Waves

Learn about : waves , types of waves , mechanical & non-mechanical waves , longitudinal &
transverse waves
We are all familiar with water waves and waves in a stretched string. There are also sound
waves, as well as light waves, radio waves and electromagnetic waves.
A wave is actually a disturbance which propagates energy and momentum from one place to
the other without the transport of matter.
Waves can be one, two or three dimensional according to the number of dimensions in which
they propagate energy.
Waves moving along strings are one dimensional, surface waves or ripples on water are two
dimensional, while sound or light waves travelling radially out from a point source are three
dimensional waves.
Waves are of two types :
(a) Mechanical waves: The waves which require some material medium for their propagation
are called mechanical waves. Sound waves, seismic waves, waves in strings and springs are
examples of mechanical waves. Elasticity and density of medium play an important role in
propagation of mechanical waves.
(b) Non-mechanical waves: The waves which do not essentially require any material medium
for their propagation are called non-mechanical waves. All electromagnetic waves such as
rays, x rays, radio waves, light etc. are non-mechanical.
Any wave whether mechanical or non-mechanical, can be divided into two groups:
(i) Transverse waves: In this case the oscillations are at right angles to the direction of wave
motion or energy propagation. Waves in strings are transverse. These are propagated as crests
and troughs.
(ii) Longitudinal waves: Particles of the medium oscillate in the direction of wave motion. They
are propagated as compression and rarefaction and are also known as pressure waves. Waves in
springs and sound waves in air are example of longitudinal waves.
Note :
(a) All non-mechanical waves are transverse.

(b) In gases and liquids mechanical waves are always longitudinal e.g. sound waves in air and
water.
(c) In solids mechanical waves can be either transverse or longitudinal depending on the mode of
excitation. The speeds of the two waves in the same solid are also different.
Illustration 3: Why transverse mechanical waves can not be propagated in liquids and gases?
Solution: To transmit a transverse mechanical wave the medium must be elastic so as to provide
a restoring force when acted on by shearing stress. But liquids and gases can not sustain shear
stress to provide restoring force, but rather start flowing when acted on by shearing stress.
Wave Function

Learn about : Wave functions , wave profile & forms of wave functions
A function of one variable such as x(t) is sufficient to describe the motion of a point mass
moving along a line
(e.g. x = ut + (1/2) at2).
To give a mathematical description of a wave pulse functions which depend on two variables
such as x and t are required.
Functions which can mathematically represent a moving wave pulse are called wave
functions.
Let us find the general form of wave functions by studying the example of a wave pulse moving
with speed v from left to right in a stretched string.
We choose a co-ordinate system such that the positions of points on the string are plotted along
the x-axis and the displacements of the points from their equilibrium position along y-axis.
The shape of the disturbance is called its wave profile . The wave function will therefore be
a function of both x and t.
If we could measure the displacement y at one instant of time , say t = 0, we would see that it is
some function of x say f(x).
Now if the pulse or wave travels along the string with speed v, without change in shape , then the
displacement of the point x at time t, y (x, t) is the same displacement that occurs at the pint (x
vt) at time t = 0.
i.e. y (x, t) = f(x vt)

The functional forms of f will be different for waves of different shapes but the argument of the
wave function i.e. the variable inside it will be (x vt) for all waves moving with speed v along
the x-axis from the left to the right.
Similarly the wave function of a pulse moving from the right to the left along the x-axis will be
of the form Y = g (x + vt).
In general if the wave function has the form
Y = f(x vt) + g (x + vt)
Progressive Wave

Learn about : progressive wave or travelling wave & Equation of a plane-progressive wave ,
wave number
If we generate the waves in a medium continuously, the particles of the medium oscillate
continuously.
In this situation, the disturbance produced in the medium is called a progressive wave e.g. waves
produced continuously in a string is an example of a progressive wave.
When a progressive wave propagates in a medium, then at any instant all the particles of the
medium oscillate in the same way but, the phase of oscillation, changes from particle to particle.
A progressive wave is also called a travelling wave
Equation of a Plane Progressive Wave :

If during the propagation of a progressive wave, the particles of the medium perform SHM about
their mean position then the wave is known as a harmonic progressive wave.

Suppose a plane simple harmonic wave travels from the origin along the positive direction of xaxis from left to right.

Figure (a) shows the equilibrium positions of particles 1 , 2 , . When the wave propagates
particles oscillate about their equilibrium position.
Figure 2 shows the positions of these particles at any instant during the propagation of wave. The
curve joining these positions represents the wave.
If the time is measured from the instant when the particle 1 at the origin just passes through mean
position in positive direction, then the displacement of the particle after t seconds is given by :
Y = A sin t .
If we are interested in the displacement of the particle P situated at a distance x from 1 at any
time t, and v be the speed of the wave, it will reach the point P in (x/v) seconds.
Therefore particle P starts oscillating in the same fashion (x/v) second after the particle 1 . This
implies that the displacement of the particle P at a time t will be the same as that of the particle 1
at a time (x/v) second earlier
i.e. at time {t (x/v)} and the displacement of 1 at time {t (x/v)} can be written as
Y = A sin {t (x/v)} .(1)
But = 2n and n = (1/T) or (v/).
Substituting these values in (1), the displacement of P at any time t can be written as
Y = A sin (t (x/v)
= A sin 2 [(t/T) (x/)]
Y = A sin (t k x) ..(2)
where k = (2/) is called wave number or propagation constant.
This is the equation of a plane-progressive wave travelling along positive x-axis.
Problems on plane progressive waves

Solved Numerical problems on : General wave equation , Equation of wave propagating

along a stretched string
Following points should be kept in mind:

(a) Equation (2) is a y-x-t equation i.e. displacement (y) of a point P, at a distance x from 1 in any
time t.
(b) The equation of a wave travelling along negative x-axis is
Y = A sin 2 (t/T + x/).
(c) The most general y-x-t equation can be
Y = A sin {2 (t/T x/) }.
(d) All the particles 1, 2, 3, etc. are oscillating simple harmonically along y-axis about their mean
positions (as shown in a Figure) and wave is propagating in x-direction.
Therefore, wave speed (v) is different from particle velocity (u), u is actual velocity of a particle
under SHM which is maximum in its mean position (umax = A) and minimum at extreme
positions (umin = o).
Where as v = constant = n.

Where is wave length of the wave i.e. the minimum distance between two particles having
phase difference of 2. (same displacement from their mean position).
Illustration 4: The frequency of plane progressive wave is 100 HZ. After how much time the
same point will be 90 out of phase ?
Solution: 360 phase difference corresponds to one time period .
90 phase corresponds to one-fourth time period
= (1/4)x(1/100) = 2.5 x 103 s.
Illustration 5: The equation of a wave propagating along a stretched string is given by
Y = 4 sin 2 [ (t/0.02) (x/100)].
where y and x are in cm and t in second.
Determine :
(a) direction in which wave is propagating,
(b) amplitudes,

(c) time period,

(d) frequency,
(e) angular frequency,
(f) wavelength,
(g) propagation constant,
(h) velocity of wave,
(i) phase constant (i.e. initial phase ) and
(j) maximum particle velocity.
Solution: Comparing the given equation with general wave equation given by
Y = A sin (t kx + )
or, Y = A sin 2 [(t/T) (x/) + ]
We find that:
(a) The wave is propagating along +ve x axis.
(b) Amplitude A = 4 cm
(c) Time period T = 0.02 second
(d) Frequency n = (1/T) = 50 Hz
(e) Angular frequency = 2n = 100 s-1
(f) = 100 cm
(g) k = 2/ = /50 cm-1
(h) v = n = 50 x 100 = 5000 cm/s
(i) = 0
(j) vmax = A = 400 cm s1.
Illustration 6: A travelling wave pulse defined as

In which direction and with what velocity is the pulse propagating ?

Solution : A pulse can be expressed by the form given as

By comparing the above with the given pulse we find that the pulse is travelling along negative
x-axis with velocity 2 m/s.
Note : The given function is finite for all values of x and t, because denominator i.e. {5 + (x +
2t)2} can never be equal to zero.
Exercise 1: A progressive wave of frequency 500 Hz is travelling with a velocity of 360 m/s.
How far apart are two points 60 out of phase ?
Exercise 2: Does the speed of a plane-progressive wave depend on the amplitude ?
Exercise 3 : The equation of a progressive wave is represented by Y = A sin2 (kx t). Find its
amplitude and frequency.
Exercise 4: Which of the following equations represents a wave travelling along positive yaxis ?
(a) x = 5 sin (2y 6t)
(b) y = 6 sin (7x 5t)
(c) y = 10 sin (6y) cos (8t).
Velocity of Wave Propagation

Learn about : velocity of a wave travelling in a string or Relationship between wave speed (v) ,
tension (T) and mass per unit length (m)
One of the key properties of any wave is the wave speed. Light travels faster than sound. In this
section we will see what determines the speed of propagation of one particular kind of wave;
transverse waves in a string.
The speed of different kinds of mechanical waves turn out to have the same basic expression; as
does the speed of waves in a string.
The physical quantities that determine the speed of transverse waves in a string are the
tension in the string (T) and its mass per unit length (m), also called linear mass density.
Experimentally we see that, increasing the tension increases the speed, while increasing the
mass, decreases it.

We develop an exact relationship between wave speed (v) , tension (T) and mass per unit
length (m).
Wave speed on a string

The velocity of a wave travelling in a string depends on the elastic and inertial properties of the
string.

Consider a small element AB of the string of length l at the highest point of a crest. Any small
curve may be approximated to a circular arc. Suppose its radius is R. The particles of the string
in this element go in the circle with a speed v. The situation is shown in figure.
Resultant force on the element in downward direction is 2T sin .
As l is small, will be small and sin l/2R
So that resultant force on l is
F = 2T(l/2R) = Tl/R
If m is the mass per unit length, its downward acceleration
a = F/m = T/mR
But the element is moving in a circle of radius R with a constant speed v. Its acceleration
is therefore
a = v2/R = T/mR
v = T/m

We have used the approximation that the tension T remains almost unchanged as the part of the
string vibrates up and down. This approximation is valid for small amplitudes only.
Sound Waves

Learn about : Sound waves , Infrasonic waves , Audible sound waves , Ultrasonic waves
Sound waves are mechanical waves. They require a medium for their propagation i.e. they
cannot propagate in vacuum.
As we have discussed earlier, in gases and liquids, mechanical waves are always longitudinal.
Sound waves too are longitudinal in gases and liquids.
In solids however they can be transverse or longitudinal depending on the mode of excitation.
The speeds of the two waves in the same solid are different (longitudinal waves travel faster than
transverse waves).

Longitudinal mechanical waves can be divided into following three categories:

(a) Infrasonic waves : The longitudinal mechanical waves whose frequency lie below 20 HZ are
called infrasonics . Earth quake (-waves) or periodic motion of a pendulum at frequency lesser
than 20 Hz produces these waves.
(b) Audible or sound waves : These are longitudinal mechanical waves which lie between 20
Hz and 20 kHz. This range lies within the range of sensitivity of the human ear. These are
generated by vocal cords, stretched strings or membranes.
(c) Ultrasonic waves : Longitudinal mechanical waves having frequency greater than 20 kHz
are called ultrasonic waves.
Some animals like the mosquito, fish, dog and bat can detect these waves.
These waves can be produced by the high frequency vibrations of a quartz crystal under an
alternating electric field (piezo-electric effect) or by the vibrations of a ferromagnetic rod under
an alternating magnetic field (magnetostriction effect).
Ultrasonics are used for navigation under water (SONAR) in ultrasonography or, to repel
mosquitoes or, attract fishes.

Note : Velocity of all three waves (sound waves, infrasonic and ultrasonic waves) in air at NTP is
332 m/s. From V = n we find that:
(a) wavelength of sound waves lies in the range 1.66 cm to 16.6 m,
(b) for ultrasonics < 1.66 cm and
(c) for infrasonics > 16.6 m.
Velocity of Sound

Learn about : Velocity of sound waves in a medium of elasticity E and density

Inertia and elasticity ; these are the two properties of matter that determine the velocity of
sound. Analytically it has been shown that velocity of sound in a medium of elasticity E and
density is given by
v = E /
From this expression it is clear that E is maximum in case of solid, then liquid and then gases.
Therefore, v is maximum in solids, then in liquids and then in gases.
For example:
vsteel 5000 m/s,
vwater 15000 m/s and
vair 330 m/s.
Note:
(a) The velocity of transverse mechanical wave is given by
v =/ , where is modulus of rigidity and is density of solid.
(b) As for sound vwater > vair , water is rarer than air for sound and denser for light. Rarer and
denser medium for a wave is decided by its velocity of propagation not the density.
Lesser the velocity denser is the medium and vice-versa. This is why in travelling from air to
water a beam of sound bends away from the normal while that of light towards the normal.

(c) In case of solids E involved in equation v = E/ is Youngs modulus of elasticity while for
liquids and gases bulk modulus is used.
Newtons Formula & Laplaces correction

Learn about : Newtons Formula for velocity of sound & Laplaces correction
Newton assumed that when sound propagates through air, temperature remains constant (i.e. the
process is isothermal).
So, bulk modulus of elasticity B = BT = p
(isothermal bulk modulus BT of a gas is equal to its pressure).
Therefore at NTP
p = 1.01 105 N/m2 and = 1.3 kg/m3

= 279 m/s
The experimental value of v in air is 332 m/s at NTP. This discrepancy was removed by Laplace.
Laplaces Correction :

Laplace assumed that the propagation of sound in air is an adiabatic process not the isothermal.
B = Bs = P [Adiabatic bulk modulus Bs of a gas = P]
Where = Cp/Cv = 1.41 for air

Which is in agreement with the experimental value (332 m/s) thus,

We can conclude that sound waves propagate through gases adiabatically

Factor affecting Velocity of Sound

Learn about : Factor affecting Velocity of Sound , such as : temperature , pressure , humidity ,
Amplitudes, frequency, phase, loudness, pitch, or quality
(a) Effect of density

Clearly , velocity of sound in gas is inversely proportional to the square root of density of the gas
.
(b) Effect of temperature:- In a gas

v T
i.e. with increase in temperature velocity of sound in a gas increases.
Let us find velocity of sound in air at tC.
At NTP vair = voC = 332 m/s

When t is small-

Putting vo = 332 m/s

we have, vt = (332 + 0.61 t) m/s
i.e. for small temperature variations at 0 C, velocity of sound changes by 0.61 m/s when
temperature changes by 1C.

(c) Effect of pressure: In a gas ;

Change in pressure has no effect on velocity of sound in a gas, so long as temperature remains
constant; because ;
P/ = constant; as long as temperature is constant.
(d) Effect of relative humidity: When humidity increases, there is an increase in the relative
number of water molecules and hence a decrease in the molar mass (avg. molecular wt.), and the
speed of sound increases.
Note: The speed of sound in air is not affected by Amplitudes, frequency, phase, loudness,
pitch, or quality.
Displacement & Pressure waves

A longitudinal sound wave can be expressed either in terms of the longitudinal displacement of
the particles of the medium or in terms of excess pressures produced due to compression or
rarefection.
The first type is called the displacement wave and the second type the pressure wave. The
displacement wave can be described by the equation.
y = Asin (wt kx)

Pressure Wave

Consider the element of medium which is confined within x and x + x in the undisturbed state.
If S is the cross section, the volume of the element in undisturbed state will be V = S x.

As the wave passes, the ends at x and x + x are displaced by amount y and y + y.
=> Increase in volume V = Sy
=> Volumetric Strain V/V = Sy/S x = y/x
=> Excess pressure P = B(V/V ) = B.y/x
Here B is the bulk modulus of elasticity or we can writeP = B(dy/dx) and if y = A Sin (wt kx ) then
dy/dx = Ak Cos (wt kx) at a certain time t.
=> P = AkB Cos (wt Kx) = Po Cos (wt kx) when Po = AkB
So, the following conclusions may be drawn from the above result.
(a) If the displacement wave is represented by
Y = A sin (wt kx) , then the corresponding pressure wave will be represented by
P = Po Cos (wt kx) where Po = ABk and P = B dy/dx

(b) Pressure wave is (/2) out of phase with displacement wave. i.e. pressure is maximum when
displacement is minimum and vice-versa.
(c) The amplitude of the pressure wave is Po = AkB
Pitch, Loudness, and Quality of Sound Wave

(a) Pitch: Pitch is the characteristic of a wave by which sound wave appears shrill or grave. It
depends upon the frequency of the wave.
Higher the frequency higher will be the pitch and vice-versa.

Frequency and hence the pitch of a female voice is more than the frequency and the pitch of a
male voice and hence female voice is shrill and male voice is grave.
You might have seen in tape recorders that the voice is shrill when its rpm is more than the
normal (high frequency and high pitch) and the voice is grave (low frequency, low pitch) when it
runs at lower rpm then the normal.
(b) Loudness: Loudness of sound depends upon the intensity of sound. It is found that.
L Log I
i.e. greater the amplitude, greater will be the intensity (I A2) and so louder will be the sound.
The Unit of loudness is decibels (dB) andL = 10 Log10(I/Io) in dB
Here Io is constant i.e. minimum intensity (=10-12 W/m2) just audible at intermediate frequencies.
The loudness of normal talks is about 60 dB.
(c) Quality : It is the sensation received by the ear by which, we are able to differentiate two
sounds (even if they are of same pitch and loudness).
The quality actually depends on the shape of wave form and the number of overtones .
e.g. the two wave forms shown in the figure are of the same frequency and same amplitude, but
since their shape is different they will have different quality.

We differentiate the sound of a mouth organ and guitar because of different quality. A pleasant
sound has certain well defined frequencies which have considerable amplitudes.

On the other hand a noise has frequencies that do not bear any well defined relationship among
themselves.
Exercise 5 : What is the level of loudness of a sound of intensity 10-12 w/m2 ?
Reflection, Refraction & Superposition of Waves

When a wave is incident on the boundaries of the medium, totally the wave is reflected and
partially transmitted (or refracted).
When you flip the end of a rope whose far end is tied to a rigid support, a pulse travels the length
of the rope and is reflected back to you. The incident and reflected waves overlap.
This overlapping of waves is called interference.
When there are two boundary points or surfaces, such as a guitar string, thats tied down at both
ends we get repeated reflections.
Later we will see that in such situations, sinusoidal waves can occur only for certain special
frequencies; which are called natural frequencies.
In this chapter our focus will be on the interference of mechanical waves. But interference is also
important in nonmechanical (i.e. Electromagnetic) waves.
It explains the colours seen in soap bubbles.
Boundary Conditions :

Reflection of a wave pulse from some boundary depends on the nature of the boundary.
The following points should be remembered regarding reflection or refraction of any type of
wave (whether mechanical or nonmechanical).
(a) The phase of a displacement wave changes by in case of reflection from a denser medium,
fixed end or rigid support.
(As discussed earlier also the difference of rare and denser medium for a wave is through its
speed, not density of medium) i.e. if incident wave is given by
Yi = Ai Sin (t kx)
The reflected wave from a denser medium will be
Yr = Ar Sin (t + kx + )

(b) In case of reflection from a rare medium or free end there is no phase change. Plus (+) sign is
now used between wt and kx because the reflected wave travels in negative x direction. Here is
one exception: longitudinal pressure waves suffers a phase change of on reflection from a free
or open end and no change in phase from rigid boundaries.
(c) No phase change takes place in case of refraction.
(d) The frequency of the wave remains unchanged both in reflection and refraction.
I = Incident wave
T = Transmitted or refracted wave
R = Reflected wave
i.e. If Yi = Ai sin (t k1x)
Yr = Ar sin (t + k1x + ) = Ar sin (t + k1x) from a rigid support
= Ar sin (t + k1x) from a free support
Yt = At sin (t k2x).
Note : Since k is the wave number, it does not change in case of reflection, because medium is
same and hence speed, frequency and wavelength (or k) do not change.
On the other hand in case of transmitted or refracted wave since medium changes and hence
speed, wavelength (or k) changes but frequency () remains the same.
Principle of Superposition

When two waves overlap, the actual displacement at some point is obtained by adding the
displacement the point would have if only the first wave were present and the displacement it
would have if only the second wave were present.
In other words the wave function y(x,t) that describes the resulting motion in this situation is
obtained by adding the two wave functions for the two separate waves.
It is called the principle of superposition. i.e.
y (x ,t) = y1(x , t) + y2(x , t) + y3 (x , t) + ..
e.g. suppose two waves 1 and 2 are passing through point P.

Let at some instant the displacement (y1) of P due to wave 1 is + 4 cm and the displacement (y2)
of point P due to wave 2 is 6 cm then at the same instant the displacement of point P would be
6 + 4 = 2 cm.
Similarly , let at some other instant y1 was + 2 cm and y2 was 2 cm, then net displacement of P
at that instant will be zero.
Interference , Diffraction , Beats , Stationary waves etc. all are based on the principle of
superposition.
Standing Waves in a String

We have talked about the reflection of a wave pulse in a string when it arrives at a boundary
point (either a fixed end or a free end).
Now lets look at what happens when a sinusoidal wave is reflected by a fixed or free end of a
string. The waves (incident and reflected) interfere with each other.
The general term interference is used to describe the resultant of two or more waves passing
through the same region at the same time.
When two waves of the same frequency and amplitude travel in opposite directions at the same
speed their superposition gives rise to a new type of wave called stationary waves or standing
wave.
Suppose that the two waves of same amplitude and frequency travelling in opposite directions at
same speed are
Y1 = A sin (t kx) and
Y2 = A sin (t + kx)
(As Y2 is the displacement due to a reflected wave from a free boundary a phase change of will
not take place)
Then, by principle of superposition,
Y = Y1 + Y2
= A [Sin (t kx) + Sin (t + kx)]
Y = 2A Cos kx Sin t
From this it is clear that-

(a) As this equation satisfies the wave equation-

It represents a wave
(b) As it is not of the form F (ax bt), the wave is not travelling and it is called standing wave.
(c) the amplitude of the wave = 2A cos kx
It is not constant but varies periodically with position (x) and not with time as in case of beats,
which we will see later.
Amplitude (As) is maximum when
cos kx = 1 or kx = 0, , 2
or x = 0, /2, , 3/2 . [as k = 2/ ]
The points where As is maximum are called antinodes i.e. at antinodes As = 2A
As is minimum when
cos kx = 0 or kx = /2,3/2
or, x = /4, 3/4
The points where amplitude is minimum are called nodes i.e. at node As = 0.
(d) Distance between two consecutive nodes or antinodes is /2 and the distance between a node
and its adjacent antinode is /4.
(e) Nodes are always at rest, and the displacement at antinodes is always a maximum.
(f) All points lying between a node and an antinode are in same phase and are out of phase with
the points lying between its neighbouring node and antinode.
Properties Of Standing Waves

A standing wave has the following properties :

Maximum displacement of antinodes is 2A. All points (except nodes) pass their mean position
twice in one time period.
(g) Since antinodes have always maximum displacement, their velocity is also maximum
compared to other points and velocity at nodes is zero.
(h) Standing waves can be transverse or longitudinal. In case of longitudinal stationary waves
nodes are points of maximum pressure (minimum displacement) because phase difference of /2
between pressure wave and displacement wave. And antinodal points have minimum pressure
(maximum displacement). In organ pipes longitudinal stationary waves are obtained.
(i) In stationary waves, amplitudes of different points are not equal.
Anode = 0; Aantinode= maximum = 2A.
For other points As increases from 0 to A and then decreases for A to 0.
(j) As in stationary waves nodes are permanently at rest; so no energy can be transmitted across
them. I.e. energy of one region (segment) is confined in that region. However this energy
oscillates between elastic PE and KE of the particles of the medium.
When all the particles are at their extreme positions the KE is minimum. while elastic PE is
maximum and when all the particles (simultaneously) pass through their mean position KE will
be maximum while elastic PE is a minimum. The total energy confined in a segment (Elastic PE
& KE) always remains the same
(k) In standing wave if the amplitude of component waves are not equal then. Amin 0 i.e. node
will not be permanently at rest and so some energy will pass across the node and wave will be
partially standing.
Vibration of strings

Standing waves also known as stationary waves, can be excited in stretched string or in air
columns (organ pipes). Later we will see that because of the boundary conditions a vibrating
system can oscillate in more than one frequencies which are called their naturals frequencies.
These frequencies depend on the length of the system (or stretched string or organ pipes),
boundary conditions and the wave speed in the medium.
Now suppose some periodic driving force is applied on the vibrating system.

After some initial the system finally oscillates with the frequency of the driving force, and at
resonance (i.e. when frequency of the driving force is equal to any one of the natural frequency
of the system) the amplitude of the oscillations become too large.
When we bring a vibrating tuning fork near the mouth of an organ pipe, then at resonance (i.e.
when the length of the organ pipe is so adjusted that its frequency corresponding to that is equal
to the frequency of the tuning fork) the air column in the organ pipes starts oscillating with great
amplitude.
Similarly as a string has many natural frequencies, so when it is excited with a tuning fork (or a
vibrating body) the string will be in resonance with the given body if any one of its natural
frequency coincides with that of the body.
Stationary Waves with Rigid Boundaries at both ends :
For Pth harmonic , Total number of nodes between the two fixed ends = (P + 1)
Distance between two nodes = /2
l = P( /2) or = 2l/P
Now frequency n = V/

where V is the speed of wave in the string, which is

equal to T/m

P=1,2,3,
For P = 1 ,

= Fundamental frequency or frequency of Ist harmonic.

For P = 2 ,

= 2n1 = frequency of 2nd harmonic

From this we find that- n1: n2: n3 ; = 1:2:3:

i.e. in case of a string stretched at both ends, we get both even and odd harmonics.
Vibration of air columns
Organ pipe closed at one end

The same is the case of a glass tube partially filled with water.
For Pth (odd) harmonic
l = p (/4) or = 4l/P

P=1,3,5
for P =1 ; n1 = V/4l = Fundamental frequency or frequency of Ist harmonic
for P = 3 ; n3 = 3(V/4l) = 3 n1 = frequency of 3rd harmonic
i.e. n1:n3 : = 1:3 : . . .
Thus in this case we get only odd harmonics. Here it must be noted that in case of organ pipes
longitudinal stationary waves are obtained.
The end of the air column in touch with water or base of pipe suffers no displacement or density
or pressure change, because the incident and reflected compressional waves are exactly out of
phase.
For this reason the pressure changes here are the largest; since the compressional part is reflected
the pressure increase is doubled and when the rarefaction part is reflected, the pressure decrease
is doubled.
Similarly at the open end, there is maximum density change (or displacement) and minimum
pressure change (The two waves travelling in opposite directions are in phase here, so there is no
pressure fluctuations).
For this reason only the closed end is always node and the open end is antinode.
Organ pipe open at both ends

For Pth harmonic

Total number of antinodes between two open ends = (P + 1)
Distance between two antinodes = /2
l = P (/2) or = 2( l/P )
and

P= 1, 2 , 3 ,
For P =1; n1 = V/2l = Fundamental frequency or frequency of 1st harmonic
For p = 2; n2 = 2(V/2l) = 2n1 = frequency of 2nd harmonic
Hence n1: n2 : n3 : = 1:2:3:
i.e. in case of an organ pipe open at both ends we get both (odd and even) harmonics.
We can remember it like this both even and odd harmonics are obtained when conditions at the
two boundaries are same
(e.g. in case of a stretched string both ends were clamped and in case of organ pipe both were
open) and only odd harmonics are obtained when conditions at two boundaries are different (e.g.
in case of an organ pipe one end is closed and the other is open).
End Correction or Rayleigh Correction

Due to finite momentum of air molecules in organ pipes reflection takes place not exactly at
open end but some what in.
So in an organ pipe antinodes are not formed exactly at free end but at a distance e = 0.6 r, where
r being the radius of pipe. Therefore for(a) Closed organ pipe
leff = l + 0.6r

i.e. ,

and for open pipe leff = l + 20.6r = l + 1.2r

or ,

That is why for a given V and l , narrower the pipe, higher will be the frequency or pitch and
shriller will be the sound.
Illustration 8: Where is the maximum pressure variation, when an open organ pipe of length L
vibrates at in its fundamental mode ?
Solution : Maximum pressure variation is at node (However displacement is zero). Therefore
maximum pressure variation is at the middle of the pipe.
Exercise 6 : A pipe 20 cm long is closed at one end. Which harmonic mode of this pipe is
resonantly excited by a 430 Hz source ? Will this same source be in resonance with the pipe
whose both ends are opened ? Take speed of sound = 340 m/s.
Beats

Beats are produced when two harmonic waves with equal amplitude but slightly different
frequencies interfere. This occurs, for example, when two tuning forks with slightly different
frequencies are sounded together.
Due to superposition of two such waves at all points where they interfere, sometimes we get
maximum displacement and sometimes minimum. As a result intensity alternately increases and
decreases periodically. This periodic, ups and downs in intensity called, beats.
The time between two consecutive minimas or between two consecutive maximas is called
Tbeat(Period of beat) and n = (1/Tbeat) is the corresponding beat frequency.
Let the two waves of frequencies n1 and n2 meet at some point. The corresponding periods are
T1 & T2 with T1 < T2 .
If the two waves start out in phase at time t = 0, they will again be in phase when the first wave
has gone through exactly one more cycle. This will happen at a value of t equal to Tbeat .

Let X be the number of cycles of the first wave in time Tbeat, then the number of cycles of the
second wave in the same time is (X-1) and we have the relation.
Tbeat = X T1 = (X-1)T2
Eliminating X between these two equations we find.

The reciprocal of the beat period is the beat frequency so-

or nbeat = n1 n2 => T1 < T2

n1 > n2

Here we see that after time t = Tbeat both the waves are in same phase.
The displacement due to both the waves were +A (A = amplitude) or A [i.e resultants of two is
+2A or 2A or maxima] they will again be in this position after Tbeat and if the displacement of
the two is +A and A (i.e. resultant is zero), they will again be in the same position, after time t =
Tbeat and thus we get a series of maximas and minimas at the same place with frequency n1~ n2.
As the persistence of ear is about (1/10) s beats will be heard by the ear only if beat frequency <
10 Hz.