinstruments.

class of detectors which

have

been

anti-

termed

resistivity
being enormously
increased instead of decreased,has been discovered
by Herr Schaffer,
in action
and still another
form which is claimed to be electrolytic
principlesinvolved
by Herr
Neugschwender. The fundamental
coherers, in virtue of their

in the
on

foregoinghave

the several theories

is

waves

other

arranged in

the

Henry long ago

in

different

forms

Since the action

secondaryeffect of

electric

based

of electric

oscillations,

varying degreesof
observed the changes of magnetic polarity

of detection have

in needles inserted

many

to be described.

by
represented

methods

success.

been

normal

been tried,with

coil of wire

distance of 30 feet from

the

suggestedthe employment of a
device constructed on this principle8
of variation of magnetic permeability
currents
the
electric
set
the
which
are
oscillating
by
up by
the first to actuallyemploy this method
Kutherford
was
waves.
has devised a detector based not only
and Marconi
successfully,
of a core of iron by electric oscillations,,
magnetic permeability
upon

emitter.2

Elihu

Thomson

has

also

lSee Chapter III.,Electric Waves.

'See Chapter V., Electric Oscillations.
Penn.
^ProceedingsEng. Society, Western

Kintner, 1901.

138

WIRELESS

but
a

has

it much

effect.
hysteresis

sensitive

more

Fessenden

has

and

effectual

recentlyevolved

detector

wave

of

rendered

TELEGRAPHY.

by

terms

the

operated by the current of the

voltage,as in foregoingdevices,and

his

detector,is

more

sensitive than

any

by adding
electric

new

oscillations
his

instead

as
barretter,1

yet devised

he

for the

purpose.

THEORETICAL.

Branly

offered

several

chanical
hypothesesto explain the probable meeffects produced by coherer action.
He did not believe that
displacementof the filingsactuallytakes place on cohesion,
any
where the filings
held in position
are
especially
by extreme pressure,
He thought it possible
or, again,as in the solid coherer mixtures.
that there might be a volatilization of the adjoining
of the
particles
filingsand thus form a bridge of electrical conductivity.In the
and non-conductingsubstances he offers the sugmixtures
of filings
gestion
that a change takes place in the dielectric itself and that
the insulatingmedium
is broken
down
by the passage of minute
ing
sparks and that the puncturesthus made are coated with a conductsubstance.
Finally,Branly'stheoryattributes the coherer action
of the dielectric of air insulating
to the gradual breaking down
the filings,
the action being accelerated if the filings
are
compressed

retarded if the pressure is diminished.

and

Lodge

studying the

in

of electric

nature
became

waves

of metal
convinced

fluence
filingsunder the inthat the filings
were

welded
were
together and cohered and that* the particles
the
That
continuous
conductor.
a
together,forming practically
set up
primary cause of cohesion is due to a difference of potential
currents
through the resonator circuit is well
by the oscillating
of this subjectagrees with
established. Eccle in his investigations
that the critical poLodge in the matter of cohesion,but assumes
tential
the opposedplane surfaces
difference is established between
is small as comof the filings
when
the distance separatingthem
pared
ter
of matto their own
mass.
According to Eccle,any particle
drawn

which
having the propertiesof conductivity,

form, and

which

is free to

move

is not

in
spherical

in the electric field established

be-

propertyof exhibitingorientation
to the field. Accordingly
its longestaxis parallel
and thus of setting

.tween it and

the process

its fellows,
has the

of cohesion

*U. S. Patent

by electric waves

follows

granted to Fessenden, Aug. 12,

this order

1902.

(1 )

the

140

WIRELESS

given amount

TELEGRAPHY.

of current

of any

or
periodicity

form

wave

is caused

to flow

through the conductingwire there will be a corresponding

change of the same
magnitude in the local circuit."1
EXPERIMENTAL.

The

the

as

exceedinglyhigh resistance of metal

long before Branly gave his attention
decrease

in resistance when

filingshad

subject,as well
applied;by varying

the pressure from zero

to infinity
the resistance
that of
drop from many megohms to practically
But

not

the resistance
in the

metal

it will

become

only has

of metal

but
filings,

filingsof
a

the

pressure

good conductor

very

order

of

Q
FIG.
INTERNAL

COHERER

in resistance of the

the

Now

waves.

there will be

away,

click in the
of the

of

train

if

filings
may

down

of

is

singlecell

other

registerthe drop
by

the

few

dischargeda

cohere

which
finally,

the

to do.

This

ductivity
con-

trains

singlespark
is

ingly
exceed-

an

syntonic wireless telegraphy,and

is

one

principlesunderlying it.
adjustedto

certain

immediatelybefore

This

may

the

result from

emitted

"U. S. Patent

meters

galvanometer needle

two

critical

the
sensitiveness,

spark passes
causes,

(a)

between
from

by the mechanical interrupter,or (b)

alternations
set up in the
low-frequency,
high-potential
waves

for

impinging

sparks sending out

will be unable
in

of

source

circuit for the pas-

in it

of the

successive

the resistance

waves

coherer is

oscillator balls.

is to

set up

Leyden jar

coherer, and

fundamental

When

and

telephone.Repeatingthe spark increases

important factor
of the

should

galvanometer

or

wave"

closed-circuit resonator

instantlya deflection

will break

waves

emitting a

of

of the cell which

as

In

Fig. 130.

This Constitutes

coherer,as well

change

of electric

series with

in

non-conductor

of silver

f.,as

surging of the electric oscillations

electric

or

telephonereceiver

CIRCUIT.

of the direct current

sage

or

m.

ductor.
con-

decreasing

that the coherer

placed in

e-

130.

to

electric currents.

be

of chloride

j|

of

will work

to test the action

it is
necessary

made

solid metal

from

that

so

be

may

property

electric waves

coherer

served
ob-

to the
is

pressure

been

Fessenden.

Aug. 12,

1902.

from

the
train

the

oscillator

WAVE

ELECTRIC

of the coil and

system

it

141

electrostatic

producinga strong

field. Cal-

Branly both found that pulsating and direct currents

high e. m. f. produce cohesion; in the lightof recent knowledge
the conductivityof the coherer
is increased
that in either case
seems
by the potentialdifference between the irregularlyshaped
and

zecchi
of

ACTION.

this follows

and
particles,

of electric oscillations.

the

law

same

Branly tested

as

the

cohesion

drop

the action

under

in resistance

of the

: iron, copper,
during the action of electric waves
brass,zinc,antimony, aluminum, tellurium,cadmium, bismuth, and
lead,and determined that the propertyof cohesion depended largely
after percussionoffered
on
pressure and that very fine metal filings
almost perfectbarrier to the passage of a feeble direct current ;
an
sensitiveness
be easily
the proper value to insure a maximum
may

followingmetals1

adjustmentsof the terminal conductor plugsof

the coherer. Branly noted that a layerof copper reduced by hydrogen
sheet of roughened ebonite 2 cm.
wide
and spread on
and 7 cm.
a
long and well polishedhas quite a range of variability.Other
substances
also experimented with, including galena, powwere
dered
obtained

by

of

means

bioxide

pressed.
antimony and comPlatinized and silvered glassand glasscovered with gold,
foil were
also susceptibleto cohesion, and
silver and aluminum
mixed with colza oil or petroleum they were
when iron filings
were
solids consistingof iron filings
likewise affected ; even
and Canada

balsam

of

by

the

sulphur and

and

laid

in resistance

with

from

thousands

of ohms

to

few

disruptivedischarge. Rods of solid fused flowers

aluminum
and of solid copper
bars oxidized
filings
each

across

mixed

manganese

reduced

were

hundreds

of

also showed

other

marvelous

decrease

in

sistivity
re-

be
spark passed. The normal
resistivity
may
restored by percussion,and to accomplish this Branly employed a
of which
could be regulated.Some
mechanical
tapper,the hammer
the

when

substances
24

would

hours, and

retain

increase

an

in others the normal

coherers

of this

order

are

conductivityfor a periodof
would
be instantlyrestored;
resistivity
designated auto-coherers, selfof

coherers, as fancy
rightingor self-restoring
could be restored to normal
also observed

under

substances in which

the action

exhibit

marked

and
anti-coherers,

of electric
increase
a

lComptes Rendes,

kind

waves

resistance

there
;

was

an

dictates.

Other

by heating. Branly
increase of resistivity

antimony and aluminum

filings

in resistance;these detectors

are

glassemployed
platinized

of

Vol. III.,785, and

stances
sub-

vol. 112, p. 90.

as

called

coherer

WIRELESS

U2

would

increase

researches
the

greater the

certain

on

constant

value, when

it

copper

disk

few

15

has

from

mm.

His

some

apparatus

in diameter., suspended

ball and

diameter

in

mm.

the

made

has

centimeter

effect

no

immediately
delicatelypoised

was

copper
a

the

wire;

increase

by electric waves.
a

potential

until it reaches

Tommasina

ball

the

disk
in series with the ball and
spring. Connected
nickel filings
were
battery. Some
now
placed on the disk,

was

calls its critical value.

filings

recommends

that

the current

further

any

the metal

therefore

ascertained

strengthof

the

thin

alternately.KoepsePs

that the harder

filings.Guthe

with

by
on

steel

experiments in cohesion
of a nickel-plated
brass

consisted

under

resistance

decohering,and

in

increases

it; this he

beautiful

in

to the conclusion

accuracy

highly tempered
difference

diminish

and

led him

TELEGRAPHY.

ball

lowered

point of slightestcontact and the current

switched
when
through the circuit,
on
gently elevatingthe ball the
found
to cohere in series,forming a little chain nearly
filingswere
centimeter
in length; with
carbon
in
a
granules,chains 15 mm.
obtained.
length were
There

them

be

as

the

shown

These

and

and

by Kitter,1 and

The

based

be

may

and

waves,

among

the

has

author

electric

succeeded

acting
interesting
only from
waves

electric

of

from

process

by

waves

human

physiological

comparatively

of cohesion

that

ing
in show-

the

on

and

is the class

waste

on

utilized

potentialto
the

against the

certain

rest of the wave,

in

divergingin
in the

is in its

case

after

its

this effects

and
resistance,

of

Feb.

of Hertz
Electric

and
Waves

22, 1901.

Some
on

down

of the coherer.

The

self-restoring
qualitiesas

coherer before and

lrThe Works

Eng.

in the

at any

same

tapping there
a

of His Successors.
Brains.

is

moment,

alwaysa

considerable

It is also claimed

Human

raise

break

insulatingfilms

the
practically

workings of the recorder.

"Effect

the

as

detector

merely required to

amount

value where

that its resistance is

as

whereas

and

of

detection

great advantageof this

well

electric

to

by Branly which

preparation of frog's-legnerve

effect"

tested

those

Great
results are expected
magnetic permeability.
of magnetic detectors by many
authorities,for it is reasoned
theoretical considerations that all the energy of the impinging

wave

the

than

responding

entirelydifferent

of detectors

from

of

experiments are

standpoint.
new

substances

mentioned

"coherer

brain.2

property

may

muscle,

other

are

the

possess

to

wide

variation

that it is

more

Lodge.
Collins.

Elec.

World

ELECTRIC

sensitive

and

much

this

uniform

more

will,therefore,be
While

WAVE

of

in action

value

great

in
its

undoubtedly true,

is

ACTION.

143

than

the

coherer, and

syntonic wireless telegraphy.

lack of variability
between

and
since a
resistivity
conductivityis decidedly disadvantageous,
cannot be operatedwith it,and its usefulness
relay,however delicate,
is therefore
acts

limited

similarlyto

returns
i.e.,
Dr.

instead

the

oscillations
of

resistance

proved

disruptiveaction

H.

effect of substances

in the
in

self-restoring,

tapping.
an
Smythe made

resistance

anti-coherer

an

is likewise

in this it

without

E.

and

cause

decreasingit,as

not, however,

Mr.

and
indicator,

an

coherer, which

and

DeForest

investigationinto
electric

telephoneas

carbon

its normal

to

Lee

to the

in the

extended

in which

the

detectingmedium1

coherer; this responder is

filings
strict sense, but

is based

upon

the

of

When
two electrodes
high-frequencycurrents.
are. slightly
separated,and a mixture of oxide of lead and glycerine
other suitable medium
is interposedbetween
or
their opposed surfaces,
and
minute

then

are

metallic

carried

connected

detached

particlesare
the

across

in series

with

from

of

source

the anode

current,

and

thence

separating the electrodes to the cathode,

bridgeswhich extend toward and soon reach the

gap

where

they build up
anode, bridging the gap, and thus lowering the resistance of the
local circuit,
shown
in Fig. 131a.
These
metallic
threads
posited
deas
by electrolysis
are
duced
proby the local current.
the

by
FIG.
"

ELECTROLYSIS

131

the

down

a.

impinging waves,
the

it the appearance

the

FIG
1316OSCILLATING

CURRENTS.

TESTING

suggests the followingway

the

for

potentialdifferencemethod.
sensitive

equally
obtained

and

that

by applying the

of the coherer
.

World

conductor
and

ing
precipitat-

metallic

gently, instead

"

BY

Fig.

particlesquite
violentlydisrupting them, though the action
is practically
instantaneous.

"%%
i-

DISRUPTION

it breaks

indicated in

131", segregatingand

-"

is set up

metallic threads, giving

" 51Y1"5

CURRENT.

DIRECT

BY

current
oscillating

When

testinga
He

COHERER.

THE

coherer

assumes

of

by

that

what

"

ley
Kins-

he terms

all metals

are

be
degree of sensitiveness may
requisitepressure to the filings
by means
the resistance of the filings
plugs. When
any

Eng., April 11, 1903,

p. C13.

WIRELESS

144

is

TELEGRAPHY.

infinitely
great,they do

decrease

not

in

resistivity*
gradually,but
remain
practicallyconstant until the potentialdifference assumes
critical value,and the resistance then drops,just as in the case
a
of a disruptivedischarge between
oscillator balls.
According to
Kinsley, metals
treated

it

be

manipulated

therefore

than 0.4 and

cell

relay wound

to

to the

of

results,for the

air and

do

which

gives a high

not

that

reason

resistance

"

of

to 0.001

coherer

is

accomplished by placing it
and

current

resistance

voltagejust cited

it is intended

be withdrawn

The

ampere.

so

of the

armature

to

The

use.

it has

that

and

the

coherer

of

resistance

relayshould

in

have

play of

just clearing the poles of the magnets. The

spring should be very slight merely sufficient

the

the

"

armature

through the

conductor

of

turn

the

The

there
is

current

is

of the

mm.

no

passed

now

plugs being manipulated

one-tenth

when

magnets

relaycoils.

the

circuit,the

nicety until the

from

away

flowingthrough

current

carefully

more

those

and

mm.

draw

than

best

only 0.002

plugs should

one-tenth

much

as

"

giving the

megohms.

tension

in the open

the current

series with

several

coherers

gives the

sensitiveness

adjustment

conductor

of

be

requiredin wireless telegraphy. The

operatinga relaythrough a coherer should not be greater

voltagefor
The

construction

easily. Nickel

so

can

and

the

in

oxidize

oxidizingreadilymust

to

of

adjusterscrew

the

the latter to be drawn

to or from
the
causes
relay armature
from
the poles by the adjustment of the conpoles;when drawn
ductor
plugsthe coherer may be said to be roughly correct. Tap the
coherer

with

which

is

caused
from

apt
the

by
a

pencil while

to

local

in

having a

method
a

e.

oscillator

for

m.

from

pressure

battery circuit.

series with

small

testingto prevent premature cohesion,

either

occur

Leyden jar or

Another

place it

system

when
of

the maximum

the

current

30

kilometers.

the

and

and

sounds

will

of the coherer
The

coherers
practice

then

further

spark

coil.
a

source

coherer

of current
ing
listen-

reached

the
; and

is reached

the

flow

should

now

be

plugs
may

tested at

is to

easilyenable

the critical value has been

when

continuouslyheard.

methods

potential

By adjustingthe coherer plugs while

sealed in the tube, In actual

of the above

telephonereceiver

sensitiveness
is

the

finallywith

testingthe sensitiveness of

to the receiver the characteristic

operatorto determine

Test
of

from

or

be tested

by

distance of 20

one
or

XIII.

CHAPTER

DETECTORS.

WAVE

ELECTRIC

PRACTICAL.

Electric
known

detectors

operated

subdivided

be

These

responder.
in

which

TUBE.

small

the

HERTZ

caused

RESONATOR.

spark-gap,
this
wire

work

detectors

apparatus
BRANLY
in

to

as

will

of

Hertz

increase

in

by turning

the

consisted

Fig.

no

magnify
"

an

1884.
145

of

; it has

further

RADIO-CONDUCTOR.

Cimento,

20

local

cross-section, Fig. 133, is

lNeuvo

TUBE.

need

not

or

electrolytic

and

in

described

devised

CALZECCHI

This

shown

principal ones
the

tion
rota-

there

was

attached

revolution

half

crank

ing
consist-

coherer

decohere.1

to
"

and

be

filingsto which

132."

crank, Fig. 132, and

filingswere

will

the

public.

metal

FIG.

barretter

Calzecchi-Onesti

"

filled with

tube

made

were

types,

wire

detectors

various

they

CALZECCHI
of

distinctive

coherer, auto-coherer, hot

the

being

several

into

classes

These

current-operated detectors.

and

were

waves

detectors, i.e.,voltage-

of

classes

two

are

electric

before

invented

were

There

exist.

to

may

detectors

wave

ring

been

with

mentioned

description

batteries
the

were

effects

of

here.

used

or

the

waves.

eter
microm-

out
throughWith

the

additional

Branly's radio-conductor, shown

ebonite

tube, 1, having

one

of

its

146

WIRELESS

conductor

plugs, 2, arranged like a piston so that a

be applied to the filings
in
pressure
may

minimum

FIG.

to

TELEGRAPHY.

completethe

133.

BRANLY

"

circuit the

of 2

and

4, by which

Fio.

sistance

conductor

equal

was

in

was

devised

arrangement

consisted

134.

"

the

Branly showed

OXIDIZED

every

cavity,3;

plug,4, is
be employed

the decrease

of

re-

RADIO-CONDUCTOR.

direction.

by Branly, and
merely

or

RADIO-CONDUCTOR.

oppositeterminal conductor
contact with the filings
may

used ; the terminals,5, 6, in

instead

maximum

of two

A
is

simpler form of radioin Fig. 134; the

shown

oxidized

copper

bars laid at

WIRELESS

148

of

verge

glow;

breakingdown

the

TELEGRAPHY.

the resistance

impinging electric

in the form

of

of the tube

causing it to
additional
potential

supply the

waves

currents
oscillatory

and

the tube

and

luminous.

becomes

1+

^*K

fl

FIG.

137.

employed a
Fitzgerald
of force

POINT

"

DIAPHRAGM

AND

sensitive

COHERER.

galvanometer as

created by the oscillations exerted

FIG.

138."

TRIGGER

ZEHNDER

wires

on

by

bens

Eitter.

sensitive
on

dew
BJERKNES

139."

QUADRANT

DETECTOR.

was

connected

by

instead

in;1 the

both

and

the

meter,
bolo-

electric

of

been

used

Arons,

as

Eu-

Gregory employed

expansion

voltmeter.

meter

principleof

structed
con-

Car-

Bjerknes employed

rectangular form

of

the

(Fig. 139) tuned

resonator
and
oscillator,

have

Paalzow

detectors
and

action

the

mopile,
ther-

The

joint,the

thermal

and
waves

through

DETECTOR.

TUBE

the

FIG.

final influence

galvanometer system.

the

the field
detector,

Hertz
to

the

spark-gap,one side of an electrometer

needle was
and therefore attracted
at 0 potential,

of

quadrants;

Through Space
'Signalling

with

Without

this detector
Wires.

"

Lodge.

Bjerknes plotted

WAVE

ELECTRIC

showing

curves

the

closed resonator

DETECTORS.

persistencyand

149

influence

damping

and

of open

systems.
Boltzman

used

connected

gap
shown

to

air-

micrometer

as
electroscope,

an

A
of
current
Fig. 140.
considerable
potential is prevented
from
the sparkdischarging across
gap

in

of the electrometer

until the thin

insulatingfilm of air becomes ionized

and allows the
by the electric waves
current

thus

to pass,

deflectingthe

leaves of the
has

As Lodge
electroscope.
pointed out, with this simple apparatus
electric

been

140."

FIG.

easily discovered

years

Eighi depended
on

mercury

for

its

piece of glass and

the
air-gap. Popoff,

made

coherer

FIG.

on

the inside of

brought outside
the

piecesof
MARCONI

Lodge's

the

hundred

"

MARCONI

of

evidently
in

his

used

by

finely divided

worked

on

meteorological

the
periments,
ex-

stripsof platinum foil

COHERER.

glass tube; the ends of the stripsof foil were

tube ; the filings
were
placed on the gap between

foil and
COHERER.

modification

film

by pasting two

141.

detector

ago.

on
resistivity

principleof

have

DETECTOR.

AIR-GAP

BOLTZMAN

could

waves

filled the tube

"

of

Marconi's

about
coherer

half
is

full.
an

improvement

Branly's radio-conductor;

he

on

ascertained

WIRELESS

150

and

the

employed

silver

"

per

space

of

is shown

in full size in

of silver with

are

The

It is not
within

in

or

rubber,

brass

tubing.
obtain

mm.

apart when

the

diameter

and

the

a1

resistance

providedto

brass

exhausted

an

in

the
The

tube
ductor
con-

but

too

working of the
insure a working
for

coherer

laboratory

plugs,a, a^

conductor

COHERER.

fitted with

springsd
of the

secure

the

glass tube

mounted

on

piece

adjustment to
drawing the plugs

screw

d1

and

filingsis desired.

plugs when

filingsshould

of the

conductor

plugs, a, a',are of silver

slidingnicely in a piece of glass

are

pressure, the

bore

able

of the

and

The

been

mercury,

to

standards, b, "/

terminals

in

is obtained.

length

in

with

the tube

EXPERIMENTAL

"

brass

the

higher

e1J are

e,

screws,

143.

c;

inward

an

has

terminal

sealed

simple

Two

143.

plugs a and

The

limits.

Fig.

freelythrough

of hard

it he

leads

to exhaust

necessary

FIG.

slide

With

His

is fatal to the proper

mercury

certain

is shown

work

cross-section.

The

cent,

per

mm.

amalgamated

sometimes

great a percentage of
coherer

Fig. 141.

10

object of creating a partialvacuum

from
succumbing to oxidization.
filings

prevent the
plugs are

coherer.

square

platinum

and

nickel

cent,

and

combinations

accurate

of 1,099 miles.

distance

signalsa

glass tube.
is to

90

"

in

to detect

and

filings

enclosed

coherer

plugs

sensitive

most

quantitiesof metal

TELEGRAPHY.

be

proper

space

occupy

should

the

The

about

justment
ad-

mm.

in

mm.

in

set-

diameter.
SLABY-ARCO

COHERER.

consists
and

the

"

The

coherer used

of silver conductor

coherer

is exhausted

plugs

for the

in the
with

reasons

struments
Slaby-Arco in-

platinum
stated

nals,
termi-

above, a*

ELECTRIC

WAVE

DETECTORS.

all times

well

as

thus

permitting the originalgrouping

The

but

the

keep

to

end

filingsat

perfectly
dry
of the

in

this

Fig. 144;

plugs

are

"split"or

movable.,
each

cussion.
per-

parallel
pocket of the
not

be

regulated after the tube is

exhausted
and sealed. If the positionof the tube is such that the
assume
a vertical posinarrow
part of the splitis down, the filings
coherer

its sensitiveness

and

after
filings

surfaces of the conductor

wedge-shaped, as

151

allows

Fio.

144.

to

SLABY-ARCO

"

COHERER.

tion,the pressure is increased by gravity,and

its maximum

value.

filingsare

If the

broad

of the

"split"is

the

down

pressure is diminished, and its

very sensitive coherer is seldom accurate

spread lengthwise,the

sensitiveness decreased.

enough for

commercial

different

positionsof
adjusting pinion and
either end

this

work, but by

of sensitiveness and

relations

part

its sensitiveness is at

the

coherer

catch

of the coherer

are

accuracy

arrangement the proper

easilyarrived at. The

obtained

are

spring.

Metal

by

caps

tube,making the exchange

of

means

attached

are

an

to

of coherers very

easy.
BRAUN

COHERER.

constructed
away

had

shown

the

keep

Braun's

ends

nickel-silver
it is not

Halske

coherer
ease;

as

Braun

made

the

are

exceedingly
ranging
de-

transportationsometimes

less.
worthpractically

tiveness
restored to its initial state of sensi-

it may

be

taken

apart,cleaned,reconstructed,
practicaloperator. The conductor plugs are
of hardened

steel after

Koepsel'sformula.

plugs forming contact

it is practically
equalto
accuracy

must

be

the best

greater,that

susceptibleto atmosphericdisturbances.
in

than

be

filingscoherer and its

shown

experiment

coherer is

vacuum

it does

may

sensitiveness

parts are

that

is

coherer

is that

sensitive

more

its sensitiveness is lost it is

of the conductor

polished.In

tube to be

adjustment, even

adjustedby any
steel and the filings
are

The

not

in

when

it and

with

vacuum

It is true that the

ones.

difficult to

of

and

originallines. Its essential feature

contends
Braun
exhausting the tube.

unexhausted

and

Braun-Siemens

on

with
not

The

"

highly
vacuum

is to say,

Its different

Fig. 145.

the observation

that the steel

respond as quicklyand is not

as

accurate

coherer
filings
when

does

the conductor

WIRELESS

152

plugs

become

TELEGRAPHY.

magnetic, but

its sensitiveness

that

certain

critical

magnetism

creases
in-

fore,
He, theredecreasingits accuracy.
devised
a
magnetic regulatorconsistingof a permanent ring
surfaces
of the conductor
the terminal
magnet and placed near
plugs. By rotating the ring magnet the opposite poles may be
brought near the ends of the plugs and the plugs magnetized or de-

FIG.

magnetized

145.

coherers

BRATJN-SIEMENS

the

FIG.

tapping ; these

state of

which

made

146.

"

termed

are

return

BLONDEL

microphone coherers.
requiring percussion,but
is

but
resistivity,
to the

normal

of wireless

requirestapping to
another

sub-class

resistance

of

without

COHERER.

REGENERABLE

auto-coherers,
self-restoring,
self-righting,

or

which

Nearly all systems

regulationcoherer,which

it to its normal
are

COHERER.

HALSKE

AND

desired.

extent

to any

telegraphyemploy
restore

"

without

condition

They
this

are

is due

far

more

to the

sensitive

than

those

exceedinglyhigh

coherers.
requiredin self-righting

sistance
re-

By

WAVE

ELECTRIC

increasingthe
coherer

may

granulesare

be

the

on

pressure

153

or
filings
granules any self-righting

transformed

into

percussioncoherer.

Carbon

self-restoringcoherers.

in

usually employed

COHERER.

REGENERABLE

BLONDEL

DETECTORS.

Blondel's

herer.
regenerable coin
filings the coherer

"

designed so that the

Fig. 146, was
pocket could be changed, fliminiphed or increased,after the

air

is similar

to

exhausted

the

from

coherer

The

tube.

proper

was

the

ordinary type, but has the additional U-shaped

tube blown
immediately over the pocket and at

supply

of metal

and

and
filings,

coherer

the

by turning

round

the

in
quantityof filings

Guarini

varied.

has

the

pocket may

adopted this

of

Ducretet

is similar to the

pocket

It is shown

ANTI-COHERER.

FIG.

coherer

148.

"

is

in

wireless

V-shaped

and

the

form

be

in his

telegraphy.
the

U-

ter,
axis of the lat-

repeater system
the

SCHAFFER

U-tube, which

nected
conlonger at its free end than the arm
with the pocket,contains
additional
an

the

steel.

inverted

is much

tube

hardened

The

it.

rightangles to

Blondel,

filingsare

The
but

of

Fig. 147.

"

The

BRANLY

by its use of an anti-coherer.

Righi coherer,but is formed of

Schaffer

TRIPOD

silver

is character-

COHERER.

the

of
principle

the

depositon

glass,which

is

It is made

ized

system

on

WMELEtiti

154

divided

by

covered

with

BRANLY
the

The

air-gap made
COHERER.
the

Branly

new
are

pointsof

these

the second

fixed

rods

with

edge;

razor

two

Castelli

coherer

three

metal

are

rounded

disk,which

The

"

most

Italian

or

consists of two
rods

coherer

and

disks of

forming

little

CASTELLI

COHERER.

employed by

Marconi

of
multiplicity

tripod. The

steel disk
The

thin

an

are

film

of

Branly devised

contacts

as

of its

principalcause

nary
ordi-

in the
uneven

ability.
vari-

to have

been

its form.
"

The

Castelli coherer

in his recent

is said

transatlantic
of

consists
A

one

and

is the

Fig. 148 shows

metal, in

These
rest
slightlyoxidized.
is of polishedsteel. The degreesof oxidization

the

which

are

Navy self-restoring

points and the polish on the

essential factor in the resultingsensitiveness.
oxide will remain
unchanged for several months.
to eliminate

coherers

recent

of the metal

this form

it is then

of celluloid.

tripod and

of which

on

film

TRIPOD

Branly

tube.

minute

TELEGRAPHY.

tests,and

tube, A, Fig. 149,

conductor
^^)yW//j!//

cableless

with
of

plugs, B, B, formed

of iron, C,
^\*
carbon, a central core
AUTO-COHERER,
i49.-CAs^LLi
leavingthe dual pockets,D, D, to
ft

FIG.

receive two
tube

drops of

is

and
in practiceit
self-decohering
rapidityequal to the best auto-coherers.

FIG.

150a.

"

DETECTOR.

FESSENDEN

FIG.

MAGNETIC

FESSENDEN

MAGNETIC

earlier

DETECTOR.

experiments a magnetic
icallyin Fig. 150, a, 1. 1 is
^Proceedings

Eng. Society

1506.

wave
a

Wester^

"

and
regularity

insures

"

FESSENDEN

(Top

DETECTOR.

(Side Elevation.)

Fessenden

Penn.

silver

MAGNETIC

Elevation.)

employed

detector,1shown

small

March

in his

diagrammat-

ring, with

Kintner,

The

mercury.

mirror.

19, 1901.

fies the

effects of the

detector

is

is wound

on

made

core

wire, 2,

The

of the

ends

inner

magnetic
wire, Fig. 152,
copper
A second layerof fine

first,forming

secondary coil.

coil

are

connected

secondarycoil

are

connected

primary

or

terminals

of the

poles of

the

suitable

other

telephone receiver or
magnetic detector

before

iron wires.
the

on

the

construction

fine insulated

of thin

is wound

In

with

the

tenna
an-

ground.

and
The

oscillations.

simple; a layer of

insulated

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

156

the

horseshoe

iron

core

in series with

receivingdevice.
magnet

In

is caused

by clockwork,

to

and

coni's
Mar-

revolve
constant

FIG.

152."

MARCONI

change occasioned by
The

magnet

should

successive

be

reversals of

revolved

second, the speed being changed

(First Form.)

DETECTOR.

MAGNETIC

very
for

magnetism

is

produced.

slowly,half a revolution per

of iron emdifferent qualities
ployed.

great advantage of the magnetic detector lies not

but in its resistance remaining
self-restoring
properties,

The

only in
constant

its

during the

passage

of the oscillation

as

well

as

in the

termissio
in-

respectit will prove extremely advantageous

in syntonicwireless telegraphy.
Its disadvantagelies in its limited
resistivity
since the wide divergence between
range of usefulness,
In

this

DETECTORS.

WAVE

ELECTRIC

157

conductivitynecessary in a detector to operate a relayis in

magnetic detector lacking,and accordinglya telephone receiver
with it.
other sensitive device must be employed in connection
and

DEFOREST

anti-coherer

FIG.

trodes

RESPONDER.

ELECTROLYTIC

terminal

the

153.

"

DEFOREST

employed, Fig. 153,

diameter

and

arc

conductor

separated one-sixteenth

FIG.

disposed surfaces

may

154."

be

LODGE

either

eighth

an

of

or

elec-

RESPONDER.

ELECTROLYTIC

about

plugs

or

trolytic
elec-

DeForest

the

In

"

the

an

of

an

inch ; the

inch

in

oppositely

MERC

smooth

or

roughened.

screw

adjustment is provided for accuratelyadjustingthe sensitiveness of

the responder. The complete detector consists of an insulatingtube

WIRELESS

158

of

posed
cominterspaceis the sensitive medium
of rather coarse
filingsand oxide of lead in equal bulk and
of glycerineor vaseline with a
into a paste by the addition

ebonite.

glassor

made

of water

trace

value

from

to

The

relation

LODGE

MERCURIAL

Figs. 155,

a,

features.

and

"

have

variable

small

resistance,

in the circuit to obtain

is included

to resistance.

COHERER.

by Lodge

out

should

local current

milliampere

one

of current

proper

in

the

15,000 ohms,

0 to

brought
and

In

alcohol.

or

one-tenth

"

ranging
the

TELEGRAPHY.

"

is shown

of

form

new

mercurial

herer
co-

in

Fig. 154 photographically,

and plan and possesses several

", in cross-section

detection at long
enough for wave
distances,having a variability
ranging from maximum
resistivity
to maximum
conductivityequal to the best filingscoherer and
new

It is sensitive

Plan
FIG.
CROSS-SECTION

without
the

the

latter.

155a."
LODGE

FIG.
COHERER.

disturbing element
The
Lodge coherer is

exposed surfaces
of

cohesion.

to

revolve

the

instant

and

fluid

of the

a;

between

an

is

is

metals

contact

is effected

thin

devised

with
film

between

decohesion

mechanical
so

fresh

that

action

accomplished by causing

interposeda

cohesion

of

1556."
LODGE
COHERER.

OF

constantlyin

are

continuously in

disk when

ready for
by

This

which

between

PLAN

of oil.

small

When

the molecules

disruptionis produced by
freshly.
exposed surfaces are

formly
uni-

the process

for

column

and

of

of

steel disk
mercury,
in

action,

of the

solid

partialrevolution
brought into position

the

impulse.In Figs.155 the rotarywheel is indicated

amalgamated platinum wire spiral,b; c is the. connection
the wire " and the binding post,h; dd is a trough of merthe next

disk

the

brush,

the copper

cury,

is

attached
The

dry.

disk

also

which

actuates

Fio.

156.

to 0.5 volts ; when

0.03

of oil will be broken

MARCONI

of

made

form

aerial and

of

axle,/,to which

the

MAGNETIC

COMMERCIAL

the

ven-

DETECTOR.

be

should

current

potentialdifference exceeds

the

inter

kept from

this the film

and the recorder set in motion.

This is the
(SECOND FORM).
employed by Marconi.
magnetic detector now

of

DETECTOR

"

small

with

is connected

coherer

syphon recorder; without

glasstube,AA,
singlelayer of wire, BB,
earth wires respectively,
as

slippedover

the

on

is wound

which

terminals

the
shown

in

primary

leadingto

Fig. 156.

and

primary

the

the

second
of

terminals

telephone receiver,D; two grooved wheels, 4

in diameter, are connected
by a flexible band formed of a
of thin iron wires,FF, which is made to travel through the

this connect
inches
number

glasstube by
Two

of

means

steel horseshoe

band

of wire

and

oscillations

spring motor

magnets, GG,

adjusteduntil

are

set up

of iron

wire

and

thus

enclosed in
are

case.

placedcloselyto

the maximum

in the

resonator

the

ing
mov-

effect is obtained.
which

includes

the

of the moving
magnetic intensity
currents
set up in the coil,C, and
are

primary coil,BB, they change

band

with

The

recorder.

device,the local

down

coil of wire, 0, is

When

the

MAGNETIC

commercial
It consists

syphon

MARCONI

"

other

relayor

contact

with

directlyin circuit

tion of

making

e,

159

spring,/, having a small piece of felt,k,

lightlyon the disk, keeping its surface clean and
is revolved by gears of ebonite operatedby clockwork

fastened;

rests

DETECTORS.

WAVE

ELECTRIC

the

160

WIRELESS

the

telephone receiver,D.
in Fig. 157.
FESSENDEN

The

HOT-WIRE

FIG.

detector1 that is

TELEGRAPHY.

more

magnetic

BARRETTER.

157.

"

MARCONI

detail in

loop of
an

inch

coherer,and
filings

requiretapping, is
is shown

It

Fig. 158, and consists of

wire, 1, having

having

are

sealed

the

loop is

.00006

platinum core

leading-inwires, 6,

in the

glasstube, 3.

immersed

is dissolved

that

the

the radiation
FIG. 158 "FESSENDEN
BARRETTER.

exhausted

WIRE
HOT-

"U. S. Patent.

the loss of radiation

in

to further

losses,and

increase

silver

by

tip of
the

minute
done

to further

in

heat

the

decrease

loop is

; the bulb

1902.

closed
en-

is then

of the detector.

Fessenden, N. 706,744, Aug. 12,

of

losses will exceed

shell,5, 5

the effectiveness

of

being

in nitric acid and

conductor

in

6, which

The

away,

the

short

diameter

leaving a
platinum surface exposed; this is
order

diameter, the terminals

in

fastened to the

silver

of Fessenden.

silver

and

.002

graphicall
photo-

DETECTOR.

does not

invention

is shown

current-operatedwave

sensitive than

which

one

"

MAGNETIC

rapid and

detector

ELECTRIC

FESSENDEX

LIQUID

DETECTORS.

WAVE

BARRETTER.

liquidbarretter

"

current-actuated

or

different

in

forms,1 the

simplestbeing

shown

Fig. 159a;

in

this

the

loop

of

is cut

and

3,

nitric

and

acid, when

it will act

159a.

FESSENDEN

LIQUID

BARRETTER.
as

of
hole

desired.

in

its

even

sitiveness
sen-

more

before.

barretter

may

either

vertical wire

-2

increased

indirectly

or

minals
ter-

immersed

are

connected

retter
bar-

the

efficientlythan
This

case

formed,

is
and

in

metal

thus

"

tector
de-

be constructed

may

FIG.

161

directly

with

and

Another

be

the

FIG. 1596."
FESSENDEX
LIQUID
BAR-

RETTER.

ground
od
meth-

constructinga liquidbarretter consists in forming a minute

through a diaphragm, 7, Fig. 159", conveniently done

FIG.

by drawing

down

1U. S. Patent

den,May 5,

1903.

ItiO.

"

very

727,331.

FES

thin

tube
capillary

Receiver

for

to about

ElectromagneticWaves.

,003

of

an

Fessen-

WIRELESS

162

inch
a

internal

thick

until

diameter,

glass disk,
they

two

at b,

There

several

the

are

vital

and

the

and

of

diaphragm.

the

capillary tube
of these

of

barretter

tion,
parti-

or

the

thin

column

the

detectors,but

in

of

barretter.

heat

case

capacity
The

the

same.

the

photograph,

are

is shown

holder,

in every

small

liquid/5

phragm
dia-

cup

joins

The

the

which

tube

glass

form

to

of

center

of the

as

in

having

quantity

Fessenden

adjust

of

the

the

cell

each

relay

of

screw

To

armature.

In

is

employed.

box

connected

in

is to be

in

the

and

with

series

the

front

thumb.

and

from

to 12

inches

pressed intermittently,which

sparks produced between

if the

coherer

respond
to 40

and

and

its action

miles.

may

are

the

This

cell

and

more

tested

current

is made
of

movement

required
and

is held
the

the

operative, will

these

depended

the

are

When

the

3x4x6

push

immediately

coherer; the

buzzer, and

cause

to

operator

the

top.

on

use

tion
recep-

or

for the

the

suffice to send

be

the

ends, bringing the

box

actuates

coherer

approximately

from

away

his

been

inclosed

the

at

the

adjustment

arranged

The

therefore

have

adjustment

are

for

dozen

detector

measures

its contacts

relay

to

telegraph

for

half

determines

hands

the

directly under
of

both

of

button

which

if

necessary

circuit.

dry

push

box,

only

degree of

inches, is grasped with

button

the

these

which

relay

learn

buzzer

made,

local

ascertain

receptor

it is

resistance

the

designed

poperly balanced

wireless

accuracy,

to the

box

instantly
and

wireless

of

testing

may

order

With

included

milled

buzzer

he

working

sensitivityand

to

set

Makers

"

supplied and, assuming

are

insure

each

that

so

in

are

BUZZERS.

OR

messages.

coherers

up

of

solution

receiver

the

ends

vessel, 4,

the

in

off the

separated except by

the

with

operator

of

is

of

are

small

furnish

relay

test

suitable

modifications

BOXES

apparatus

the

in

surface

hole

160.

TESTING

by

in

they

of

regulation type

of

the

principles, i.e.,"a

consisting

Fig.

grinding

portions

liquid contained

the

then

with

that

so

it into

cementing

arranged

so

between
shown

and

flush

are

is

TELEGRAPHY.

out
the
upon

waves

button

the

slight
which,

instrument
for

in

to

distances

TELEGRAPHY

WIRELESS

164

to charge a series of condensers,which

then discharged
were
sufficiently
ruptive
disa
through a spark-gap as usual, and in this manner
obtained
without
the induction coil and its
dischargewas
had
issued
series of United
to him
a
interrupter. Fessenden

States

new
patents in August, 1902,1 involvingmany
principles,
the cfief-d'ceuvre
of which
is a method
for distributing
capacity

inductance

and

in

as

practice
and

instead of

these
localizing

coefficients of the

lator
oscil-

previous systems; for carrying this method

tuning-grid was
designed rendering inductance

condensers

into

coils

John
Stone Stone has had
longer necessary.
issued
to him
of patents embracing a method
a
large number
for impressingoscillations on a radiator system and emitting the
of predetermined lengthwhatever may
energy in the form of waves
be the electrical dimensions
of the oscillator;
Anders
and finally
Bull

has

of which

no

invented
is to

impulsesfor

an

electro-mechanical

automaticallysend

selective wireless

out

the purpose
prearrangedseries of wave
transmitter2

messages.3

PRACTICAL.

In

three

the

analysisof transmitters

it will be observed

systems of circuits;i.e.,(1)

that there

low-voltagedirect
includes

e.

f., a

m.

nating
alter-

or

circuit,

current
which

are

of

source

and

key,

the

primary of an induction
coil;,
(2) a low-frequency,
circuit.

high potential
-

"

^"
^^

which

]_

^"

ary

the second-

connects
of

the

coil

induction

spark-gap of the
wavehigh-frequency or
with

the

emitting circuit
FIG.

161."

SYSTEM

OF

TRANSMITTING

CIRCUITS.

termed
and

internal

(3)

Fessenden,

Wireless

TelegraphPatents, Aug.

Eng.
2See

Chapter

XVIII.

ScientificAmerican,

Syntonization.
Mar.

21, 1903.

these

are

Circuits

high-frequency,

circuit or oscillator or radiator system,

high-potential
In some
of the later transmitters
there are
Fig. 161.

and

"

23, 1902.

as

shown
more

Elec.

in
than

World

TRANSMITTERS.

additional

circuits and
either for

be divided
A.

"

D.

Class C may
"

F.

"

;
:

high-frequencycurrents;

Oscillators

for

low-frequencycurrents;

again divided

into two

sub-classes

Oscillators with

grounded arms

Oscillators with

ungrounded

sub-classes

and

;
arms

comprise

may

Generators

of the induction

6.

Generators

of the

c.

Spark-gap connected

"

"

ground
d.

the

following

type;

in series with

/.

Oscillators with

closed circuits;

g.

Oscillators with

compound

"

h.

Oscillators with

"

t.

Oscillators with

"

its aerial wire and

operatingthrough transformers;
open

"

"

circuits ;

circuits ;

non-tuned
tuned

circuits;

circuits;

j.

Transmitters

electrically
syntonized,and

Ic.

Transmitters

mechanicallysyntonized.

"

"

Letters
do

in
not

nature

oscillator

transformer

type;

Oscillators

"

coil

Oscillators with

e.

the

text

are

the

relate

to

of

apparatus.

the

proportionedthat

so

indicated

not

in

specificparts
The

word

syntonized indicates
value

as

that

the
of

diagrams, since

the

tuned

up

in

emitter, but

designatesan

its electrical dimensions

exactlyto the frequencyof the oscillations set

same

follows

as

"

the

subdivided

be further

classes

a.

to

for

be

these

these

mental
funda-

the

are

Oscillators
"

E.

generalclasses

Syntonized transmitters

"

C.

features

161

Transmitting apparatus

"

Non-syntonizedtransmitters

these classes may

and

Fig.

representtransforming circuits

ones

TRANSMITTERS.

OF

into two

"

B.
and

in

frequencyor potential.

CLASSIFICATION
may

indicated

those

circuits,but

three

165

correspond

it,and

the oscillator
the coefficientalof

that of the resonator

the term
are

of the

operatedin conjunctionwith

it.

WIRELESS

166

In

all

TELEGRAPHY.

the circuits

cases

diagrammaticallyand
given where

the

MARCONI

of

the

dated

Signals,and

Marconi

by
June

form,

shown

in

wire
could

so

was

MARCONI

is

of

this

transmitter

limited

second

transmitter

The

distance

form

of transmitter

is embodied

in the

grounded (E)
with

an

closed-circuit type

is the

of

The

with

devised

; it is

spark-gap

parabolic
rected
experiments di*

"

there
to

is

which

no

tical
ver-

messages

"

by

(A)

operatedby

consists

for

higharm

one

an

induction

its oscillator balls

connected

of the

internal and
and

connected

ture
fea-

in all transmitters

(C), having

aerial wire and

oscillator

recorded

The

placing of

the

(Second

MITTER.

an

(a) ;

referred to and involves the fundamental

frequency currents
(a)

coil

tion
patent specifica-

non-syntonized radiator

coil

induction

the method

employing a disruptive
discharge.It
a

are

Hertz's

(SECOND FORM).

utilized
principles

of

non-syntonized
not grounded

forming

this

that

is

focal line

or

in

as

In

of transmitters

non-syntonized (h).

focus
"

an

the

oscillator balls

terminal.

TRANSMITTER

above

operatedby

and

the

provisional
trical
Transmitting Elec-

employed.

now

Marconi

oscillators

oscillator is of

receiver.

earthed

or

be sent

is not

The

the

apparatus

the

and

mirror
toward

the

the

in

be

In the first
specifications.
cates
Fig. 162,1 the diagram indi-

; it is

the

will

the

forms

two

(F)
(/)

shown

in the

that

(A)

In

"

entitled

2, 1896,

covered

are

be

circuits

internal

(FIRST FORM).

applied for

will

systems

available.

been

TRANSMITTER

the

of

drawings

plans have

British Patent

oscillator

open-circuittype (e), which

oscillator circuits

of

an

in series with

'Paper by

are

shown

in Fig.
photographically

instance

Marconi

on

Form.)

ground (c),forming

aerial wire
a

and

and
spark-gap,

Wireless

in

164.

is

Fig. 163
This

grounded

constitutes

Telegraphy.

Inst.

tuned

non-

matically,
diagram-

is the

terminal
an

(h).
first

being

invention.

of Elec.

Eng.

TRANSMITTERS.

LODGE

TRANSMITTER
to

granted

167

(FIRST FORM).

Lodge, May

FIG.

and

10, 1897,

164.

"

MARCONI

In

"

a.

British

issued

one

patent

him

to

in

the

SYSTEM.
"1

United

States

described

for

for the

similar

first time

device

dated

16, 1898, is

August

syntonizedsystem (B) utilizingthe

coefficients of capacity,inductance,
In
the
and
resistance.
Lodge
transmitter, Fig. 165,

form

the

of

with

connected

and

cones

uniform

definite and

wire

the
effect

the

having

capacityare

tance
syntonizinginduc-

coils,5, 5',made

layer of

radiator

pair of capacity
of platesof metal

consisting of a
areas, 1, 1',made
in

of

metal

or

necessary
proper

single

ribbon

viding
pro-

inductance

to

balance

for

given capacity,and oscillations of

a given periodicity
thus set up.
are
The
FIG.

165."

LODGE

TRANSMITTER.

(First Form.)

4, 4',are

disruptive discharge
,

place at 3 and
prolonged to a

,,

the

...

takes

~.

oscillations

certain

extent

are

densers,
; con-

inserted in the oscillator circuit,

renderingthe pro-

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

168

of

battery,a

internal

accomplishment. The
key, and the primary of

tuning easier

of

cess

cludes
circuit in-

coil.

induction

an

frequency of the oscillations may be varied by increasingor

decreasing the size of the apparatus,and therefore the values of
and
inductance
capacity. This places the apparatus in the class
of syntonizedtransmitters
(B) and having an oscillator for highterminal
or
(F) ;
frequency currents
(C) with ungrounded arm
duction-c
characterized
the different parts of the transmitter are
by an inThe

generator (a) supplying

oscillator (e)
open-circuit
having tuned (i) and syntonized
to

energy

WWWW

and

circuits

an

(j).

FORM).

Slaby and
devised

One

oscillator

is

2, and

condenser, 3,

with

grounded;

wire, 1, and

166.

TRANS

SLABY-ARCO

"

should
emitted

producing complete waves

those

vertical wire
in the

they

occur,

coil,4,

they will fail

dissipatedin the earth

be

or

emit

to

times

either find their

will

effective

the aerial

the

the wire, 5,

length of the

frequency than
the length of the
greatestamplitude

5, and

at

in either

internal

The

waves.

other

any

four

or

the

one-fourth

if oscillations of

then

wave;

be

choke

frequency of

in it and

set up

series

earth; the vertical

to the

tuned

oscillations

(First Form.)

MITTER.

in

are

conductor, 5,

return

also leads to

wire, 4, is
FIG.

the

the

spark-gap,

coil,4, interveningbetween

which

of

arm

aerial wire, 1, with

the

gram
dia-

in

the first form

was

them.

by

A.

Dr.

Arco, shown

Count

Fig. 166,

in

of

transmitter

The

"

(FIRST

TRANSMITTER

SLABY-ARCO

circuits

case
are

designed as a
oscillations (C)
high-frequency
{^ntonictransmitter (B) utilizing
.and having grounded arms
(E) ; it is operatedby an induction
not

shown.

coil

(a), and

wire

and

the

The

system described

oscillator

spheres are

ground (c) as

inductance
a

the

oscillator

tuned

coil

is the return

forming

in

series

conductor

closed circuit

system ({). The

was

with

the

connected

(/),the

with
difficulty

aerial

through

whole

ducing
pro-

this transmitter

169

TRANSMITTERS.

lies
and

largelyin placing the choke-coil,4,

conductor, 5, since

the return

circuit is

the

Slaby and

principlesof

circuits

FIG.

inductor

of

that

shown

been

his

167.

"

closed

Ruhmkorff

SLABY-ARCO

coil connected

which

contain

internal

The
1

form

new

Arco,

by them.1

evolved

CIRCUITS

INTERNAL

The

"

collaborator,Count

theory

new

FORM).

in Fig. 167, in
graphically

shown

are

(SECOND

TRANSMITTER

Dr.

by

it has

feeble emitter.

very

SLABY-ARCO

devised

the aerial wire, 1,

between

representsthe

TRANSMITTER.

with

mercury

turbine

of revolutions
interrupter,
2, driven by a small motor, 3, the number
in parallelwith
being regulatedby the resistance,4. Connected
the

turbine

is

high-potentialcondenser, 5,

Morse

key

prevent the fusing of the platinum

by heavy currents,and a resistance,7, for regulatingthe
The
terminals
flowing in the inductor.
8, 8', connect

magnetic blowout, 6,

inductor
the

arrow

with

the

source

leads to earth

to

of current.
and

forms

1Syntonization. Chapter XIX.

conductor

lightningarrester

with
tacts
conrent
cur-

the

representedby
to

protectthe

WIRELESS

170

TELEGRAPHY.

apparatus from lightingshould it strike the aerial,and

in equalizingthe high differences of potentialbetween
and

the

Fio.

ary

the

CIRCUITS

EXTERNAL

"

of the induction

terminals

forming

168.

spark-gap,2,

in

with
turn

the

the

the

forms

; the

oscillator balls

oil,and

the

terminals

binding post, and

with

the

one

aerial

battery of Leyden jars,9,

tuning coil,10.

connects
which

the apparatus

TRANSMITTER.

is connected

wire, Af through
and

in

immersed

are

of these

SLABY-ARCO

coil,1, Fig. 168

connected

are

ful
use-

oscillator system consists of the second-

The

ground.

is also

well-insulated

spark-gapwith
with

contact

the

the

wire

12,
plug-plate,

batteryof Leyden

jars,consistingof three, seven, or fourteen jars

placed in a cylindrical
pasteboardbox with the
tuning coil
shows

169
FIG.

169."

SLABY-ARCO

on

OF

connected

the outside

shown

as

Fig.

simple diagrammatic arrangement

of the oscillator

GRAPHIC

RERRESENTATION

wound

with

MITTER.
TRANS-

system

with

the

spark-gap,2,

the earth at 3; the aerial wire,

4, leads to the earth, 7, through the

tuning coil,

5, the batteryof Leyden jars,6, connectingwith

the

aerial

wire, 4,

spark-gap,2,

on

the

on

one

side

and

opposite side.

the
The

inductance,

transmitter

8, and

is of the

172

WIRELESS

is connected

ergy,

includes

an

aerial

but
s.park-gap,

TELEGRAPHY.

direct to the terminals

of the

secondary coil and

wire, 2, and the earthed terminal, 3

; there is

no

in other

the design of osrespectsit follows closely

cillators
of the open-circuit
The
coil
is
type.
operatedby a 12-cell
storage battery,and the current thus derived is led to a switchboard
and

thence

through

FIG.

172.

"

voltmeter,ammeter, and

GUARINI

TRANSMITTER.

(First

variable

resistance,.

Form.)

is
there
Since
coil.
primary winding of the induction
no
spark-gap,there can be no high-frequencycurrents, but instead,
there is a surging of the current
through the aerial and ground
wires the frequency of which
is low, taking place synchronously
to

the

with

the

make

and

break

of the

interrupterwhen

the

transmitter

173

TRANSMITTERS.

is in

action.

Brussels
it is

This

transmitter

employed by Guarini

was

at his

that
It will be seen
Fig. 172.
(A) having an oscillator for
non-syntonized transmitter
currents
(D). and utilizing
lowr-frequency
duction
the earth
(E) ; it is operated by an inStation.

It is shown

in

coil

(a) and its radiator

the oppositeterminal

with
is of the

is

nected
con-

it

(c] ;

open-circuittype (e), non-tuned

(A).
GUARINI

(SECOND

AUTOMATIC

FORM).

employed

The

"

his

in

second

to Marconi's

TRANSMITTER

repeater

form,

placed parallelwith
to
FIG.

173.

"

-GUARINI
GUARINI

(Second

TER.

diminish

spark and

TRANSMIT-

the

normal

obtain

heavier

but

is similar
has

the

induction

arrangements. The

with

current

denser
con-

spark-gap

length

of

the

discharge.The

diagram, Fig. 173, depicts the

cm.

"

Form.)

FIG.

rini
Gua-

transmitter

174.

"

(JuAiuxi

of 3 amperes

of the transmitter

the

coil gave

REPEATING

and

spark was

30

cut

maximum

general

spark of

25

TRANSMITTER.

volts,but during the ation

operdown
to 5 mm.
Classified,

this transmitter
oscillator
an

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

174

(C)

and

(h),

non-syntonized (A),

with

has

and

It likewise

grounded arm.

high-frequency

is

operated with

(a) and its oscillator is in series with its aerial

type (e), non-tuned
ground (c) ; it is of the open-circuit
automatic
the
peater
renon-syntonized. Fig. 174 shows

induction

wire

is

and

coil

in half tone.
MARCONI

In a selective system
(THIRD FORM).
and
described by Fleming in the Journal
of the Societyof Arts, January 4, 19011,
and shown
schematicallyin Fig. 175, the
has introduced
inventor
a compound
open

TRANSMITTER

patented by Marconi

"

and

closed

produces
of

circuit

emitted

the

cacy
penetrativeeffi-

maximum

the

system which

oscillator

with

wave

its maximum

persistencyof oscillation. Marconi

employs two copper cylindersinstead of
the usual aerial wire.
The interior cylinder,
1, is connected
the

having
such
FIG.

175.

"

MARCONI

(Third

MITTER.
TRANS-

them

cylinder 1

largerdiameter

from

each

is

and

at 3 ;

rounding
sur-

cylinder,2,
mounted

in

air-spaceinsulates
other. The exterior cylinder

that

manner

an

Form.)

is connected

4, and

to the earth

the

to

one

side of the

spark-

opposite side of the

spark-gap; the cylindersrepresent a definite capacity which is
balanced
this transIn
action
mitter
by the variable inductance, 5.
den
of
and
resembles
a
Ley
gigantic capacity
having
jar
a closed
circuit;when a disruptivedischargetakes place between
the spark-balls,
flow through the
currents
4, the high-frequency
compound circuits,surging many times before they are damped
gap,

interior

cylinder to

the

into electric waves

which retain in a small
by transformation
the strengthof those propagated by the open-circuit
oscillator,
measure

out

and

placesit

this factor added

to the

of
persistency

the

emitted

waves

in the class of

syntonizedtransmitters having oscillators

for high-frequency
currents
(E) ; in this
(C) with a grounded arm
transmitter an induction
coil (a) is used with the oscillator connected
in series with the ground (c), the system combining an
circuit (e) with a closed circuit (/), forming a compound
open
oscillator (g). The
oscillator is tuned
(t) and syntonized (/)
World

and

Eng., Nov. 9,

1901.

Syntonic Wireless

Telegraphy.

TRANSMITTERS.

175

diagrammatic arrangement of
in Fig. 176.
is shown
It
transmitter
designed by Braun
of the internal
circuits,A, including the primary and
TRANSMITTER.

BRAUN

windings
B.
circuits,

inductor

the

of

and

internal

the

In

the

"

the

and

open

circuit

ondary
sec-

lator
oscil-

closed

modified

sists
con-

Wehnelt

is used, or
where
a
electrolytic
interrupterdesigned by Simon
turbine interrupter
low-voltagecurrent only is available a mercury
is employed. A specialkey is inserted in the primary circuit capable
of
without

breaking up
danger.

of 50

current

into

amperes

secondary terminals, 2,

The

dots and

dashes

connected

are

to

spark-gap. The closed-circuit oscillator consists

of miniature
Leyden jarsarranged in two sets of twenty

-either side of the

of

series

tubes each and connected in series with the

FIG.

winding

of

176.

transformer

which

secondaryof the transformer

both

of which

BRAUN

"

TRANSMITTER.

also acts

is connected

one-fourth

are

the

spark-gapand primary

as

with

length of

whole

oscillator one
forming an open-circuit
aerial wire emitting long powerfulwaves.
The
lower conductor, 6',is usuallywound

the

same

eliminate
area

electrical dimensions
the earth

such

as

as

factor

metal

as

an

conductors,6, 6',

two
the

emitted

of which

in

cylinder.1When

as

the

coil,but having
in order

is attached
in action

oscillations produced in the closed oscillator circuit

the

wave,

serves

the aerial wire, and

this conductor

The

inductance.

are

the

to

to

city
capa-

persistent

transformed

potentialdesired through the transformer, settingup in the

of
amount
constant
open-circuitoscillator system a practically
to any

Serial

Wires

and

Earths.

WIRELESS

176

TELEGRAPHY.

This transmitter

energy,

pure

sine

is of

with

high-frequencycircuits

which

givingrise,therefore,to
the syntonized class (B)
not

are

circuit

(e)

and

in
a

FIG.

oscillator
and

these

177

tuned

photographic view
given in Fig. 177.
MARCONI
devised

"

an

BRACK-SIEMENS

AND

coil

HALSKE

SYSTEM.

(g),the operation
taking placethrough a
are

(i) and
of the

TRANSMITTER

by Marconi

(C),

form
(a) is used to transthe first cycleof operations. A distinct openclosed-circuit (/) forms
a
compound circuit

grounded (F)

the current

induction

waves.

syntonized (;) for

Braun-Siemens

(FOURTH

to solve the

and

selective

Halske

The

(d)

signaling.
system

fourth

is

system
syntonicwireless teleg-

FORM).

problem of

transformer

"

TRANSMITTERS.

arrangement shown in Fig. 178. In assembling

the conditions
requiredby theory it is
apparatus for fulfilling
that the closed-circuit
cuit
(B) and the open-cirnecessary
lation
period of oscil(C) should be tuned to the same

raphy resulted
the

177

in the

or,

"

Marconi

as

conditions

of the

periodsof

the

each
result

that

of

coefficients

(B)
a

these

and

different
will

conflict,and
be

in

in

the

is to

e,

that

the

will

them

phase. The

circuits

two

they will have

periods and

of this transmitter

the

same

the
be

in

rents
cur-

the

classification

placesit

in

currents
syntonic class (B), having oscillators for high-frequency
with
An
induction
coil
arm
one
grounded (E).
(C)
(a) is

FIG.

used

object

enable

in

the

The

the

natural

same

energy

inductance

adjustmentof

TRANSMITTER.

the

then, and
open-circuit,

condenser,

so

rents
cur-

enfeebled

and

wasted

of the variable
the

doing

so

will result.

waves

178,-MARcoNi

different

fulfilled the

are

these

(C) oscillators will set up

frequency and phase, with
will

FIG.

Unless

it,octaves.

terms

to

radiator

179."

POPOFF-DUCREPET

which
charge the oscillator,
and

ground (c) ;

the

TRANSMITTER.

is connected

open-circuit(e)

in series with
and

the

closed-circuit

WIRELESS

178

TELEGRAPHY.

(/) oscillators operatethrough

circuit

(g). The

Fio.

mitter

oscillators

180.

syntonized (/)

transformer

for

"

DE

FOREST

tuned

are

(d), forming a
(i)

and

the

pound
com-

trans-

TRANSMITTER.

actuating a complementary syntonized

receiver.
PopOFF-DucRETET

"

The

transmitter

designed

complementary apparatus for PopofFs receptor

in Fig. 179 and is of the ordinary induction
is shown
coil,openform
of sending
second
circuit oscillator type,similar to Marconi's
by

Ducretet

TRANSMITTER.

instrument.

as

the

The

spark-gapis

181.

"

DEFOREST

inclosed in the box,

o, the

TRANSMITTER.

representedat Bo, the motor operatedmercurial break

the key for making and breaking the primary coil at M.

coil is
and

induction

DEFOREST

TRANSMITTER.

"

The

DeForest

transmitter

at

is shown

/,

denser, 6
to each

embodies
and

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

180

and

7, tuning girdsformed

pair of
novel

wires

which

of

immersed

are

features,combining

capacity without

one

resortingto

as

or

movable

more

in oil.

it does

either

The

tuning grid

variable

coils

contacts

inductance

condensers; the

or

grid

is

simply

formed

wires,the
a

parallel

of

oil

having

dielectric

high

As

pacity.
ca-

it is

syntonic emitter, it
belongs in

(B)

the
has

class, and

high-frequency

with

(C)
grounded
j

(E)

arm

generator (a)

plies a high-poten-

tial current

oscillator

(c),
open-

an

system (e)

tuned

(i) and syntonized

justing
(;').By adthe

grid any

frequency of

tion
oscilla-

within
the

obtained.

POPP

"

The

TEE.

transmitter

designedby

secondary terminals
the

spark-gap is

an

Branly,

induction

leading to

connected

BRANLY

TRANSMIT

L'VHHI^^^V^
184 ; it consists of

range

instrument

be

may

Eduard

and

wire

current

of

coil
a

to the

of

Paris,

placed end-on

is shown
in

case

spark-gap as shown;
aerial wire

and

the

series

aerial

forming

sup-

to

in

"" ground

Prof.

coil

induction

an

| with

Popp and

cillator
os-

the

one

M. Victor
in

Fig.

with

the

side

of

oppositeside

TRANSMITTERS.

leads to earth.
to

mercury

The

turbine

FIG.

transmitter

is of the

terminals

181

of the

primary
interrupteroperatedby a

184.

"

POPP-BRANLY

coil
small

are

connected

motor.

The

TRANSMITTER.

non-syntonizedtype (A) with oscillator

high-frequencycurrents (C) having a grounded arm
(E).

for
Its

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

1S2

generatoris
with

is

nected
con-

open-circuit
Senor

designed by

Spanish government is shown diagrammaticallyin Fig. 185; its chief

oscillator
is an
feature
system in

for the

Baveria1

Cervera

transmitter

"

which

(h).

is non-tuned

TRANSMITTER.

CERVERA
Julio

aerial wire

an

(e),which

oscillator

(a), the spark-gap of

and
ground, forming an

coil

induction

an

which

diameter,, the capacityof

small

by connecting in
oppositesides of the spark-

is increased

which

series,on
shown

that

it

energy
switch

fine wire

is

is in

when

the

aerial

cutting them

ground

similar

to

dots

dashes

wire.

in

transmitter

is connected

receiver

and

suppliedwith.
the

operationand

when

all

will radiate

provided for throwing

condensers

the

be

can

been

2' ; it has

condensers, 2,

gap

the

ingly
is of exceed-

radiatingwire

the

out

to the

keyboard

typewriterkeyboard was
used in conjunction with the transmitter,
and when
a key,corresponding
to the letter to be sent, is depressed,
or

and

grounded
formed

the

terminal

(B)

an

induction

Morse

code

sulted
re-

impulsesthey represent
It is

simple non(A) with high(C), and having

syntonized emitter
frequency oscillator

185.

of

in the

transmitted.

were

FIG.

coil

(a) chargesthe

tor
oscilla-

and

spark-gap connected in series with its vertical wire

an
ground (c),constituting
open-circuit
system (e),non-tuned

(h)

and

non-syntonized.

LODGE-MUIRHEAD
commercial
and

and

system2 two

these

Fig.186

TRANSMITTER.

modifications

are

spark-gap,s,

having a

forms

variable

^Electrician
Guarini.
2Elec. World

of

Lodge-Muirhead

new

systems have

been

used
In

Lodge's originaltransmitter.

is connected

capacityin

Eng.

the

of oscillator

in series with

the form

(London), April 18,

and

In

"

1902.

of

Wireless

the aerial wire

condenser

a,

interposed

Telegraphy

in

Spain.

Lodge-Muirhead System, Collins,

Aug. 1, 1903.

TRANSMITTERS.

at

; the

and

by

oppositearm

includes the inductance

; this

grounded terminal, E
of

means

Ia

system

JL

energy

the condensers

or

when

transformer,

mercial

suppliedwith

be

may

of

secondary current

the

charged by

coil,i, a condenser,x,

be

may

coil

induction

ordinary

an

185

com-

will

they

dis-

the

charge through

oscillator system,

this

in

the

1{JX

coil

eluded

forms

(First Form.)

or

alternatingcurrent; the

oscillator

which

in

is in-

of

densers
con-

coil

induction

an

operated by

commercial

the

in

shunt

in

is

syntonized (B)

system

oscillator

for

high-frequency

Fig.

186

has

and

(C),

currents

with

one

the

generatorof the induction coil type (a) or of

type (b) may be used; the aerial wire and ground

grounded;

transformer
connected

secondary

spheres are

The

shown

earth

oppositelydisposed

primary

transformer

circuit.

closed

arm

the

; the

circuit

the

high-potential

condenser

of

pair

and

"

closed

FIG.
186.
LODGE-MDIR
HEADTRAN8MITTER.

with

and

with

of

primary

transformer

Fig. 187, comprises

connected

is

case

through

pound
com-

closed circuit ; the aerial wire, a,

and

open

an

The

spark-gap.

with

the

spark-gap,c, forming

an

are

oscillator of the open-

type (e),which is tuned (i) and

tor
syntonized (j). The compound oscillacircuit

with

(B) class,i.e.,syntonized
(C)y
high-frequency oscillator

which

is

is in the

coil

(a)

grounded (E)
transformer

or

and
and

'l|]Xl

ground

both

are

tuned

(Second

(i)and

Form.)

(e)

are
perforator

and

the local circuit includes

definite

the

and

be

may

ployed,
em-

spark-gap,aerial wire,
in series (c), forming

and

open-circuitoscillator system
the closed-circuit system

syntonized(;').A Morse

and

to open

(b)

compound type ("/),

operating through a transformer
(d) ;

LODGE-MUIRHEAD

"

are

induction

an

oscillator of the

an

I
FIG. 187.
TRANSMITTER.

the

used

close the

frequency

in connection
a

is obtained.

excellent illustration of the

with the low-tension

"buzzer,"the
The

circuits,

of which

purpose

circuit of the induction

primary

(/)
machine,

key, automatic

coil

so

photograph,Fig. 188,

Lodge-Muirhead system.

is

that
is

an

WIRELESS

184

BULL

TRANSMITTER.

TELEGRAPHY.

Bull

The

"

transmitter1

is

mechanical
electro-

an

designed especiallyfor selectingwireless telegraphy.

Its oscillator is of the non-syntonizedclass (A), designed
(E), as
high-frequencycurrents (C), and has a grounded arm
device

for

simple systems/Itemploys an induction

earthed
aerial wire and
terminal,forming

in other

coil

(a) energizing

the

the

oscillator

which

is of the

mechanical

open-circuit
type

devices

MARCONI

the

(e), non-tuned
is

transmitter

CABLELESS

TRANSATLANTIC

(/t),but

(c),

with

its

mechanically syntonized.
TRANSMITTER.

"

first

The

Ocean
emitted
the Atlantic
across
was
signaltransmitted
enormous
plant developing energy equivalentto twenty-five

cableless

by

an

FIG.

horse

and

power

188."

installed

cableless station

SYSTEM.

LoDGE-MumuEAD

at

Poldhu, Cornwall, England.

erected

The

mercial
com-

Tablehead/ Glace

Bay, Nova
Scotia,is equipped with a generator connected to a fortyhorse-power
engine and the one at South Wellfleet,
Mass., developsone hundred
the engines are
horse-power. In these great transmitters
coupled
with

at
alternating-current
dynamos generating electricity
of 2.000
to

is

volts,which

potentialof

constantlycharged by
the

is then

converted

by

oil-insulated

sure
presformers
trans-

100,000 volts; a batteryof

oil condensers

this

and

current,
high-voltage

these

charge
dis-

spark-gapformed by the terminal of the aerial

Thus
the designingof long-distance
mitters
transground wire.

through
and

at

has

been

resolved

into

comparatively simple engineering

task involving the transformation
of low-potential,
low-frequency
oscillations,
into
currents
high-potential,
high-frequency
^yntonization,Chapter

XIX.

XV.

CHAPTER

RECEPTORS.

HISTORICAL.

The
waves

first

complete

not

applied

was

determinations.
of

few

In

feet

with

when

placed

Prof.

Popoff,

of

in

of

electricityin
the

In
with

the

his

to the

antenna

received

waves

in

in

From

utilizing the

the

the

of

records

it

of

wireless

that

transmitters, since

waves;

syntonic receptor
(1898),
wireless

or

in

Wireless

the

forms

nected
con-

of

real,
Mont-

suitable

with

at

signals

the

were

thus

result

Upon

employed

tance
dis-

earthed.1

parabolic

seems

that

every

apparatus

Lodge

being
the

Marconi.

the

for
to

the

with

discovery that

185

of

the

was

pioneer
and

detector

is

analogous

inventors

case

complete

Institution

the

containing the

mirror

of

reception
world
his

tuned

carbon

Elec.

and
came

Engs.

March
,

to

mitters
transand

dication
infirst

the

mitter
trans-

syntonic system

self-restoring,the telephonic receptor

Telegraphy,

without

by concentrating

with

simultaneous

first tests

The

Marconi

gave

capacity,

executed

however,

coherer

elevated

an

wire, but

nearly

resonator

telegraphy.

the metals

of

study

antenna

or

telegraph receptors

designed complementary
the

with

register in combination

The

of

were,

earthed

focus

Morse

history

1896,

and

relay.
of

waves.

the

and

in 1895

being

detector

in

England,

recourse

detector.

the

Rutherford,

detector

plugs connected

of the

terminal
in

b)r Marconi,

wire

receptor obtained

receiver

arrangement

Prof.

Italy, Marconi

in

its conductor

opposite

for

feet.

experiments
of

one

of

how

as

source

aerial

an

magnetic

auxiliary appliances forming

of 2,500

of

this

distance

showed

used

receptor

at

1894

be

the

from

earth.

the

and

constructed

1896,

could

and

1895,

in

Lodge

feet

500

application

detector

detector.

Cronstadt, designed

of

calculations

obtained

galvanometer

distance

record

with

with

atmospheric
earliest

ring

meteorological

for

telegraphy,but

Hertz

1888

his

connected

coherer

wireless

to

electric

for

indicating device

and

receiving

some

into

of
of
use.

2, 1899.

The
of

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

186

Slaby-Arcoand

Braun

France, and other

with

makers

telephonereceivers
is

an

Marconi's
and

the

this

use

for

is the

cableless stations

are

the

type of

time

DeForest

equipped

point

and

is the

in combination

registertype. An
wireless telegraphyhas

latest addition

to the

ter
barret-

electrolytic
responder.

with

telephonicreceptors,
ultimate adoption as the

its

to

of the Morse

receptorfor

detector

portablereceptors. Fessenden's

as
auto-detector,

signs of

successor

Bull

systems of Germany, the Popoff-Decretet

electro-mechanically
ated
operbeen

constructed

Anders

by

art.

PRACTICAL.

The

receptorwill

term

be used

complete receiving
apparatus.

of

receptorssuch
two

as

it is intended

where

refer to individual

Receivers

et
telephonereceivers,

principalcircuits,i.e.,(1)

""

*"

ceiver,
af by

'

"

"

circuit shown

upon
3

internal circuit,and

ibe one

or

more

internal

second

circuits and

CLASSIFICATION
the

OF

they

RECEPTORS.

than

more

but the two. circuits indicated in the

"

telephonereb, through
cell,

diagram

electric

the

The

first w

"

B.

resonator

one
are

the

And

Receptors may

C.

"

D.

"

E.

"

F.

Resonators

with

again indicated thus:

grounded arms.

Resonators

with

ungrounded

classes may

be

arms.

Receptors with visual recorders.

receivers.
Receptorswith telephonic
These
classes may
consist of the followingappliances
:
a.

b.

"

"

"

Detectors
Detectors

operated by voltage.
operated by current.

may

system,

be divided into

Non-syntonized receptors.
these

termed

ones.
principal

Syntonized receptors.

"

into

system. There

followingclasses :
A.

pinge,
im-

waves

transformed

are

resonator

1, Fig.

(2) a high-frequency

electric oscillations.

the

at

grounded terminal, 2";

this circuit
when

prise
com-

includes the aerial wire, 2,

2. detector,2',and

-"

of the

means

the detector,c, and

circuit which

an

Receptors

cetera.

189, operating a relay or

parts

low- voltage
milli-ampere,

direct-current

JL

designate

to

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

188

to decohere

the

be classified as

may

having one
used, it had

the first actual

filings.1Thus

terminal
all the

long-distance
receptor
with
resonator
a
a non-syntonizedsystem
(A)
grounded (C) ; though no Morse registerwas
elements
of the (E) type,except the register
self.
it-

apparatus in the internal circuit was

operated detector (a) of the coherer type, and
The

series with

the

resonator

circuits

(e),
(h).

and

antenna

whole

the

The

designedby

PIG.

It consisted

relay,n,

of

and

Morse

(FIRST FORM).

Marconi

191."

this

connected

is shown

MARCONI

The

"

in

open-circuit

an

are
registers

voltage-

non-tuned

for those

the foundation

used.

of

earliest form

ceptor
re-

diagrammaticallyin Fig. 191.

(First Form.

RECEPTOR.

coherer,jf f-f;2,;3, connected

was

comprising receptors with

Popoff receptorformed

RECEPTOR

by

ground (c), forming

of every system since devised where

MARCONI

actuated

with

polarized

resistances
dry cell,g, in series with the non-inductive
or
choking coils,fc1,fc1,so that the sparking of the contacts of the
hilated
relay which sets up oscillations in the local circuit may be annior

choking

"choked"

coils

to traverse
the

alternative

no

which

are

path

otherwise

current

after

from

of

instead
which

the
the

the

coherer, and

in shunt

by

retard

action

the

of

the

at q and

detector

the

oscillations.

to pass

'Elektritchestvo,St. Petersburg,July,

s, so

in

through
1896.

in

these

system

following

Non-inductive

batterynear

the

battery,r,

energy

relay.

local

again

in the resonator

wasting their

includes

also inserted

would

reach

they

oscillations set up

electrical disturbances

resistance
the

the

compel

the coherer

coils
be

before

that there
the

sistance
re-

may

coherer,

regaining its high

The relay causes
the

tapper,p, and

RECEPTORS.

189

electro-magnetsof the sounder, li. The tapper or

to
decohering device is adjusted so that it will tap back the filings
the impinging waves
the
their normally high resistance;when
on
also

through

resonator

the

the

system

to flow

current

through

the

in unison

with

each

internal

or

circuits,and

relay and

other;

is drawn

relay armature

local

the

of the

poised armature
and

into oscillations

converted

are

when

into

circuit,starts

the

time

constant

the coherer

and

the

follow

former,

the
are

waves

in

with

virtue

the

tapper ;

LFic.

; a dot

192.

"

waves

and

copper

Jc Jc; it was
plates,

Marconi

transmitter

the class of

them

concentrate

the

second

turn, by

current

and

the

employed

and

the

down

series of

code

the

of the

being of

waves

time.

to receive

the

used

ture
arma-

Form.)

shorter

small

designedto be

(Fig. 162). It

Morse

but, the
a

employed
a

when

until the cessation

way,

upon

that

(Second

is

receptora parabolicreflector was

circuit

arranged to have a high

of the relayand tapper,

down

RECEPTOR.

registeredin the same

shorter duration,the lever is held

waves

rapidly

closes the

in

cately
deli-

great inertia,cannot, therefore,

remains

MARCONI

vibrate

tapper

first

of the latter,so
rapid movements
received representinga dash in the

lever of the recorder

or

its

the

of

action

the armatures
of

the

causes

to

permits

contact, and, closingthe

the

compared

this

tapper

filings,
stops
of
the
relay. In the sounder
operation
Morse
registersince used, the levers are
decohering

the coherer

resonator

In

impinging
formed

of

with

the

in connection

will be observed

non-syntonizedreceptors(A), having an

this

that

it is in

ungrounded

WIRELESS

190

TELEGRAPHY.

(D) and employing a Morse register(E). The indicator is

operated by a voltage detector (a) of the coherer type, and the
is of the closed-circuit type (/), the circuit of which
resonator
is
arm

the choke
(h). Theoretically,
class (e), but
the open-circuit

non-tuned
in
of

by
same

of Morse

lines

as

MARCONI

the

the

general design is

onator
res-

that

system. All receptorsgiving visual indications

the
registersare constructed
practically
upon

closed-circuit

means

coils,k ~k,place the

one

RECEPTOR

receptor designedby

just described.
(SECOND FORM).
Marconi

and

shown

In

"

in

the

second

Fig. 192,

form

of

the resonator

system is formed by an antenna extending into the air and supported

to
by a mast, balloon, or kite,one terminal of which is connected
the coherer, the oppositeconductor
with
plug forming connection
the

earth

An

at E.

open-circuitresonator is thus obtained and

practicehas indicated this to be best adapted to the requirements
wireless telegraphy. The arrangement of the tapper
of long-distance

FIG.

with
the

the extra
additional

all other
In

the

193.

"

MARCONI

INSTALLATION

respects the

photograph

requiredto

receiver

shown

in

is the

Fig.

BABYLON,

L.

I.

representedtogetherwith
complete the equipment; in

here

choke-coils,
p*,p2,are
connections

AT

193

same

as

that

just described.

it will be observed

that

the

RECEPTORS.

apparatus
is to

circuits and

from

waves

thus

objectoi this arrangement

impinging on the wires of the

box ; the

metal

precludeextraneous

internal
of

is inclosed in

191

oscillations

set up

and

miniature

trains

waves.

Early in the art Lodge, recognizing the

designed
importance of sending and receivingselective messages,
trated
a
receptor illussystem to fulfill these requirements. The
in Fig. 194 consists of a resonator system
RECEPTOR.

LODGE

"

of a
receptionof electric waves
cillators
length and convertingthem into osof a given frequency. In nearly all

for the
definite

receptorsthe

of the oscillator

the

proportions as
it is

or

about

having
which

part
merely a countercomplementary appliance,

is

resonator

the

oscillator

with

system

closelyallied.

so

electrical

same

The

resonator

necting
system employed by Lodge is made by contwo capacityareas, 1, 14,togetherby
an

inductance

serves

as

the
the

primary coil of
secondary,7, of

in series with
FIG.

194.

"

LODGE

the

in
and

Fig. 192.
are

The

capacityareas

cone-shaped.This
and

similar

from

post,9,

the earth

detector

copper,

is

cates
indi-

has two

transformer

utilizingthe propertiesof

grounded
un-

ated
voltage-oper-

resonator

operatingthrough

(B)

capacityareas

register(E)

through

(a) ; the

or

cording
re-

shown

to that

the

Morse

the message,

The

the resonator

that

(D).

nected
con-

syntonizedclass

insulates

so

former,
trans-

is

which

of metal, either zinc

are

receptor is in the
the

small

coherer,8.

TOR.
RECEP-

apparatus is

also

this inductance

coil,6;

both

cuits
cir-

(d) ;

the

open-

circuit

tors
(c) and the closed-circuit resonaacter
(/) and giving it a compound char-

(g) ; these

circuits

are

not

only tuned

(i),but syntonized(/).
SLABY-ARCO
Arco

RE-

195.-SJABT-ARCO
^

"

The

Slaby-

receptoris based on
originalconclusions bearing

tuned
multiple-

number
FIG.

EECEPTOR.

of

Qjf electpical

resonance.

In

a
on

Fig.

WIRELESS

192

195, the

TELEGRAPHY.

is shown

antenna

at 1, leading to the earth at 2.

auxiliarywire representingthe
the

as

with

the

the

in

earth

The

fcl

i;

is connected

heavy

tapper,and
5, 6, and

196.

operatedby
tapper, 10, to
the

"

relayas

indicated

the
the

antenna,

comprising

the

the dotted

lines,

includes the

relay,

by
a

cut-out,and

resonator.

The

3, 4,

relay,8,

through the magnets of the

coherer, 5, the circuit being completed through
cell,9, which
the

leads

coil connected

with

the

earth

terminal,

leadingto the relay. The second internal circuit

12, the tapper,13, the relayworking contact,
battery,
polarizingbattery,15, the elements
in parallel,
connected
and the Morse
register,16.
of the Slaby-Arco coherer
and
is about
2,000 ohms

includingthe tongue
"

of which
The

CIRCUITS.

return

includes the
14

^rth

INTERNAL,

register;1 is the

inductance,4, and

11, the

the

with

the circuit

is

"

Hii

lines illustrate the circuit which

Morse

11

contact

I?

FIG.

the

point of

_____

while

it at the

sistance
re-

point; in the receptorthe wire terminates

opposite terminal
leading to earth through
internal circuits are
shown
in Fig. 196; the

the

coherer,

antenna

with

or

nodal

or

condenser.

the

second

inductance, capacity,and

same

is connected

antenna

are

resistance

the

to about
the same
resistance; it is of the
relay is wound
Siemens
polarizedtype. The receptor is syntonized (A) with
grounded-arm resonator
(C) and operatesa Morse register(E) ;
the coherer
(a) is connected in series with the antenna and ground
the

(c)

and

circuit
BRAUN

has

type (c) and closed

of which
tuned
are
(i) and syntonized (/).
The resonator system of the Braun
receptor

resonators

type (/)

both

KECEPTOR.

"

of

the

open

circuit

RECEPTORS.

is shown

Fig. 197,

in

condensers, c,

e, and

FIG.

the

primary of

to the

FIG.

effects

grounded
to

198.

"

obtained.

are
as

is

197.

the

RELAY,

BRAUN

The

acts

as

open

second

case,

by

also acts

as

RESONATOR.

coil.

received

primary

ordinarilythe

cylinderwhich

BRAUN

"

the

formed

resonator

coil,t, which

inductance

the

which

antenna, A, upon

in the closed

small transformer

conductor,B, equal to
symmetry

The

diagram.

oscillations

sets up

impinge

waves

the

in

193

The

wave,

addition

gives the

of

proper

circuit,
whereby pure

TAPPER

AND

short

trical
elec-

resonance

COHERER.

conductor, B, instead
is

second

piece of

capacityreplacingboth

wire

the wire

of

being

attached
and the

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

194

earth

itself in

far

so

the coefficients

as

of

either

are

concerned.

The

in
polarizedrelay,the tapper, and coherer are clearlyshown
Fig. 198 ; the relayis of the Siemens type with permanent magnets,
The tapto high sensitiveness.
the magnet coils of which are wound
per

those of electro-mechanical

differs from

merely actuated and not operatedby an

being impartedby a spring motor. The
of the syntonizedclass (B),
principles
of

the

and

(D),

it

register(E) ;
operates through a
e,

f, g

classes

circuits

the

IG.

in

199.

"

Fig.

the

grounded
system is unby means
message

resonator

the

(d) ;

energy

receptorinvolves

and

its resonator

follow

the

compound;

the

resonators

they are open, closed and

(i) and syntonized (;'). A

receptoris illustrated

MARCONI

Braun

in that it is

current, its

that

in

electric

the
receptorindicating
employs a coherer
(a)

transformer

tuned

are

construction

Braun

portable

199.

BRAUN

PORTABLE

RECEPTOR.

In the effort to eliminate

(THIRD FORM).
the antenna
Marcom
in the receptionof electric waves,
as
a factor
evolved a third form of apparatus,shown
The
in Fig. 200.
tor
recep-

KECEPTOR

consisted

between
the

outer

includes
a

coil for

one

the

of

two

them.

"

concentric

cylindersof metal

The

one

inner

is connected

primary
varying the

of

to

the

is connected
inner

transformer

inductance.

The

one

coil of

by

with

with
a

the

circuit

space
air-

an

earth ;
which

specialdesign and

capacityis

constant

and

is

WIRELESS

190

purpose

of

TELEGRAPHY.

establishingthe

proper

ratio

between

inductance

and

capacity.
Non-inductive

coils,9

resistance

and

10,

are

inserted

between

relay,5, and the coherer, 6; to protect the internal circuits,

including the relay and coherer, the whole is inclosed in a metal
box, 12, and as an extra precaution a choking coil,13, is intro-

the

Fio.

duced

to annihilate

201.

any

"

GUARINI

REPEATER

AUTOMATIC

oscillations

set up

in the circuit

connecting

polarizedrelay,5. The action of the

lations
received,oscilare
repeateris such that when the incoming waves
resonator
in the open-circuit
by the
occur
system formed

the

aerial

relay,2,

antenna, 1, one

and

the

side of the

relay,2, the

metal

box, 12, and

the wire

acting on the coherer, 6, close the

leading to earth; the waves
of the
the armature
in turn causes
circuit of the relay,5, which
into contact,switchingout the resonaaerial relay,2, to be drawn

RECEPTORS.

are

waves

emitted.

radiator

the

in

switching

circuit and

tor

197

The

system

oscillator and

when

resonator

the

energized
re-

circuits

non-syntonized type (A) having a

is received by a Morse
register
(C) ; the message
grounded arm
in
the
the
it
former
(a) class,
being in a
(E). The coherer places
closed resonator
circuit, operating through a transformer
(d)
virtuallya

are

FIG.

having
tuned

between

202.

"

the

AUTOMATIC

GUARINI

RKPEATER.

compound-circuit resonator
(g) ; the receptor is non(h). This system of repeatingwireless messages was tested
a

Antwerp and Brussels,a

MARCONI

EECEPTOR

receptor devised
shown

of

unit

in

the

to earth, Ef

through

Fig.
the

203.

of 25 miles.

FORM).

(FOURTH

by Marconi

sketch

distance

for

"

The

fourth

selective wireless
An

primary

of

type of

signalingis

aerial wire,A, is connected

a

transformer,j1,and

the

WIRELESS

198

TELEGRAPHY.

variable

inductance, g\

the

secondary

connected

in series with

the

coherer, Tf
the

coil of
and

the

the

transformer

is

free terminals

of

secondary a condenser,f, the

coatingsof which

of

source

condenser
the
and
of

e.

f.,and

m.

increases

closed-circuit

posite
op-

with

connect

relay. The

capacity of

the

resonator

system,

prolongedseries
comparativelyfeeble but properly
in the

timed

case

oscillations

stored

are

of

of

terminals

e.

its

high

m.

they
at the

is sufficient

and

resistance

in

spond
indicatingapparatus to reformer
transconsequence1. The

is

wound
especially

the

cause

the

coherer

the

down

to break

received

being

until

up

succeeding chapter.

the

in

scribed
is de-

and

Classified,this

of the

is

resonator

Pro. 203.
MARCONI
RECEPTOR.
(Fourth Form.)

syntonized type (B), having a

cluding
grounded arm
(C), the receptor inregister(E) ; a coherer (a) operated through

"

Morse

a
a

transformer
with

series

and

antenna

(f),forming
these resonator

system
Poole,

circuits

Wight, and

of

of

waves

certain

by the working

of the

vicinity.
receptor devised
important features.

the

to

in

oscillator

Fessenden

by
Its

system, since

resonator
a

specific

The
resonator
system, of
purpose.
the tuning devices form the principalpart,is shown in Fig.

tuning

204, and
where

is caused

Isle

The

"

and

novel

electric

When

in the

KECEPTOR.

several

Catherines,

interference

system is closelyallied
which

St.

Dorset, England.

FESSENDEN
embodies

of
tuned

are

(e)

(c) with a closed-circuit system

the compound-circuit
type (g) ;
(i) and syntonized (/). This

ground

between

frequencyare used no
Admiralty installations

open-circuitresonator

an

resonator

tested

was

in

connects

(d)

device

has for its

accuracy

is connected

either

serves

objectthe receptionof code

positiveaction

and

through

June

13, 1902.

essential.

condenser, 12, with

13 ; this device is connected

'Royal Institution

are

with the

Lecture, Progress

wave

messages

one

of the

detector

of Electric

The

or

and

others

antenna, 1,

tuning grids,
barretter,14,

Space Telegraphy.

coni,
Mar-

RECEPTORS.

the resonator
which
or

leads

circuit
to earth

199

being completed through the tuning grid, X,

E.
The
tuning grids are constructed of one

pairs of conductors arranged in

the wires.
By this arrangement

more

of

the

coefficients
effective

circuit

by

coils and

radiation

per

box

the

distributed, instead

is

condensers, which

sulating
containing oil intance
capacity and inducof

tends

bunching

these

down

the

to cut

oscillation.

Fio.

The

204.

barretter of Fessenden

SYSTEM.

FESSENDEN

"

is connected

in series with

pair of

head

telephone receivers,15, and current is suppliedby a pair of

elements having a slightlyopposed e. m.
ive
f.,through a non-inductresistance.
The
ing
diagram Fig. 204 shows
a
complete sendand

receiving apparatus;

cut-out, and

20

this device is rendered

to

25

is

electro-magnetic
operativethrough the switch,
an

WIRELESS

200

TELEGRAPHY.

a,

b, 3, the lever,25, drawing the leading-inwires, 24, in

of

contact

32,

and

as

the

case

may

be.

The

comprises a coherer, 35,

receiver,a

bell

other

or

callingapparatus
transformer

suitable

33

or

is shown

and

34,

out
in
phone
tele-

indicatingmechanism.

The

Fessenden
^

receptoris subjectto the followingclassification: It is

resonator
syntonizedreceptor(B) with grounded arm
(C) using

telephonereceiver

to indicate

the

signals;its

detector

is current

operated ("),and is connected in series with the antenna and earth

resonator
is tuned
('e)
(c),forming an open-circuit
(i) and
; which

syntonized(/).

The

FIG.

liquidbarretter
portable Fessenden

and

205.

"

FESSENDEN

the

type of

new

SYSTEM.

of the

other features

system. Fig.

206

RECEPTOR.

"

mitter,
Popoff-Ducretettransresolves the receivingappara--

Like

the

receptordesignedby them
its simplestform, i.e.,
a singlecell,a detector,and

the

receiver.

is

apparatus.

PopOFF-DucRETET

tus into

shows

photographFig. 205

When

in action

the

coherer,A,

is attached

phone
tele-

to the

top of a containingbox or case, and connection with the dry cell

and telephoneis made
of a flexible cord and spring jacks.
by means
The
"so

coherer,containinggrains of carbon, decoheres automatically,

that no tapper is required. The aerial wire is connected to one

"terminal

of the coherer

and

the earthed

wire

to the

oppositeter-

RECEPTORS.

minal.

It

201

is

simply a non-syntonized receptor (A), having a

cator,
grounded resonator
(C) using a telephonereceiver (F) as an indiin series with
actuated
(a) connected
by an auto-coherer
the antenna
and
ground (c), forming an open-circuitresonator1
in Fig. 207.
(e) and non-timed
(h). It is shown
DEFOREST-SMYTH

RECEPTOR.

"

The

receptor illustrated

dia-

grammatically in Fig. 208 and photographicallyin Fig. 209 is the

and
Edwin
result of researches
H. Smythe;
by Dr. Lee DeForest

FIG.

it

employs as
which

206.

"

detector

FESSENDEN

an

PORTABLE

EQUIPMENT.

anti-coherer based

on

electrolytic
ciples,
prin-

responds to the

impressed differences of potentialin

a manner
oppositeto that of a coherer. Usuallytwo
diametrically
fesponders,as these detectors are termed, are connected in series,,
in the diagram, with the antenna
and grounded terminal
as shown
;
1, I1 represent the responders,2, 21

choking coils,3

an

inductive

of e. m. f.,5 a condenser,6 a head telephone

4 a source
resistance,
receiver,7 the antenna, 8 the ground wire, and 9, 9 cut-outs for
the responders. The internal circuit includes the head
telephone
receivers,
responders,and cells;the internal circuit is normally
closed,the current flowingthrough the telephones
all the time the

WIRELESS

202

is not

anti-coherer
take

formed

released from

producing a

grounded

its detector is

FIG.

in

series

207.

with

of the

CERVERA

EECEPTOR.

"

telephonereceiver

of the

non-syntonized

utilizes

telephone

resonator

is

ground (c), is of the

(h). Messages have been
station from

the Etruria,

sea.

receptor of

The

position,

and

is non-tuned

at

local

RECEPTOR.

antenna

ninety miles

was

the electrodes

its normal

(C), and

Coney Island

DeForest

at the

the steamer

when

between

(a), the
voltage-operated

the

tions
oscilla-

the
instantlyincreased,

POPOFF-DTTCRETET

"

open-circuittype (e), and

received

the local current

resonator

the

disruptsthe electrolytically

pullof the magnets recovers

sharp click. This receptor is

(F),

connected

latter

the

(A), has

receiver

the

when
oscillations;

flow,and the diaphragm

to

ceases

by

the

by

its resistance is

responder,when

current

class

actuated

place,however,

depositedthread
of the

TELEGRAPHY.

Senor

Julio

Cervera

aerial and ground wire as the,

operatesthrough the same
employed for the latter are cut out
transmitter,but the condensers
of a switch. The construction of the receptoris shown
by means
Baveria1

In the

1, is

diagram,Fig. 210

connected

coil of

small

Electrician.

with

; and, it will be observed

the earthed

transformer, 3;
London.

in

that the antenna^

terminal,2, through the primary

the secondary of the transformer,

April 18, 1902,

p. 1008.

F;Vr;!;

204

WIRELESS

Morse

formed

is of the coherer

; its detector

register(E)

resonator

TELEGRAPHY.

by

connected

direct

type (a)

aerial wire

to

the

and

its

coherer

type (e), and is non-tuned

ground (c) of the open-circuit
(h). The Branly-Popp system is in operationbetween Cape Gris

and

FIG.

Nez

and

Cape

connected

being used

Hague.

to

RECEPTOR.

DEFOREST

The

recordingmeteorologicalgauges

which

are

now-

in France..

LoDGE-MuiRHEAD
two

"

lent
half-tone,
Fig. 212, givesan excelcompletedreceptor. In Fig. 213, the receptoris

de la

idea of the
shown

209.

KECEPTOR.

distinct

*Elec. World

and

resonators

"

In

have

the

new

been

Eng., Aug. 1, 1903, p. 173.

Lodge-Muirhead

tested.
Collins.

The

ceptor1
re-

first is

RECEPTORS.

simple open
The

circuit,and

resonator
open-circuit

Fio.

ing to

the earth

include

an

through

the

second

205

is

comprises an

210.

the

"

CERVERA

compound-circuitsystem.

antenna,

Fig. 214,

lead-

RECEPTOR.

condensers,x

inductance,L,

a,

and

cuits
x" ; the internal cir-

Lodge rotatingmercurial

coherer,

WIRELESS

C, condenser,X2,
the

cell,E.

No

and

TELEGRAPHY.

siphon recorder operatedby a current from

relayis interposedbetween the coherer and the
a

recorder,rf the action being direct. This receptoris syntonized(B),

and, different from the first Lodge system,has a grounded resonator

(C),

it

recorder

employs a siphon
detector (a) is placed in a
resonator

earth

proper,

with

the

shunt

aerial

(E),
with

and

the

voltage-operated

internal

circuit

of the

wire

direct to
being connected
interposed(c) ; the resonator is of

the condensers

the
the

open-circuittype with tuned resonator and internal circuits (i)

producinga syntonizedreceptor(j).
shown
in Fig. 215, is comThe
compound-circuit oscillator,
posed
of an open-circuit
resonator,a, primary of a transformer,tpf

FIG.

211."

which

also

latter

connectingwith the

serves

as

ts, is in series with

an

BRANLY-POPP

inductance

RECEPTOR.

and

earth ; the

condensers,xlf and

secondaryof

x2 ; the

the transformer,

the

coherer, c, forming a
rotatingmercurial
closed circuit including a cell,E, and
a
siphon recorder,r; in
shunt with this circuit is a condenser,x2, causing the oscillations
to surge through the closed circuit with a predeterminedfrequency
until

lations
amplitude, and excluding these oscilThe
complete receptor is illustrated

it reaches its maximum

from

the

recorder.1

siphon recorder, B

the

in

the

reversing switch, E voltmeter, and F

properlyadjusted for sending a message

Fig. 216; the latter

actuating mechanism, D
transformer.

the needle
a

of the

longline

When
recorder

refers

is sustained

is recorded

British Patent, Lodge and

to

on

the

so

the.tape,while

Muirhead.

No.

if

that
a

dash

is transmitted

dot is indicated

20,069.

by

RECEPTORS.

short

line.

In

207

lines may

practicethe

actual

but

waver,

absolute

importance,as it is just as easy for an operator

of
to translate the recorded
scripteven though there are a number
cult,
Its fine adjustment is not, however, diffiimpulses to each dash.
fluctuation
of the recorded
but every minute
impulses may be
and

easilynoted
the

as

of

tape

of

is not

accuracy

fault

the

case

of the

siphon

located

were

the

distant, with

miles

Kentish

The

recorder.

FIG.

of

once

chalk

of the sea, and

which

212.

"

to the

transmitter
is

or

works

at the
and

at

ceptor,
re-

reproduction

experimental stations

of the

of Muirhead

"

eight and
interveninggeologicalformation

End, Beckingham, Kent,

Elmer's

one-half

at

rectified;Fig. 217

be, and

may

Lodge-Muirhead system
Co.,

traced

BRANLY-POPP

offers five times

Downe,

RECKPTOR.

the

of

amount

about
the distance,therefore,representing

resistance
44

meters.
kilo-

Bull consists
receptordesigned by Anders
less
of an open-circuit
for mechanicallyreceivingwireresonator
will be treated in the chapter on
Syntonizamessages, and
with
is
tion.
It
resonator, having
a
syntonized receptor (B)
BULL

one

EECEPTOR.

terminal

of the

"

The

grounded

(C),

and

coherer

type (a) are

ground forming a resonator

and

the

the

circuits

of

which

are

tectors
registers;deemploys Morse
placed in series with antenna
of the open-circuit
type (/),

non-tuned

(h),

but

the

receptor is

mechanically syntonized (Tc).

"MARCONI

TRANSATLANTIC

signals transmitted

across

CABLELESS
the

Atlantic

RECEPTOR."
Ocean

The

first

wirelesslyfrom

WIRELESS

208

Cornwall,

Poldhu,

Newfoundland, by

FIG.

sisted

of

an

elevated

wire

kite.

The

FlG.

to

cell,and

apparatus

an

BRANLY-POPP

214.

one

there
all

and
of

in

the

teeth
of

METEOROLOGICAL

of

of

con-

aerial

single

storm

plugs of

"

Solari

LODGE-MUIPHKAI"

(Second

nicety.

"S"

was

the

Form.)

auto-coherer,the

series
In
plug leading to earth.
connected
a
telephone receiver with
a

Johns,.

APPARATUS.

FIG. 215.
RECEPTOR.

conductor

adjusted to

St.

by a huge Baden-Powell
connected
the improvised antenna
was
a

(First Form.)

was

at

simplicity. It

formed

LODGE-MtTIRHEAD

of the

indicated

extreme

open-circuitresonator

opposite conductor
coherer

"

received

were

free terminal

RECEPTOR.

direct

213.

TELEGRAPHY.

with
a

the

single

letter translated

RECEPTORS.

the

into
Poldhu

Morse

code
with

radiator

an

clicks

faint

three

represented

209

three

by

and

equivalent

energy
heard

were

dots

the

in

to

sent

by

out

the

power;
forty-five horse-

telephone

on

the

shore

"^Ji-

FIG.

of

Newfoundland,
a

cableless

fact.

216.

In

the
a

messages,

responsive

the

of

permanent
wires

used

complementary
results

may

be

"

TAPE

equipments

with

produced.

and

and

tested.
the

are

are

which

tuned
it

for

the

telegraphy

came
be-

indication

of

other

many

types of

RECORDER.

SIPHON

been

have

radiators,
station

receptors

detector

OF

cableless

and

distant,

magnetic

217.

HECEPTOR.

recent

more

devices

station
as

miles

3,000

FIG.

wave

LooGE-MuiRHEAD

"

is

The

inverted
and

for

resonators

pyramidal

forms

syntonized

with

the

that

the

best

working,

so

XVI.

CHAPTER

APPARATUS.

SUBSIDIARY

described

been

the

detail, while

in

and

transmitting

the

comprising

treated

ha"

more

the

tion,
design, construc-

parts,

account

of

adjustment

proper

various

As

depends

system

'argelyupon
and

briefly.

less

or

been

have

appliances

finished

the

tems,
sys-

receiving apparatus,

individual

the

telegraph

wireless

of

general synthetic arrangement

The

be

may

plete
com-

more

found

use-

""].
KEYS.

An

ordinary
will

Fig. 218,
make
FIG.

MORSE

218."

and

break

coil

Morse

into

require heavier
these

keys;

of

the

service

KEY.
Marconi

219, and
and

proportions

and

hard

angles

than

the

it in

are

of

the

grasped

of

provided

greater
with

portions
pro-

suitable

heavy

in

Fig.
lever

the

larger
ordinary

lever

is

contacts

and

the

handle

set

lever.

The

connected
the

"

operate

sending

the

The

rubber
to

; coils

be

must

to

energy

dashes

sulated
inhas
Fio.

the

key

much

assume

type.
from

The

"

in which

one

contacts

Morse

of

tions
modifica-

is shown

messages
is

and

currents

for
of

required

wireless

current

regulation type.

MARCONI

adopted by

dots

usually

are

arbitrarily

to

serve

key,

KEY.

requisite
four-inch

telegraph

in

firmly

stationary

series

with

coil.

When

induction
and

219.

"

KKY.

MARCONI

right

at

and

battery

the

depressed, a
210

key

and
is

movable
the

brass

contacts

primary winding

operated

spring producing

the

handle

the

reciprocal

is

WIRELESS

212

suits.

Fig. 221
spark-gap.1 An

rightanglesto

TELEGRAPHY.

diagrammatic view of a blowout appliedto a

electro-magnet,NS, is placed with its axis at
the line joining the contacts,A, B, and produces
is

strong magnetic field

The

them.
broken

instant the

between
is

current

the

spark is extinguishedby
the magnetic field. Instead of the
magnetic field a blast of air may
be used effectively.
DUCRETET

Ducretet,the
instrument-maker, devised

French
the

KEY.

key shown
of

two

in

"

Fig. 222

insulated

; it

sists
con-

standards

supporting a cup containing mercury

handle
is arranged to
; a spring
operate freelythrough the bar connecting
the standards;the handle
carries at its lower

extremitya

point;
pressed downward

when

FIG

222."

DUCRETET

KEY.

metallic

point

comes

the

tallic
me-

handle

the

in

is

movable
contact

and the primary circuit is

the mercury
completed; when the
is released the spring causes
handle
it to resume
its normal
with

FIG.

positionbreaking

the

223.

"

FESSENDEN

circuit formed

KEY.

between

mercury.
Inventions

of Nikola

Tesla.

Martin, p. 209.

the

point and

the

APPARATUS.

SUBSIDIARY

KEY.

FESSENDEN

is very high, and

key illustrated in
is
of

"

to

increase

of

constant

time

The

the

213

the

Fessenden

speed
ordinaryMorse

foregoing keys
designed the
steel-lever key

Fig. 223; to an
attached a device for throwing the sending circuit in
of the key, 4,
This is accomplished
tune.
by means

FIG.

224.

"

DE

wires

the

action

This

that

so

takes

has

curved

"

be

circuit is shunted

place in

KEY.

DEFOREST

key

the

In

an

the

225."

which

is

with

pressedinto

contact

around

tuning grid.

the

oil chamber.
DeForest

projectingarm

FIG.

out

KEY.

FOREST

providedwith fingers,10, arranged to

and

DE

system

attached

FOREST

to

an

the

ordinary Morse
lever

and

ex-

KEY.

compartment containing oil; on the lower end

of the arm
is a contact having a comparativelysmall surface and
oppositelydisposedto it is a stationarymetal contact as shown in.

tending

into

Fig.

224.

transformer

key

are

takes

these

From

the

exposed and

226.

"

LODGE-MUIRHEAD

LoDGE-MuiRHEAD
transmission

KEY.

largeMorse

FIG.

in connection

is

well

insulated

It is illustrated

oil.

place under

contacts

leads

generator. Only the manual

these are thoroughly insulated

and

FIG.

be

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

214

227.

"

KEY

in half-tone

AND

connect

with

portionsof

the

since the break

in

Fig. 225.

PERFORATOR.

Lodge-Muirhead system of
key1 (seeFig. 226) is usuallyemployed
"

In

the

LODGE-MUIRHEAD

BUZZER.

perforator,a device by which a message may

prepared at leisure and despatchedwith celerity.The operation
simple; a tape is passedthrough a perforatorwith a key attached
lElec. World

with

and

Eng., Aug. 1, 1903.

Lodge-Muirhead

System.

SUBSIDIARY

APPARATUS.

it; by manipulating the

to

key, the
in the

automatic

of

inductor

of

message

may

coil; the

the
be

sent

the

over

in the

accuracy

tions
perfora-

attained.

are

LODGE-MUIRHEAD
ZER.

In

"

as

tape,closingthe
this way
speed

In

circuit.

the

desired, a brush

rapidly as
passing

the

f., and

m.

e.

chine
ma-

with

circuit

in

sage,
mes-

passed

is

tape

the

through

and

the

transmit

the

source

sired
it is de-

When

tape.
to

punched

is

message

BUZwith

conjunction

the key and

automatic

mitting machine
is included

trans-

"buzzer"

in the

local cir-

cult; it is shown

the

in

and

photograph,Fig. 227,
in

side

228;

the

vice

is to

the

in

elevation

Fig.

object of this deof

circuit

primary

induction

close

and

open

coil

that

so

frequency

the
finite
de-

is obtained

in the local circuit ; the buzzer

of two

consists
connected
that

with

each

so

an

and

sounders;

of
the

making

cup
or

of

of

one

copper
end

is

minum
aluwith

connects

pointed
a

of

arm

the armature

rod

copper

fastened

into

other

ly.
they operate alternateTo

has

sounders

the
rod

dipping

mercury

breaking

and
con-

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

216

tact

is drawn

the lever

as

the

about

current
set up

at small

definite

but

this

per

minute,

secondaryand

electric

or

times

600

in the

frequency is

down;

up

periodsof

rupts
inter-

arrangement
that

so
waves

similar
emitted

are

time.

CONDENSERS.

In

oscillator

circuits

where

currents
high-frequency,high-potential
variable
having
capacitiesare sometimes

condensers

surge,

syntonic systems. The Leyden-jar type

of condenser
is the simplest in construction
and the oil condenser
since the insulatingpropertiesof oil are very
the most satisfactory,
desirable, especiallyin

while

high
has

inductive capacityis
specific

its

it is desirable to exclude

that

shown

FIG.

nature

and

TESLA
shown

the

adjacent to

bombardment
OIL

the

to the

of the
is

suitable case,

case

stripof

is then

limits

the

The

B.

condenser

plates,B} C,
the

in contact

oil,G.

be affected

will not

case.

with

This

are

To

vent
preeach other

type of

the
denser
con-

by high-potential

tain
capacityof the condenser ma}f be varied within cerby securingthe platesto the adjustablerods,H, passing

The

A ; the

boxes, Kf in the case,

through stuffing
platesmay be varied by the nuts, LL.
CONDENSER.

CYLINDRICAL

BRAUN

composed

gaseous

material,F\
insulating

porous

filled with

highly efficient and

currents.

and

A ; the

spreadingor coming
a

to

terminals, D, E, leadingoutside

separatedby

interior

of

prevent electrostatic
effects resultingas a consequence.
oil condenser
designedby Tesla is

An

"

Experiment

CONDENSER.

drawings,Fig. 229, A
in

platesfrom

they are

OIL

TESLA

"

all matter

dielectric in order

CONDENSER.

contained

connected

B.

untoward

the

in the sectional

platesare

A.

229

low.

very

of

bring within

as

series of miniature
small

space

as

"

An

distance between

the

adjustable condenser,

Leyden jars so

arranged as to
the greatestcapacityarea,
possible

SUBSIDIARY
devised

was

by

Braun

his oscillator.
diameter

of 25

and

with

out

APPARATUS.

for

increasingor decreasingthe capacityof

of glass,have a
tubes, Fig. 230, are made

The

are

mm.,

tinfoil.

in

mm.

They

the

way
as

well

as

mf.,

0.005

and

thickness,and
in

vary

oscillator

closed-circuit

FIG. 230.

ADJUSTABLE

the

MICA

the

dielectric of mica.
market

in any

condensers

of

in

CYLINDRICAL

BRAUN

CONDENSERS.
is very

condensers
Mica

comprise
or

system

may

out

of the

rack.

to

its

or

out

given value

number

compared
employed may

of

removed, the
of circuit
are

often

as

may

used

various

in

In

this

period

systems the

be

with

those

be

made

obtained

sections,and

desired.

easily

waves.

resonator

low

condensers

be

CONDENSER.

In

"

farad
micro-

natural

own

condenser

by

tential
po-

emitting
with

in the

desired.
form, capacity,and adjustability

plugs, inserted
thrown

"

oscillations

and

waves,

is tuned

0.004

the

oscillator emitting the

open-circuit

to the

of the

the

inside

coated

are

capacity from

capacityof
adjusted by merely slippingthem in or
to

sir

open

Adjustable
a

system

units

may

of
be

Non-adjustablecondensers

resonator

systems where

the

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

218

capacity of the circuit has been accuratelydetermined, as

illustrated at A, Fig. 231.
Braun
condenser

in the

TRANSFORMERS.

BRAUN
of the

high-tensiontransformer

FIG.

tion between
is

TRANSFORMER.

HIGH-FREQUENCY

the

231.

open

that

designed so

"

FIG.

232.

and

it will

"

greatestcapacity. The
is illustrated in

BRAUN

BRAUN

CONDENSER

"

The

primary

making the electrical

AND

ing
wind-

connec-

TRANSFORMER.

closed circuits of the Braun

oscillator

give the

with

desired

HIGH-FREQUENCY

diameter

Fig. 232, when

wave

the

TRANSFORMER.

of the transformer
the various

length

is 20

cm.

; and

parts are assembled,and

WIRELESS

220

effects of

TELEGRAPHY.

electro-magneticinduction

at the

ends

of tlie

with

the

electrostatic induction

primary.
w

FIG.

FIG. 2346.

FIG. 234c.

234a.

"

MARCONI

"

"

MARCONI

LOW-POTENTIAL

LOW-POTENTIAL

MARCONI

LOW-POTENTIAL

TRANSFORMER.

TRANSFORMER.

(Second

TRANSFORMER.

(Third Form.)

Form.)

DE-COHERERS.

Devices

for

tapping back

high resistance

are

mally
filingsof coherers to their norusuallyof the vibratingtype,that is,they

the

arranged with an automatic

tappers have been employed, but
In a properly constructed
are

make
are

and

break.

Single-stroke

.not well adapted for the purpose.

tapping

mechanism

the

striking

APPARATUS.

SUBSIDIARY

lever to which
desirable to

the

give the vibratingelement

FIG.

is

one

used

of the
in

235.

DE-COIIERER.

FIG.

electro-magnetsare

set at

230.

In

an

armature, strikinglever, and

"

in the

Morse

"

should
low

be
time

short, since
constant,

it is
this

as

DE-COHERER.

MARCONI

"

essential features

conjunction with

MARCONI

is attached

hammer

221

productionof

dashes

when

register.

the

BRAUN

Marconi

device

the

wood;

the

DE-COHERER.

angle of 45"
hammer

tapping

on

are

block

of

arranged beneath,

as

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

photograph, Fig. 235, so that the coherer is tapped

is
from
the under side. The ivory holder with, its coherer attached
of an
held in positionby means
adjustableebonite standard, and
stroke is regulatedto a nicetyby screws
the strengthof the hammer
controllingthe standard, the magnets moving the hammer
up
in the

shown

and

down.
BRAUN

is shown

DE-COHERER.
in

Fig. 236

The

"

; the

FIG.

Braun

for

mechanism

237."

electro-mechanical

producing

the

de-coherer
strokes

is

DE-COHERER.

GUARINI

operatedby a spring motor ; this

renders
the operation of tapping the tube entirelyindependent of
and the
the local current.
The force is therefore always uniform
When
relative positionseach time.
are
filings
arranged in the same
the
and
the filings
cohere, a trip catch is released electrically
actuated

by

local current, but is

place the catch

drops and the motor is stopped. The coherer may be easilyand
with the internal circuit by
quicklyplaced in electrical connection

mechanism

is set in motion

slippingit

into

contacts.

; when

place between

de-cohesion

the

takes

opening clutches forming

the

SUBSIDIARY

GUARINI
is

DE-COHERER.

"

APPARATUS.

The

223

de-coherer

employed by Guarini

justment
spiralspring and screw, giving a very fine adand permittingstrokes to be appliedto the coherer of any
Tequired strength. The standards for holding the coherer in position
and
237.
It is a simple
in Fig.
efficient
are
rigid,as shown
type of electro-mechanical de-coherer.
the
take
A
to
device
DE-COHERER.
place of
COLLINS

arranged

with

"

electro-mechanical

the

tapper

In

coherer

is

forming

the tube
in series

COLLINS

be

are

are

an

energizesthe magnet
the polarprojection
; this

since

the

the

the

as

circuit to

the

causes

infinite

becomes

resistance

of
particles

the

and

local current

attracted to

broken,

between

this

the terminals of which are connected

electro-magnet,
the oscillations cohere the
with the coherer and relay. When
is

filingsthe
iron

Fig. 238; in
fine Norway

ings
iron filplaced some
carefullyannealed to prevent
the retention
of magnetism. Over

HERER.
DE-CO-

MAGNETIC

in that

plugs are beveled,

V-shaped pocket as

in

shown

"

from

little different

the

conductor

the

238.

arrangement

described
previously

those

FIG.

this

1899.

in

author

the

designed by

was

formed

gap

plugs gradually widens.

RELAYS.

relayis employed in wireless for the same

it permits very feeble
wire telegraphy,i.e.,
The

in

There
are
by stronger ones.
those having delicately
poised soft-iron

two

that it is

purpose

to be augmented

currents

types

of

relays,(a-)

and

armatures

those

(6)

known
The former
are
having permanentlymagnetized armatures.
the latter as polarized
lays
relays. Ordinary reas ordinary relaysand
are

wound

to resistances

of from

50

to

1,000 ohms

and

polarized

of less than

ohms.

Eelays
high as 10,000
1,000 ohms are useful only in the laboratoryor for lecture purposes
when
appliedto wireless telegraphy.
In wireless telegraphythe relay is usually
EELAYS.
ORDINARY
relaysare

wound

to

as

"

connected

in

cohere, an

armature

until

series

the movable

with

the

coherer

carrying a
contact

makes

contact

and

cell.

When

is attracted

connection

with

by

the
the

filings

magnets

permanent

con-

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

224

tact, when

second

local

or

battery will

be

thrown

which

the Morse

is

toward

operatesthe tapper and actuates

provided.for moving the magnets

armature,

as

may
between

two

the armature
two

of which

be

may
be

observed

obtained.

in

Fig. 239;

The

yet

POLARIZED

the

proper
is

the

justment
ad-

pivoted

screws.

type employed

not

from

screw

spiralspringcapableof regulationdraws
from
the magnets ; there are four binding posts,
away
are
placed in the circuit includingthe electro-magnets

set

PIG.

has

that

away

of soft iron

armature

connecting with the coherer and two in

battery,Morse registerand tapper. The

other

register.A

and
so

circuit

into

been

used

RELAYS.

has
sensitiveness,

in

been

239."

ORDINARY

duplex
in

and

wireless

circuit

with

differential

local

relay is

an-

RELAY.

but
quadruplex telegraphy,
telegraphy.

The

polarizedrelay,in virtue
adopted by all the leading makers
"

the

of its

it

high

of wireless

sage.
registerindicates the mesThe
of this type of relay is due largelyto the
sensitiveness
elimination of the retractile spring common
to the ordinary relay,

telegraph instruments

and

another

decided

adjustment, made
as

easilymaintained.

by

where

polarizedrelay is that its

of a singlescrew,
is easilyeffected and
Marconi
polarizedrelay,in the type of

advantage
means

In the

Morse

of

the

tractile
receptor designed for use on board ship, there is a delicate relever to compensate for
spring attached to the armature
the motion
of the vessel,but this does not
materially affect its

sensitiveness.

SUBSIDIARY

polarizedrelay consists

A
and

APPARATUS.

of

225

permanent

steel

magnet, N, S,

the usual soft iron cores;

the
electro-magnet.,
m, m', with
poles of this magnet are secured to the N pole of the perB
manent
magnet, and therefore both of the upper
polesof the electro-magnet,
n, ri,will be of the

an

lower

permits
pole of

one

sign. A
relay without
FIG.

POLARIZED

240."

the

armature

local

the

of the

stronger,which

-7/1,

ing
is flow-

polarityas N, provided no current

through the coils,m, ra',but when

same

current

to

the

herer
co-

flow,the

becomes
electro-magnets

much

changes its polarityto the opposite

perspectiveview of the polarized
in Fig. 240 ;
casing,is shown
lever, c, c1',is pivoted at B and

its

JVELA.Y.

the

swings between
is

than

since

that

241.

standard

the

Braun's

were

into

pole

one

not

lever

brought into
polarizedrelay is

high

with

contact
The

is

no

(Top View.)

RELAY.

be

polarizedrelay of

relays have

ture
arma-

absolutelyequidistantit would

POLARIZED

"

is drawn

the lever may

magnets.

but

trifle closer to

approachesa

the magnets.
energizes

current

these

it

electro-magnets,
n,

equallyattracted by either pole;the

there
insulated point,D', Fig. 241, when

against an

current, but it

the

be

it would

FIG.

so

that

adjustedso

the other, for if it

move,
rests

polesof

the
point D when
points are adjustable,

the

contact

the proper
illustrated

the Marconi
sensitiveness

type
and

relations
in

in

the

and

Fig. 242

is shown

will

with

Fig. 243

operate

on

one

WIRELESS

226

of

twenty-thousandth

an

of the human

medium

TELEGRAPHY.

ampere

by closingthe

the armature

body

of

circuit
of

one

through the
these relayswill

"

FIG.

242.

BRAUN'S

"

POLARIZED

RELAY.

adjustment is maximum, and this is a method

employed by operatorsto test its working properties.

readilyrespond if

its

INDICATORS.

There

are

translation
Enumerated

four
of

different

the

these

for the indication

and

final

impulses into a readable

alphabet.
the
(a)
ordinary telegraphsounder, (b) the

are

register,(c)
In the

used

received

FIG.

Morse

means

243.

the

types a

"

MARCONI

POLARIZED

RELAY.

telephone receiver,and
and

the messages

are

(d)

the

rendered

siphon

corder.
re-

audible and

WIRELESS

228

spring motor,
mechanism

that

so

it is attracted

when

and

is set in motion

tape, supplied from

The

TELEGRAPHY.

roll,across

wheel

disk

draws

flows

through the magnets the inked surface

with the moving tape and impressesupon
it

contact
as

the

case

and

vibratingrod
fast

slow

or

with

the

that the
lever of
on

be.

may

desired.

as

mechanism

be

may

the

paper

surface.
a

rent
cur-

is drawn
a

is controlled

dot

by

or

into
dash

weighted

regulated so that the paper will move

the tape should
move
slowlycompared

But

period of the vibrations of the decoherer tapper,so

frequency of the latter produced by the coherer and the
the succession
of dots to run
the relay will cause
together
time

tape and make

the

The

the

having an inked
the disk,and when

with

is also in connection

armature

toothed

a
a

by the magnets

mark

continuous

long as

as

the armature

is

x^.

"
d

FIG.

245."

attracted to the magnets.

Morse
TELEPHONE

TELEPHONE

Fig. 244

RECEIVERS.

is

photograph of

an

can-made
Ameri-

register.
EECEIVERS.

"

The

subjectof telephonereceivers

has

exhaustivelytreated that little need be said relatingto their

construction.
In
the ordinary Bell magneto-electrictelephone

been

so

receiver

coil of fine insulated

wave

detector

steel

bar

mm.

beyond

and

forms
the

the

chloride

of silver

for the

core

ends;

wire is connected

or

coil

disk of turned

of

in circuit with

cell.

the

permanent
wire, projecting a few

dry
or

japanned

iron

called

diaphragm is supportedfirmly at its edges, but is capable of

of different forms
vibratingat its center. Fig. 245 shows a number
of receivers ; startingfrom
the right,a shows the watchcase
form, "
Bell receiver,c the Swedish type,and d the Collins
the commercial
a

wireless

telephone receiver.

APPARATUS.

SUBSIDIARY

SIPHON
Kelvin

EECORDERS.

for

cables, has

adapted

FIG.

messages

by

Prof.

the rise and

of

siphon recorder,invented by
sluggish and feeble signalsfrom

The

"

indicatingthe
been

the

to

246.

Lodge

"

and

SIPHON

Dr.

mercury

coil of very fine wire, b,

FlG.

247.

"

LODGE-MUIRHEAD

of

indication

wireless

Lord

long

telegraph

RECORDER.

Muirhead.

fall of the local current

conductivityof the

229

coherer

b',as

In

siphon

corder
re-

by the variations
tangular
operates through a reccaused

shown

SlPHON

the

in the outline draw-

RECORDER.

ing, Fig. 246; this coil is suspended by thin wires, f, f, between

the poles of a permanent magnet, N, S.
A stationarysoft iron
is magnetized by induction
and
the fluctuation of the curcore

WIRELESS

230

TELEGRAPHY.

swings the coil from right to left.

which
dips into the ink, projectsthe

rent
of

by
curve

with

circuit is connected

coherer

causing it

the ink

recorder

Muirhead

These

to vibrate.

FIG.

added

to the

248.

"

is

is shown

in

the oscillator of the

latter

on

dischargedfrom
other

TUNING

SLABY-ARCO

recorder

by

the

improvements

In

siphon by
have

been

COIL.

Dr.

Muirhead; the

plete
com-

Fig. 247.

TUNING

few

end

siphon, one

suspension wires, f, f.

the

and

originalsiphon

instrument

In

fine

tape moved
automatic
mechanism, and thus graphicallydepicts the
of the current
strength flowingthrough the circuit. The

an

the

COILS.

Slaby-Arco system

this is made

of

on
an
concentrically
heavy, bare copper wire wound
tacts
insulatingcylindercontaining the Leyden jars. Adjustablecon-

turns

of

arranged so that
will. The tuning coil of
are

of

number

of turns

the value of inductance

a

of No.

resonator
16 B.

may

be varied at

system, see Fig. 248, consists

and

S. gauge

wound

on
spirally

APPARATUS.

SUBSIDIARY

cylinderof

Each

wood.

there

are

wave

length up

110

turns,

the

of these
cut

off

of his

accuracy

difference
potential

well

to

prevent the

as

and

249.

Fio.

also

the

placed in

tapper and
the

the

working

the

"

may

would

CHOKING

second

in

emanation

the

COIL

IN

CIRCUIT.

includes

circuit,which

that

oscillations

be annihilated

be set in action.

of

Choking coils

of the coherer.

internal

capacityof the circuits will

can

result

reaction

recordingdevice, so

electric waves

be

impressed on the coherer,

surging of high-frequencycurrents in the

circuit,which

internal

trains of electric waves

are

to increase

receptorsare

of

closed

Marconi

by

full value
as

any

choking coils;the relation

coils to the circuits is givenin Fig. 249, the objectbeing to
that the
the oscillations surging through the resonator
so

and

range

tuning

COILS.

introduced

salient feature

be utilized in

coil may

CHOKING

meter, and

one

meters.

400

to

representsa lengthof

turn

that

so

231

before

Choking

set up
resultant

coils

are

due

the
to

rent
deter-

placed in

parts of the internal circuits and the accuracy of indication

is greatlyimproved. Fig. 250 is a full-size illustration of a choking
coil;the coils consist of a given length of wire dovbled back on
various

itselfand

then

spoolso that both ends terminate

the outside of the spool,forming a non-inductive
coil ; these coils
on
have an approximate resistance of 4,000 ohms
with
and are wound
wound

silk-covered wire

on

No.

wooden

40 B. "

S.

POLARIZED

Polarized

cells

other sysSlaby-Arcoand some

tems
coils
introduced
the
ject
obchoking
by Marconi,
prevent sparkingof the relaycontacts and so

are

instead

of the

of which

is to

used

CELLS.

in the

WIRELESS

232

eliminate
of

TELEGRAPHY.

the detrimental
a

small

vessel

pair of platinum

wire

thus

five of these cells is connected

or

in series

SCREENING

In

practice it

used, to placethe

battery,and

is

metal

different

on
rela}r,

to

case

set up

These

in them

partsof

250.

"

may

be

ones

The

are

being

the

latter is best

since there

are

no

and

is

sufficiently
rapid where
five to thirty words
per

telephonereceiver

is used.

; twelve

Morse

minute

in

Con,.

grounded so

by
near-

that oscillations

telegraphy,the principal
the Continental
alphabets.

in

to the purposes

inclosed

CODES.

Morse

spaced letters

is then

the earth.

used

adapted

are

coherer,tapper,
receptor,i.e.,

be

of codes

American

relaycontacts.

heavy dischargesof the

the

in
dissipated

number

the

CHOKING

should

ALPHABETIC

There

the

detectors
voltage-operated

MARCONI

from

cases

across

base, which

common

protectthem

transmitter.

CASES.

usual, where

Fio.

set up.

sists
polarizedcell concontainingdilute sulphuricacid, in which a
electrodes are
immersed; a battery of four
waves

of wireless

transmission,

to fifteen words

per

minute

registeris employed and twentyis about

the

speed limit

where

SUBSIDIARY

APPARATUS.

233

CONTINENTAL

."-

TELEGRAPH

WIRELESS

_l

CODE.

.".

./_
"

""""

...

.5.
)"""""

INTERROGATION
"

"

tm

12
" """""""

ft

""""""

"""""

!""""""

"

EXCLAMATION
""

""""""

"

mm

34

""""""""

"

"

MORSE

./..

UNDERSTAND
MiiT**UJ"J5^IAND DOJ^T^

""""

PERIOD

"

.JS.

""""

"

"""""IBB*

"^L

WIRELESS

TELEGRAPH

CODE.

CHAPTER

AERIAL

XVII.

WIRES

AND

EARTHS.

HISTORICAL.

In

1891,

means

shown

are

elevating plates of
connected

was

earliest

the

method

does

leading

not

reference

for

the

the

earth.

equalizationof

without

indicated

how

mast.

The

elevation

an

and

antenna

in

meteorological receptor

electric

in

wires

21, 1897, he

terminal
and

at

in

the

are

grounds
Nikola

In

describes

conducting

antennas

sequence

1896,

and

telegraphy.

pressure,

approximating
utilized
that

and

1895

in

Tesla's
a

method

the

employed
the

text

caused

The
in

thereby

different
to

system

the

height of

in

Popoff

his

in

which
the

was

filed

was

subject

of

wireless

wave

October

high electrical
earth

and

to

designs for aerial radiators

various

appertaining

to

with

the

to

"a very

producing

current

elevation."

an

of

1886,

signaling

for

filed
specification,

British

for

connected

electric

with

connection

of

the

suggested

by Marconi

references

earliest

in

by Prof.

transmitter, the patent application

wave

England

aerial

of

perhaps

issued

patent

terminal

earth

is

detector

circuit

obtained

the

with

capacities he

of the

wire

plates,

wave

patent,

of the

one

coil

this

by

aerial

earth

or

Dolbear's

coefficients
Kitsee

verticallyto

vessel's

in

and

E.

Isadore

1895

wires

extended

his

In

the

and

spark-gap

elevation

the

to

wires

a*

Amos

In

while

29,

wires

The

secondary

earth;

aerial

either

employ

is made

the

December

signals without
balloons.

by

or

of

to

to

oscillatory currents.
no

poles

terminal

reference

Edison, dated

A.

transmitting

on

one

terminal

opposite

for

metal

to

Thomas

to

patent granted

systems
their

will

be

treated

in

application in practice.

THEORETICAL.

There
earth

and

and

are

two

several

theories

relating

to

the

concerning the role the

propagation of electric

wave

earth

signals.
234

probable capacity
The

plays
true

in the

of

the

operation

solution

of the

WIRELESS

236

Maxwell's
Others

law

voice

in

the

since

salt water

that

it

TELEGRAPHY.

salt

that

the

opinion that
does

conducts

that

Whatever

may

these

conditions

conductor,

in the air and

general law

as

will

be,

terminal

it is well

is

more

water

known

with

land.

or

if

that

extended

be

connected

much

are

fresh

over

conductors, in

fact, however,

waves

lightning rod,

its lower

than

electricity.

electric waves,,

for

One

electric

water

of

transmit

action.
by electrolytic

positivelyknown, namely,
salt
over
easilytransmitted
metallic

conductor

will

sea

the

follow

not

is

water

upward

earth, a

the

stant
con-

through it, equalizingin a small measure

that is always present. If this conductor is
a difference of potential
divided and the resultingterminals form
an
air-gap,the potential
be measured
difference may
by a galvanometer,or if the air-gapis
microscopicin size sparks will pass ; if a detector of the coherer type
current

is inserted

in the gap

conditions
In

flow

and

the

filingswill

cohere
of the

the restoration

logical
certain meteoro-

under

be indicated.

charge will

on

practicethese atmospheric disturbances often produce characters

the tape of the recording instrument, and these untoward
cations
indicalled "X's," or stays. The
of the aerial wire,,
are
purpose

on

the

the
was

hand, is to

one

form

out

of electric waves,

ascertained

length of
emitted

send

the

nearlythe

the

on

by Dr.

Slaby and

aerial wires

should

therefore

and

wave,

and

the

and

height as possible.
A law relatingto the distance over
which
with
transmitted
a
given height of aerial

as

that

Braun

one-fourth

radiator

receive

other, to

Prof.

be

in the ether

vibrations

transverse

the

them;

in
it

the

proper
length of the
have

should

antenna

same

electric
wire

waves

may

deduced

was

be
pirically
em-

early in the practiceof the art. This

of standard
mensions
dilaw states that with a given current, instruments
and all other factors being equal,the distance to which
signalsmay be transmitted increases as the square of the length
of the radiatingwire ; or, graphically,
if a wire 20 feet in height will
by

transmit

Marconi

mile,

one

miles, and
et ccetera.

Ascoli, who

80

one

This

wire

feet in

40

feet in

height will

general law

deduced

his

was

height will send

transmit

conclusions

in

sixteen

waves

mathematically

waves

evolved

accordance

four

miles,

by Prof.

with

mann's
Neu-

reciprocalaction to be proportional
aerial wires
of the two
to the square
of the length of one
these are of equil length,and in simple inverse proportionof the
formula

if

very

distance between

and

them.

found

the

WIRES

AERIAL

AND

EARTHS.

237

and
the
empirical law of Marconi
be subjectto modification
since Captain
deductions of Ascoli may
that the distance
Bonomo, of the Royal Italian Navy, has concluded
would

It

to which

the formula
aerial

wires, D

the
a

transmitted

number
wire

of

intensityof

in meters

as

first used
to

accordance

with

representsthe length of

of

and

employed

are

Marconi

by

this

greater radiation

is

0.15

the
stant.
con-

instead

apparent
of

energy

length emitted.

longer wave
the

is in

parallelwires

accountablydue

also in virtue

signalingdistance

single vertical

The

be

^/"^where

0.15

discrepancyis
and

the

signalsmay

Where
of

that

seem

oscillations does

diminish

not

with

the

"30

20

40

CO

Distance

Fio.

251.

"

CURVE

increase of distance if the

WAVE

ELECTRIC

OF

120

100

80

140

In Kilometers

length of

RADIATION.

the aerial wires

is increased 'in

proportionor as the square of the distance ; therefore,by doubling

the height of the aerial wires the distance of signalingmay
be four
times as great. In a series of experiments carried out by Dr. Slaby
to determine
with precisionthe exact height of aerial wire required
to transmit
251
curve

representsthe
water, with
latitude

changes

and

the heated
curve

given distance

plotted. Startingwith

was

of salt

over

messages

has

maximum

Slaby-Arco

has

been

conditions

for
of

of 746

for transmission

standard

allowed

shown

curve

initial energy

distance

the

unfavorable

an

the

in

Fig.

watts, the
over

bodies

siderable
apparatus. Conmeteorologicaland climatic
station

the

year,

as,

for

instance,

months.
The accuracy
of the
atmosphere of the summer
been tested carefully,
and while the sendingand receiving

WIRELESS

238

instruments
actual

TELEGRAPHY.

calibrated

are

working distance

be much

may

with

accordance

in

the
for

greater,as,

their

curve,

instance,it was

found

between
and
the Deutschland
possibleto obtain messages
Duhmen, a distance of 150 kilometers,whereas the curve
givesthe
distance

working

aerial wires

on

reached

electric

by

spark from

diminish

rich

deduced

was

Hertz2

system. Eighi
the
electricity,

on

the

the

or

had

able to show

of diffused
at the

the

by

antennas

of

process

2,099 miles

from

2,000 miles,but
as

great,or

This

when

by

in

was

due

dispersingnegative

of not

on

this

Geitle have

and

only sunlight,but
observed

was

signalsa distance of

and

distance
daylightthe signaling

the

on

trip it

distinct

signalswere

of air.

charged wires,

phenomenon

he received

the test made

occasion that the

one

result

the molecules

Poldhu, Cornwall, England,

Philadelphia.During
on

conductors.

Marconi

tendency to

tion
ultra-violet radia-

effect to the

influence
dissipating

daylighton

one

the

that ultra-violet radiation

Bighi3 also determined
when
with positive
and Elster
insulated,
electricity,
been

clusions
con-

that the effect of

another

carried away

charge being

light
sun-

disruptive discharge is
lator
stored in the second oscilelectricity

attributed

producing convection

found

of

the

upon

that this curious

which

in

"

based

Marconi1

coil

and
latter,

radiation

effect
photo-electric

1887, who

in

the charge of
dissipating

"

by

induction

an

the size of the

ultra-violet

to

The

kilometers.

80

as

steamship
ascertained

was

night for
only a fourth

clear at
was

miles.

500

PRACTICAL.

In

practiceit
of the

and

resonator

vital

aerial wires

circuits,for

currents

systems

is of

in

in

maintain

terminals

excessive

should

any

masts, buildings,or

appurtenances. Where the aerial and ground wires

or
supported, heavy glass or porcelain insulators
The

wires
the

themselves

should

currents
oscillatory

atmosphere and
for insulators

Progress

does not

are

of

be

from

retard

to
transparent

Annalen.
vol.

portion of the
other
are
are

physical
sustained
desirable.

their energy
dissipating
the

action

tects
pro-

in the

of the electric waves,

them.

Space Telegraphy.

*Comptes Rendus,

sulation
in-

radiator

of the

highly insulated, since this

13, 1802.
^Wiedemann's

absolute

utilizinghigh-frequency,
tial
high-poten-

with

contact

earthed

and

leakage becomes

come

importance to

31, p. 983.

107, p. 559.

Royal

Inst.

Lecture, Marconi,

June

METHODS

suspending

aerial

Fio. 252.
OF

Pig.

SUSPENSION.

OF

wires

SIMPLE

"

is

4, and

FIG.

of tarred
wire

rope

"

A
the

from

or

"

for

mast

DUCHETET

is shown

in

METHOD

SUSPENSION.

representedat 1, the yardarm 2, insulator 3,

wire 5.

254."

attached

if it be used

253.

239

efficient method

and

yardarm of

Fio.

METRO

EARTHS.

simple

SUSPENSION.

252 ; the mast

capacityarea

AND

WIRES

AERIAL

The

BRATTN

to the

direct,is

insulator is

LEADINO-IN

yardarm,

inserted

supported by

loop

METHOD.

and

the

capacityarea,

in
longitudinally

the

or

insulator

WIRELESS

240

as

shown.

Ducretet
A

The
and

method

illustrated

method

it will be

Braun;

porcelainbushing
FORMS

large metal

inserted
"

plate which

FIG.
as

in

Fig.

Fig. 255;

252.
the

the

that

seen

AERIALS.

OF

is shown

while that
lightning-rod,
comprised a singlecopper
a

Fig.

253

was

to the instruments

station

in

designed by
just described.

superiormodification of the one

eliminate
leakage where the aerial wire leads
is

to

TELEGRAPHY.

in

and

Fig. 254

leading-inwire

is due

passes

to L)r.

through

aperturecut in the window-pane.

The
consisted
of a
early Popoff antenna
employed by Marconi in his first essays
wire leadingfrom
the instruments
and to
an

was

255.

Various

object

in

in the

"

attached

FORMS

forms
of

OF

of

adding

to its upper

free terminal

AERIALS.

aerial
to

the

wires

are

number

shown
of

in
wires

ring
greater radiating and receptivesurface; referto the figures,
is the ordinary singlewire aerial,b parallel
a
wires which
in some
are
cases
arranged in fan shape, c multiple
quadrangular aerial,d multiplecylindricalaerial,and e inverted
The
length of
pyramidal aerial for long-distancetransmission.
is to

obtain

aerials range
if

an

from

aerial is

50

to 200

composed

of

feet.
seven

Fleming
strands

of

pointedout that
wire, each having a

has

of No.

diameter
the

from

earth,
If

of

the

capacity is not nearly equal to the

and
therefore
individual capacities,1

their

of

sum

length of 150 feet,and insulated

farads.
microis 0.0003
held vertically,
are
placed very closelytogether,

wires

combined

their

should

wires

241

capacity,if

its

number

G., and

B. S.

22

EARTHS.

AND

WIRES

AERIAL

be

placedat

considerable

distance

apart.
devised

aerial
is due

Two

and

capacityareas

were

could

varied

be

in

of

this

arrangement

the emitted
or

point

in

waves

to receive
of

the

them

great loss of

very
method

of

cases

might

receiving, all
waves

are

sheath

which

system

'Cantor

factor

The

"

tric
elec-

fact that

then

aerial shown

receiving

encased

top,forming
slot

was

by

in
a

tallic
me-

cylinder

cut ; the purpose

given

is

this

in

in specific

useful. When

be

into

conducted

nected
con-

tion
direc-

electric

either reflected from

AERIAL.

aerial

in which

There

energy

aerial

the
wire

oscillations

to the earth.

TOMMASI-JEGOU
WIRE

from

surroundingthe
are

were

reflect

extraneous

transformed

or

the

transmission,but
it

The

waves.

emitting and

divergingat
to

compass.

well

as

that this

the sheathed

and

given

AERIAL.

insulated

were

was

system

value, but

coil,so

to devise

largediameter

of

the

These

earth.

the

electric

definite

of metal

made

were

the

; the aerial wires

sheath

diagram Fig. 256.

at will.

led Guarini

waves

in

signaling

reflected,and absorbed
intercepted,

are

Fig. 257

the

of

SHEATHED

waves

metals

receive

of

selective

capacityof

inductance

an

GUARINI

FIG. 256.
LODGE
ITY
CAPACAERIAL..

the

to increase

earliest form

of

other and

each

from

with

purpose
is shown

and

radiate

to

as

The

"

large dimensions

of

insulated

served

the

for

Lodge,

to
cones

and

AERIALS.

CAPACITY

LODGE

DIFFERENTIAL
"

The

introduced

Lectures, Journal

differential

by

Tom-

of the

FIG.

Society

25?."

GUARINI

of Arts,

SHEATHED

AERIAL.

London, March,

1903.

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

242

receive
various
intended
to
was
masi-Jegou some
ago
years
wires
wave
lengths simultaneously by employing two or more
at the transmitting station
A, Fig. 258; these radiating wires
of different lengths. At
the
were

receiving station
distant,

length
while

the

the

at

kilometers

is

antennas

the

to

B,

shorter

equal
at

one

Station

the

in

A,
an-

equal to the longest wire

at A.
By a proper adjustment the
indicators
not actuated
were
except
is

tennaa

when

the shortest
to B

A
258.

JEGOU

"

DIFFERENTIAL

AERIAL.

MARCONI

on

wire

mark
cylinders,
as

both

MARCONI

longestone
a

definite

produces a

"

The

composed

CYLINDRICAL

aerials

ing
is sendA

to

value

of

at

neutral

effect

employed by

of inner

and

outer

AERIAL.

the firstattempt to eliminate

factor in wireless

at A

receivers.

(SECOND FORM).

AERIAL

"

metal

the distance

in his first syntonicsystem,

Marconi

the

C, except where

BC

Fio.

or

wire

telegraphy.Marconi

high vertical
has used single

the

of copper

zinc,illustrated

or

of the

one

transformer

coil,T,

FIG.

system
with

AND

AERIAL.

262."

BRAUX

is located at
210

polesset in

crosstrees

and

shoulder

one

end

and

are

lower

mast,
the sand

into

hemp

sixteen

terminals

cables,of

top, and

It is

which

disturbances

Fig.
"

One

EARTHS.

height; it is
supported by square
topmast

termed

fids;the mast
feet deep. The
guys
100
in
about
spliced
there

prevent them
illustrated in Fig. 263.

is to maintain
are

from
A

two

the

over

is

of four

of iron

bars

guyed

are

feet
the

in contact
of other

to braces

sunk

with

rope

the

ground;
of the

yardarm
with

of the

insulation
a

with

head

of wire
from

It is

Island.

constructed

supported by

coming
number

of the

primary

of the stations of the De

feet in

the

of the

197.

ARTIFICIAL

to sustain

that

to atmospheric

antenna

the

is

original

an

due

the

forming

This

is claimed

Park, Coney
Steeplechase

objectof this combination

aerial

the

rope

the

in

shown

and

system
telegraphy. It

the condensers,, c, c, and

mast

at

Braun

aerial wire

as

MAST

FOREST

equipped

of the

eliminates
effectually

electricity.The
is divided by
resonator

Forest

photographs,Fig. 262.

wireless

commercial

this method

DE

in the

strikingfeatures

departure in

the

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

244

the

near

guys.

masts, aerials and

AERIAL

stations

are

shown

WIRES

is

EARTHS.

idea

excellent

giving an

Fig. 264

AND

Fessenden

New

and

station at
Fig. 265, a Marconi
267, are Slaby-Arco stations at Sapnitz

FIG.

respectively
; a

263.

Braun-Siemens

is illustrated in

WAVE

additional
This

physicisthas

surface
of the

over

while

which

are

found
the

and

Gross

Molen

AERIAL.

AND

Halske

Fig.

rangements.
ar-

equipment
shows

269

at

Helgoland

French

school-

aerials.

CHUTE.

data

MAST

and

Fig. 268,

ship with Branly-Popp

FESSENDEN

FOREST

DE

"

individual

the

135
York-Philadelphia,
Rosslare,Ireland ; Figs.

foot aerial ;
266

of

245

In

recent

patent granted

senden
to Fes-

given relatingto aerials and grounds.

it desirable to have
a
highly conducting

waves

point where they are

"

are

propagated

generated,and

in the

that this

neighborhood

highly conduct-

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

246

ing surface should

extend

at least one-fourth

direction toward

the

The

message.
the

in

the

desired

the

as

the
The

shown.

the

of

264."

the

it is desired

by

Fessenden

MASTS

waves

forming

and

the
guys

that

from
or

to send

wave
serves

for

in
the

ing
producchute;

wave

2, 2', 2" is the

and

other

obstacles

to

STATION.

AND

when

their production

in air and

wave

buildingsand

FESSENDEN

conductor

point of

illustrates the method

of obstructions

extraneous

the

sending conductor,

coils 3, 3, 3, 3,

grounded

to which

is termed

oscillation different

period of
with

limit

length of

leadingacross

FIG.

beyond

station

and

is the

figure,1

grounded conductor

of the

diagram, Fig. 270,

results

from

to a distance

terminals
from

of the

chute
to

are

earthed

the mast, have

antenna, and

eliminates

the

thisference
inter-

dissipateatmospheric

in ordinary aerial wire systems. In practice

potentialswhich occur
low
Fessenden
employs a sending wire having a large capacityand
is regulated
former
The
by increasingthe area of the
inductance.

the latter

and

aerial wire

connecting the

greatest obstacles

in the successful

FIG.

in

MARCONI

205."

militaryoperationswas

use

with

of

masts,

the

cases

these

without

80-

or

when

useful.

In

there is
the

balloons

no

wind,

AND

aerials
Kites

employed.

to be

by the

transported

are

are

useless.

The

kite

preferable,
except

in

then small

Branly-Poppwireless
are

entailed

operations, and
all-important

100-foot

and

messages

STATION.

too cumbersome

the balloon offer the solution.

and
of the

one

of wireless

transmission

such

herer
auto-co-

Heretofore

heavy accouterments

in

the

portable transmitters

came

MAST

much

are

facility
necessary

instruments
and

as

the

of wire

of

advent

the

aerial wire.

the kite-sustained

receptors and

of turns

oscillator.

With

detectors

current-actuated

247

to the number

the

with

AERIALS."

KITE-SUSTAINED
and

by adding

wire

vertical

EARTHS.

AND

WIRES

AERIAL

The

hydrogen gas-bags are

lances,
telegraphautomobile ambu-

exterior and

interior of these

WIRELESS

248

ambulances

TELEGRAPHY.

Various

reproducedin Fig. 271.

especially
adapted to the velocityof the
for elevatingand
sustaining the aerial
are

JIG.

attached
in virtue

266.

to the kite

as

of its extreme

for this purpose.

The

"

SLABY-ARCO

MAST

illustrated in

The

of

kites

obtained
aerial

is

STATION.

Fig.

and

be

may

wires.

AND

makes
lightness,

transmitter

wind

forms

272.

Aluminum

desirable

wire,

vertical wire

receptorutilize

the

same

AERIAL

In

267.

"

SLABY-ARCO

Eddy kite,is largelyemployed

kites

EARTHS.

249

for

FIG.

the

AND

radiatingand receivingthe waves, the change being

of an ordinary switch.
by means
the Malay, or, as its improved form
is known,
very lightwinds

vertical wire
made

WIRES

are

fitted with

ring or loop at

AERIAL

MAST.

; it is shown

"bridle,"which

the center

AND

is

in

Fig. 273.

These

already adjusted. To the

of this bridle the end

of the ball of kite-

250

cord

is secured

be

FIG.

in

be

in

having
of

268.

used

may
in

"

and

be

in

winds

of

it, known

as

HALSKF.

AND

It has

the

Blue

AKRIAI.

less,
tail-

of the kites

per

Hill

box

kite,

SUPPORT.

AND

photographic reproduction
large sustainingsurface and

a
a

ordinary velocities;in

velocityof thirtyor forty miles

small

number

are

their

outline, and

used.

kites

These

one.

creased.
sustainingpropertiesinhigher velocitythe cellular or the

BRAUN-SIEMENS

274

firm

lightbreeze,and

very
tandem

in

winds

Fig.

Fig. 275,

may

is

the knot

modification

American

in

that

so

connected
In

shown

TELEGRAPHY.

be flown

may
may

WIRELESS

hour

box

winds

kite

having a
having a very

serviceable,since it possustaining surface is especially

sesses
marvelous
is
276
a
stability. Fig.
complete portablearmy

gasolene engine and

receiver is placed on
MARCONI

FIG.

December
from

is

arranged

from

carriage while

gun

271.

the

kite

at

an

the

kites

FIG.

272.

"

at

by

elevation

of

400

employed during

SUSTAINED

Poldhu, England,

single aerial

received

KITE

first trans-Atlantic

AMBULANCES.

AUTOMOBILE

BRANLY-POPP

"

The

"

cableless station

the

were

Newfoundland;

one

AERIAL.

STATION

12, 1901,
a

on

another.

CABLELESS

signalstransmitted

on

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

252

feet

at

these

wire

St.

pended
sus-

John's,

aerial

tests

AERIAL.

general lines as those designed

nine feet in
frame
by Major Baden-Powell, consistingof a bamboo
aerial
The
height covered with silk and having a hexagonal form.

were

wire

constructed

the

on

passed through

window

same

and

was

attached

to

pole,and

from

AERIAL

this it led to the kite.

arm

station

of the
at

The

wire

resonator

Signal

was

and

Hill

FIG.

copper

anchored
station

suspended from

the

in
at

Novia

The

masts

EDDY

sea.

The

feet in

274."

South

BLUE

over

of the

forming
the

to

cliff from

the

heavy plates of

aerial

Box

wires
of 15
were

of

mitting
trans-

vertical wires

arranged

at

Wellfleet,Mass., cableless
and

the

in

KITE.

multiplexaerials

designed especiallyfor emitting long

the opposite

KITE.

height and

HILL

253

earth

connected

was

273."

210

construction

Scotia,and

leadingto
suspended

Poldhu, England, consisted

FIG.

circle.

EARTHS.

AND

WIRES

Glace

Bay,

stations

are

powerful electric

waves.

ELESS

W7J?

J.

FIG.

276.

"

275.

"

BRAUN-SIEMENS

FIG.

277.

TELEGRAPHY.

STARTING

AND

"

ARMY

THK

HALSKE

EQUIPMENT

Hox

Kin.

PORTABLE

IN

ARMY

OPERATION.

EQUIPMENT.

WIRES

AERIAL

FIG.

278.

"

MAKCONI

FIG.

279.

SOUTH

"

SOUTH

WELLFLEET

WELLFLEET

AND

EARTHS.

TOWERS

TOWERS

UNDER

255

CONSTRUCTION.

COMPLETED.

256

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

FIG.

280."

FIG.

MARCONI

281."

THE

CABLELESS

"CARLO

STATION.

ALBERTA."

Figs.

278,
the

in
in

height

wires

in

in

the

range

the
It

with

Atlantic

make

was

Poldhu

Ocean.

large

this

inventor

station,

large

man-of-war

were

while

metal

land

over

vessel

the

and

Carlo
that

the

consummated
in

the

the

opposite

Alberto

the

at

mid
pyra-

of

arm

of

when

Mediterranean

he

testing
of

King

posal.
disof

and

the

Italy

Marconi's

kept

the

imbedded

achievements

greatest

guy

terminate

deeply

purpose
sea,

by

ends

plates

feet

inverted

an

lower

The

For

contact.

telegraphy

on

and

tion
sta-

210

sustained

are

forming

dimensions.

several

good

magnificent

young

the

of

wires

Wellfleet

South
standards

and

quadrangle
400

the

wooden

insulated

are

with

wireless

of

brilliant

to

of

terminals

connected

earth

in

composed

conductor

is

placed

is

of

four

construction;

257

EARTHS.

photographs

are

arranged

upper

single

system

of

aerial

the

280

course

are

the

and

279

AND

WIRES

AERIAL

in

across

this

touch
the

XVIII.

CHAPTER

RESONANCE.

HISTORICAL.

Electrical
with

these

low-frequency

current

waves

18542;

many

from

simple electrical

and

and

cables

which
Institute
that

same

he

of

value

period

of

of

plotted

resonance

Leyden

jars

effect

of

syntonization

and

required

sympathetic
of

^Poggendorfs

Annalen,

vol.

*Poggendorfs

Annalen,

vol.

of

the

'Transactions

Institution
Institute

"Of. Overbeck.

6Hertz,
7N.

of

Weidemann's

Vol.

1885

Overbeck

in

these

circuit

obtained

Elec.

upon

Engs.,

Engs.,
Annalen,

devised
of

which

New

vol.

vol.

his

their

258

sults
re-

has

been

362.

1894.

26, p. 245,

1885.

syntonic

coefficients

whole

the

20, p.

York,

;6

by experimental

curves

Annalen, vol. 31, p. 421, 1887,

Weidemann's
vol. 44, p. 74, 1891.
Annalen,

40, p. 368.

the
pathetic
sym-

similar

92, 1854.

Elec.

onance
res-

American

having

obtained

adjustment

in

determined

76, 1849.

of

centric
con-

finally

the

Hertz

1887

telegraph apparatus

Weidemann's

Bjerknes,

*Nature,

and

resonance

wireless

before

Bjerknes

of

fine

the

alternating-current

finally Lodge
a

and

effect,

mutually reacting circuits

and

correctness

1891,7

which

to

^Journal

between

curves

the

in

measurements

In

in

in

Fleming

read

resulted

inductance

phenomena

verified

and

of

analogue,

Ferranti

Deptford3;

paper

oscillation,5 and

resonance

Hertz

Engineers.4

Electrical

large

in

forth

set

with

complete theory

by

mersed
im-

be termed

may

as

age
volt-

cable

its acoustic

improperly,

London

the

that

which

the

inductance

closed*circuit

with

carefully analyzed

evolved

found

accordance

described

capacity and

phenomenon,

to, though

connecting

Pupin

1894

in

resonance

noted

was

This

in

tion
connec-

investigated

Koosen

Brothers

increased

was

referred

is sometimes

Siemens

of water.

tank

certain

in

Lenz

and

having

observed

currents.

ago1

ago

alternator

an

in

years

been

long

fiftyyears

circuit

have

alternating

over

exalting effects of
in

effects

resonance

scheme

founded.8

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

260

greater than
frequency of

its normal

is N

the current

microfarads

and

expressedsymbolically,if

or,

and

the

the

the circuit is C

capacityof

of the

inductance

the

circuit is L

in

in

henries,then

placewhen

will take

resonance

value,

!/ 2irCL

medium.

largelyby the resisting

properties
of the
losses due
circuit and
to the imperfect elasticity
the
Thus
higher the frequency of the current, the

smaller

becomes

The

degree of

of

the

in the circuit and

the effect of resistance

is pure

nearly

is limited

resonance

approached. Primary

resonance

the

more

in

resonance

an

oscillator system has been likened by Fleming

ordinary open-circuit
ing
in a closed organ-pipe; thus the radiatto that of acoustic resonance
aerial wire
when
its current
is oscillating
with
a
frequency
natural to its dimensions
frequency
correspondsto the fundamental
of

organ-pipe,and

an

aerial
current
the

wire

free end

of the

loop, and
is

here

does
similarity

the

radiatingwire there
potentialdifference
is

pressure

slightdifference

of

the

and

is

forming

maximum,

forming

of

condition

reverse

node, just as

in the oscillation of the air molecules

at the

air movement

of the air molecules

great variation

is

minimum,

now

great alternation of
organ-pipe,while at the upper

or

large

spark-gap terminal,representinga crest of

node
of potential,
and
while at the upper
a

current

very

ating
the radi-

and

potentialdifference

low

very

here, for

end

not

its

aerial

the

and

wave

affairs,for
there

has

strength at

current

the

end

and

of the

pipe

mouth

there

is

correspondingincrease

in

air movement.
If

air

at

certain* pressure

dimensions

proper

primary

is admitted

to

will be emitted

note

an

organ-pipe of

that

is called the

fundamental; likewise when the primary oscillations of an electric

natural period of a circuit,
current correspondto the dimensions
or
waves
having a fundamental
frequency will be emitted.
By varying
the pressure
be substituted
are

upon

the
a

of air in

and

tones

harmonics
radiator

frequency,harmonic
emit

find their
aThis

fact

was

of different

of the
or

organ-pipe the

an

system

oscillations

analogue in
discovered

and

Daniel

also

so

current

will be set up

the overtones

by

note

may

values will be produced1,which

fundamental,

resonator

fundamental

of

an

of
and

by impressing
predetermined
the

waves

organ-pipe.

Bernoulli!,a mathematician.

they

261

RESONANCE.

EXPERIMENTAL.

loopsand nodes of electric oscillations may be exhibited in a

by an apparatus devised by Dr. Seibt.1 It
very strikingmanner
necting
comprisesan induction coil,1, Fig. 283, the secondaryterminals conwith the spark-gap,s; the oscillator system includes the
The

FIG.

283.

spark-gap,one
the

"

SIMPLE

SEIBT

terminal

oppositeterminal

jar,C,

and

to earth at

of which

connects
e

; the

RESONANCE

ELECTRIC

leads to
with

APPARATUS.

variable

the outer

jar,C, is in

inductance,L

coating of

series with

second

Leyden
jar,C1,

coatingof which connects with the inductance,L, forming

closed circuit;from the inductance, L, there extends
a
vertically
a
spiralof silk insulated copper wire six feet in length by two
inches in diameter
parallelwith the
supportedon a wooden
core;
closelywound spiralof wire is a straightcopper wire, E9 grounded
the apparatus is placed in a dark room
and oscillations
at e. If now
are
impressedon the spiralwire having a frequencycorresponding
the inner

to the

natural
to

'Cantor

take

period of the circuit,a luminous

the spiral and
place between

Lecture,

glow
its

Society of Arts, London, March,

will

be

served
ob-

complementary

1903.

WIRELESS

262

TELEGRAPHY.

straightwire showing visuallythe difference of potential

represented
the
wires
and
if
the
oscillators
tuned
the
natural
to
are
by
period of
;
the circuits,
the glow will increase graduallyfrom the bottom
to the
values
and

the

that

capacity so

frequencyof

will be formed

node

coiled wire from

But

if the

rearranged by varying the inductance

coefficients are

the

or

it will be maximum.

of the wires, where

ends

extreme

at

A,

the

oscillations may

one-third of the

or

creased,
be in-

length of

the

top, and the glow or brush dischargewill be

minimized, shown
by the dotted line, indicatingthat the first
has been reached; by decreasing
of the fundamental
harmonic
the
the

capacity and

inductance

harmonic

be

may

KESONANCE.

is the vibration

of the

of any

284.

circuit the

second

overtone

or

observed.
In

acoustics,sympatheticresonance

tone

SYMPATHETIC

in response

RESONANCE

let a
illustration,

an

as

"

musical

HBRTZ

"

pitch;

same

the

produced and

SYMPATHETIC

Flo.

of

to

musical

tone

APPARATUS.

note

from

trombone

be

pipe organ, when the pipe,having a similar

period of vibration,will respond in virtue of their natural periods
is the tuning of two
being equal. Sympathetic electric resonance
current
set up in the first will start
circuits so that an oscillating
oscillations of exactlythe same
a train of high-frequency
periodin
emitted

in front of

the second

circuit.

resonance

frequencywill
tuned

to the

284.

is that

set up

difference
greaterpotential

induction
in

small

by

oscillator B
coil ;

an

current
oscillating

frequency of oscillation than

same

resonance

The

laws upon

is based

period of oscillation
electric

of the fundamental

One

A,

is
means

different.
of the

C C' is

spheres and

of definite
a

resonator

whose

natural

produced sympathetic
simple apparatus shown in Fig.

abed,

separateda

one

tric
elec-

Hertz

charged to

the resonator,

in

in

which

sparkingpotentialby the
formed
of wire ending
was

distance

of

tenth

of

milli-

263

RESONANCE.

An

meter.
Hertz

resonator, Fig. 285,

open-circuit

for

resonance

obtained

was

mutual

the

circuits

it has been

shown

highest degree of

rapidlyin

oscillator and

that

to

suitable

value

before.

as

obtaining the

For

resonator

inductance

by adjustingthe capacity and

and

as

rectangular closed-circuit

the

by
just described,
substituted

was

should

resonator

high-frequencycurrents

closed circuits

are

be
not

circuits,and

in open

as

between

resonance

two

closed,since

damped

out

therefore

the

D
n

FIG.

285.

"

RESONANCE

OPEN-CIRCUIT

APPARATUS.

nearly a sinusoidal curve, which is

approach more
from
a train of electric waves
extremelydesirable;but, conversely,
emitted

waves

powerful and penetrating

emitted by the quicklydamped oscillations of an
trate
closed-circuit apparatus devised by Lodge to illus-

closed-circuit oscillator has

of
qualities

waves

circuit.

open

is shown

sympathetic resonance
of

Leyden jar,a, connected

FIG. 286.

inner
wire

and
a

resonator

outer
in

meter

has

"

coatingsof
diameter

the

not

LODGE

the
and

in

with

Fig. 286

induction

an

SYNTONIC

; the radiator

coil,I

sists
con-

; the

JARS.

jar are connected with a loop of

separated by a spark-gap, c; the

Leyden jar,d, of equal capacityarranged with an

overflow path having a minute
air-gapforming the detector;the
of
the jar are connected by a loop of wire of similar dimensions
coatings
to those of the radiator,
but the closure is made by a wire
if the first jar is disslidingover the terminals of the loop; now
charged,
the second jar,if it is in tune with it,will discharge
across
the
with

e ; the
air-gapdetector,

the

oscillator

wire

slide,/,serves

by varying its

value

of

to tune

the resonator

inductance; in this

sys-

WIRELESS

2f)4

TELEGRAPHY.

thirty or fortyoscillations
dischargeof radiator circuit.
tern

DETERMINATION
of oscillations

PERIODICITY.

OF

occurring in the

FIG. 287.

plotted the

syntonicvalues.

The

transformation

RESONANT

"

Figs.

FIG.

considerable

288.

is

Fig. 287
a

PHASE

determine

DIFFERENCE

curve

of

the

resonance

the

on

periodicity
Bjerknes

288, showing graphically

radiator or resonator
open-circuit
before stated,in virtue of their

electric waves;

free

circuits

an

but

in

OF

ELECTRIC

closed-circuit

to oscillate for

will continue

after the co-resonant

time

oscillations in

"

and

oscillations of

into

To

the

OSCILLATIONS

287

high-frequencycurrents

resonator

"

through

phenomena

rapidlydamped out, as

are

waves.

in

curves

surge

OSCILLATION.

oscillator has ceased to emit

of
the amplification
showing graphically

closed-circuit resonator

such

as

Hertz

used

as

tector
de-

syntony with it ; in this

the circuits were
as
case
accuratelysyntonizedwith the oscillator,
In a
the increasing amplitude of the swings plainlyindicate.
after excitation with

closed-circuit resonator

that

an

oscillator in

is not

quite in tune with the oscillator

the 'varyingdifference in phase

shows
the curve
emitting the waves
by the greaterand lesser amplitudes. Where
out of

place,and
will be

no

syntony with the oscillator then

the
a

resonator

is

counter-action

pletely
com-

takes

close the oscillator may be to the resonator,there

set up in it, for each succeedingimpinging
currents

however

RESONANCE.

damps

wave

APPARATUS

referred to

curves

one-sided

resonator

plottedby Bjerknes by

were

that

so

oscillations

shown

as

the

left,making

damping

BJEKKNKB

"

it easy

this

OF

an

openresonator, 2, and

were

attached

to the

included

in tho
is surging

current

no

double

the

needle

HKSONANCK

to determine

COEFFICIENTS

coefficients of
deal

case

capacityand
resonator

of

means

; when

resonance

quadrants equally attract

but when
high-frequency
potential;

zero

sympathetic resonance
in

they

is deflected to the

right

APPARATUS

considerable

with

accuracy

coefficientsof the circuit1.

RELATION

the

the

circuit

the

traverse

FIG. 289.

the

The

"

was

the former

Fig. 139

in

system

it rests at

when

electrometer

quadrantsof

the

the resonator

the needle

and

3 ; the

electromotor.

circuit of the latter

in

CURVES.

a closed-circuit
oscillator,
1, Fig. xi8(J,

circuit Hertz

since

precedingone,

RESONANCE

PLOTTING

FOR

the

to the coefficients of the circuit.

properlytuned

not

are

impulse of

the feeble

out

205

with

inductance

systems when

ascertained

do

capacity,inductance,
mutual

two
of

The

"

involve,as they

in

value

in

obtains, it

laws

lying
under-

ance,
primary reson-

resistance,but

and

Starting

circuits.

given

resonance

and

RESONANCE.

TO

the

has

oscillator and

been
that

experimentally determined

with

ically
mathemat-

syntoniza-

tion

remains unaffected if these factors are changed equallyin

both circuits;
creased
be inagain, either the capacity or inductance
may
decreased
in the oscillator without
or
individually
materially
alteringthe resonance
effect,
efficients
provided that like values of the coof the resonator

of the

resonator

the oscillator
should

be

detector

as

is

that the coefficients

multiple or

representsome

system; the resistance

low

equal or

at all times

sub-multipleof
of both

circuits

and for this reason

a current-operated
possible,
detector.
There
preferableto a voltage-operated
are

exceptionsto
decrement
June

shall

shall be made

22, 1871.

the

as

above

of Electric

rule,as, for instance,where

Oscillations.

M.

V.

the

capacityof

Bjerknes, Comptea

Rendus,

266

WIRELESS

circuit may
the

harmonics
and

TELEGRAPHY.

by increasingits inductance
this is due to the
qualities;

without

be decreased
resonance

of the circuit

based

are

upon

the

fact

product of

that

its

stroying
dethe

capacity

inductance.

Exceeding care
electric circuits

for

be

must
the

productionof

FIG.

the desired
of
resonance

will be

results may

exercised

290."

be much

HOT-WIRE

more

capacitythan by changing
is effected

very

sufficient to throw

in

tuning

resonance

and

syntonizing
phenomena, and

AMMETER.

easilyobtained by

of inductance.

the values

slightaddition
the co-resonant

the

or

reduction

circuits

out

tion
variaWhen

of

capacity

of

syntony

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

268

Then

when
is

former

should

transmit

to the

is received
and

be

sharp

resonance

of the

length

tuned

to

definite

similar

in

called forth

is evident

that

circuits

for

their

closed

circuits

wireless

while

together with

of
which
an

into
three

by

which

much

electric

swings;
in

its

resonator

where
is absorbed

damped
of

designed

thought

have
in

then

are

they
bv

impinge

transformed

surge

the

waves

to and

into
fro

total resistance

many
of

on

an

tonic
syn-

earth

have

been

nations
combiin

devised

closed circuit
to oscillate in

energy
lines

to

an

conversion
in two
those
is

waves

of

so

or
bodied
emranged
ar-

open-circuitresonator

oscillations
times
the

waves,,

the

many

been
a

their

similar

on

suitable
un-

tions,
condi-

factors

successivelyby

radiating all

quite

untoward

be made

out

closed

such

applicationto

and

set up

sistent
per-

sympathetic

for

complementary circuit radiating the

that the emitted

first,and

are

instead

waves

be

transformation

by

they

would

precision,it

powerful

emit

systems

to

Since

of

objectionablefeatures

circuit

up

oppositelydisposed

These

time

set

has
oscillator,

that

unknown

the

in

out

tuned

therefore

their

limited.

mitter,
trans-

would

was

the

pointed out

transmission

offered

closed

first,and

circuit,where

that

employ

sending

syntonic system

large that

so

these

and

that

so

and

radiators, and

is very

persistentoscillations

oscillator

open

on

overcome

open

the

nearly

as

efforts to

system

open-circuitsystems

that

problems
To

The

"

eminently adapted

are

poor

telegraphy

presents,are

of

systems will

should

syntony with

also been

coefficient is

damping

values

strikingcombinations.

long-distancewireless

fact that

expended.

it has

exceedingly

are

the letter

possible,in order

as

of oscillation

in

essential to

are

but
effects,

resonance

oscillator

resonator

ingenious and

oscillations

is the

period

many

and

telegraph apparatus

receptor whose
frequency, and therefore

oscillations

relative

predetermined lengths only,

of

waves

consequence

the

TELEGRAPHY.

in wireless

resonance

operator

coil until

resonator

aerial

oscillator

WIRELESS

IN

of the

wire

the

obtain.

may

KESONANCE
electric

aerial

The

co-resonant.
the

the resonator

circuits and

closed

equal

advantage, when

best

of

intervals

while

receivingstation should adjust his tuning

at the

short

of energy,

amount

time, gradually decreasingthe

wave

operator of the

the

by,

repeatedlyat

test letter

whose

transmitter

some

to receive

normally that desired

length

open

from

possibleto receive

in

before

circuit.

closed

their

cuit,
cir-

energy

XIX.

CHAPTER

SYNTONIZATION.

HISTORICAL.

the

Recognizing

telegraphy whereby
the

of

field

same

station

patented

electrical

having
electric

called

now

harmonious

should
for

be

this

be

could

for
In

this
the

the

in

same

year

and

retained

desirable

qualitiesof

of

Germany

devised

electro-mechanical
acoustic
certain
or

of

telephones

British

Patent,
and

2Syntonized

described

working

evolved
of

system

coefficients

the

methods

antenna.4

In

with

make

vibrations
with

and

armatures

or

it in
of

detail

tongues

Lodge, 11,575, 1897.

Multiplex
Spark Telegraphy.

of

the

on

closed

and

the

devised

transmitter

aii

having

adjusted

to

nets
electro-mag-

vibrating
General

tonic
syn-

1900.2

eliminated

having

cuit
cir-

and
in

open

mechanism

receiver

1900.

selectivitybased
both

the

in

closed

Fessenden

1902

the

in

cited, he

break

and

detail

both

system

eliminated,

of

above

to

principles

wire

described
a

in

oscillations

aerial

and

the

out

persistent
high

it

multiplexing system,

tuning-forks
number

Arco
and

1898-99,

the

effect

the

and

workers

mission
trans-

which

circuits, and, reversing the

earth

long-distance
the

tem
sys-

resonance

in

the

proportioning

proper

in

efforts

was

Braun

ciples
prin-

best

utilized, the

purpose

the

the

1898-99,

which

and

utilizing long

systems

of

Marconi

system by

closed-circuit

forth

in

Simultaneously

therefore

and

for

Slaby

dividual
in-

any

open-circuit

an

was

open-circuit systems

retained.

with

involving

1897,1

This

of

combination

purpose

in

constant,

in

resonators

others, Lodge' invented

all

England

value

of

and

phenomena

in

time

The

waves.

of

resonance.

high

and

selectivelycommunicate

exclusion

the

to

less
syntonic system of wire-

oscillators

of

plurality

may

apparatus

an

of

force

of

importance

vast

at

Elec.

period

Co., Dec.

22, 1900.

'Progress

of

Electric

Space

Telegraphy.

Royal

Institution,

June

13,

1902.
*Elec.

14,

World

and

Eng.

Braun,

Siemens

1902.
260

"

Halske

System.

Collins,

June

WIRELESS

270

those

equal to

TELEGRAPHY.

transmittingforks.1

of the

selective

system

has

been

produced by Mr. John Stone Stone,2 of Boston, in which two

each having an independent
simple circuits are associated inductively,
lations
degree of freedom, and in which the restoration of electric oscilto zero
are
superimposed, giving
potentialthe currents
harmonic

compound

rise to

currents

which

permit

the

resonator

to the oscillator.
system to be syntonizedwith precision
A
17, 1903,
patent issued to Nikola Tesla on March
of wireless

syntonicsystem
its
At

describes
telegraphy

the

receivingstation there
individual
frequenciesof the
syntonic the relay of

of the

ploying
apparatus emtwo
oscillators at the transmitting station, each having
aerial wire; a single key operates both
simultaneously.

own

are

for

is not

circuits

the

in which

by

with

the

one
sult.
re-

system of selective wireless telegraphy

resonance

Anders

Bull,3 of Christiania,Norway.

is eliminated

as

factor has

operated electrically.By this system three

have been sent and received simultaneouslyand
is

in the

if

signal will

no

electric

the first time

but

upon,

other

circuits

the

when

acted

receptor is

the

syntonizedto

resonators

oscillators,and

in accord

strictlymechanical

two

are

an

art that

mechanical

been

vised
de-

mechanism

The
wireless

messages

selectively,
being

methods

have

been

ployed
em-

in obtainingselectivity.
successfully

PRACTICAL.

Selective
distinct
In

telegraphy has

wireless

practice; in
combined

the

is actuated

synchronouslywith
LODGE

principlesof

electro-mechanical

mechanical

with

mechanism

the

the

mechanical.

in

vibrators,and

the

tuned

called into

are

circuits

mechanical
transmitter

are

methods

operating

receiver.

SYSTEM.

TUNED

resonance

method,

by impulses from

three

developedalong

electro-mechanical,and
lines,i.e.,electrical,

the electrical method

"

In

the

Lodge tuned system of wireless

nication
Fig. 293, the method of selective intercommuconsists of producing and detectinga sufficiently
prolonged
of rapid electric oscillations so arranged that a particular

telegraphy,shown
series

been

'Letters

Patent.

Patent.

Letters

in

Fessenden, 715,203, Dec. 2,

Stone, 714,756.
3
Electrician,
London, 1903.
Experiments
Anders

Bull.

Oct.

2.

on

1902.

Selective

Wireless

raphy.
Teleg-

SYNTONIZATION.

frequency of
to

oscillation

respond at

at the

distant

FIG. 293."

271

sending station

station

LODGE

tuned

TUNED

frequency.The
the

some

cause

an

ment
instru-

multiple of

that

SYSTEM.

FIG. 294.

to

may

"

SLABY-ARCO

inductance

MULTIPLE

coil of the

that
so
oscillations,

the

SYSTEM.

radiator,A, Fig. 293,

emitted

waves

have

longs
pro-

definite

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

272

period.

The

dimensions
the

resonator, B,

former

large,for

is very

the

until

action

cumulative

strengthenedby

impulses

feeble

the

electrical

same

oscillations

of

number

radiator, the

the

as

Fig. 293, having the

in

set up

gradually

are

of the

resistance

wave

complete set of Lodge's apparatus was

in London,
in operationat the Royal Society Conversazione
most
satisfactory.
11, 1898, and operated in a manner
is broken

detector
shown

May

SLABY-ARCO

down.

SYSTEM.

MULTIPLE

The

"

which

principles
upon

Slaby-Arco multiple wireless telegraphsystem is based will be

readily understood
by referringto the diagram, Fig. 294, where

the

and

representthe aerial

when

oscillations

oscillations
a

sine

set up

are

law

at
of

in A

from

distance

definite

between

the free

aerial

the

earthed

wires

each

are

terminals

will form

Postulatingthat such

of the

is the case,

wave

c,

in

length,when
oscillations.

the

it is evident

then

tenna

is at

should

be

wave

placedso

that

this maximum

potentialdifference

may

it.

upon

coherer

of the

effect
-----

^^-

of the

the

c,

But

to be

B,

it is not

placedat

an-

detector,.

be

impressed

necessary

for the

the free terminal

receivingantenna, for the

is obtainable by connectinga
with

the

that, since

point of greatestamplitude
j

is, if

that

a,

point of

nodal

the

the earthed

c, and

terminals,a,

one-fourth

other ;

will follow

of which

terminals, b, d, the* amplitude being greatestat

the

each

frequency syntonic

through J5,the amplitude

will surge
wave

wires

same

hori-

zontal

wire

its

point, i.e.,the earth, and

connecting the free terminal

the vertical

air wire

at

"

-^--.^
FIG.

2M.-Porl^

then

LOO"

ANB

of

NODES.

shown

as

"

at

coherer

will

the

oscillator

and

and
than

for

this

it would

two

horizontal
the

Fig. 295, when

be exactly the same
where

current

reason

the

wave.

resonator
the

otherwise

open-circuitradiator
exhibited

the

in

is earthed
of

point

nodal

as

is much

persistencyof
be, although

and

before the German

different stations,were

at

resonator.

a.

again
in

The

tion
oscilla-

practice the

forms

the

nodal
an

open-circuitsystems,

oscillation
the

In

of

herer
co-

coefficient of such

damping
less than

to

amplitude

oscillation
The

wire

aerial

is much
wires

greater
act

as

Slaby-Arco system

Emperor, and two messages,

received simultaneously.

an
was

sent from

SYNTONIZATION.
SYSTEM

SYNTONIC

MARCONI

273

(FIRST FORM).

"

In

Marconi's

in Fig.
syntonicwireless telegraphsystem, shown diagrammatically
296, the inventor has designedan oscillator in which high-frequency,
currents
high-potential
but
a

ones;

long trains

it emits

impulses, but
finallybreaks down
wave

take

MARCONI

"

the
the

of

instead

waves

respond

resistance

of

stronglydamped

to the

first few

feeble

SYSTEM.

SYNTONIC

cumulative

oscillators,
open-circuit

effect
of the

of

the

coherer

train

when

of

the

waves

tions
indica-

place.

FIG.

In this

296.

in

powerfulas

so

will not

syntonic receiver

FIG.

results

not

are

297.

"

MARCONI

syntonicsystem

with

zinc

SYNTONIC

Marconi

cylinders7

m.

SYSTEM.

succeeded

high

and

(Second

in
1.5

Form.)

obtainingexcellent
m.

in diameter

be-

WIRELESS

274

St. Catherine's

tween

TELEGRAPHY.

Point, Isle

of

and

Wight,

Poole, 30 miles

the signalsnot being interfered with or decipheredby

distant,
stations working in the immediate
vicinity.

SYNTONIC

MARCONI

SYSTEM

utilized an
syntonicapparatus Marconi
formed
of the regulationaerial wires and

form

of

The

frequency

oscillation

of

of

The

leads

but
oscillator,
the

of the

resonator

transformer,

detector, To obtain

values

same

resonator, which

earthed

MAP

"

it,as

is similar

which

the

resonance

298.

lator
open-circuitoscilterminals.

shown

be

can

of wire
in

to that

Fig.

of

the

through the primary winding

earth

secondary of

FIG.

the

in series with

receiver,B,

to the

the

his second

the

by placinga variable' condenser

297.

In

"

open-circuitradiator
of turns
decreasingthe number

regulatedby increasingor
or

(SECOND FORM).

other

of inductance

to the

wave

oscillator must
open-circuit

MARCONI

OP

is connected

and

of

have

STATIONS.

the

capacityas

open-circuit

primary winding and the condenser

referred to. This system was
installed by the English Admiralty
between Portland and Plymouth, a distance of 65 miles as the bird
and with hills 800 feet high intervening. At Poole and Niton
flies,
are

Marconi

includes

stations

the

likewise

equipped

with

this

type of syntonic

The lines of propagationof

system, the distance being 30 miles.
these two systems cross
each other at the angle shown
in the map,

Fig.298,

and

different

frequencymessages

it

found

was

independent
BRAUN
Braun
with

extent

RESONANCE

to obtain

the

of

the

radiation

that when
could

each
SYSTEM.

maximum

both
be

sent

systems

were

tuned

simultaneouslyand

to

solutely
ab-

other.
"

The

number

arrangement employed by
of oscillations per charge

of energy
lation
greatest amount
per osciland
its complementary resonator, which
is to a certain
its counterpart,is shown
In
diagrammaticallyin Fig. 299.

action it operates

of

as

the

follows:

the oscillations set up

in the

closed

WIRELESS

276

with

the antenna

TELEGRAPHY.

more

electro-magneticmechanisms

same

periods of

message

is sent

during

this time

vibration
the

of electric waves,
rate of 256
and

these

per

make

but
second

different

and

of the

depressedto
break

and

the other

of

make

mechanisms

at the

have

transmitter.
dot

emits

or

the

When

dash, and

or

send

sets of groups

of the

one

circuits,
includingtwo

operating in unison,

those

as

9 is

key

the

local

ground; the

and

out
waves

rate of 384

per

groups
at the

second,

the

circuit
resonator
acting on
to respond synthe tongues,13, of the receivingmechanism
cause
Fessenden
has very recently
tonicallyand actuate telephone receivers.
between
and
Jersey City
dispatched messages
Philadelphia,
groups

FIG.

distance

of energy.
TESLA

of 90

300.

FESSENDEN

"

DUPLEX

SYSTEM.
the

employed
these

compares
at

both

act in unison

to
the

"

upper

in the effective zone,

he

SELECTIVE

SYSTEM.

miles,and nearly all overland, with

respondingto
which

waves

To

eliminate

and

Tesla

lower

the

minimum

of resonators
difficulty
of

harmonies

other

tems
sys-

has

designed a duplex apparatus,

combination
lock; two frequenciesare

sending

operate a

and

receivingstations,and

relay. This

when

is

accomplished
oscillations,
having different periods
common

by generating two sets of

surging in independent oscillators and receivingthem
of independent resonators
is tuned
each
to
of which

by means
its comple-

OF

THE

UNIVERSITY
OF

SYNTONIZATION.

277

the
diagrammatically
AB, Fig. 301, represents
mentary oscillators;
D1, D2, are connected
systems.The radiators,
sendingand receiving

transformers,
S1,S2, the
oppositeterminals leadingto earth,E, as in other systems. The
L1, L2, and
primaries,P1, P2, are in series with the inductances,
the condensers,C1, C2',the condensers are energizedby the generator,
is the spark-gap,D,
the condensers
S ; shunted
across
consistingof a rotatingdisk having projections,
p, p, as shown,
the
and
makes
breaks the disruptivedischarge between
which
This discharge
electrodes,
n, n, inserted in the holders,B1, B2.
also be
disk is connected with the primary circuit at F and may
led to earth at E, when
two
independentprimary circuits are
to the terminals of the secondaries of two

formed.

duplexoscillators sendingout energy in two different wave

lengths are impressedupon the resonators,e s1 d1 and e s2 d2,
The

I
FIG.

syntonizedto

301.

"

TESLA

DUPLEX

SYSTEM.

the

sending station so that each respondsexclusively

of the two frequencies
to one
tric
at the transmitting
station ; the elecwave
a1,a2,are placedin the oscillatorcircuit leading
detectors,
to earth at e; R1, R2 are relaysin independentcircuits actuated by
the resonators,and when these relaysoperatesimultaneouslythe
internal circuit containinga third relay,
R?, is closed;when the
relayR3 becomes operativeit actuates the recordingmechanism.
This system is said to work very well in the laboratory.
STONE

MULTIPLEX

selective

SYSTEM.

"

The

invention

of Stone

tiplex
for mul-

signalingconsists of a singlevertical wire at the

of a singlegiven
transmittingstation radiatingelectric waves
The
oscillator
is
of
the
frequency.
open-circuit
type and is im-

forced

pressed with
by

of

means

oscillations of

of transformers.

selective

frequencyof

series

given

In

and

is made

acting through the

to respond to the

by employing a periodicopenit and

interposingbetween
circuit

character

the

translating

capableof responding

resonators

predeterminedfrequency.

respectively.In
I2, thus

oscillator

closed

of

Fig. 302,

the earth,E,

simple harmonic

receiver

The

the

and

circuit resonator
device

series of closed-circuit oscillators

medium

to

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

278

and

these

represent the transmitter

diagrams

an

receiver

V is the aerial wires connected

of the

through the medium

forming

and

primary of
and

oscillator
open-circuit

with

transformer,

resonator.

The

which
includes
secondary, I1 A, forms a closed-circuit oscillator,
the inductance, L, condenser, 0, and spark-gap,8', the local lowcircuit feeding the spark-gapis composed
frequency,high-potential

FIG.

302.

"

STONE

SYSTEM.

MULTIPLEX

and the condenser, (7; the

secondaryof a transformer,I1,,,
primary local circuit consists of the inductor of the transformer,112,
The receiver,
the key,K, and an alternatingcurrent generator,a.

of the

By

is

in that

physicalcounterpartof the transmitter

is of the

open-circuittype and

has

with

combined

having a definite period due to

inductance, L\ the local circuit includes
battery,B, and the relay,R.
resonator

the
the

it

its resonator

closed-circuit

condenser,C1, and

the

coherer,E, the usual

condenser,C, dischargesthrough the closed-circuit

resonator,Sl, L, and is of high frequency. The oscillations of this
circuit are simpleharmonic
in character and are unaffected by the
In action

inductive

the

ductance
open-circuitoscillator because the inclosed-circuit resonator is largewhen
compared with

association
of the

that of the

of the

open-circuitoscillator. Now

when

two

oscillators

are

SYNTONIZATION.

inductivelyassociated
natural
shown

in the

such

when

Fig. 303

cuve,

303.

"

its

compared

with

the natural
the circuits
as

"

BULL

if the

PERIOD

inductance

the

mutual

degree of freedom, or its

is modified
by the other,as

own

each

; but

MODIFIED

that the combined

Fio..304.

obtain

has

and
period of oscillation,

FIG.
are

each

279

OF

inductance

SYNCHRONIZED

isolated.

The

nearly as possiblea

SYSTEM.

oscillators is

between

THE

the

this

large

circuits,

DISPERSER.

the
practically

object of

pure,

circuit

OSCILLATION.

of the two

period of oscillation becomes

were

coefficients of each

same

as

arrangement

simple,harmonic

wave

if

is to

and

to

WIRELESS

280

reduce

from

to

minimum

the true

TELEGRAPHY.

the minute

sine

At

wave.

(Boston), Stone
receive

selective

than

more

BULL

ten

his stations
has

signalswhen

shown

SYNCHRONIZED

the

SYSTEM.

"

Anders

apparatus comprisesa

Bull. The

by

mechanical

includes

the usual

Apparatus

termed

termed

icallyin Fig. 304,

these

figuresit will

by gearing to

the

and
not

BULL

"

been

transmitter

and

invented
a

by

receiver ;

open-circuitoscillator supplied with

an

305.

or

induction

SYNCHRONIZKD

coil

operatingthrough

SYSTEM.

likewise
has
the
receiver
an
disperse?',
of registersthrough a
actuating a number
a

open-circuitresonator
mechanism

bankment
em-

selective system of wireless

principleshas

transformer

FIG.

tin

departure
Eiver

possibleto transmit
difference in frequency was

on

energy

Charles

cent.

per

transmitter

on

the

cause

it

telegraphybased
the

which

overtones

disperseris shown diagrammatin half-tone in Fig. 305.

By referringto
observed
that the disperser,
A, is connected

collector.
and
be

motor, B,

The

Siemens

and

Halske

C,
regulator,

trolling
con-

its

speed. D is an electro-magnetautomaticallycontrolling
of contacts
a
and sending out a
disk,making a specificnumber
similar and predetermined number
of series of electric waves.
When
and

it is desired

closes the circuit

which
shown.

attracts
The

an

to

the

message,

key, I1, is depressed

including the batteryand

armature

function

send

of

attached
the

to

electro-magnet,2,
clutch carrying a pin as

armature, magnet,

and

clutch

is

SYNTONIZA

shown

TION.

clearlyin Fig. 306, being

more

281

sectional view

of the dis-

is drawn
to the magnet, 2, the disk, 3,
the armature
perser. When
is released by the clutch, 4, and then revolves at a speed of about
5

per second.

r.

At

every

revolution

of the

disk, contact

is made

by

springs,6, and the circuit,including the battery,7, and the

electro-magnet,8, is closed. The disperserproper consists of 400
at right angles to the disk and
steel springs, 9, attached
near
their ends
free
its periphery; these long, vertical springs have
and
disk, 10; the
upper
pass through slots in a stationaryand
the

springs

are

thus

permitted

to

in

move

radial

direction

only;

ring of brass forming a groove, 11, is fastened to the framework

and
guides the springs so that with each revolution of the disk,
which is once
12, or
every second,they either slide in the groove,
a

its inner

within

circumference.

FIG.

of

section

the center
with

306."

bronze

The

DETAIL

or

13, takes the

arc,

TRANSMITTER.

of the brass

ring,11, and has a fingerprojectingtoward

of the disk; as the vertical steel springs come
in contact
it,they are forced toward the magnet, 14. Attracted by

this

magnet, the springs slide along until released

into the groove
or
15, where they are again drawn

at the
return

inner

part of the ring by their own

elasticity
according to
the magnet is or is not energized.
Now

place

in action

when

it is desired to send

edge

of

to the
whether

dot the

circuit

pressed
key is defor less than a fifth of a second,or the time requiredfor the
to complete one
cycle,and the current flows through the
is transmitted
the key
as
a single impulse. When
a dash

is held

in contact

disk

when
second
make

until

the disk 3 has revolved

number

of times,

of electric impulses at one-fifth

correspondingnumber
intervals flows through the circuit causing the springs to
contact
at regularintervals by means
of contact points,18,

WIRELESS

282

and

thus

closingthe

20, form

part.

arranged around
the

number

As

there

are

the medium

of the
the

or

devices

Tig. 307

is

:c.

"

with

will be
distance

points

evident

equal to

between

be sent out

may

that
the

these

through

to the
of

instead

BULL

coherer is connected
while the

contact

coil,

oscillator circuit 23.

plan view

307.

waves

the

21, induction
key, 20, battery,
electro-magnetic

employed

are

emitted

waves

series of

collector is similar

The

of these

number

points,and by varying the

combination

and

and

battery,19,

distances,it is
prescribed

at

of series of electric

points any
coil,22,

the

circuit in which

the frame

of contact

number

TELEGRAPHY.

and

308

disperserexcept that receptive

in the circuits.
emitting appliances
a

SYNCHRONIZED

in the

half-tone

SYSTEM.

THE

resonator
open-circuit

relay,23, in series with

the coherer.

of the

The

COLLECTOR.

in the usual

cell is included

tapper,24, is

in

The

collector.

in

parallelwith

ner
man-

cuit
local cir-

iary
auxil-

an

relay in series with the

that impinge upon the
magnet, 25. For every series of electric waves
resonator
system one of the vertical steel springs slides into the
lector
and colgroove, 26, of the ring. The revolvingdisks of the disperser
circuit formed

revolve

the

of the

armature

synchronously,so that

springsslidingin
between

by

the grooves

the series of the

angular

distances

of the

to the time
proportional
impinging on the vertical

will be
waves

the

stant
con-

wire.

WIRELESS

284

be

may

set

equally

in

up

in

wires

the

ago,

especially

now

rests

been

unlimited

in

the

on

the

of

of

force

distances

varying

at

untold

of

transmitting

with

transmission

without

interference.

of

its

since

distance,

but
and

syntonization,

possibilities
value.

of

the

new

through

messages

wireless

strides

bridging

the

the

as

gigantic

problem

accomplished
and

field

made

has

telegraphy

well

as

same

of

evolution

the

represents
without

space

and

localities

different

results.

good

This

TELEGRAPHY

of

Wireless

inception
its

few

this

will

be

years
future

commercial

when

art

gence
intelli-

shall

have

practically

XX.

CHAPTER

TELEPHONY.

WIRELESS

The
and

in

brilliant

achievements

sequence

to

articulate

speech

of

of

transmission

wireless

This

being

utilized

as

are

since

that

station

electric
for

since

310.

the

periodic

"

LINES

ELLIPTICAL

of

decrement
and

reach

in

the
a

therefore, quite incompatible

usually employed
not

adapted

results

may

to wireless
be

obtained

in

small

telephony.

telephony
within

there

certain
285

telephony,

ITY
CONDUCTIV-

"

producing

fraction

the

with

sary.
neces-

METHOD.

oscillations

very

same

produced

wireless

311.

FORCE.

OP

the

"""

Fro.
Fio.

are

waves

--""

pulse
im-

in
the

having

current

suitable

not

electrical

an

signal, whereas

either

at

transmitting

telegraphy is infinitely

telephony,

it is obvious

case,

disruptive discharge

the

wireless

frequency

of

proposition

alternating

an

and
the

be

may

speech

amplitude

phase,

by

than

character

any

; but

wires

telegraphy lead naturally

wireless

difficult

more

without

solution

of

easier

the

in

long,
But
are

of

the

waves

second, and

sine

smooth

while

electric

several

methods

limitations.

wave

waves

are

are,
rents
cur-

are

by which

WIRELESS

286

CONDUCTIVITY

TELEGRAPHY.

METHOD.

of the

One

"

simplestmethods

of telephoning

by utilizingthe earth as a portion of the

sending and receivingcircuits,and by leakage or dispersionof the
current in the primary circuit through the earth the energy
spreads
in elliptical
lines of force like magnetic lines between the poles of
without

is

wires

This
is known
the conductivity
as
Fig. 310.
two
base lines,
method, and when
applied to actual transmission
AB
and
CD, are arranged parallelwith each other so that the
terminals
of the sending and receivingcircuits are earthed, as shown
a

in

magnet,

in

as

when

Fig. 311,
the

through

current, either

circuit AB

of the

in virtue

good

conductor.

twice

the

the

is

energy

great cross-section
The length of the

length of the

distance

FIG.

312.

"

direct

alternating,flows

or

the circuit CD

propagated to

of the
base

to which

INDUCTIVITY

earth, which

fairly
be, preferably,

lines should

speech is to

is

be transmitted

METHOD.

it is this

limiting feature which has preventedits employment

practice,except,perhaps, in specialcases.
INDUCTIVITY

METHOD.

"

ideal

method

fundamental

second

in

sidered,
propagating energy when articulate speech is conconsists of a large primary coil of wire
with a similar
secondary placed at a distance. Let AB, Fig. 312, representtwo

in its mode

of

coils of wire

placed with

their

may

planes

transmitter

in rotation

current
flux

with

the

when
i.e.,
f.

be
a

m.

On

speaking

into

batteryin series with the coil A

through the turns of wire will set

lines from

may
the

proportionalto the
B produces by its inductive
coil including in its circuit
e.

each

with
planes parallel

horizontal.

lines of which
the

their

other, or

telephone

an

undulatory

up

magnetic

great enough to link the coil B,

coil A thread
through the coil B an

be

rate

at which

action
the

they

link

momentary
telephone receiver.
a

with

the

current

As

the

in

coil
the

num-

TELEPHONY.

WIRELESS

ber

of turns

of wire

between

distance

ELECTRIC

size of the

and

the

METHOD.

WAVE

coils and

coils may

two

e.

the

f. increases

m.

extended.

be

experimenters

Many

"

287

have

deavored
en-

in wireless
currents
high-frequency,high-potential
previouslypointed out, it is not
telephony,but, for reasons
practicableto employ a disruptivedischarge to obtain electric
value.
oscillations of constant
Alternating currents, however, of
comparativelylow frequency will emit electric waves, although such
be transmitted
radiations
wirelessly
are
very feeble ; but speech may
to utilize

spark-gap of the oscillator is bridged by an air-gap and a

mechanicallyhigh-frequencycurrent is employed ; the spoken words
circuit.
will be reproduced by insertinga receiver in the resonator
has employed is to permit the sparkmethod
the author
Another
to surge
open, causing the current
gap of the oscillator to remain
former,
to and fro in it with every reversal in the secondary of the transif the

obtained

result

the

are

\/

whether

it is difficult to determine

although

of

the

tions
calcula-

alternatingmagnetic

an

field

6^c
FIG.

around

the

radiator

313.

"

electric

or

RADIOPHONE.

BELL

waves
.

method

offers

promise, though
exceedinglylimited.

has been
BELL

KADIOPHONE.

Alexander
of
from

some

Graham

light

either

the

sun

known.

mirror, 1, Fig. 313,

and

3,

brought

attached

4;

through

to the

this

In

an

and
to

This

covered

which
Professor
principlesupon
radiophone for telephoningby a beam

BelPs

or

effective distance

it.

The

"

well

are

the

from

emanating

arc

light is

method

caused

reflected to the

to fall upon

lens,2, where

point and

back

of

ray

impinges on
diaphragm of

the
a

concave

of

light

plane

it is

fracted
re-

ror,
mir-

mitter,
telephone trans-

light,after reflection from the mirror, 3, passes

condensing lens, 5, where it is projected to a distance
the

288

WIRELESS

TELEGRAPHY.

This
consists of a parabolic
through space to the receiver, 6.
mirror, af having a selenium
cell,I, placed in its focal line; a
in series with
battery,d, and a telephonereceiver,c, are connected

the selenium
When

cell.

the

by

the

varies

voice

the

concave

the

focus of the

are

is in

radiophone
and

mirror

action

the

vibrations

intensityof
projectedbeam

the

the

the
of

of

the

phragm
dia-

lightfallingupon
lightis gathered

in

receivingparabolicmirror, where the lightwaves

the selenium
concentrated
on
cell,which varies in resistance

FlG.

314.

KUHMKR

PHOTO-

Kl.KCTKlC

1'UANUMITTKR.

with the intensity

of the light,and every
variations
coincidently
ance
and cell resistvibration of the diaphragm,change in lightintensity
mitted
is reproduced in the telephone
receiver.
Speech has been trans-

by this
and

PHOTO-ELECTRIC
discoveries

new

the most

among

invented
that

several hundred

feet and

is

marvelously clear

distinct.
EUHMER

and

method

by

have

Simon,
small

in series with

operating an

been

of

arc

be

Gottingen, Germany,

Bell's

who

current, induced
alternating

transformer
a

experiments,
in photo-electric
effects,
cited the speaking arc,
Since

"

made

interesting
may

by superimposingan
of

TELEPHONE.

coil

by the

undulations

telephonetransmitter, as
lightthe

volume

and

ascertained
in the

ondary
sec-

of the

mary
pri-

rent
heavy direct-cur-

intensityof the flame

TELEPHONY.

WIRELESS

and
proportionately,

varied

to
affect

the

eye,

due

though
the

to

photographicplateor

Having

in

view

FIG.

persistencyof

RUHMER

Ruhmer, of Berlin, devised

he

did

in

Bell's

,/ere

not

ceptible
per-

would

vision, they

cell.

selenium

an

radiophone

by placingan arc
Fig. 314, having

to be

useful, Professor

Ernest

the principles
apparatus for utilizing
and

lightin
a

RECEIVER.

PHOTO-ELECTRIC

phone of sufficient penetrativepower

involved

variations

teleobject of producing a photo-electric

the

315."

these

289

diameter

the
the

Simon

focal

of 50

This
speakingarc.
line of a parabolic
flector,
re-

cm.,

and

constructed

like

WIRELESS

290

The
searchlight.

and

of 3

or

with

10

or

4 kilometers.

suppliedby

storagebatteryof

when

amperes

small

is

arc

TELEGRAPHY.

over
speech was transmitted
telephonetransmitter is connected

storagebatteryof 6

or

shown

volts,as

52
distance
in

in the

series

tration,
illus-

primary of a transformer, while the secondary is

in parallel
with the arc-light
connected through a condenser
circuit.
The receiver designedby Euhmer, Fig. 315, consists of a parabolic
and

the

having a selenium cell placed in its focal line in

pair of telephone receivers and a battery. Selenium

reflector and
series with

FIG.

316.

"

RUHMER'S

between

each

them

other

with

on

ohms

Clausen

fused selenium.

type having a ratio of 10 to

cell by Giltay exhibited a variation

in darkness

these cells have

resistance.

form

so

that

The
the

ohms

to 26,000
a

high

GKKMANIA."

made

were

cell of this
and

"THE

by winding a pair of wires

the space
flat pieceof glassand filling

cells,
employed before Euhmer,
to
parallel

LAUNCH

ELECTRIC

time

in

constant

cell devised

lightmight

by
be

in

Euhmer

and

1 in

von

Bronk

made

variations,
resistivity

ranging between 533.000

but
light of 400 intensity,
returning to their original
was
given a cylindrical

evenly distributed over its surface

made
cell was
by winding two fine
on
a
glass
separatedby 7-10 mm.

by the reflector. The selenium

and
platinum wires in parallel
tube 33 mm.
in length and 20 mm.

in circumference

and

then

fore-

WIRELESS

292

of 120,000 ohms

sistance
when

illuminated

liuhmer

conducted

beingplaced on
receiver

the

on

distance

his

experiments on Wannsee, the transmitter

electric launch,the Germaniaj Fig. 31G, and the

shore,Fig. 317, at

WIRELESS

for

findingthat
method
In

experiments with
it

until

"

was

coherers

ascertained

was

there

distance of 4

Having tested all the above

adjusted to

their

maximum

that

to

also found

that

break
when

currents
frequency,high-potential
and

maximum

comparativelylow-frequency,
alternatingthrough an oscillator would emit

sufficient energy

It

distance of ll/2kilometers;this

TELEPHONE.

currents
high-potential
of

wires, and
transmitting articulate speech without
each had its especial
limitations,the author sought for
come.
by which the difficulties encountered
might be over-

sensitiveness

waves

dropping to 1,500 ohms

candle-powerlamp. With this equipment

1G

and

reached.

was

COLLINS
methods

an

in the dark

graduallyincreased

was

kilometers

some

by

TELEGRAPHY.

down

the

resistance

of

tector.
de-

mechanicallyproduced highare
discharged into the earth

potentiallevel of the circuit,of which the

earth forms
instead of free air,new
manifestations
a portion,
occur,
and among
them
the
sine
be
cited
of
waves
long
propagation
may
quency
to great distances. The
length of the waves
depends on the freof alternations and the frequency on the coefficients of the
the

restore

circuit,and
transmitting
of the

ether, which

are

Since the value of

it has

been

constant, as
a

its

the
on
jointfactors,finally
and its density.
elasticity

of the
elasticity

ether

determined

empiricallyby

when

is associated

ether

its

with

is not

known,
absolutely

reciprocalor
matter

gross

constants

dielectric
which

has

inductive
specific

with
it

these

the

were

matter

atoms

greater
of which

capacity. The densityof ether closelyidentified

of the atmosphere, acts, paradoxically,
as
though

than
the

in

vacuo,

earth

and

the

effect

on

the

particlesof

composed is greaterthan on the air.

The term bound
ether has been given to ether associated with gross
Now
matter.
matter, gross or transcendental,acts like a solid
mitted
body if it is struck hard enough, when vibrations will be transby it. Strike the surface of a body of water with a board and
it will assume
at the instant of impact all the characteristics
of a
solid ; and
beat

every

the air with

resist its

body, and

molecule

is

of the water

will vibrate

in consequence

outspreadwing with sufficient force and it will

movement, if its velocityis great enough, like a solid
the ether also acts like a solid body if it is struck hard
an

TELEPHONY.

WIRELESS

and

enough
when

dischargeis

electric

an

vibrations

transverse

in it

293

the

hammer

strike

to

ether to manifest

ether

in free

The

former.
a

when
air ;

similarlyif

water,

since

the author

"

COLLINS

circle,but

it has

air,for

employed

Figs. 319,

320

and

Complete standard

of

321,

greater than

of mercury

the sound

than

in

than

MESSAGE.

The

water.

waves

telephoneare radiated normally

them
to reflect and make
possible
Fig.

arc.

318

is

of

illustration

an

testingthe telephone in

for

were

station

coil is connected

is

water

TELEPHONE

dense

more

than

the

field,

earlyexperiments. Later, three stations,

in the

primary

sea

farther

greater distance

WIRELESS

found

devised

telephony, as
of the

much

times

densityof
a

impact of the
good analogue; if

his wireless

15"

wireless

the terminals

the

than

the
a

many

be struck in

SENDING

been

within

portableequipment
was

be heard

can

the

cause

greater distance

furnishes

waves

is much

employed in

to

air upon

with

propagated to

mercury

undirectional

and

it

bell could

be

would

Fio. 318.

in water

it is struck in free

waves

in

of sound

action

bell is struck

its presence

associated

ether

or

with,

occur.

Mechanically high-frequency,high-potentialcurrents
earth-bound

it

established at Rockland

sets

shown

were

in

Lake, N.

Y.

stations

for

installed at these

Fig.

in series with

secondarywinding

322.
a

are

In

the

transmitter

key,battery,and
connected

to

variator

circuit

cor-

TELEGRAPHY.

WIRELESS

29-4

respondingto the oscillator of a wireless telegraphsystem. Bridged

coil is an
the secondary of the transformer
denser,
adjustableconacross
and capacitymay
be maintained
that the ratio of inductance
so
in their

FIG.

to

resonator

receiver,a
When
is varied

319.

WIRELESS

consists,in

operationand

the

and
automatically,

with

reproduced speech

operates through

receiver

COLLINS

the

its

TELEPHONE

STATION

simplest form,

battery,transformer,coil,inductance, and
in

waves

surge

"

and

potentialcurrents
the

The

distinct.

clear and

and

relations

proper

are

set up

in the earth ; the

the

same

primary

circuit similar

A.

of

telephone

capacity.

closed,the

current

mechanicallyhigh frequency and high

dischargingcircuit,which emit
impinging on the receivingcircuits

in the

waves

frequencyand

vibration,
though diminished

circuit is

made

volume

have
of the

the

same

amplitude

originalcurrents

of

of the

WIRELESS

FIG.

320.

FIG.

321.

"

"

TELEPHONY.

295

COLLINS

WIRELESS

TELEPHONE

STATION

COLLINS

WIRELESS

TELEPHONE

STATION

I*.

C.

WIRELESS

296

emitting circuits.

The

receiver.
were

made

at

The

received

lesslyacross

distance
the

332.

of

"JOHN

THK

COLLINS

"

200

Delaware

phone
by a teletelephony

wireless

when

speech was

trans-

G. MCCULLOUGH

WIRELESS

feet; in
River,

translated

system of

Pa., in 1899,
Philadelphia,

FIG.

to

impulses are

first tests of this

FIG. 322."

mitted

TELEGRAPHY.

TELEPHONE.

1900

words

mile, and

apparatus,a distance of three miles was

In the same
the sending and receivingstations.

were

in

sent

wire-

1902, with
covered

year

proved
im-

between

proving

sta-

TELEPHONY.

WIRELESS

tions

established

were

being

321

mile

at Kockland
This

apart.

and

Lake, N. Y., A, Bf Figs. 320

the

was

first

directions

in both

system working

297

wireless

complete

and

with

equipped

phone
tele-

ing
signal-

apparatus.
these

While
of

sphere

in harbors.

Hardly

in

it

wireless

month

be

may

is

but

made

land,

on

that

vessel

one

signal,and

the

vessels

application to

to

who

rams

this is

to this class of

be

must

other,
an-

especially

at

been

experiments have

at

in

work, since
the

constantlyat
The

code.

tain's
cap-

wireless

simple, reliable,and
tensive
comparativelysmall cost. Ex-

instrument
vessel

any

adapted

not

interpret the Morse

to

first-hand

applied

the Hudson

its

misunderstood

telegraph is

pilot'sside

telephone

lies in

passes

requires a skilled operator

or

been

weather.

foggy

The

telephone

primarilyto

due
true

wireless

the

have

preliminary tests

once

the

during

progress

summer

on

River

(New York City), where wireless telephoneswere

installed
the ferryboatsJohn
G. McCuLlougli and
on
Ridgewood,
of the Erie Railroad
system, picturesof which are given in Fig. 323.
Not
until the advent
of the wireless telephone had there been
a
the safety factor
in marine
single improvement looking toward
signalingat close

hoary steam

whistle.

Into

future

is

so

the

drawn

that

and

meshes,

this

the

it is dark

only
by

wireless

eliminate

have

things
we

term

supplant

never

may

to

come

century. The

telephonein

in

for

the

making

wireless
These
as

the

are

methods
but

in less time
assistance

the

will do
additional

of the

the

links

past century

first half

in the

of

universal

designed by the omnipotent Creator.

experimental
wireless

of

the

beyond
done

for the

we

phone
tele-

cycle

telegraph,the cable,the

intelligencehave
the

filtering

yesterday,is

quarter

ago.

of

its

wire-system, yet stranger

than

living fiftyyears
of

last half

its
The

of civilization is

romancer

transmission

of

to-morrow.

efficient

the

the advancement

speculation of the
modes

pass

cable

misty veil

experience; therefore

of

the dream
telegraph,
in
telegraphy,now

the

Its

through

us

and

time-honored

of the

difficult to see!

and

empirical path

reality of to-day; cableless

struggles,may

invention

little lightreaches

the

predict. The

cannot

since

range

the

let

wildest

What
for
us

these

mankind

hope

that

present century.

chain

of

evolution

INDEX

Allemaod,

TO

37.

Edison,

Ampere,
78, 79.
37, 95.
Apps,
78.
Arago,
Arco,

NAMES.
171,

Edlund,

234.

65.

Erlung,
Ewing,

10.
84.

passim.

Arons,
Ascoli,

148.

Faraday,
passim.
Fedderson,
37, 48.

237.

236,

Felici, 79.
Bachhoffer,

Baden-Powell,
Barker,

Fizeau,

289.

287,

228,

Foucault,

6.
2GO.

Franklin,

Bichat, 112, 114.

Bjerknes, 21, 52, 148, 258,

Fresnel,

Bernouilli,

Blondel,

Botts,

Bra

Giltay,

148.

100, 122, 124.

Guarini-Foresio,
passim.
Guericke,
36, 127.
von,
136.
Guitard,

14.

passim.

illy, passim.

Bull,

64.

Gregory,

66.

Bronk,

290.

Green,

139.

Guthe,

290.

von,

164, 183,

186, 207, 270,

139,

Caldwell,

100,

119.

141,

148.

Castelli, 154.
Cervera-Baveria,
Claude, 203.
Clausen,

182, 202,

139.

Heaviside,

21.

Helmholtz,

von,

Henry,

passim.

Cunningham,

114,

125.

Holtz,

(54.

115.

127,

Hopkinson,
136.
Hughes,
Hume,

78,

Forest,

De

la

passim.

Rive,

2, 3, 14.

Ives, 76, 86,

Jaumann,

27.

Dubois-Reymond,
Ducretet,

96.

21, 24, 25.

234.

Dunne,

55.

211.

De

Dolbear,

129.

6.

Huygens,
Davy,

passim.

passim.

Hewitt,

passim.

Coulomb,

203.

145.

36.

Heardon,

Hertz,

2"0.

Collins,

passim.

Hawksbee,

92, 93.

Cardew,

6.

Halske,

Calzecchi-Onesti, 136, 137,

142.

280.

Haeckle,

Callan,

101.

47.

Grisson,

Bradley,
Braun,

9.

Geissler, 27,

2, 3.

127,

94..

14, 79.
36, 37.

Gilbert,

237.

Boscovitch,

148.

79,

265.

148.

Bononio,
Bose,

264,

passim.

Boltzmann,

20,

14,

Fleming,
passim.
Foote, 102.

G6, 79.

Beckeley,

passim.

Fitzgerald,

252.

93.

Becquerel,
Bell,

Fessenden,

93.

92,

Jean,
79.

'passim.

39,

94.

Jegou.

241.

Jenkins,

65.

Johnson,

87.

Eccle.

138.

Jones,

7.

Eddy,

240.

Joulo,

66,

69.

44.