Fuselage structure and types:

The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the aircraft.

It provides space for personnel, cargo, controls, and most of the accessories.
The power plant, wings, stabilizers, and landing gear are attached to it.
There are two general types of fuselage construction:
Welded steel truss and monocoque designs.
The welded steel truss was used in smaller Navy aircraft, and it is still being used in
some helicopters.
The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin, or covering, to carry
various loads. The monocoque design may be divided into three classes
monocoque, semi-monocoque, and reinforced shell.

Truss type (welded steel truss)

A truss frame fuselage is usually constructed of

steel tube welded in such a way that all the
members carry both tension and compression.
The truss is a steel tube box like the construction
of a crane.
A good flying example is the Piper Super Cub or
the engine mount of any aircraft.
The strength of the truss comes from the
diagonal bracing and the truss takes all the
loading in shear, bending and twisting motion.
Advantage:
Low manufacturing cost and easy to construct.
Disadvantage:
Poor aerodynamic shape
The diagonal bracing makes lesser space available for pay load
Monocoque structure:

The monocoque design relies largely on the

strength of the skin, or covering, to carry various
loads.
The true monocoque construction uses formers,
frame assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to
the fuselage.
However, the skin carries the primary stresses.
Since no bracing members are present, the skin
must be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid.
The biggest problem in monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength
while keeping the weight within limits.
The monocoque or single shell is a design where all the loads are taken by the skin
and there is no internal framework to assist.

The strength comes purely from its rounded form, like the shell of an egg.
A good example of a monocoque airplane is the Lancair and other composite type
airplanes. The skin must be fairly thick to take all loading encountered in flight and
on the ground.

Semimonocoque structure:

Semimonocoque design overcomes the

strength-to-weight problem of monocoque
construction.
In addition to having formers, frame
assemblies,
and
bulkheads,
the
Semimonocoque construction has the skin
reinforced by longitudinal members.
The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced
by a complete framework of structural
members. Different portions of the same
fuselage may belong to any one of the three classes. Most are considered to be of
semimonocoque-type construction.
The semimonocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of aluminium alloy, although
steel and titanium are found in high-temperature areas.
Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend across
several points of support.
The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members known as stringers.
Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than longerons.
The vertical structural members are referred to as bulkheads, frames, and formers.
The heavier vertical members are located at intervals to allow for concentrated
loads.
These members are also found at points where fittings are used to attach other
units, such as the wings and stabilizers.
The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins. They have
some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of skin.
The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers. The bulkheads and
formers hold the stringers.
These entire join together to form a rigid fuselage framework.
Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression stresses from bending the
fuselage.
The skin is attached to the longerons, bulkheads, and other structural members and
carries part of the load.
The fuselage skin thickness varies with the load carried and the stresses sustained at
particular location.
Advantage:
Provides proper aerodynamic shape which is required for high speed design.
Absence of diagonal bracing makes it ideal for cargo transport system.
Use of thin skin results in high strength to weight ratio.
Load carrying capacity of the frame improves.

Wing structure:

Most modern aircraft have all metal wings, but many older aircraft had wood and
fabric wings.
To maintain its all-important aerodynamic shape, a wing must be designed and built
to hold its shape even under extreme stress.
Basically, the wing is a framework composed chiefly of spars, ribs, and (possibly)
stringers.
Spars are the main
members of the wing. They
extend lengthwise of the
wing (crosswise of the
fuselage).
The entire load carried by
the wing is ultimately taken
by the spars.
In flight, the force of the air
acts against the skin. From
the skin, this force is
transmitted to the ribs and
then to the spars.
Most wing structures have
two spars, the front spar
and the rear spar.
The front spar is found near
the leading edge while the
rear spar is about two-thirds
the distance to the trailing
edge.
Depending on the design of the flight loads, some of the all-metal wings have as
many as five spars.
In addition to the main spars, there is a short structural member which is called an
aileron spar.
The ribs are the parts of a wing which support the covering and provide the aerofoil
shape. These ribs are called forming ribs and their primary purpose is to provide
shape.
Some may have an additional purpose of bearing flight stress, and these are called
compression ribs.
The most simple wing structures will be found on light civilian aircraft. High-stress
types of military aircraft will have the most complex and strongest wing structure.

Ribs, Spars and Torsion-Box:

Ribs give the shape to the wing section, support the skin (prevent buckling) and act
to prevent the fuel surging around as the aircraft manoeuvres.

They serve as attachment points for the control surfaces, aps, undercarriage and
engines.
The ribs need to support the wing-panels, achieve the desired aerodynamic shape
and keep it, provide points for conducting large forces, add strength, prevent
buckling, and separate the individual fuel tanks within the wing.

There are many kinds of ribs:

Form ribs consist of a sheet of metal, bent into shape.
Plate-type ribs consist of sheet-metal, which has upturned edges and weight-saving holes
cut out into it. These ribs are used in conditions of light to medium loading.
Truss ribs consist of proles that are joined together. These ribs may be suitable for a wide
range of load-types.
Closed ribs are constructed from proles and sheet-metal, and are suitable for closing o
sections of the wing. This rib is also suitable for a variety of loading conditions.
Forged ribs are manufactured using heavy press-machinery, and are used for sections
where very high loads apply.
Milled ribs are solid structures, manufactured by milling away excess material from a solid
block of metal, and are also used where very high loads apply.

The ribs also need to be supported, which is done by the spars.

These are simple beams that usually have a cross-section similar to an I-beam.
The spars are the most heavily loaded parts of an aircraft.
They carry much more force at its root, than at the tip. Since wings will bend
upwards, spars usually carry shear forces and bending moments.
Aerodynamic forces not only bend the wing, they also twist it. To prevent this, the
introduction of a second spar seems logical.
Torsion now induces bending of the two spars, which is termed dierential bending.
Modern commercial aircrafts often use two-spar wings where the spars are joined by
a strengthened section of skin, forming the so-called torsion-box structure.
The skin in the torsion-box structure serves both as a spar-cap (to resist bending), as
part of the torsion box (to resist torsion) and to transmit aerodynamic forces.

Skin/Stressed skin:

In most aircraft, the wing skin performs several tasks. It gives it the aerodynamic
shape, it carries a share of the loads, it helps to carry torsional load.
It acts as fuel tanks and allows inspection and maintenance.
Using the skin to carry part of the loads is called stressed skin. Almost all aircraft
have their wing structure made entirely in metal, or a mixture of metal and
composite.
The skin may be xed to the internal structure by rivets or bonding.

The volume between the spars is often used for storing fuel.

Aircraft landing gear structure:

The undercarriage of an aircraft supports the

aircraft on the ground, provide smooth
taxiing and absorb shocks of taxiing and
landings.
It serves no function during ight, so it must
be as small and light as possible, and
preferably easily retractable.
A landing gear system comprises of many
structural and system components. The
structural components includes main fitting,
shock absorber, trailing arm, axle, torque
links, side braces, retraction actuator, down
lock mechanism, up lock, wheel, tyre etc.
Shock absorber (in reality, a shock
"damper") is a mechanical or
hydraulic device designed to absorb
and damp shock impulses. It does
this by converting the kinetic energy
of the shock into another form of
energy (typically heat) which is then
dissipated.
A shock absorber is a type of dashpot
shock absorbers reduce the effect of traveling over rough ground, leading to
improved ride quality and vehicle handling. While shock absorbers serve the
purpose of limiting excessive suspension movement, their intended sole
purpose is to damp spring oscillations.
An oleo strut is a pneumatic airoil hydraulic shock absorber used on the
landing gear of most large aircraft and many smaller ones.
An oleo strut absorbs this energy, reducing bounce.
The undercarriage is a relatively heavy part of the vehicle, it can be as much as 7% of
the takeoff weight, but more typically is 45%.
Due to the weight of the fore and aft part of the aircraft, large bending moments
occur on the centre section.
To carry these bending moments, a strong keel beam is present. This reduces the
space in which the landing gear can be retracted.
When an aircraft lands, a large force is generated on the undercarriage as it meets
the ground. To prevent damage to the structure, this shock must be absorbed and
dissipated as heat by the undercarriage.
If the energy is not dissipated, the spring system might just make the aircraft
bounce up again.

After touchdown, the aircraft needs to brake. Disc brakes, which are primarily used,
consist of a disc or a series of discs, gripped between pads of friction material.
The braking of an aircraft can be supplemented by other forms of braking, such as air
brakes, causing a large increase in drag, or reverse thrust, thrusting air forward.

Safe-Life and Fail-Safe Designs:

Safe-Life Designs:

Safe-life refers to the philosophy that the component or system is designed to not
fail within a certain, defined period.
It is assumed that testing and analysis can provide an adequate estimate for the
expected life time of the component or system.
At the end of this expected life, the part is removed from service.
The benefit of safe-life designs includes reducing the likelihood of unplanned
maintenance and reducing the likelihood of any failure.
Since it is imperative that the component or system not fail within the predicted life
time, extensive testing and analysis is required.
Safe-life designs involve a testing and analysis (typically fatigue analysis) to estimate
how long the component can be in service before it will likely fail.
Since no amount of analysis and testing can assure how long a particular part will
perform without failure, a generous factor of safety should be included to prevent
catastrophic failure.
The product should be designed so that it can be easily inspected in service.

Fail-safe designs:

Fail-safe designs are designs that incorporate various techniques to mitigate

losses due to system or component failures.
The design assumption is that failure will eventually occur but when it does the
device, system or process will fail in a safe manner.
Techniques for Fail-Safe DesignRedundancies (avoid single point failures)
Back-up systems If failure of a critical subsystem will cause severe losses, backup systems are often employed.
For example, commercial aircraft have a minimum of two engines.
They are designed such that fully loaded airplanes can take-off even if one engine
fails.
Multiple load paths if a structural element fails, the load it was carrying will be
transferred to other members. Obviously, it is essential that the fracture be
detected before multiple members fail.

Properties of materials:
Elastic deformation:
When the stress is removed, the material returns to the dimension it had before the
load was applied. Valid for small strains (except the case of rubbers). Deformation is
reversible, non-permanent.
Plastic deformation:
When the stress is removed, the material does not return to its previous dimension
but there is a permanent, irreversible deformation.
In tensile tests, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-strain relationship is called
Hooke's law:
=Ee

That is, E is the slope of the stress-strain curve. E is Young's modulus or

modulus of elasticity.
In some cases, the relationship is not linear so that E can be defined
alternatively as the local slope:
E = d/de

Shear stresses produce strains according to:

= G
Where G is the shear modulus.
NOTE: Elastic moduli measure the stiffness of the material.

Yield point:
If the stress is too large, the strain deviates from being proportional to the stress.
The point at which this happens is the yield point because there the material yields,
deforming permanently (plastically).
Yield stress:
The stress at the yield point is called yield stress, and is an important measure of the
mechanical properties of materials. In practice, the yield stress is chosen as that
causing a permanent strain of 0.002 (strain offset).
Hooke's law is not valid beyond the yield point.
The yield stress measures the resistance to plastic deformation.
Tensile strength:
When stress continues in the plastic regime, the stress-strain passes through a
maximum, called the tensile strength, and then falls as the material starts to develop
a neck and it finally breaks at the fracture point.
Note that it is called strength, not stress, but the units are the same.

 Hardness:
It is the resistance to plastic deformation. Thus; it is a measure of plastic
deformation, as is the tensile strength, so they are well correlated.
It is determined by the ability of a material to scratch another, diamond being the
hardest.
Now we use standard tests, where a ball, or point is pressed into a material and the
size of the dent is measured. There are a few different hardness tests: Rockwell,
Brinell, Vickers, etc. They are popular because they are easy and non-destructive.
Plasticity:
Plasticity describes the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes
of shape in response to applied forces.
For example, a solid piece of metal being bent or pounded into a new shape displays
plasticity as permanent changes occur within the material itself.
The transition from elastic behavior to plastic behavior is called yield.
The plasticity of a material is directly proportional to the ductility and malleability of
the material.
Ductility is a solid material's ability to deform under tensile stress; this is often
characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire.
Malleability, a similar property, is a material's ability to deform under compressive
stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by
hammering or rolling.
Both of these mechanical properties are aspects of plasticity, the extent to which a
solid material can be plastically deformed without fracture.
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), or tensile strength (TS) or ultimate strength,
UTS is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or
pulled before failing or breaking.
Creep:
Creep is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently
under the influence of mechanical stresses.
It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are still
below the yield strength of the material.
Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods.
The rate of deformation is a function of the material properties, exposure time,
exposure temperature and the applied structural load.
Depending on the magnitude of the applied stress and its duration, the deformation
may become so large that a component can no longer perform its function.
Stages of creep:

In the initial stage, or primary creep, the strain rate is relatively high, but slows with
increasing time. This is due to work hardening.

The strain rate eventually

reaches a minimum and
becomes near constant. This is
due to the balance between
work hardening and annealing
(thermal softening).This stage is
known as secondary or steadystate creep. This stage is the
most
understood.
The
characterized "creep strain rate"
typically refers to the rate in this
secondary
stage.
Stress
dependence of this rate
depends
on
the
creep
mechanism.
In tertiary creep, the strain rate exponentially increases with stress because of
necking phenomena.

Fatigue:
Fatigue is the progressive and localised structural damage that occurs when a
material is subjected to cyclic loading.
The maximum stress values are less than the ultimate tensile stress limit, and may be
below the yield stress limit of the material.
Characteristics of fatigue:
The process starts with
dislocation
movements,
eventually forming persistent
slip bands that nucleate short
cracks.
The greater the applied stress,
the shorter the life.
Damage
is
cumulative.
Materials do not recover
when rested.
Fatigue is a stochastic process,
often showing considerable
scatter. Fatigue life scatter
tends to increase for longer
fatigue lives.
Fatigue life is influenced by a variety of factors, such as temperature, surface finish,
presence of oxidizing or inert chemicals, residual stresses, contact (fretting), etc.
Some materials (e.g., some steel and titanium alloys) exhibit a theoretical fatigue
limit below which continued loading does not lead to failure.
In recent years, researchers have found that failures occur below the theoretical
fatigue limit at very high fatigue lives (109 to 1010 cycles).
High cycle fatigue strength (about 103 to 108 cycles) can be described by stress based
parameters. A load-controlled, servo-hydraulic test rig is commonly used in these

tests, with frequencies of around 20-50 Hz. Other sort of machines like resonant
magnetic machines can also be used, achieving frequencies up to 250Hz.
Low cycle fatigue (typically less than 103 cycles) is associated with widespread
plasticity, thus a strain based parameter should be used for fatigue life prediction.
Testing is conducted with constant strain amplitudes at 1-5 Hz.

Superalloy, properties and application:

Superalloy, or high performance alloys, is alloys that exhibit excellent mechanical

strength and creep resistance at high temperatures, good surface stability, and
corrosion and oxidation resistance.
They typically have an austenitic face-centred cubic crystal structure with a base
alloying element of nickel, cobalt, or nickel-iron.
The development of superalloys has primarily been driven by the aerospace and
power industries.
The corrosion-resistant superalloys are widely used in extreme environments where
tremendous heat and corrosion resistance is paramount to the integrity of the end
product. Chemical and petrochemical processing, power plants, and oil and gas
industries widely use these superalloys.
Many of the industrial nickel-based superalloys contain alloying elements, including
chromium (Cr), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W),
niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta) and cobalt (Co).
Examples of Superalloy:
Hastelloy, Inconel, waspolays.
Rane alloys- Rane-41, Rane-80, and Rane-104 etc.
Characteristics of Superalloy:
Excellent mechanical strength and creep resistance at high temperatures
Good surface stability
Corrosion and oxidation resistant
Applications:
Aerospace
Turbine blades and jet/rocket engines
Industrial gas turbines
Marine industry
Submarines
Chemical processing industry
Nuclear reactors
Heat exchanger tubing

Heat treatment, its need and different types:

Heat treatment is the heating and cooling of metals to change their physical and
mechanical properties, without letting without change its shape.
Heat treatment could be said to be a method for strengthening materials but could
also be used to alter some mechanical properties such as improving for mobility,
machining, etc.

The most common application is metallurgical but heat treatment can also be used
in manufacture of glass, aluminium, steel and many more materials.
The process of heat treatment involves the use of heating or cooling, usually to
extreme temperatures to achieve the wanted result.

Need of heat treatment of metal (steel):

As per the aircraft structure is concern, it is made up of metal as like steel. Steel in
various forms and shapes are subjected to wear and tear, bending, twisting, impact
and shock loadings. Whatever be the application, the material steel has no
compressive strength.
So it is must to improve the metal properties in order to sustain different types of
loading coming over it.
To do so there are two methodologies are used:
1. By adding chemical elements to the steel which tend to improve the properties of
steel directly.
2. By adding chemical elements to the steel which tend to improve the properties of
steel when they are heat treated.
Improvement of the properties of steel by heat treatment of steel clearly stands
above the rest in enhancing the properties of steel. The basic heat treatment process
of steel involves the following procedure normally.
1. Heating of the material to the specific temperature.
2. Maintaining the material at the specific temperature until the microstructure of
the material becomes uniform throughout the material.
3. Cooling the material at a particular rate so that a required microstructure of the
material can be formed.
The properties in steel are basically altered due to the change in microstructure of
the steel. Further the microstructure of the steel depends basically on the following
constituents of the steel.
1. Carbon content of the steel
2. Heat treatment temperature maintained for the material.
3. The rate of heating or cooling the material.
Complex heat treating schedules, or "cycles," are often devised by metallurgists to
optimize an alloy's mechanical properties.
In the aerospace industry, a superalloy may undergo five or more different heat
treating operations to develop the desired properties hardening Annealing,
Normalizing, Quenching, Tempering, and Case hardening etc. which are as follows.
Annealing:

Annealing, in metallurgy and materials science, is a heat treatment that alters the
physical and sometimes chemical properties of a material to increase its ductility and
reduce its hardness, making it more workable.
It involves heating a material to above its recrystallization temperature, maintaining
a suitable temperature, and then cooling.

Annealing consists of heating a metal to a specific temperature and then cooling at a

rate that will produce a refined microstructure.
The rate of cooling is generally slow.
Annealing is most often used to soften a metal for cold working, to improve
machinability, or to enhance properties like electrical conductivity.
In ferrous alloys, annealing is usually accomplished by heating the metal beyond the
upper critical temperature and then cooling very slowly, resulting in the formation of
pearlite.
In both pure metals and many alloys that cannot be heat treated, annealing is used
to remove the hardness caused by cold working.
The metal is heated to a temperature where recrystallization can occur, thereby
repairing the defects caused by plastic deformation.
In these metals, the rate of cooling will usually have little effect.
Most non-ferrous alloys that are heat-treatable are also annealed to relieve the
hardness of cold working.
These may be slowly cooled to allow full precipitation of the constituents and
produce a refined microstructure.
Ferrous alloys are usually either "full annealed" or "process annealed." Full annealing
requires very slow cooling rates, in order to form coarse pearlite.
In process annealing, the cooling rate may be faster; up to, and including
normalizing.
The main goal of process annealing is to produce a uniform microstructure.
Non-ferrous alloys are often subjected to a variety of annealing techniques.

Hardening:

I.

II.

Hardening is a metallurgical and metalworking process used to increase the hardness

of a metal.
The hardness of a metal is directly proportional to the uniaxial yield stress at the
location of the imposed strain.
A harder metal will have a higher resistance to plastic deformation than a less hard
metal. The five hardening processes are:
HallPatch method, or grain boundary strengthening:
Used is to obtain small grains. Smaller grains increase the likelihood of dislocations
running into grain boundaries after shorter distances, which are very strong
dislocation barriers.
In general, smaller grain size will make the material harder.
When the grain size approach sub-micron sizes, some materials may however
become softer.
This is simply an effect of another deformation mechanism that becomes easier, e.g.
grain boundary sliding. At this point, all dislocation related hardening mechanisms
become irrelevant.
Work hardening or strain hardening or cold working:

III.

IV.

V.

The material is strained past its yield point. The plastic straining generates new
dislocations.
As the dislocation density increases, further dislocation movement becomes more
difficult since they hinder each other, which means the material hardness increases.
Solid solution strengthening:
A soluble alloying element is added to the material desired to be strengthened, and
together they form a solid solution.
A solid solution can be thought of just as a "normal" liquid solution, e.g. salt in water,
except it is solid.
Depending on the size of the dissolved alloying element's ion compared to that of
the matrix-metal, it is dissolved either substitutionally (large alloying element
substituting for an atom in the crystal) or interstitially (small alloying element taking
a place between atoms in the crystal lattice).
In both cases, the size difference of the foreign elements make them act as sand
grains in sandpaper, resisting dislocations that try to slip by, resulting in higher
material strength. In solution hardening, the alloying element does not precipitate
from solution.
Precipitation hardening or age hardening:
Age hardening is a process where a second phase that begins in solid solution with
the matrix metal is precipitated out of solution with the metal as it is quenched,
leaving particles of that phase distributed throughout to cause resistance to slip
dislocations.
This is achieved by first heating the metal to a temperature where the elements
forming the particles are soluble then quenching it, trapping them in a solid solution.
Had it been a liquid solution, the elements would form precipitates, just as
supersaturated saltwater would precipitate small salt crystals, but atom diffusion in
a solid is very slow at room temperature.
A second heat treatment at a suitable temperature is then required to age the
material.
The elevated temperature allows the dissolved elements to diffuse much faster, and
form the desired precipitated particles.
The quenching is required since the material otherwise would start the precipitation
already during the slow cooling.
This type of precipitation results in few large particles rather than the, generally
desired, profusion of small precipitates.
Precipitation hardening is one of the most commonly used techniques for the
hardening of metal alloys.
Martensitic transformation or quenching or tempering:
It is a hardening mechanism specific for steel. The steel must be heated to a
temperature where the iron phase changes from ferrite into austenite, i.e. changes
crystal structure from BCC (body-centered cubic) to FCC (face-centered cubic).
In austenitic form, steel can dissolve a lot more carbon. Once the carbon has been
dissolved, the material is then quenched.

It is important to quench with a high cooling rate so that the carbon does not have
time to form precipitates of carbides.
When the temperature is low enough, the steel tries to return to the low
temperature crystal structure BCC. This change is very quick since it does not rely on
diffusion and is called a martensitic transformation.
Because of the extreme super saturation of solid solution carbon, the crystal lattice
becomes BCT (body-centered tetragonal) instead. This phase is called martensite,
and is extremely hard due to a combined effect of the distorted crystal structure and
the extreme solid solution strengthening, both mechanisms of which resist slip
dislocation.

Case hardening:
Case-hardening or surface hardening is the process of hardening the surface of a

metal object while allowing the metal deeper underneath to remain soft, thus
forming a thin layer of harder metal (called the "case") at the surface.
This method is applied on the components which require wear resistance and ductile
core, such as gears, cam, and sleeves of cylinder.
Case hardening is specified by hardness and case depth.
The case depth can be specified in two ways: total case depth or effective case
depth.
The total case depth is the true depth of the case. For most alloys, the effective case
depth is the depth of the case that has a hardness equivalent of HRC50; however,
some alloys specify a different hardness (40-60 HRC) at effective case depth; this is
checked on a Tukon microhardness tester.
This value can be roughly approximated as 65% of the total case depth; however the
chemical composition and hardenability can affect this approximation. If neither
type of case depth is specified the total case depth is assumed.
For case hardened parts the specification should have a tolerance of at least
0.005 in (0.13 mm). If the part is to be ground after heat treatment, the case depth
is assumed to be after grinding.

Normalizing:

Normalizing is a technique used to provide uniformity in grain size and composition

throughout an alloy.

Ferrous metals are normalized to relieve internal stresses further more produced by
machining, forging and welding.

Structure component which require maximum toughness and resistance to external

impact load are usually normalized.

The term is often used for ferrous alloys that have been austenitized and then
cooled in open air.

Normalizing not only produces pearlite, but also sometimes martensite, which gives
harder and stronger steel, but with less ductility for the same composition than full
annealing.

Tempering:

Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase the toughness of

iron-based alloys.

Tempering is usually performed after hardening, to reduce some of the excess

hardness, and is done by heating the metal to some temperature below the critical
point for a certain period of time, then allowing it to cool in still air.

The exact temperature determines the amount of hardness removed, and depends
on both the specific composition of the alloy and on the desired properties in the
finished product.

For instance, very hard tools are often tempered at low temperatures, while springs
are tempered too much higher temperatures.

Tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys, such as steel or

cast iron, to achieve greater toughness by decreasing the hardness of the alloy.

Corrosion, different forms and its prevention:

Corrosion is a process of formation of the compound of pure metal by the chemical

reaction between metallic surface and its environment.
It is an oxidation process. It causes loss of metal.
Hence, disintegration of a metal by its surrounding chemicals through a chemical
reaction on the surface of the metal is called corrosion.
Example: Formation of rust on the surface of iron, formation of green film on the
surface of copper.

As per IUPAC,
Corrosion is an irreversible interfacial reaction of a material (metal, ceramic, Polymer) with
its environment which results in its consumption or dissolution into the material of a
component of the environment. Often, but not necessarily, corrosion results in effects
detrimental to the usage of the material considered. Exclusively physical or mechanical
processes such as melting and evaporation, abrasion or mechanical fracture are not
included in the term corrosion.
Classification:
1. Dry or Chemical Corrosion
2. Wet or Electrochemical corrosion
Dry or Chemical Corrosion
Occurs due to chemical attack of by the environment such as dry gas.
Occurs due to high temperature and without liquid phase.
It is of two types:
(a) Oxidation Corrosion:

- It is due to direct attack of oxygen on metals.

- Oxygen molecules are attracted to the surface by Vander Wall Force
(b) Corrosion by Gases
- Carbon di-oxide, Chlorine, Hydrogen Sulphide, Sulphur di-oxide, Flourine.
- Depends on chemical affinity b/w metal and the gas.
Wet or Electrochemical Corrosion
Occurs when aqueous solution or liquid electrolytes are present
Wet corrosion takes place in environments where the relative humidity exceeds
60 %.
Wet corrosion is most efficient in waters containing salts, such as NaCl (e.g. marine
conditions), due to the high conductivity of the solution.
Mechanism of Electrochemical Corrosion
Anodic Reaction:
Dissolution of metal takes place.
As result metal ions are formed with the
liberation of free electrons.
M M+n + eMetal Ion
Cathodic Reaction:

Hydrogen Evolution: Occurs usually in acidic

medium
2H+ + 2e- H2 (g)
Oxygen Absorption: Occurs when solution is
aerated sufficiently.
O2+ 4H+ + 4e- 2H2O (In acidic medium)
O2+ 4H+ + 4e- 4OH- (In basic medium)

Forms of Corrosion:
i.

Galvanic Corrosion:

ii.

When two different metals are present in contact with each other in conducting
medium e.g. Electrolyte
Concentration Cell Corrosion:

iii.

Same as Galvanic corrosion

Occurs when two different metals are exposed to different air conc.
Pitting Corrosion:
Formed as a result of pit and cavities
Localized attack and formed by cracking protective coating

iv.

Stress Corrosion:
Occurs in the presence of tensile stress and corrosive environment
E.g. brass get corrode in traces of ammonia.

Factors Affecting Corrosion:

There are two factors which are responsible for the corrosion:

Nature of the Metal

Nature of the environment.

Nature of Metal
Position in Galvanic Series: If two metals are present in in electrolyte, the metal
with less reduction potential undergoes corrosion. Greater the difference faster the
corrosion.
Over Voltage: Due to high evolution of hydrogen, the rate is slow.
Area and Distance: When anodic metal area is smaller than cathodic area, rate of
corrosion at anode is higher because of demand of electron by cathodic area.

Physical and Mechanical properties of Metal:

Pure metals are more corrosion resistant.
Smaller grain size metal has high solubility and corrosion.
Uniform distribution of stress on metal reduces rate of corrosion.
Passive metals show higher corrosion resistance because of formation of protective
oxide film on their surface.
Polycrystalline forms are more sensitive.

Nature of Environment

Temperature: directly proportional

Humidity: faster in humid conditions
ph.: If less than 7 rates is high. Al, Zn, Sn, Pb, and Fe are affected by both acid and
bases.
Impurities and Suspended Particles: When these will get dissolved in moisture,
provides electrolyte for conductivity and hence corrosion increases.

Corrosion Control Method:

1. Selection of metal and alloy:
- Using pure and noble metals
- Practically not possible because of low strength of pure metal
- Use of metal alloys which are homogeneous
2. Proper design of metal:
- Minimal contact with medium
- Prevention from moisture
- Adequate ventilation and drainage
- Welding
- Avoid cervices b/w adjacent parts
- Bend should be smooth
- Bimetallic contacts should be avoided
- Paint cathodic portion
- Prevent uneven stress
3. Cathodic Protection:
- Force the metal to be protected to behave like cathode.
- This can be done by two ways:

a.
b.
-

Sacrificial anodic protection:

Metal to be protected from corrosion connected to more anodic metal
Commonly used metals Mg, Zn, Al and their alloys
Impressed current method:
Direct current is applied in opposite direction to nullify the corrosion current
Converts the corroding metal from anode to cathode.

4. Modifying Environment:
- Eliminating dissolved oxygen
- Reducing Moisture
- Reducing Acidity
5. Protective coating:
- Application of coating
- Coating material should be chemically inert under particular temp and pressure.
6. Use of corrosion Inhibitor:
Anodic Inhibitor
- These are oxygen and oxidizing agent.
- They combine the anodic metal forming an oxide film which reduce corrosion
Cathodic Protection
- Organic inhibitors like amines, mercaptans, urea and thiourea reduces the H ion
diffusion by adsorption
- Mercury, arsenic and antimony deposits films at cathodic area which raise the
hydrogen over volume.
- Eliminating Oxygen from the medium by adding sodium sulphate and hydrazine.

Different method of Metallic Coating to prevent corrosion:

1. Hot Dipping galvanization:
- Hot-dip galvanization is a form of galvanization.
- It is the process of coating iron and steel with a layer of zinc by immersing the metal
in a bath of molten zinc at a temperature of around 840 F (449 C).
- When exposed to the atmosphere, the pure zinc (Zn) reacts with oxygen (O2) to form
zinc oxide (ZnO),
- Zinc oxide further reacts with carbon dioxide (CO2) to form zinc carbonate (ZnCO3), a
usually dull grey, fairly strong material that stops further corrosion in many
circumstances, protecting the steel below from the elements.
- Galvanized steel is suitable for high-temperature applications of up to 392 F
(200 C).
- Galvanized steel at temperatures above this will result in peeling of the zinc at the
intermetallic layer.
- Metal is kept in molten state and base metal is dipped into it.
- Electro- galvanized sheet steel is often used in automotive manufacturing to
enhance the corrosion performance of exterior body panels.

2. Metal Cladding :
- The surface to be protected is sandwiched between two layers of the coating metals
and pressed between rollers.
- Cladding is the bonding together of dissimilar metals.
- It is different from fusion welding or gluing as a method to fasten the metals
together.
- Cladding is often achieved by extruding two metals through a die as well as pressing
or rolling sheets together under high pressure.
- The United States Mint uses cladding to manufacture coins from different metals.
This allows a cheaper metal to be used as filler.
- E.g. Alclad Sheeting - Plate of duralumin is sandwiched between 99.5% pure
aluminum.
3. Electro Plating:
- Electroplating is a process that uses electric current
to reduce dissolved metal cations (if a neutral atom
loses one or more electrons, it has a net positive
charge and is known as a cation. If an atom gains
electrons, it has a net negative charge and is known
as an anion), so that they form a coherent metal
coating on an electrode.
- Electroplating is primarily used to change the surface
properties of an object (e.g. abrasion and wear
resistance, corrosion protection, lubricity, aesthetic
qualities, etc.), but may also be used to build up
thickness on undersized parts or to form objects by
electroforming.
- The process used in electroplating is called
electrodeposition.
- It is analogous to a galvanic cell acting in reverse.
- The part to be plated is the cathode of the circuit.
- Anode is made of the metal to be plated on the part.
- Both components are immersed in a solution called an electrolyte containing one or
more dissolved metal salts as well as other ions that permit the flow of electricity.
- A power supply supplies a direct current to the anode, oxidizing the metal atoms
that it comprises and allowing them to dissolve in the solution.
- At the cathode, the dissolved metal ions in the electrolyte solution are reduced at
the interface between the solution and the cathode, such that they "plate out" onto
the cathode.
- The rate at which the anode is dissolved is equal to the rate at which the cathode is
plated, vis-a-vis the current through the circuit.
- In this manner, the ions in the electrolyte bath are continuously replenished by the
anode.
- Electrochemically coat metal is deposited on base metal
- This metal gives smooth, fine and uniform coating
- It depends on: temperature, current density, electrolyte concentration, nature of
base metal and time.

4. Electroless Plating:
Electroless plating, also known as chemical or auto-catalytic plating, is a non-galvanic
plating method that involves several simultaneous reactions in an aqueous solution,
which occur without the use of external electrical power.
The reaction is accomplished when hydrogen is released by a reducing agent,
normally sodium hypophosphite (Note: the hydrogen leaves as a hydride ion) or
thiourea, and oxidized, thus producing a negative charge on the surface of the part.
The most common electroless plating method is electroless nickel plating.
Advantage over Electro plating
- More economical since no electricity required
- Irregular shape can be plated uniformly
- Plating on plastics can also be done
5. Metal Spraying:
The process involves heating a material to the molten or semi-molten state and
propelling it against the substrate to produce a suitably adherent coating.
There are five different coating processes for applying thermal spray metals:
- Powder combustion
- Wire (rod) combustion
- Twin-wire arc
- Plasma arc
- High velocity Oxygen/fuel.
Either oxygen/fuel combinations or a DC electric arc is used to apply heat.
Many powder coaters use the twin-wire arc process for applying adherent, fine
grained and non-porous coatings as an undercoat.
The process imparts little heat to the substrate between 100 and 260 degrees
Celsius. Because of this, metal spray can be applied to most substrates including
metals, plastics and composites and to finished machined parts. F
Metal spray coatings are used for:
- Wear resistance
- Thermal barriers
- Abradables
- Abrasives
- Dimensional restoration
- Corrosion resistance

Aircraft materials:
Selection of materials:
The selection of material for structural design depends on the following parameters:
Economical considerations
- Availability
- Cost
- Reliability
- Supplementary operational required

Engineering consideration
Strength to weight ratio
Corrosion
Working properties
Weldability
Shock and fatigue strength

A list of different forms of materials is given here, which can be used to construct the
component of aircraft structure.
Natural materials

Metals and alloys

Composites

Polymers

Ceramics and glasses

Wood
Leather
Cotton/wool/silk
Bone
Iron and steels
Aluminium and its alloys
Copper and its alloys
Nickel and its alloys
Titanium and its alloys
Fiberglass (GFRP)
Carbon-ber reinforced polymers (CFRP)
Filled polymers
Cermets
Polyethylene (PE)
Polymethylmethacrylate (Acrylic and PMMA)
Nylon, alias Polyamide (PA)
Polystyrene (PS)
Polyurethane (PU)
Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
Polyethylene tetraphthalate (PET)
Polyethylether Ketone (PEEK)
Epoxies (EP)
Elastomers, such as natural rubber (NR)
Alumina (Al2O3, emery, sapphire)
Magnesia (MgO)
Silica (SiO2) glasses and silicates
Silicon carbide (SiC)
Silicon nitride (Si3N4)
Cement and concrete

Wood properties and application:

Wood is a natural material which was used in early days for aircraft construction.
Wood is one material which has mechanical and physical properties which meet the
criteria required for the manufacture of aircraft components.
Tensile strength values in longitudinal: radial: tangential directions on average are in
the ratio of 20:1.5:1.
This material possesses a high strength-to-weight ratio when used in laminate
structures and is resistant to adverse environmental conditions if it is first subjected
to a specific preservation treatment.
Lightweight and corrosion resistant structures is the best quality of wood.
Applications: Wing spars, propeller blade, window frames.
Wood was the original material of choice in the construction of early aircraft but it is
no longer used in modern aircraft as there are other available materials, both
metallic and non-metallic, which have higher strength-to-weight ratios for
lightweight and corrosion resistant structures.

Ferrous materials: The term ferrous" applies to the group of metals having iron as
their principal constituent.

Iron

If carbon is added to iron, in percentages ranging up to approximately 1 percept, the

product is vastly superior to iron alone and is classified as carbon steel.
Carbon steel forms the base of those alloy steels produced by combining carbon
steel with other elements known to improve the properties of steel.
A base metal (such as iron) to which small quantities of other metals have been
added is called an alloy.
The addition of other metals changes or improves the chemical or physical
properties of the base metal for a particular use.

Nonferrous Aircraft Metals: The term nonferrous" refers to all metals which have
elements other than iron as their base or principal constituent. This group includes such
metals as aluminium, titanium, copper, and magnesium, as well as such alloyed metals as
Monel.

Composite materials:

Composites are materials made of two or more than two constituents. One
constituents is called reinforcing phase, and the other in which constituents phase is
embedded is called matrix.
Composition of composite materials is a combination of reinforcement, such as a
fiber, whisker, or particle, surrounded and held in place by a resin, forming a
structure.
Separately, the reinforcement and the resin are very different from their combined
state.

Even in their combined state, they can still be individually identified and
mechanically separated.
One composite, concrete, is composed of cement (resin) and gravel or reinforcement
rods for the reinforcement to create the concrete.

Ferrous materials
Steel and its types:

Steels are alloys of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, widely used in
construction and other applications because of their high tensile strengths and low
costs.
Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that
prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the crystal lattices of
iron atoms.
The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.1% of its weight. Varying the
amount of alloying elements, their formation in the steel either as solute elements,
or as precipitated phases, retards the movement of those dislocations that make
iron comparatively ductile and weak, and thus controls qualities such as the
hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and can be three times stronger and heavier than
aluminum. It is usually used in a landing gear due to its strength and hardness as well
as in the skin surface of aircrafts due to its high heat resistance
Steel's strength compared to pure iron is only possible at the expense of ductility, of
which iron has an excess.
Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other
infrastructure, appliances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as
stadiums and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton.

Classification of steel based on carbon percentage:

Low carbon steel
Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.10 to 0.30% is classed as low
carbon steel.
Steels of this grade are used for making such items as safety wire, certain nuts, cable
bushings, or threaded rod ends.
This steel in sheet form is used for secondary structural parts and clamps, and in
tubular form for moderately stressed structural parts.
Medium carbon steel
Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.30 to 0.50% is classed as
medium carbon steel.
This steel is especially adaptable for machining or forging, and where surface
hardness is desirable.
Certain rod ends and light forgings are made from SAE 1035 steel.

High carbon steel

Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.50 to 1.05% is classed as high
carbon steel.
The addition of other elements in varying quantities adds to the hardness of this
steel.
In the fully heat-treated condition it is very hard, will withstand high shear and wear,
and will have little deformation.
It has limited use in aircraft.
SAE 1095 in sheet form is used for making flat springs and in wire form for making
coil springs. (A numerical index, sponsored by the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) and the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), is used to identify the chemical
compositions of the structural steels.)

Aircraft steels:

Different types of parts are manufactured with steel in aircraft industry. But the steel
used in aircraft construction is different from those are used in our daily use.
As aircraft construction developed and become more complex in design, so
engineers are focusing on some new materials and steel alloys which fits the
demand and withstand the specification.
There are now more than 20 types of steel used regularly in aircraft construction.
Some of the most usable steel in aircraft construction are Hy-Tuf steel, siliconchromium steel, nitriding steel etc.
HY-TUF alloy steel:
HY-TUF is the trade name for steel used in high tensile strength ranges from 220000
to 240000 psi.
Chemical composition LESCALLOY HY-TUF ALLOY STEEL(weight %) is given below:
C

Mn

Si

Ni

Cr

Mo

0.25

1.35

1.50

1.80

0.30

0.40

Mechanical properties of LESCALLOY HY-TUF ALLOY STEEL is given below:

Ultimate tensile strength (Mpa) .. 1517
0.2% yield strength (Mpa)
1276
% elongation (@ 2inch length) ..5
HY-TUF steel alloy very strong and high in ductility.
It is highly durable in terms of resistance to fracturing as well as strength against
impact.
Application:
HY-TUF is often used in the structure of the plane, flap tracks, and landing gear
tubing.
HY-TUF is used in arresting hooks.
Catapult- which is used in high speed fighter aircraft for landing on aircraft carrier.

Molybdenum alloy steel:

Molybdenum is a strong alloying element.

It raises the ultimate strength of steel without affecting ductility or workability.

Molybdenum steels are composed with chromium and nickel.
A series of chrome-molybdenum steel most used in aircraft construction.
Chrome-molybdenum steel series containing 0.25 to 0.55% carbon, 0.15 to 0.25%
molybdenum, and 0.50 to 1.10% chromium. SAE- 4037, 4130, 4135 etc.
Nickel-molybdenum alloys are generally used for their resistance to corrosion and
deformation caused by certain chemicals. These alloys, therefore, are often used in
the chemical industry.
Properties of Molybdenum alloy steel:
These steels, when suitably heat treated, are:
- Deep hardening,
- Easily machined,
- Readily welded by either gas or electric methods,
- Especially adapted to high temperature service.
- Yield strength ...............100000 to 160000 psi.
- Ultimate tensile strength...200000 to 280000 psi.
- % elongation ..7 to 16%
- A heat-treated SAE X4130 tube is approximately four times as strong as
an SAE 1025 tube of the same weight and size.

Application:
Propeller hubs, crank shafts, wall tubing, sheet fitting, bolt, terminals, pins and
landing gear axle, fuselage tubaluing, engine mounts, landing gears, and other
structural parts.

Chrome-nickel or stainless steels:

Chrome-nickel or stainless steels are the corrosion resistant metals.
The anticorrosive degree of this steel is determined by the surface condition of the
metal as well as by the composition, temperature, and concentration of the
corrosive agent.
The principal alloy of stainless steel is chromium.
The corrosion resistant steel most often used in aircraft construction is known as 188 steel because of its content of 18% chromium and 8% nickel.
One of the distinctive features of 18-8 steel is that its strength may be increased by
cold working.
Stainless steel may be rolled, drawn, bent, or formed to any shape. Because
these steels expand about 50% more than mild steel and conduct heat only about
40% as rapidly, they are more difficult to weld.

Application:

Stainless steel can be used for almost any part of an aircraft.

Some of its common applications are in the fabrication of exhaust collectors,
stacks and manifolds, structural and machined parts, springs, castings, tie rods,
and control cables.

Chrome-Vanadium steels:
The chrome-vanadium steels are composed with chromium, vanadium, carbon and
iron. Such as SAE- 6115, 6135, 6150 etc.
Made of approximately 18% vanadium and about 1% chromium and others.

Properties of Chrome-Vanadium steels:

When heat treated, they have:
- Very high strength
- Excellent toughness
- Resistance to wear and
- Resistance to fatigue loads
- Yield strength ...............180000 to 1150000 psi.
- Ultimate tensile strength...135000 to 220000 psi.
- % elongation ..6 to 14%
Application:
Propeller hub, welded steel propeller blades, engines bolts and nuts, valve spring in
aircraft engine.
A special grade of this steel in sheet form can be cold formed into intricate shapes
It can be folded and flattened without signs of breaking or failure.
SAE 6150 is used for making springs.
Chrome-vanadium with high carbon content, SAE 6195, is used for ball and roller
bearings.
Nitriding Steel:
Nitriding Steel is a chromium molybdenum steel specification, which offers high
wear resistance together with good toughness and ductility.
Nitriding steel specifications are available in round bar, flat bar and steel plate.
Nitriding is a heat treatment process that introduces nitrogen in to the surface of a
steel and dependant on the material and nitriding process, a nitride case depth of
0.05mm up to 0.50mm can be achieved.
With a high surface hardness nitriding steel grades offer increased wear resistance.
This can improve fatigue life and also improve the corrosion resistance.
Chemical composition Nitriding Steel (weight %) is given below:
Carbon
Silicon
Manganese
Molybdenum

0.20-0.30%
0.10-0.35%
0.40-0.65%
0.40-0.70%

Chromium
Nickel
Phosphorous
Sulphur

2.90-3.50%
0.40% max.
0.05% max
0.05% max.

Yield strength ...............85000 to 100000 psi.

Ultimate tensile strength...110000 to 1350000 psi.
% elongation ..15 to 30%.
Application:
Used for bushing and gears where great hardness and wear resistance is required.
Used for components which require a high tensile steel strength and high creep
strength at temperatures up to 600 C

Nonferrous Aircraft Metals

Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys:

Aluminum is one of the most widely used metals in modern aircraft construction.

It is vital to the aviation industry because of its high strength to weight ratio and its
comparative ease of fabrication.
The outstanding characteristic of aluminum is its light weight.
Aluminum melts at the comparatively low temperature of 1,250 F.
It is nonmagnetic and is an excellent conductor.
Commercially pure aluminum has a tensile strength of about 13,000 psi, but its
strength may be approximately doubled by rolling or other cold working processes.
By alloying with other metals, or by using heat-treating processes, the tensile
strength may be raised to as high as 65,000 psi or to within the strength range of
structural steel.
Aluminum alloys in which the principal alloying ingredients are manganese,
chromium, or magnesium and silicon show little attack in corrosive environments.
The various types of aluminum may be divided into two general classes:
(1) Casting alloys (those suitable for casting in sand, permanent mold, or die
castings) and
(2) Wrought alloys (those which may be shaped by rolling, drawing, or forging).
Out of above two alloys wrought alloys are the most widely used in aircraft
construction, being used for stringers, bulkheads, skin, rivets, and extruded sections.
Casting alloys
The casting alloys are identified by a letter preceding the alloy number.
When a letter precedes a number; it indicates a slight variation in the composition of
the original alloy.
This variation in composition is simply to impart some desirable quality.
In casting alloy 214, for example, the addition of zinc to improve its pouring qualities
is indicated by the letter A in front of the number, thus creating the designation
A214.
When castings have been heat treated, the heat treatment and the composition of
the casting is indicated by the letter T, followed by an alloying number.
An example of this is the sand casting alloy 355, which has several different
compositions and tempers and is designated by 355-T6, 355-T51, or C355-T51.
Aluminum alloy castings are produced by one of three basic methods:
(1) Sand mold, (2) permanent mold, or (3) die cast.
In casting aluminum, it must be remembered that in most cases different types of
alloys must be used for different types of castings. Sand castings and die castings
require different types of alloys than those used in permanent mold.
Wrought aluminum
Wrought aluminum alloys are divided into two general classes:
(1)Non-heat-treatable alloys OR strain- hardening alloys:
- Non-heat-treatable alloys are those in which the mechanical properties are
determined by the amount of cold work introduced after the final annealing
operation.
- The mechanical properties obtained by cold working are destroyed by any
subsequent heating and cannot be restored except by additional cold
working, which is not always possible.

The full hard" temper is produced by the maximum amount of cold work
that is commercially practicable.
Metal in the as fabricated" condition is produced from the ingot without any
subsequent controlled amount of cold working or thermal treatment.
There is, consequently, a variable amount of strain hardening, depending
upon the thickness of the section.
For example 1100-H12, 3003-H12, 5052-H32 etc.
Chemical composition:
Al96%
Mg.2.2 to 3.5%
Cr0.15 to 0.35%
Cu0.07%
Application:
Engine cowling, fringings, electrical conduits
Oil/ fuel tanks and oil pipe lines etc.

(2)Heat-treatable alloys
- Heat-treatable alloys can be obtained in the soft annealed condition(cold
working conditions)
- For heat-treatable aluminum alloys, the mechanical properties are obtained
by heat treating to a suitable temperature, holding at that temperature long
enough to allow the alloying constituent to enter into solid solution, and then
quenching to hold the constituent in solution.
- The metal is left in a supersaturated, unstable state and is then age hardened
either by natural aging at room temperature or by artificial aging at some
elevated temperature.
- Excellent hardness, high strength to weight ratio, higher yield point and
corrosion resistant without cladding are the silent properties.
- For example: 2014, 2017, and 6151 etc.
- Chemical composition:
Al.. 91.5%
Mn.0.4 to 1.2%
Mg....0.2 to 0.8%
Cr...0.25%
Cu..3.9 to 5%
Si.0.5 to 1.2%
Zn...0.25%
- Application:
Alclad 2014 sheet is used for structural sheet metal parts including wing and
fuselage skin.
Alclad 2017 is used in rivets.
Alclad 2024 is used is used in covering seaplane floats or hull.
2025-T6 forging are used in propeller blades and engine parts.
4032-T6 forging are used for aircraft engine piston.

Heat treatment of aluminium:

There are two types of heat treatment available for aluminium.

1. Solution Heat Treatment

Solution Heat Treatment is so named because during this process the alloying
constituents enter into solid solution of aluminium.
It is necessary first to produce a solid solution.
The process by which this is accomplished is called solution heat treating, and its
objective is to take into solid solution the maximum practical amounts of the soluble
hardening elements in the alloy.
The process consists of soaking the alloy at a temperature sufficiently high and for a
time longs enough to achieve a nearly homogeneous solid solution.
Then it is quenched rapid in cold water to retain this condition. Temperature limits is
this method is between 930F to 950F.
2. Precipitation Heat Treatment
Precipitation Heat Treatment consists of aging material, previously subjected to
solution heat treatment by holding it an elevated temperature for quite a long
period of time.
These alloys respond strongly to precipitation heat treatment. This practice is widely
used in producing thin extruded shapes of alloys 6061, 6063, 6463 and 7005.
Upon precipitation heat treating after quenching at the extrusion press, these alloys
develop strengths nearly equal to those obtained by adding a separate solution heat
treating operation.
Precipitation Heat Treatment for aluminium is done at a temperature of 300F from
8 t0 24 hours.

Alclading, Anodizing, and Alodizing process of aluminium alloys:

Alclading:
Alclading is common industrial plating for aluminum alloy parts; it involves plating
aluminum alloy parts with pure aluminum.
Pure aluminum is highly resistant to corrosion, but the components added to make
aluminum alloys are in many cases not.
To protect the alloy while keeping the overall part consistent with the properties of
aluminum, pure aluminum is deposited over the finished aluminum alloy part. The
pure aluminum will then likely need additional protection against oxidation or other
detrimental effects that can impair pure aluminum.
Alclading is commonly used on light aircraft parts, and generally is post-processed
with a protective powder coat of paint.
The pure aluminum plating is somewhat soft and needs to be treated with care.
For example, cleaning with a wire brush can scratch off the pure aluminum exposing
the alloy underneath to corrosive effects. Unlike most other protective coating
processes, when Alclad plating is broken through it can be very difficult to observe
because both the plating and substrate are very chemically similar.
It is used in hull or seaplane float.
Anodizing:
Anodizing is the most common surface treatment of non-clad aluminum alloy
surfaces. The aluminum alloy sheet or casting is the positive pole in an electrolytic

bath in which chromic acid or other oxidizing agent produces an aluminum oxide film
on the metal surface.
Aluminum oxide is naturally protective, and anodizing merely increases the thickness
and density of the natural oxide film. When this coating is damaged in service, it can
only be partially restored by chemical surface treatments. Therefore, any processing
of anodized surfaces, including corrosion removal, should avoid unnecessary
destruction of the oxide film.
The anodized coating provides excellent resistance to corrosion. The coating is soft
and easily scratched, making it necessary to use extreme caution when handling it
prior to coating it with primer.
In addition to its corrosion resistant qualities, the anodic coating is also an excellent
bond for paint.
Alclad surfaces that are to be left unpainted require no anodic treatment; however,
if the Alclad surface is to be painted, it is usually anodized to provide a bond for the
paint.
Used in aircraft brake drone, landing Oleo, piston etc.
Alodizing:
Alodizing is a simple chemical treatment for all aluminum alloys to increase their
corrosion resistance and to improve their paint bonding qualities. Because of its
simplicity, it is rapidly replacing anodizing in aircraft work.
The process consists of pre-cleaning with an acidic or alkaline metal cleaner that is
applied by either dipping or spraying. The parts are then rinsed with fresh water
under pressure for 10 to 15 seconds.
After thorough rinsing, alodine is applied by dipping, spraying, or brushing. A thin,
hard coating results which ranges in colour from light, bluish green with a slight
iridescence on copper free alloys to an olive green on copper bearing alloys.
The alodine is first rinsed with clear, cold or warm water for a period of 15 to 30
seconds. An additional 10 to 15 second rinse is then given in a Deoxylyte bath.
This bath is to counteract alkaline material and to make the alodyzed aluminum
surface slightly acid on drying.
Used in surface need to be painted.

Nickel base alloy:

It is widely used in engineering industry as well as in the field of aviation on account

of their high mechanical strength and corrosion resistance property.
Some of the nickel base alloys are explained below:

1) Monel (k-Monel)
It is an important alloy of nickel and copper.
It is a nonferrous alloy.
It is produced by adding a small amount of aluminium.
Composition:
Nickel . 68%,
Copper ..29%,
Other (aluminium, carbon, iron manganese and silicon).3%

Properties:
- Its specific gravity 8.87
- Melting point is 1360C
- Tensile strength 390Mpa to 460Mpa.
- Nickel is superior to brass and bronze in corrosion resistance.
Application:
- It is used for making propellers, pump fittings, steam turbine blades.
- Used in gears, chain, and structure member, exposed to corrosive attack.
- It is used in the vicinity of compasses due to its non-ferrous and non-magnetic
nature.
2) Inconel:
Inconel is a nickel- chromium alloy classified as non-ferrous because of iron content
is negligible.
The relatively small amount of contained iron and carbon do not impart any of the
characteristics of steel.
It is most suitable in the part of structure which is exposed to high temperature
range.
Composition:
Nickel......80%,
Chromium... 13%
Iron.....6%
Other (manganese, silicon, carbon and copper)...1%
Properties:
- Its specific gravity 8.55
- Melting point is 1395C
- Tensile strength 490Mpa to 580 Mpa.
- Corrosion resistance
Application:
- Exhaust collector
- Heat exchanger
- Tail jet pipe and exhaust manifold
- Inconel springs which is used in temperature range of 600C TO 700C.
3)
-

Nichrome:
65% nickel, 15% chromium and 20% iron.
High heat and oxidation resistance.
Used for making electric resistance wire and electric furnace and heating elements.

4) Nimonic:
- 80% nickel, 19% chromium and 1% others.
- High strength and ability to operate under intermittent heating and cooling
environment.
- It is widely used in gas turbine engine components.

Titanium and its alloys:

Titanium is a light metal (4.5 g/cm3), strong and highly resistant to corrosion.
Titanium is highly resistant to heat with a melting temperature as high as 1668C; its
melting point is higher than that of steel.
Although heat conductivity of titanium is almost the same as that of stainless steel,
its weight is almost half of stainless steel.
Titanium is also non-toxic and non-allergenic, often used in piercing jewellery.
Due to its unprecedented strength, lightness, stable market and non-corrosive
characteristics, titanium has emerged as the metal of choice for aerospace, industry
and medical, leisure and consumer products, notably golf clubs and bicycle frames.
Classification of Titanium alloys:
Titanium alloys can be divided into three main groups:
Corrosion resistant alloys,
High strength alloys, and
High temperature alloys
a) Corrosion resistant alloys, such as Commercially Pure grades 1,2,3,4, Ti-Pd (grade 7
and 16), Ti-3Al-2.5V (grade 9 and 18), Ti-Pd (grade 11 and 17), Ti-0.3Mo-0.8Ni (grade
12), BETAC (grade19 and 20).
b) High strength alloys are Ti-6Al-4V (grade 5), Ti-5Al-2.5Sn (grade 6), Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn, Ti10V-2Fe-3Al, Ti-15V-3Cr-3Sn-3Al, Ti-5Al-2Sn-4Mo-2Zr-4Cr, Ti-4Al-4Mo-2Sn (Ti550),
Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V.
c) High temperature alloys like Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo, Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo, Ti-11Sn-5Zr2.5Al-1Mo-0.2Si (IMI679), Ti-6Al-5Zr-0.5Mo-Si (IMI685), Ti-5.5Al-3.5Sn-3Zr-1Nb
(IMI829), Ti-5.8Al-4Sn-3.5Zr-0.7Nb (IMI834), TIMETAL 1100 and the titanium
alumnides.
Ti-6Al-4V is the most widely used of the titanium alloys as it can be heat-treated to
different strength levels, is readily weldable and is relatively easy to machine. There
are many uses of Ti-6Al-4V include:
- Blades and discs for aircraft turbines and compressors, rocket motor cases, marine
components, steam turbine blades, structural forgings and fasteners.
To enhance durability a range of thermal, mechanical, chemical and other
treatments have been developed to modify the surface characteristics and a
considerable body of data on its use and properties is available. Such as:
a) Alpha alloys are non-heat treatable and are generally very weldable. They have low
to medium strength, good notch toughness, reasonably good ductility and possess
excellent mechanical properties at cryogenic temperatures. The more highly alloyed
alpha and near-alpha alloys offer optimum high temperature creep strength and
oxidation resistance as well.
b) Alpha-Beta alloys are heat treatable and most are weldable. Their strength levels
are medium to high. Their hot-forming qualities are good, but the high temperature
creep strength is not as good as in most alpha alloys.
c) Beta or near-beta alloys are readily heat treatable, generally weldable, and capable
of high strengths and good creep resistance to intermediate temperatures. Excellent
formability can be expected of the beta alloys in the solution treated condition.
Beta-type alloys have good combinations of properties in sheet, heavy sections,
fasteners and spring applications.

Composite materials and its classification:

Composite material is a material composed of two or more distinct phases (matrix phase
and dispersed phase) and having bulk properties significantly different forms those of any of
the constituents.
Matrix phase
The primary phase, having a continuous
character, is called matrix.
Matrix is usually more ductile and less
hard phase.
It holds the dispersed phase and shares
a load with it.
Dispersed (reinforcing) phase
The second phase is embedded in the
matrix in a discontinuous form.
This secondary phase is called dispersed
phase.
Dispersed phase is usually stronger than the matrix, therefore it is sometimes called
reinforcing phase.
Classification of composites:
Based on matrix material
- Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
- Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
- Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)
Based on reinforcing material structure
- Particulate reinforced Composites
- Fibrous reinforced Composites
- Laminate reinforced Composites
Advantages of composite materials:
Compare to metals they exhibit high strength
They are having low specific gravity
Stiffness of the material is improved
At high temperatures also they maintain the weight
Toughness is also improved
Production is lower
Fabrication is also cheaper
Fatigue strength and creep is better
Oxidation and corrosion resistance
Measured electrical conductivity is possible
Disadvantages of composite materials:
Compare with the wrought metals, composites are more brittle and they are easily
damaged
Cast metals also tend to be brittle
During the time of transportation material requires chilling.
Special equipments are required and hot curing is also necessary

For curing process it requires time for cold or hot process.

After the completion of last rivet the process is done.
The rivets are removed without causing any damage
Pressure and tooling are required to repair at the original cure temperature
Before starting the repair the composite must be cleaned

Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

A metal matrix composite (MMC) is composite material with at least two constituent
parts, one being a metal necessarily, the other material may be a different metal or
another material, such as a ceramic or organic compound.
When at least three materials are present, it is called a hybrid composite.
MMCs are made by dispersing a reinforcing material into a metal matrix.
The reinforcement surface can be coated to prevent a chemical reaction with the
matrix.
For example, carbon fibers are commonly used in aluminium matrix to synthesize
composites showing low density and high strength. However, carbon reacts with
aluminum to generate a brittle and water-soluble compound Al4C3 on the surface of
the fibre. To prevent this reaction, the carbon fibres are coated with nickel or
titanium boride.
Advantages:
- High impact damage resistance
- High compressive strength
- High thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity
- Low weight than aluminium alloys
Disadvantages:
- Special equipments are required and hot curing is also necessary
- For curing process it requires time for cold or hot process
- Prone to thermal fatigue
Application:
- Engine fan blade, compressor blade, wing spars etc.
- Landing gear drags lines of space shuttle
- Structural components of landing gears of jet aircrafts
- Tubular struts and rib truss member in mid fuselage section
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
They consist of ceramic fibres embedded in a ceramic matrix, thus forming a ceramic
fibre reinforced ceramic (CFRC) material.
The matrix and fibres can consist of any ceramic material, whereby carbon and
carbon fibres can also be considered a ceramic material.
CMC names include a combination of type of fibre-type of matrix. For example:
- CCCs: Carbon-carbon composite (carbon fibre-reinforced carbon; CFRC)
- C-SiC: Carbon-fibre-reinforced silicon carbide
- SiC/SiC : silicon carbide -fibre-reinforced- silicon carbide
- Al2O3/Al2O3: alumina -fibre-reinforced- alumina, etc.

Advantages:
Elongation to rupture up to 1%
Strongly
increased
fracture
toughness
Extreme thermal shock resistance
Improved dynamical load capability
Disadvantages:
Brittle failure and low fracture
toughness
Limited thermal shock resistance
Applications:
Their applications are in fields
requiring
reliability
at
hightemperatures and resistance to
corrosion and wear.
These include:
Heat shield systems for space vehicles
Components exposed to high temperatures, thermal shock conditions and heavy
vibration
Components for high-temperature gas turbines such as combustion chambers, stator
vanes and turbine blades
Components for burners, flame holders, and hot gas ducts
Brake disks and brake system components, which experience extreme thermal shock
Components for slide bearings under heavy loads requiring high corrosion and wear
resistance.

Carbon-Carbon composite (carbon fibre-reinforced carbon: CFRC)

Carbon-carbon composite is a composite material consisting of carbon fiber
reinforcement in a matrix of graphite.
It was developed for the nose cones of intercontinental ballistic missiles, and is most
widely known as the material for the nose cone and wing leading edges of the Space
Shuttle orbiter.
They can be made in a wide variety of forms, from one-dimensional to n-dimensional
using unidirectional tow tapes or woven cloth.
Because of their multiform, their mechanical properties can be readily tailored.
Carbon materials have high strength and stiffness potential as well as high thermal
and chemical stability in inert environment.
They must however, be protected with coatings and /or surface sealants when used
in an oxidizing environment.
It has been used in the brake systems of Formula One racing cars since 1976.
Carboncarbon is well-suited to structural applications at high temperatures, or
where thermal shock resistance and/or a low coefficient of thermal expansion are
needed.
It is less brittle than many other ceramics.
The strength of carboncarbon with unidirectional reinforcement fibres is up to
700MPa.

Carboncarbon materials retain their properties above 2000 C. This temperature

may be exceeded with the help of protective coatings to prevent oxidation.
The material has a density between 1.61.98 g/cm3.

Glass-fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRC):

GFRC are suitable for the manufacturing of the aircraft and helicopter composite
components.
GFRC are made with glass fibre embedded in the matrix of some other material,
which can be carbon fibre, ceramic, or metal etc.
Advantages/Properties:
- High tensile strength
- Resistance to penetration
- Favorable dielectric property
- Very high damping quality
- High strength to weight ratio
Disadvantages:
- Degradation causes weakening of the composite when they are exposed to the moist
environment.
Application:
- Used in aircraft frame component
- Furniture
- Helicopter blades and aircraft fins component
- Fishing rods
- Sports car body

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) are the most common composites, and are also
known as Fiber Reinforced Polymers (or Plastics) FRPs.
PMCs or FRPs are made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibers.
The fibres are usually glass, carbon, aramid, or basalt. Rarely, other fibres such as
paper or wood or asbestos have been used.
The polymer is usually an epoxy, polyester thermosetting plastic, and phenol
formaldehyde resins are still in use.
Reinforcing fibers are either continuous or chopped. In general, polymer composites
processing includes contracting of polymer and fibers, shaping, controlled heating
and / or reactions, and cooling.
PMCs are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine, construction
industries and ballistic armor.
Based upon the combination of fibre and polymers PMCs may be of many types. For
example: Carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP), Glass-fibre-reinforced polymer
(GFRP).

Carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP):

It is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon
fibers.

The binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset
or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes
used.
The composite may contain other fibers, such as an aramid , aluminium, glass fibers,
as well as carbon fiber.
The properties of the final CFRP product can also be affected by the type of additives
introduced to the binding matrix (the resin).
The most frequent additive is silica, but other additives such as rubber and carbon
nanotubes can be used.
Advantages:
- Lighter than glass fiber
- Highly stiffed(more than metal)
- Less problems to fatigue
- Highly conductive material.
Disadvantages:
- It is a brittle material hence cannot be used at high stress concentration levels
- Much costly than fibre glass
Applications:
- Fuselage parts, pipes and tubes are made out of it.
- Cascades of turbojet engine
- Ailerons
- Satellites panel etc.

Particulate reinforced Composites

Particulate reinforced Composites refer to a material consisting of two or more

individual constituents.
The reinforcing constituent is embedded in a matrix to form the composite. One
form of composites is particulate reinforced composites with concrete being a good
example.
The aggregate of coarse rock or gravel is embedded in a matrix of cement. The
aggregate provides stiffness and strength while the cement acts as the binder to
hold the structure together.
There are many different forms of particulate composites.
The particulates can be very small particles (< 0.25 microns), chopped fibers (such as
glass), platelets, hollow spheres, or new materials such as bucky balls or carbon
Nano-tubes.
In each case, the particulates provide desirable material properties and the matrix
acts as binding medium necessary for structural applications. Particulate composites
offer several advantages.
- They provide reinforcement to the matrix material thereby strengthening the
material.
- The combination of reinforcement and matrix can provide for very specific
material properties.
- Particulate composites can often use more traditional manufacturing
methods such as injection molding which reduces cost.

Honeycomb structures

Honeycomb structures are natural or man-made

structures that have the geometry of a honeycomb
to allow the minimization of the amount of used
material to reach minimal weight and minimal
material cost.
The geometry of honeycomb structures can vary
widely but the common feature of all such
structures is an array of hollow cells formed
between thin vertical walls.
The cells are often columnar and hexagonal in
shape.
Man-made honeycomb structural materials are
commonly made by layering a honeycomb material
between two thin layers that provide strength in
tension.
A honeycomb mesh is often used in aerodynamics
to reduce or to create wind turbulence. It is also used to obtain a standard profile
in a wind tunnel.
Due to the efficient hexagonal configuration, where walls support each other,
compression strength of honeycomb cores is typically higher.
Properties:
High compression strength
Excellent tension strength
Low weight for large surface area
High strength to weight ratio
Application:
Used in aerospace industry
Used in automobile industry
Wind tunnel testing floor panels etc.

Sandwich-structure:

A sandwich-structured composite is a special class of composite materials that is

fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick core. (Refer
above figure)
The core material is normally low strength material, but its higher thickness provides
the sandwich composite with high bending stiffness with overall low density.
Core materials structured foams like polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic
foams, and honeycombs are commonly used core materials. Sometimes, the
honeycomb structure is filled with other foams for added strength. Open and closed
cell metal foam can also be used as core materials.
Skin materials Laminates of glass or carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastics or mainly
thermoset polymers (unsaturated polyesters, epoxies...) are widely used as skin
materials. Sheet metal is also used as skin material in some cases.
The core is bonded to the skins with an adhesive or with metal components by
brazing together.

Application:
Aerospace industries: Aircraft frame components, fuselage skin and doors, wing cells
and many more
Automobile industries

Material used for different components in aircraft structure:

Propeller blades:
Propeller blades are made from aluminum alloy, wood, steel and compressed wood.
2025-T6 aluminum alloy forging is most commonly used in blade manufacturing for
high quality.
Propeller hubs:
Propeller hubs are usually made up of forged Chrome-Vanadium steel or chromenickel-molybdenum steel.
Both of these steel can be heat treated to 150000psi, which is the usual strength
required for hubs.
Exhaust collector:
Exhaust stacks, manifold or collectors are made from 18-8 corrosion resistance steel,
Inconel and carbon steel.
Engine cowling:
It is made up of aluminium alloys.
5052-O alloy is better because of its greater tensile and fatigue strength.
In some airplanes Alclad 2024-T4 is also used.
Landing gears:
Much landing gear has been made from welded chrome-molybdenum tubing.
Chrome-molybdenum steel forging are frequently used for fitting on the landing
gear. On many fighter planes, bomber and commercial airplanes the landing gears
are made up of 7075 grade.
In some airplanes chrome-nickel molybdenum steel are used for movable strut. Heat
treatment of these movable strut ranges from 180000 to 265000 psi.
Wing ribs:
Wing ribs are made from wood, aluminium alloy, carbon steel and so on.
Aluminium ribs are made from T4-2024 alloys.
Wing covering:
Wings are covered with fabric, plywood and aluminum alloy.
When clad materials are used for this purpose there is no need of paints.
Most of the fighter aircrafts have used 7075-T6 aluminum alloys for covering.
Engine mounts components:
Chrome-molybdenum and mild carbon steel are used.
Torsion box:
Aluminum or steel alloy, 2024-T4 aluminum alloy, and K-Monel for non-magnetic
and wear resistant control are generally used.

V-n diagram: Some important point of V-n diagram is elaborated here, for more detail
refer Aircraft structure by D.J.Peery.

Shear Lag (shear Diffusion):

Plane Beam theory assumes plane section before the bending remains plane after
the bending which implies structure should have infinite lateral stiffness or there is
no shear force acting at the beam section. Hence bending stress diagram for a beam
has to be in a linear pattern.
This is not entirely true with a thin-walled hollow tube because shearing
deformations in thin webs are not always
negligible.
These shearing deformations redistribute the
bending stresses. This is known as shear lag.
Explanation:
As an example of shear lag, consider the
semimonocoque beam structure in Figure.
Assuming the cross section is symmetric about a
vertical centreline and the load is applied along
this centreline, there will be no torsional
deformation.
The result of shearing stresses from the simple beam theory will deform an originally
plane cross section to the position indicated by abc.
However, the cross section at the support is restrained from warping out of its
original plane and line abc remains straight.
Therefore, the distance cc is greater than the distance aa which means the stringer
at c resists a smaller compressive stress than the stringer at a.
The bending stress at a is therefore greater than that calculated from the flexure
formula and the bending stress at c is less.
Shear Lag effect is relevant to any slender box element that is loaded laterally such
as airplane wing structure and box girder bridges.
It has also been observed that there is another phenomenon exist which can be
named as Negative Shear Lag For a cantilever box girder researchers observed that
for the one fourth the cantilever span length stress at the edge of the box girder is
less as compared to stresses at the central flange portion.
Significant points about Shear Lag: Conventional Plane Beam Theory underestimates the shear lag effect.
Shear Lag results in non-linear displacement distribution across the cross section.
It leads to stress concentration at web-flange junction and results in out-of-plane
warping.
In cable stayed bridges, forces due to shear lag effect observed maximum at pylon
and reduces away from it.

STRUCTURAL IDEALISATION

In the work done so far, the aircraft structural components analysed have been
relatively simple. However an aircraft wing (for example) can be made up of many
cell compartments. Each section of the wing would be covered by a thin skin, and
the skins would be reinforced by many stringers of Z, C or T section.
The analysis of such a structure would be extremely complex and
time consuming. In order to simplify this, structural idealisation should be carried out.

ASSUMPTION:
1) The longitudinal stiffeners and spar flanges carry only axial stresses
2) The web, skin and spars webs carry only shear stresses
3) The axial stress is constant over the cross section of each longitudinal stiffener
4) The shearing stress is uniform through the thickness of the webs
5) Transverse frames and ribs are rigid within their own planes and have no rigidity
normal to their plane.
In idealising a structural component by following these five points the new simpler structure
looks as in figure.
For which:
The stiffeners are represented by circles called booms,
which have a concentrated mass in the plane of the
skin.
The direct stresses are calculated at the centroid of
these booms and are assumed to have constant stress
through their cross-section.
Shear stresses are assumed uniform through the
Figure: Original and
thickness of the skins and webs.
idealised wing
The direct stress carrying capability of skin is
sections
represented as an addition to existing booms or as additional separate booms.
To idealise a structure you can:
- Replace the spar web by replacing its area to the major booms
- Reduce the number of stiffeners or booms by combining the stiffener mass with
that of the skin into one boom if you wish, this could be simplified even further by:
- Increasing the cross-sectional area of just two of the booms with the direct carrying
capacity of the skin and stiffeners.
REMEMBER: When idealising a structure, the elastic characteristics of the idealised
structure must be the same as for the original structure.
In the idealised structure, the maximum and minimum stresses need to be carried by
the booms as actual direct stresses,

Equating the direct loads along the z-axis gives that:

If the neutral axis in the idealised structure is in the same position as in the original
sheet, the bending moment carried by the idealised structure must be the same as
that carried by the real structure.
Equating moments about neutral plane gives the following:

Multiplying by 2 gives:

Adding these equations and simplifying, gives:

By calculating the bending stresses, the structure can then be idealised.

TENSION FIELD BEAMS:

The tension field beam theory is grouped in to two types:
1. Pure tension field beam theory
2. Semi tension field beam theory
1. Pure tension field beam theory:
The ultimate strength of thin webs in shear is much greater than the initial buckling
strength.
In the case of structural members who are not exposed to the airstream, such as wing spars,
the shear webs may be permitted to wrinkle at a small fraction of their ultimate loads.
To describe the manner in which loads are resisted by shear webs after buckling has
occurred, it is convenient to consider a pure tension field beam in which the web buckles
when the shearing forces are initially applied. Such a web never exists in practice, since even
very thin webs have enough buckling resistance to affect the stress distribution appreciably.

In this theory the compressive stress carrying capacity of the thin web is neglected, as it is
small, only the tensile stress carrying capacity of the web is considered.
The member AB, according to pure torsion field beam theory is subjected to:
Varying axial force
A shear force V
A lateral load of intensity V, causing it to bend
Additional axial force to prevent the top and bottom stringers coming close to each
other due to pulling.

The member BC subjected to compression to prevent the vertical stiffener from coming
close plus tensile and compressive axial force to resist bending which will be increasing,
away from the load.
Also BC is subjected to lateral load of intensity V due to tension field, hence BC has to be
designed as beam-column so also CE, EG, HF, FD, and AD.
An intermittent stiffener as like CD will resist only compressive force.
The tension field beam also differs from the shear-resistant beam in the manner in which
stresses are transferred to the stiffeners, beam flanges, and riveted connections.
The vertical stiffeners in a shear-resistant beam resist no compression load; they only divide
the web into smaller unsupported rectangles and thus increase the web buckling stress.
In a tension field beam, however, the vertical web tension stresses
tend to pull the beam
flanges together, and this tendency must be resisted by compression forces in the stiffeners.
The vertical web tension stresses also tends to bend the beam flanges inward. Flange act as
continuous beam supported by stiffener.
2. Semi tension field beam theory:
- In pure tension field beam theory we
assume that the web is perfectly flexible
and is not capable to carries any diagonal
compressive stress.
- In practical beams the web resists some
diagonal compressive stress after buckling
thus they act in an intermediate range
between shear resistance web and pure
tension field web.
- Such beams are termed as Semi tension field beam or incomplete develop diagonal
tension field beam.
- In the analysis of semi tension field beam by Kuhn et.al. It is assumed that part of the
shear load V is resisted by pure tension field action and that the remain load
(
V is resisted by the beam acting as a shear resisting beam.
(
)
- All point on the wed are assumed to have the same stress distribution except for the
web adjacent to the vertical stiffener which does not wrinkle.
- The stress conditions for any web element are known after and are found.
- The stiffener compression force and flange bending moment proportional to the
vertical component of web tensile stress: