Fluid Mechanics

Ch 2 Fluid at Rest
Stress & Pressure

Stress field
Stress:
stresses in a medium result from forces acting on some portion of the
medium
It is defined as the force per unit area of medium under action of force
The concept of stress provides a convenient means to describe the manner
in which forces acting on the boundaries of the medium are transmitted
through the medium

The normal stress and shear stress

The force F acting on the portion of the surface A

The force has normal and tangential components dFn and dFt, respectively
The unit normal of dA is n. The area of projection of dA in n direction is thus
dAn=dAn

Normal stress

Shear stress

Stress
Since force and area are both
vectors, to describe the stress,
the combination of two vectors
must be employed. This is
called a tensor.
To describe the stress field
using Cartesian coordinates
(x,y,z), we must specify both the
normal direction of the surface
element and the direction of the
acting force.
The first subscript indicates the
direction of the normal to the
plane associated with the stress
The second subscript denotes
the coordinate direction of the
stress itself
The stress field of the
rectangular parallelepiped is
represented by 9 components
as shown

Stress field
If the rectangular parallelepiped is shrinked to a point, then components
of the stress tensor are usuall represented by the matrix form
xx xy xz

yy
yz
yx
zx zy zz

or

The stress can be represented in a more compact form (tensor form)

The tensor notation provides a convenient means to describe the manner in

which forces acting on the boundaries of the medium are transmitted
through the medium.

Stress at a point
Stress at a point for a stationary fluid, uniformly
moving fluid, and inviscid flows
Stationary or uniformly moving fluid
Since a fluid can not withstand a shear stress without
moving, a stationary fluid must necessarily be
completely free of shear stress
An uniformly moving fluid, i.e., a flow where all
elements have the same velocity, is also devoid of
shear stress since the variation of velocity in all
directions for uniform flow must be zero and hence,
by virtue of Newtons viscosity law, all the shear
stresses are zero

Stress on stationary and uniformly

moving fluid
Consider an infinitesimal primatic element of fluid
Stress on an arbitrary surface

Stress on stationary and uniformly moving fluid

If the gravity is the only body force, then the balance of the forces
on the body element reads:
In x-direction

In y-direction

Stress on stationary and uniformly moving

fluid
If we let the element shrink to zero, that is letting , then

We conclude that In a stationary or uniformly moving fluid, the

stress at a point is independent of direction.

Pascals law
Thermodynamic pressure: the normal force per unit area at a given
point on a given plane within the fluid mass of interest.
Because of the equilibrium nature of the case, this quantity may be
considered identical to the negative of the thermodynamic pressure p.
Pascals law: the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is
independent of direction as long as there are no shearing stress
present

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

Stress on inviscid fluid in motion

Since portions of many flows exhibit negligibly small viscous
effects, the idealization of zero viscosity (0) usually leads
to a good advantage in analysis.
In this case, no shear stress but, there may exist
acceleration. The force balance reads
In y direction

In x direction

Stress on inviscid fluid in motion

Hence, we conclude that for an inviscid fluid in motion, just as
in the case of stationary or uniformly moving viscous fluid, the
stress at a point is a scalar quantity. This scalar quantity is also
equivalent to the negative of the thermodynamic pressure p.
Pascals law
This kind of stress distribution is called hydrostatic stress

Properties of stress
Complementary property of shear
Bulk stress and thermodynamic pressure p
The sum of any set of orthogonal normal stresses at a point (called trace)
has but a single value independent of the orientation of the x, y, and z
axes at that point, that is
The value ii=xx+yy+zz associate with a point is independent of the
orientation of the x, y, and z axes about this point
The average normal stress at a point is usually called bulk stress ,

1
1
= ii = ( xx + yy + zz )
3
3
For ideal (perfect) gas in equilibrium and liquid, the relation is valid
unless the fluid approaches critical point.

Basic equation for pressure field

To obtain an basic
equation for
pressure field in a
static fluid.
Apply Newtons
second law to a
differential fluid
mass
Consider an
infinitesimal
rectangular
parallelepiped of
fluid at time t, in a
frictionless or static
fluid as shown

Basic equation for pressure field

The net force in x, y, z directions can hence be expressed as
dFx=
dFy=
dFz=

Basic equation for pressure field

The force exerted on the element then is given as

Hence the froce per unit volume is

Basic equation for pressure field

In the case when a coordinate system other than
Cartesian coordinate is adopted, we use a vector
operator, called the gradient, represented by
or grad, to fit the general cases:
For cartesian coordinates:

grad
=

=
i + coordinates:
j+ k
For cylindrical
x
y
z

For spherical coordinates:

grad = = e +
e + e
r

grad = =

1
1

er +
e +
e
r
r
r sin

Basic equation for pressure field

Since the z axis is vertical, the weight of the element is

k
rdxdydz
Newtons second law can be expressed as

Then

p k = a

is the general equation of motion for a fluid in which there are no

shearing stresses
For invisicd flow

For static fluids, stationary fluids, and uniformly moving fluids

Pressure variation in a fluid at rest

Statics
If all particles either are, motionless or have identically the same
constant velocity, relative to an inertial reference, it will be
considered static.
Under the condition of static (NO SHEAR STRESS), the fluids are
able to sustain only normal stresses, that is, one must deal with
only a scalar pressure distribution, the governing equation for fluid
pressure becomes

!
!
p k = a = 0

In component form

p
+ g x = 0...x direction
x
p
+ g y = 0...y direction
y
p
+ g z = 0...z direction
z

gx = 0,g y = 0,
gz = g

P
=0
x
P
=0
y
P
=
z

Pressure variation in a fluid at rest

Since p is a function of a single variable only, a total
derivative may be used instead of a partial derivative.
Thus, we may write

dp
= g =
dz
=g, the specific weight
Terms about pressure
Absolute pressure: pressure reference to vacuum (psi, Pa)
Gage pressure: pressure measured w.r.t. ambient level (usually
atmospheric pressure). (psig, Pa(gauge))
pbsolute=pgage+patmosphere

Incompressible fluid
We see that under the assumptions
made (static fluid, gravity and
pressure are the primary forces
exerted on the fluid, z axis is
vertically upward), the pressure is
independent of coordinates x and y;
it depends only on z.
For incompressible fluid, =
constant.
Choosing the subscript 0 to
represent conditions at the surface,
we integrate from any position z,
where pressure is p, to position z 0
where the pressure is patm
patm

z0

z0

dp = gdz = dz
p

Incompressible fluid
For arbitrary positions 1 and 2 in the
fluid

This type of pressure distribution is

commonly called a hydrostatic
distribution. h is called the pressure
head and is interpreted as the
height of a column of fluid of specific
weight required to give a pressure
difference p1-p2
The pressure in a homogeneous,
incompressible fluid at rest depends
on the depth of the fluid relative to
some reference plane, and it is not
influenced by the size or shape of
the tank or container in which the
fluid is held.

Manometers
A simple U-tube manometer is shown
Pressure difference between two points in a static fluid can be
determined by measuring the elevation difference between the two
points.
Since the right leg is open to the atmosphere, measurements of h1
and h2 will allow the determination of the gage pressure at A.

p2=p3 because pressures at equal elevations in a continuous mass

of fluid at rest must be the same

Transmission of pressure
Since the pressure, p, acting on the faces of both pistons
is the same, it follows that F2=(A2/A2)F1
If A2>A1, it result in that a small force applied at the
smaller piston can be used to develop a large force at the
larger piston. (Whats the trade-off?)
Applications: automobile hydraulic brakes (10 MPa),
hydraulic actuation systems (30 MPa), jack (70 MPa)

Example
Given: multiple-tube manometer as shown. Specific gravity of
oil is 0.8; specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.
Find: The pressure difference, pA-pB, in kPa

Solution

Solution

Example
A reservoir manometer is built with a tube diameter of 10 mm and
reservoir diameter of 30 mm. The manometer liquid is Meriam red
oil. Determine the manometer sensitivity, i.e., the deflection in
millimeters per millimeter of water applied pressure differential.
Given: Reservoir manometer as show
d=10 mm
D=30 mm
Find: Liquid deflection, h, in millimeters per millimeter of water
applied pressure differential

Solution

 This equation can be simplified by expressing the applied pressure differential as an

equivalent water column of height he

This problem illustrate the effects of manometer design and choice of gage liquid on sensitivity.

Compressible fluid
At high pressures, compressibility effects in liquids
can be important. Pressure and density changes in
liquids are related by the bulk modulus, Ev, or
modulus of elasticity, as has been mentioned
previous, that is
p
Ev ( )T = ( p, Ev )

For gases being compressible fluids, =(p,T).

Since of gases are comparatively small, it follows
that dp/dz is corresponding small, and even over
distances of several hundred feet the pressure will
remain essentially constant for a gas.

Pressure variation with elevation

In analyzing the pressure distribution of the atmosphere of the
planet, the specific weight =g is not a constant.
The value of g could be assumed almost constant in many
cases but the density can be easily evaluated by the ideal gas
law pv=RT or p=RT
Two scenarios will be analyzed
Isothermal perfect gas
Temperature varies linearly with elevation

Isothermal perfect gas

Perfect gas p=RT
Isothermal T=constant
p/=p1/1=constant=c, where subscript 1 indicates
known data

If the elevation considered is not excessively large so

that we could assume g=constant, then

Isothermal perfect gas

Hence, the equation dp/dz=- becomes

Separating variables and integrating from p1 to p for z1 to z,

we get

Note that the pressure decreases exponentially with

elevation

Temperature varies linearly with

elevation
If T=T1+kz
then dT/dz=k or dz=dT/k
Also since

(1)

Substitute eqns (1) and (2) into the equation dp/dz=-,

we have

Temperature varies linearly with elevation

Integrate from z=0 where p=p1, T=T1 to z where p=p, T=T,
then

Solving for p and replacing T by T1+kz, we get

Note that T1 must be in degree absolute.

Example
An atmosphere on a planet has a temperature of 15 oC at sea
level and drops 1 oC per 500 m of elevation. The gas constant
R for this atmosphere is 220 Nm/(kgK). At what elevation is the
pressure 30 percent that of sea level? Take g=9.00 m/s2.

Solution

The standard atmosphere

At sea level the U.S. Standard Atmosphere
Conditions are listed as follows:

The standard atmosphere

The standard atmosphere

The temperature decreases linearly with height (up to 11 km
above sea level, called troposhere) is according to
T=(288-0.006507 z) K
=(519-0.00357z) oR

From height of 11 km to 20.1 km, the atmosphere is isothermal

at a temperature of -56.5 oC which is called stratosphere.