The Syntax of the Complex Sentence

Compound sentences are based on coordination.

Complex sentences are based on subordination.
Dependent or Subordinate clauses can be classified:
a. according to the structural criterion:
1. Finite Clauses
2. Non-Finite Clauses: a. Infinitival Constructions; b. Participial Constructions
3. Verbless Clauses
b. according to the functional criterion:
1. Nominal Clauses:

that-clauses

Dependent wh- interrogative clauses

Yes/No interrogative dependent clauses

Nominal relative clauses

to-infinitive nominal clauses

Nominal -ing clauses

Short infinitive nominal clauses

Verbless nominal clauses

2. Adverbial Clauses:

Adverbial clause of Time

Adverbial Clause of Place

Adverbial Clause of Manner

Adverbial Clause of Condition

Adverbial Clause of Concession

Adverbial Clause of Reason/Cause

Adverbial Clause of Purpose

Adverbial Clause of Result

Alternative Conditional Concessive Clause

Universal Conditional Concessive Clause

3. Relative Clauses

Finite Relative Clauses: a. Dependent/Restrictive; b. Independent/ Nonrestrictive

Non-finite Relative Clauses

Cleft sentences

NOMINAL CLAUSES and their syntactic functions

1. THAT- Clauses can function as:

Subject: That he is lazy is a certainty.

Subject Complement: The problem is that we dont know the time.

Direct Object: You know that he has just got married.

Apposition: Your news, that Mary is hurt, was true.

Adjectival Complement: I am sure that you will take a good mark.

2. Dependent wh- interrogative clauses can function as:

Subject: What youve just said has been recorded.

Subject Complement: The trouble is where well go.

Direct Object: I told you when he would come.

Apposition: My initial question, why she left in such a hurry, wasnt answered.

Adjectival Complement: I was certain whose plan this was.

Prepositional Complement: It depends on when they arrive.

3. Yes/No interrogative dependent clauses can function as:

Subject: Whether it rains or not is our main problem.

Subject Complement: The question is whether he passes the exam or not.

Direct Object: We dont know whether they have already found out the news.

Adjectival Complement: They were not sure whether the play started in time.
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Apposition: The question, whether she needed both of us, required a quick answer.

4. Nominal relative clauses can function as:

Subject: Whoever threatens you is dangerous.

Subject Complement: Friend is whoever helps you anytime.

Direct Object: I tried whatever came handiest at the time.

Indirect Object: She offered a flower to whoever was coming.

Object Complement: He could call her whatever he liked.

Apposition: Your address, wherever you are living now, is known by the police.

Prepositional Complement: You should vote for whichever candidate you think best.

5. To-infinitive Nominal Clauses:

Subject: For a human to eat like that is unbelievable.

Subject Complement: My decision was to forgive him.

Direct Object: I expect to see them next week.

Apposition: The task, to solve the exercise at choice, has been fulfilled.

Adjectival complement: Im sorry to hear that.

6. Nominal -ing Clauses:

Subject: Learning rules without examples is useless.

Subject Complement: His favourite preoccupation is reading books.

Direct Object: Lucy loves lying in the sun.

Object Complement: I heard him leaving.

Apposition: His wish to make the rules, being the best of us, is his right.

Prepositional complement: Pay attention to his speaking English.

7. Short infinitive nominal clauses:

Subject Complement: All I did was turn off the gas.

Subject: (To) Lie in the sun was everything they needed.

Object Complement: They made her cry.

8. Verbless nominal clauses:

A friend in need is a friend indeed./ Are fast cars recommended in cities?