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9.1 Introduction
Pneumatic drilling fluids are used to drill in areas where loss of circulation and low reservoir
pressures restrict the use of conventional drilling fluids. Pneumatic fluids also find application to
minimize formation damage caused by:
(1) invasion of mud filtrate and solid particulates into reservoir pore spaces,
(2) flushing of hydrocarbons,
(3) hydration of clays within the reservoir,
(4) emulsion blocking, or
(5) formation of chemical precipitates within the reservoir.
These damage problems are all caused by having a large overbalance of pressure resulting from a
high hydrostatic pressure of the mud column and from chemical incompatibility between the
invading filtrate and the reservoir fluid. Cause of damage is eliminated, or at least diminished, by
reducing the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid column and by selecting a fluid that will not
hydrate clays and will not form precipitates in the pore space.
Major equipment components which are required for pneumatic drilling, but not required for
conventional mud drilling, are: gas/air compressor and boosters, a rotating head, chemical injection
pumps (for foaming agents and corrosion inhibitors), and foam generator units. In some cases other
equipment may be needed. Of the required components, the gas/air compressor is by far the most
important and costly. The entire drilling system design depends upon the capability and efficiency of
the compressors.
The ratio of final pressure to initial pressure controls the number of compression stages that is
required. The number of stages of compression bears directly on the total drilling cost. Type and
number of compressors required to handle each specific pneumatic drilling operation must be well
thought out in advance. Calculation of the compression ratio and ratio of discharge pressure to
intake pressure is the first step in deciding on the number of compression stages. The compression
ratio in a single stage should not exceed four because the temperature of the discharge air will be
too high. Cylinder temperatures above 300-400F will cause mechanical lubrication problems and
metal fatigue. Large capacity, high-efficiency, radiator-type coolers are required in order to reduce
the air temperature between each stage of compression. Elevation and maximum air temperature at
the drillsite must be considered because compressor efficiency decreases with increasing
temperature and elevation.
Pneumatic drilling fluids may require one or more of three basic chemicals, but simple air drilling
may not need any of these:
homogeneous mixture that has ample consistency to bring out the water and cuttings, thereby
cleaning the hole. The amounts of injection water and foaming agent used will vary according to the
hole size, formation characteristics, available air, and quality and quantity of water/oil influx.
Corrosion Inhibitors - Corrosion during pneumatic drilling can be disastrous unless the drill string
is properly protected by corrosion inhibitors and scavengers. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide in the presence of water are extremely corrosive in pneumatic drilling. The rate of
corrosion can be minimized depending on the type of pneumatic fluid being used, by: (1)
maintaining a high pH (10 or above) with NaOH or KOH if water is being injected or (2) injecting
corrosion inhibitors into the gas or air. Sulfide scavengers such as zinc carbonate, zinc oxide or zinc
chelate are used to react with hydrogen sulfide to form inert zinc sulfide. Water-soluble and/or
coating-type corrosion inhibitors (such as filming amines or phosphonates) should also be added to
the fluid in order to further protect the steel components which are exposed to the circulating fluid.
Drying Agents - A wellbore which contains only a minor amount of water may be dried simply by
discontinuing drilling and circulating air for a short time. Another method, which may prove to be
more economical, is to add slug treatments of drying agents such as CMC or silicate powders.
These additives require the use of a dry chemical injector.
When deciding if a pneumatic drilling fluid is applicable, one must consider pore pressures, rock
types, porosity and permeability, reservoir fluids, economics, and location. Types of pneumatic
drilling fluids discussed in this section are:
Logging is another factor to consider when drilling with dry gas. Wellbores containing no fluid other
than air or gas can be surveyed only with devices that need no liquid to establish contact with the
formation. The Induction Log is the only tool which can measure formation resistivities in such
holes. The Gamma Ray Log can distinguish shales from non-shales. The Gamma-Gamma Density
Log shows porosity even in gas-bearing zones where the Neutron Log indicates low apparent
porosity. If both Gamma Ray and Gamma-Gamma Density Logs are run, the percent gas saturation
may be computed in clean formations. In flowing gas wells, the Temperature Log detects the
producing zones by showing the cooling effects of the gas as it expands into the hole. Also, in
multiple-zone production, the Temperature Log indicates the relative volumes of gas coming from
each zone. The Noise Log may be used to record zones of liquid or gas influx as well as zones of
severe loss. A relative amplitude log is recorded and the noise may be monitored at the surface.
Water-bearing formations are the greatest limiting factor to air or gas drilling. Small amounts of
water can be tolerated by adding drying agents such as CMC to the dry gas to absorb the water.
However, if the cuttings become too moist they will stick together to form mud rings which can block
the annulus. If this occurs, loss of circulation, stuck pipe, or even a downhole fire may result.
9.2.1 Air
Air drilling is commonly used in areas where loss of circulation with liquid type muds is a major
problem. Air is also used to drill hard, extremely low permeability rock or formations. When drilling
gas-bearing formations the risk of downhole fires can be high. The chance of a downhole fire, when
gas is present, is increased if the annulus becomes restricted, thus increasing the pressure below
the obstruction. Mud rings can cause this type of problem. The standpipe pressure must be
continually monitored in order to detect and prevent an excess pressure build-up. Even an increase
in pressure of about 15 psi can cause combustion to occur. Several downhole tools have been
designed to help combat fire hazards. The Fire Float and Fire Stop are two of these tools. The Fire
Float is installed above the bit as a near-bit protector. Under normal conditions it allows flow of air
while drilling, but does not allow back flow of air. If the heat-sensitive ring is melted away by a
downhole fire, a sleeve falls and stops air flow in either direction. A Fire Stop unit should be located
at the top and midway in the drill collar assembly. It consists of a simple flap retained by a heatsensitive zinc band. When the melt temperature of the zinc band is exceeded, the flap closes and
air flow is halted. A quick rise in pressure at the surface is noted which alerts the crew to the
likelihood of a fire.
Volume and pressure requirements must be considered when selecting equipment for an air drilling
program. Surface pressure is determined by the total system pressure losses. Atmospheric
pressure decreases with increasing elevation and temperature and increases with increasing
relative humidity. Equipment requirements for a location which is situated at a high elevation in a hot
and dry climate are considerably different than requirements for one which is in a cold, humid
climate at sea level. Air requirements, based on an average annular velocity of 3000 ft/min, are
listed in Table 1. In addition, as a rule of thumb for compressors there is a 3% loss in efficiency per
1000 ft of elevation.
Table 1
Hole Depth and Volume Required CFM
Hole
Size
Stem
Size
1000
2000
4000
6000
8000
10,000
12,000
12-1/4
6-3/8
5-1/2
4-1/2
1840
2100
2260
1920
2150
2310
2090
2350
2520
2400
2640
2820
2520
2780
2930
2750
3000
3150
2870
3100
3230
11
6-3/8
5-1/2
4-1/2
1370
1580
1780
1430
1650
1810
1590
1820
1980
1850
2070
2250
1970
2160
2340
2180
2380
2530
2290
2500
2630
9-7/8
5-1/2
5
4-1/2
1180
1300
1350
1240
1360
1410
1400
1490
1540
1640
1710
1771
1730
1800
1850
1890
1990
2050
1970
2100
2150
5
4-1/2
3-1/2
990
1080
1130
1050
1140
1180
1180
1260
1300
1380
1470
1500
1480
1550
1580
1640
1720
1730
1740
1820
1790
8-3/4
5
4-1/2
3-1/2
930
1000
1130
970
1050
1180
1100
1160
1300
1320
1360
1500
1420
1440
1580
1570
1620
1730
1640
1730
1790
7-7/8
4-1/2
3-1/2
760
910
800
950
920
1040
1080
1220
1190
1300
1330
1440
1440
1550
7-3/8
3-1/2
760
790
880
1050
1120
1250
1330
6-3/4
6-1/4
3-1/2
610
630
730
890
980
1080
1140
3-1/2
2-7/8
500
570
520
600
610
680
750
810
800
890
930
990
1000
1070
4-3/4
2-7/8
2-3/8
300
320
340
350
400
400
480
500
560
660
630
640
690
700
losses caused by the wet cuttings adhering to the drill string and the wall of the hole, and the higher
slip velocities of the larger wet cuttings.
Air drilling techniques are used in areas where water-sensitive shales exist. In most cases these
shales do not cause major problems if the air remains dry. However, these shales have a high
affinity for water and may become completely unstable if mist is used. These problems have been
controlled, in some cases, by adding 1 to 5 weight % potassium chloride and/or PHPA (liquid) to the
injection water. Addition of the KCl reduces hydration and softening of shales and thus reduces hole
enlargement. Small amounts (1 qt or less) of liquid PHPA can be added as a slug treatment down
the drill pipe to act as a lubrication agent, reduce torque and drag and also to prevent hydration and
softening of shales. Injection of KCl-water into the air stream creates severe corrosion problems.
Oxygen corrosion can be reduced by raising the pH of the water to the 10-11 range and by adding a
corrosion inhibitor.
Table 2
Stiff Foam
Concentration
Additive
lb/bbl
Vol. %
Prehydrated Bentonite
10 - 15
0.5
-----
Guar Gum
0.2 - 0.5
---
Soda Ash
0.5 - 1.0
---
Foam Stabilizer
Calcium Treating
Agent
0.55 - 0.5
---
---
1%
-----
3 - 5%
0.5%
Carboxymethylcellulose
(CMC)
Caustic Soda/Caustic
Potash
Foaming Agent
Potassium Chloride
Filming Amine
Function
Foam Stabilizer
Drying Agent
Corrosion Protection
Stabilizes Air in Liquid
Shale Stabilizer
Corrosion Protection
Figure 1
Stable Foam Unit
Table 3 lists typical components, their function and concentration for formulating a preformed stable
foam drilling fluid.
Table 3
Stable Foam
Concentration
Additive
lb/bbl
Vol. %
Prehydrated Bentonite
Polyanionic Cellulose
10 - 15
0.5
-----
Foam Stabilizer
Sodium Polyacrylate
---
Filtration Agent
Foaming Surfactant
---
1%
Foaming Agent
Potassium Chloride
---
3 - 5%
0.25 -1
---
---
0.5%
0.25 - 0.5
---
XC Polymer
Filming Amine
Lime
Function
Filtration Agent
Drying Agent
Borehole Stabilizer
Foam Stabilizer
Corrosion
Protection
Corrosion
Protection
increase the air-volume to mud-volume ratio in the upper portion of the annulus. The rate of air
bubble expansion increases according to the general gas law as the aerated mud approaches the
surface. This increase of air-volume to mud-volume ratio not only decreases the downhole
hydrostatic pressure, but increases the annular velocity of the aerated mud as it approaches the
surface. The nomograph in Figure 2 may be used to estimate air requirements for reducing density
of a water mud by aeration.
A de-aerator, such as a mud-gas separator, must be used to control high velocity and possible
surging of the returning mud before it goes to the shale shaker. This device will prevent surface mud
losses due to surging and splashing as well as remove a large portion of the air from the mud. The
separator should have an overflow line going to the shaker in case of excessive fluid flow. The
balance of the air will be removed by the degasser prior to reaching the mud pumps.
Control of the mud properties is extremely important when drilling with aerated mud. The density,
solids content, gel strengths, and plastic viscosity must all be controlled at low and constant values.
The yield point will depend on the type of fluid being used, but should be in a proper range with
respect to the plastic viscosity. Yield point control is required in order to allow the air to be removed
when it reaches the surface. Injection pressures will remain low if hydrostatic pressure and system
pressure losses are maintained at low values. As well depth increases, controlling hydrostatic and
system pressure losses becomes more important in order to avoid surpassing the capabilities of the
air equipment. Maintaining a pH above 10 will assist in corrosion control; however, higher pH could
cause polymer precipitation or cuttings dispersion depending on the type of mud being used.
Some common fluids used in aerated drilling are low-solids, non-dispersed muds and salt muds.
Low-solids, non-dispersed (LSND) muds are especially good as aerated drilling muds because they
offer shear thinning properties which give low circulating pressures. Their major drawback is a
tendency to disperse cuttings at high pH, so care must be exercised when selecting additives in
order to prevent dispersion.
Potassium chloride muds are very successful in solving unstable shale problems in air-liquid
circulating systems. Potassium hydroxide should be used for pH control. Fluid loss control may be
obtained by using polyanionic cellulose. The major disadvantage of salt muds is higher corrosion
rate compared to freshwater muds. Removal of entrained air or gas from a salt mud can be difficult.
Figure 2
Air Requirements for Reducing Density of Water Muds
Mud
Density
lb/gal
Depth, Feet
9.0
Nitrogen
scf/bbl
10
9.0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
7.72
8.16
8.36
8.48
8.56
8.61
8.65
8.68
8.71
20
6.62
7.19
7.63
7.88
8.05
8.17
8.26
8.33
8.39
9.0
10.0
50
10
3.04
8.69
4.58
9.15
5.53
9.35
6.13
9.47
6.55
9.55
6.85
9.60
7.08
9.64
7.26
8.68
7.41
9.70
10.0
20
7.16
8.15
8.60
8.86
9.03
9.16
9.25
9.32
7.42
10.0
11.0
50
10
3.67
9.66
5.41
10.13
6.43
10.34
7.07
10.46
7.50
10.54
7.81
10.60
8.04
10.64
8.23
10.67
8.38
10.70
11.0
20
8.08
9.11
9.85
9.94
10.02
10.14
10.24
10.31
10.37
11.0
50
4.29
6.25
7.33
7.99
8.44
8.76
9.00
9.19
9.35
Nitrogen is pumped at the required rate directly into the standpipe until a joint of pipe is drilled
down. In order to prevent the mud in the drill pipe from blowing back during connections, a mud cap
(a column of liquid mud) equal to approximately 1000 ft can be pumped prior to breaking the
connection or a string float can be used. The connection can then be made before the nitrogen can
come back up through the mud. A string float may also be used for this purpose.
Due to the compressibility of nitrogen, the pressure gradient of the mud inside the drillpipe while
circulating is not greatly reduced. For example, a mud pressure gradient of 0.467 psi/ft, with a pump
pressure of 2000 psi, will only be reduced to 0.440 psi/ft with the addition of 50 standard cubic feet
(scf) of nitrogen per barrel. Only after passing through the bit jets and coming up the annulus will
the nitrogen bubbles expand and lower the pressure gradient drastically. This can be seen in Table
4 where the density of a 9.0 lb/gal mud is reduced from 7.41 lb/gal at 9000 ft to 6.55 lb/gal at 5000 ft
as the pressure is decreased in the annulus.
Table 6 compares Mist and Dry Gas drilling fluids. Mist offers nearly the same advantages as dry
gas versus liquid muds with one exception: it can handle a sizable water volume compared to dry
gas drilling. The Table also lists some of the disadvantages of using mist versus dry gas.
Table 6
Mist Versus Dry Gas
Advantages
Disadvantages
Low-cost fluid.
Longer bit life.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Corrosive.
More hole enlargement due to water-shale interaction.
Stiff foam exhibits additional advantages over dry gas or mist drilling fluids. Table 7 lists some of
these advantages as well as some of the disadvantages.
Table 7
Foam Versus Mist or Dry Gas
Table 8
Stable Foam Versus Stiff Foam
Advantages
Disadvantages
Advantages
Disadvantages
Compatible with oil, salt water and calcium and most formation contaminants.
Can safely absorb considerable volume of
gas into aqueous foam rendering it
nonflammable until sumped.
Less hole washout in unconsolidated formations while drilling.