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Porphyry copper deposits provide more than 50% of the worlds copper from over 100
producing mines. Their close relatives the porphyry moly deposits produce 70% of the
world's moly. Both deposit types will be discussed separately, but they share many
characteristics and are formed in somewhat similar manners.
Distribution
The Figure shows that most porphyry copper deposits are of Mesozoic to Cenozoic age
and occur in association with volcanic mountain chains at or near destructive plate
margins. The exceptions are a few Paleozoic deposits in the U.S.S.R and the United
States which may themselves be related to Paleozoic plate margins.
The largest concentration of porphyry copper deposits in the world is in the southwestern
U.S. To date 88 deposits have been identified with most having formed 58-72 MY ago.
Form
Typical porphyry copper deposits are cylindrical, stock-like composite masses having
elongate outcrops 1.5 x 2 km in diameter with an outer shell of medium to coarse grained
equigranular rock and a core of similar composition that is porphyritic.
Petrology of the Host Rocks
The most common ore hosts are felsic plutonic rocks ranging in composition from quartz
monzonite to granodiorite. However, a second clustering of deposits occurs in rocks of
dioritic to syenitic composition.
Hydrothermal Alteration
Lowell and Guilbert were the first to document alteration associated with porphyry
copper deposits. They suggested that four alteration halos were often present roughly
centered on the porphyry stock:
Hypogene Mineralization
Ore is found in three settings:
1. totally within the host stock;
2. partially in the stock and partially within the country rocks;
3. within the country rocks only.
The ore body itself is a usually a steep walled cylinder, but tabular to flat conical deposits
are known. The ore occurs as disseminations or stockwork veins with typical grades of
0.4-1% Cu with lesser Mo and gold. Mineralization is strongly zoned. The zones have
been characterized as follows:
Inner Zone - Coincident with the potassic alteration zone. Generally, several
hundred meters in diameter. Relatively low sulfide content, but moly higher than
anywhere else in the deposit. Pyrite 2-5% and py/cp ratio about 3:1.
Mineralization is disseminated rather than stockwork.
Ore Zone - Lies roughly at the potassic-phyllic boundary. Pyrite 5-10% and py/cp
ratio about 2.5:1. Main ore mineral chalcopyrite occurring as stockwork veinlets.
Other ore minerals include bornite, enargite and chalcocite.
Pyrite Zone - Includes much of the phyllic and argillic (if present) zones. Pyrite
quite high (10-15%) and py/cp ratio about 15:1. Mineralization both as veins and
disseminations. Many additional exotic sulfide phases begin to show up.
Outer Zone - Coincides with the propylitic zone. Pyrite minor, and copper
mineralization rare. Sphalerite and galena common, but usually sub-ore grade.
Mineralization approaches true veins.
Breccia Zones - Often major ore carriers in the porphyry system. Have very high grades
(2-5% Cu) and can occur both in the porphyry or the country rock. May be formed by
hydrothermal activity, gravitational collapse or later explosive volcanism.
On a regional scale porphyry copper, moly and tin deposits are distinctly zoned (Figure).
The zoning appears to be related to existing or ancient subduction zones with copper
deposits nearest the trench while moly and tin deposits lie successively inboard of the
trench.
zones close on themselves and die out in the subsurface. In general, this model attempts
to show that the porphyry copper deposit is part of a larger system that includes higher
level epithermal precious metal deposits.
Diorite Model
Recent studies have shown that there are two distinctly different types of
porphyry systems. On type termed the "Lowell and Guilbert type" is characteristic
of the American southwest where the deposits are hosted by quartz monzonites
to granodiorites. The second type is characteristic of the Andes and Pacific
Islands. The host in this case is usually diorite or more rarely syenite. The Table
summarizes the features of both types. In general, diorite systems have:
1. lower sulfur fugacities as evidenced by the presence of magnetite;
2. alteration is restricted to potassic and propylitic;
3. gold is an important constituent while moly is rare to absent.
FEATURE
Host Pluton
LOWELL-GUILBERT
DIORITE
Quartz Monzonite to
Granodiorite (S)
Potassic
Phyllic
Argillic
Propylitic
Potassic
Propylitic
Common
Erratic
Orthoclase in fractures
Common
Erratic
Magnetite
Minor
Common
Pyrite in fractures
Common
Less Common
Molybdenite
Common
Rare
Chalcopyrite/bornite
>3:1
<3:1
Gold
Rare
Important
Breccia
May Occur
Rare
Stockwork
Important
Important
Alteration
Mineralization
Structure
The significance of these differences have only recently been understood; the
explanation coming from Japanese petrologists working on island arc intrusives
and not porphyry copper deposits. They recognized two separate and
petrographically distinct types of granites. The Table characterizes "S" and "I"
type granites. The former is the product of crustal anatexis while the latter
represents the final stage differentiation product of a partial melt generated
during plate subduction.
S TYPE
I TYPE
Gabbro:diorite: granite
2:18:80
15:50:35
Na2O (felsic)
<3.2%
>3.2%
>1:1
<1:1
ilmenite
magnetite
Sr/86Sr
>.706
.704-.706
Normative
corundum
diopside
Sn, W
Au
Al2O3/Alkalis+CaO
Iron oxide
87
Assoc. metals
Genesis
A comparison of the features of S and I type granites with those of Lowell and
Guilbert and Diorite porphyry deposits reveals the similarities. Thus, it has been
concluded that diorite deposits form in settings where partial melts are generated
from subduction of oceanic lithosphere. In contrast, Lowell and Guilbert deposits
represent partial melts of continental crust often far back from the plate boundary.
Genesis
The most striking feature of a typical porphyry system is the size. The
hydrothermal solutions permeate not only the parent intrusive, but also the
country rock. It is thought that the host intrusives are emplaced at shallow depth
0.5-2 km). As crystallization of the intrusive begins the vapor pressure of the
magma chamber rises as does the streaming of incompatible elements into the
vapor phase. When the vapor pressure exceeds the confining pressure of the
overlying rocks retrograde boiling ensues (Figure). A rapidly boiling liquid
separates from the silicate melt eventually overcoming the tensile strength of the
rock. This causes the extensive stockwork brecciation. (Example: water at 2 Kb
pressure and 5000C would increase in volume by at least 10% due to boiling)
Further, boiling is an endothermic reaction requiring heat that is taken up from
the magma as the escaping vapor expands, thus rapidly lowering the
temperature of the magma chamber and producing the central porphyritic
textured intrusive body.
Studies of oxygen isotopes indicate that biotites from the potassic zone have
values equivalent to those of magmatic waters. However, sericite of the phyllic
zone is depleted in 18O suggesting a meteoric water component. The same is
true for argillic alteration. A model has been proposed (Figure) that explains
these observations.
This leaves some interesting speculation. Why do the diorite deposits have only
potassic-propylitic alteration? The above model suggests that for some reason
the magmatic-meteoric water systems never encroached on one another. But
why?