Journal of Environmental Management 187 (2017) 43e53

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Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Research article

Evaluation of permeable pavement responses to urban surface runoff

Meysam Kamali a, Madjid Delkash b, Massoud Tajrishy a, *
a
b

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 25 July 2016
Received in revised form
9 November 2016
Accepted 13 November 2016

The construction of permeable pavement (PP) in sidewalks of urban areas is an alternative low impact
development (LID) to control stormwater runoff volume and consequently decrease the discharge of
pollutants in receiving water bodies. In this paper, some laboratory experiments were performed to
evaluate the efciency of a PP subjected to sediment loadings during its life span. Simple inltration
models were validated by the laboratory experiments to evaluate the trend and extend of PP inltration
capacity throughout the life of the pavement operation. In addition, performances of the PP in removing

3 from the
total suspended solids (TSS) and selective nutrient pollutants such as NO

3 ; NH4 and PO4
surface runoff have been investigated. Experimental data showed that the PP was completely clogged
after seven hydrological years. The model revealed that the ratio of horizontal to vertical hydraulic
conductivity is 3.5 for this PP. Moreover, it was found that 20% reduction in hydraulic conductivity
occurred after three hydrological years. The PP showed 100%, 23% and 59% efciencies in sediment

retention (TSS removal), PO
3

4 , and N
NH4 removal during the entire study, respectively. However,

was

12%
and we suspect the increase in efuent N
NO

the removal efciency of N
NO

3
3 is due
to the nitrication process in subsurface layers. This study demonstrated that when PPs are annually
cleaned, it is expected that PPs can function hydraulically and be able to remove particulate pollutants
during their life span by a proper maintenance.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Permeable pavement
Urban runoff
Clogging
Sediments removal
Nutrient removal

1. Introduction
Urban development increases impermeable surfaces such as
pavements and buildings that diminish water inltration to the
ground and increase runoff volume (Finkenbine et al., 2000; Nie
et al., 2011). This runoff that was induced by impermeable surfaces, washes out pollutants from urban areas and carries them to
waterbodies (Davis et al., 2001). Urban runoff has been known as a
primary pollutant source. About 46% of surface water pollution is
attributed to urban runoff (Chai et al., 2012; USEPA, 1996). Therefore, controlling urban runoff quantity and quality seems vital to
properly maintain watercourses. Among several practices developed to obviate the abovementioned issues, the PP is known as a
LID that can mitigate rst ush impacts and decrease volume of
runoff as well as treatment costs (Sansalone and Teng, 2005;
Andersen et al., 1999).
Several researches have investigated inltration rates of PPs in

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: meisamkamali_63@yahoo.com (M. Kamali), delkash@udel.
edu (M. Delkash), tajrishy@sharif.edu (M. Tajrishy).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.11.027
0301-4797/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

sidewalks using double ring inltrometer tests (e.g. Qin et al., 2013;
Valinski and Chandler, 2015); however as far as authors' knowledge
permits, literature lacks studies that cover the hydraulic performances of a sidewalk PP under clogging. Therefore, the authors
present the literature that has studied the clogging process of PPs
with the most similarity to our experimental setup. Several investigations have been performed to evaluate the performance of
PPs for water quality and some representative example studies are
examined here. For instance, TSS contain attached heavy metals,
which remarkably prevent aquacultural growth (Brown et al.,
2009). PPs have revealed acceptable performances for TSS
removal from runoff. Morquecho et al. (2005) showed that a PP can
reduce TSS, turbidity and total phosphorus more than 50%. TotaMaharaj and Scholz (2010) reported that TSS, N
NH4 and

removal efciencies for a PP were 91%, 84.6% and 77.5%,

P
PO
3
4
respectively. In another study, Collins (2007) asserted that a PP
noticeably decreased N
NH4 and increased N
NO

3 efuent
concentrations compared to the asphalt pavement. Although PPs
have shown acceptable performances in TSS and some other
pollutant removal, the poor PP construction and maintenance lead
to sediments accumulation into the PP structure, which causes

44

M. Kamali et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 187 (2017) 43e53

clogging. This clogging reduces PP popularity when compared to

the other practices (Bean et al., 2007). Several studies have been
investigated to assess clogging behaviors of PPs (Coleri et al., 2013;
Kayhanian et al., 2012a). Types of sediments as well as methods of
applying sediments to PPs vary in literature. Sediments introduced
to a PP might be real samples during urban runoff campaigns or can
be articially provided (Siriwardene et al., 2007). Further, sediments can be applied to PPs either manually (Castro et al., 2007;
Coleri et al., 2013), or by precipitation (Pezzaniti et al., 2009);
however, the pavements in sidewalks are frequently cleaned and
majority of the sediments are entered through surface runoff;
therefore, applying the sediments by runoff is a more realistic
experimental setup.
From the literature review and some of the aforementioned
studies, generally the PP performances were evaluated under unrealistic conditions. For instance, the simulated rainfall and applied
sediments were not in accordant with real sediment loads and
precipitation conditions. Therefore, experimental observations
might differ from eld observations. Pezzaniti et al. (2009) assessed
the effective life of a PP in both laboratory and eld works. Their
results showed that in the eld, clogging happened at a faster rate
compared to the laboratory work. Our study was performed by
conducting experiments through applying clean simulated rainfall
(no suspended solid) from the top of the PP (representing rainfall)
and simulated runoff with sediments that was own from a side. In
addition to this unique experimental setup, we developed a model
to understand the water ow in this PP structure. This approach
was used to evaluate the temporal and spatial clogging trends in
this PP and hence to nd the vulnerability of the PP to sediment
loadings during rainfalls. We dened clogging in terms of the
accumulation of silt within the pavement structures that corresponds to a decrease in the hydraulic conductivity of the PP (Castro
et al., 2007). Castro et al. (2007) related the clogging due to the
reduction in hydraulic conductivity to the entrapments of particles
in the upper surface layer as well as the accumulations of particles
on the geotextile fabric. Recognizing susceptible spots for clogging
in PPs would help to locate the failed locations and to properly
clean it through an optimum maintenance schedule. One other
important feature of our investigation was addressing the pattern
of water ow through the PP as a porous media to determine the
fraction of the total water that enters the PP and horizontally ows
for sizing the drainage system in PPs.
This study aims at examining performances of a PP, used in
sidewalks, during a ow of runoff that contains sediment loads. We
present the clogging steps as a runoff was exposed to the PP using
specic sediment samples that were collected from some streets in
Tehran, Iran. Using our experimental measurements, a simple
model was developed to nd out the capacity of the PP, the chronological clogging trend and its age (we dened the age of the PP as
the time before runoff overows the PP). Although evaluating the
PP clogging by sediments was taken as the primary objective of this
study, the performances of the PP in removing some pollutants

such as TSS, PO
3
4 ; NH4 and NO3 removal were also investigated.

2. Methodology
2.1. Experimental setup
Fig. 1 displays the schematic diagram of the experimental setup
used to evaluate the performance of our PP under different laboratory conditions. Several important features of the experimental
setup are described below.

2.1.1. PP module
The schematic diagram of a PP module is depicted in Fig. 1a. The
experimental area of this PP was about 2 m2 (2 m by 1 m) and
pavement was constructed at 2% slope. The experimental PP
module comprised of three different layers: (1) top layer includes
concrete blocks with 4 cm height and 0.5 cm gaps between the two
adjacent blocks; the gaps were lled with granular gravel size
ranging from 2.36 mm to 4.75 mm, (2) middle layer that consists of
5 cm granular lter, which is comprised of granular gravel in the
range of 2.36e4.75 mm, and (3) the bottom subbase pebble gravel
layer with 12 cm height and granular particle size between 4.75 and
20 mm. In addition, a geotextile fabric was installed in the bottom
of the granular lter (second layer) and subbase layer (third layer).
The top geotextile layers were installed to prevent downward ow
of particles into the subbase layer. The bottom geotextile layer was
added to prevent particle upow movements from subbase soil into
the subbase layer.
Using the rainfall records from the nearest weather station in
Tehran (Mehrabad weather station, about 2.5 km far from the
studied streets) as well as design method suggested by the Iowa
stormwater management manual for pavement systems (Iowa
Stormwater Management, 2009), we estimated the depth of
reservoir layer to be about 25 cm. According to this manual, curve
number, ratio of impermeable pavement to permeable pavement,
void ratio of aggregate base, and design rainfall event were
assigned 98, 3, 0.4, and 30 mm, respectively. However, due to
limitations in the PP modular dimension and weight, the depth of
12 cm was considered. The 13 cm reduction in depth was mostly
associated with the subbase layer that might be more signicant for
PP design with higher trafc speeds as well as load applications and
will be insignicant for clogging investigations in sidewalks. For
example, it has been documented that pavement failure due to
clogging is mostly associated with particles trapped in surface or
upper subsurface of PP pavements (Teng and Sansalone, 2004;
Kayhanian et al., 2012a; Coleri et al., 2013), which is usually independent of bottom layer depths. Therefore, the proposed depth in
our experimental setup is justied in accordance with the study
objectives.
2.1.2. Rainfall and sediment simulator setup
A schematic diagram of the rainfall and sediment loading
simulator is shown in Fig. 1b. Different setups were examined to
nd the highest uniformity in the rainfall applied to the PP. In order
to achieve the highest uniformity, the number of nozzles and their
heights with respect to the surface of the PP were changed. The best
experimental setup, whose uniformity was high, had a 2 m height
from the PP surface and 3 nozzles in one row. With some limitations in our experimental set up, we calibrated the intensity of the
rainfall simulator and found to be 36 mm/h, which is fairly close to
the average rainfall intensity in Tehran (Tehran's mean annual
rainfall 240 mm with majority of rainfall events last about 6 h and
therefore the average hourly rainfall intensity is equal to 40 [240/
6] mm/hr). In order to meet the annual rainfall, the system worked
for 6.67 h (240/36) in each hydrological year. The rainfall simulator was operated with clean tap water and applied on top of the
PP and let the water ow downward through different pavement
layers.
In addition to applying clean rainfall from top, an articial surface runoff was also introduced to the PP from one side (see Fig. 1b).
This type of PP is planned to be implemented in pedestrians of
Tehran. It will convert impermeable surfaces, which have three
times greater surface area than permeable surfaces, to permeable
pavements. Thus the owrate of runoff was three times larger than
rainfall intensity to be consistent with real conditions. This applied
runoff containing sediments in some of the experiments allowed us

M. Kamali et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 187 (2017) 43e53

45

Joints
Permeable block paved layer

Filter layer (Ds=2.36-4.75 mm)

40 mm
50 mm

Geotextile

120 mm

Subbase layer (Ds= 4.75 - 20 mm)

Geotextile

(a)

Rainfall simulator
Artificial runoff

Rainfall tank

Permeable pavement

Bypass

600 cm

320cm

400 cm

600 cm

First
segment

Second
segment

Third
segment

Fourth
segment

Tap water
Tap water

F
F

Artificial runoff (Tap

water with sediments)
(diameter<150 m))

(b)
Fig. 1. (a) PP module with specied layers, and (b) schematic diagram of experimental setup.

to investigate the impact of particles in surface and subsurface

clogging.

2.1.3. Piezometers installation and hydraulic head measurements

As mentioned before, this study denes clogging in terms of a
decrease in hydraulic conductivity values of the PP due to the
accumulation of silt within the PP structure. On the other hand, a
decrease in hydraulic conductivity of the surface corresponds to a
drop in the piezometric head in that spot. Therefore, any unusual
drop in piezometric head in the PP indicates clogging in that spot.
These drops were utilized to conrm the results of our model about
clogging spots and times. In this study, piezometric heads were
measured by 20 piezometers that were installed in different locations of the PP. We assigned ve piezometers to one segment of the
PP to have a good distribution of piezometric heads. Therefore, the
PP was divided into four segments that can contribute in the total
PP drainage. The numbers shown in the arrows in Fig. 1b display the
areas that are swept by each segment. The discharge in these segments were measured by dividing the water level rise in a marked
bucket into the time intervals. These discharge values were
employed for model validation as well as prediction of the location
and time of clogging occurrences. The approach that these measurements were used in the model is explained in the latter section.
Efuent water discharge from the rst to fourth segments shows
the drainage path in the PP. This path is dened as the length
between the point that surface ow enters the PP and where it
leaves the PP. An increase in efuent water discharge in farther
segments is accompanied with an increase in drainage path and
clogged surfaces (Castro et al., 2007).

2.2. Formulation of the runoff transport in the PP

Schematic diagram for experimental setup related to the
formulation of runoff transport over and through PP module is
shown in Fig. 2. As shown, the PP module was divided into four
segments. Water discharge qij was measured for each of these
segments (j index) at different times (i index). Water mass balance
was taken into account for each segment. The applied runoff can
inltrate into each segment of the PP or keep owing as surface
runoff and inltrate into the next segment (based on inltration
rate and hydraulic conductivity values). Water inside the segment
can discharge from that segment (and the system) downward or
drain in the adjacent segment horizontally according to the hy 
draulic conductivity ratio KKhv . This horizontal ow is expressed by
(eq. (1)). Mass balance considers a steady precipitation (P)
distributed uniformly on the PP as well as applied inuent runoff,
horizontal water drainage dij from each segment, and efuent
discharge qij from that. The mass balance relationship for each
segment is shown in (eq. (2)). A quasi-steady state condition was
assumed here for inltration meaning that inltration rate is constant between two consecutive measurements.

 
Kh
*qij
Kv

(1)

Iij dij
1 dij qij

(2)

dij

where Iij inltration rate (m/s) at time (i) into segment (j), dij
1

46

M. Kamali et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 187 (2017) 43e53

Fig. 2. Scheme of PP module with variables used to develop a model to formulate runoff transport in the PP (Note: P simulated rainfall precipitation, Rj runoff rate over jth
segment, Ij inltration rate into the jth segment, dj horizontal drainage rate into jth segment, qj efuent discharge rate from jth segment).

horizontal water drainage (m/s) at time (i) from segment (j-1) into
segment (j), qij water exiting discharge (m/s) from segment (j) at
time (i).
Porous media inltration is dependent of hydraulic conductivity
 
at a certain soil saturation Kq and a hydraulic head gradient DLH
as expressed by (eq. (3)):

I
Kq

DH

(3)

where L is the total height of a porous media (m), DH is the difference of total head between up and downstream of uid into the
porous media (m). Total head in the porous media is made of matric
potential (h) and elevation height (z): (Hh z).
To study the PP responses to urban runoff and to evaluate the
clogging trends, a modeling approach was used to estimate hydraulic conductivity. In this paper, it was assumed that PP rapidly
meets the saturated condition. Main reason for this assumption was
that the major portion of total depth (21 cm) of the PP was dominated with granular and pebble gravels, so matric potential is
neglected for these large particles Dh < Dz. Hence, it is expected that the hydraulic conductivity immediately reaches its
saturated values Kq zKsat . In addition, it was assumed that
ponding height Hponding on the PP is much smaller than the PP
column (L) z Hponding L; Hponding L. Thus, the inltration
rate (I) value was estimated by the saturated hydraulic conductivity
Ksat that is shown in (eq. (4)).

I
Kq

DH
L

Kq

Dh z
L


z
Ksat

Hponding
L


L
z
Ksat
L
(4)

Whenever overow (runoff and precipitation) is greater

than Ksat , inltration rate shown in (eq. (5)) equals Ksat and under
the condition that overow is lower than Ksat the inltration rate is
equal to the overow rate.


Iij

Ksat
Rij P

Ksat < Rij P

Ksat > Rij P

(5)

where Iij is the inltration rate (m/s) at time i and segment j, Rij
runoff overowing on the PP (m/s) and P the precipitation applied
on the PP (m/s).

2.3. Laboratory experiments

Three different experimental sets were performed under laboratory conditions. The rst experiment was implemented to
calculate the hydraulic features of the PP as a basis to evaluate
clogging. Then the obtained hydraulic conductivity ratio will be
validated by another experiment. The second experimental set was
executed under sediment loadings and particles entrapments in
void spaces, which cause clogging. The third experiment was carried out to evaluate the performance of the PP in removal of some
selective pollutants, which are concern in urban road surface
runoff.
2.3.1. Experiment set 1: performance evaluation of PP based on
hydraulic response (No sediment)
Since there is no water storage and clogging in the rst experiment, this experiment was performed to obtain the ratio of the
 
horizontal to vertical hydraulic conductivities KKhv of the PP. This
ratio plays an important role in the horizontal water transport in
porous mediums. It is estimated to be around 10 for natural soils
that have clay and other cohesive materials. However, the PP used
in this study was primarily made of granular and pebble gravels and
hence, it is expected that this ratio would be smaller than normal
soils (less horizontal movements due to less matric suctions). To
 
nd the value of KKhv in this PP, rainfall with the intensity of
36 mm/h and runoff (without sediment) with the runoff rate of
108 mm/h were applied to the PP. Piezometric heads in the storage
layer were measured by piezometers to monitor the level of PP
saturation. Total volume of water fed into the PP was 298 L during
three-hour rainfall and runoff application.
An additional experiment was run during this experimental set
to assess the accuracy of predicted overow under higher ow
intensity. Water would recess from the saturated segments during
this experiment. This overow would occur because of the larger
runoff and rainfall rates than inltration rate. Thus, it was assumed
that water storage was equal to the difference between inow and
outow in each segment. The mass balance for this condition is
expressed by (eq. (6)). Water would recess from each segment to
the surface when accumulation volume, VACij (m), was greater than
segment capacity. Water accumulation is the multiplication of
accumulation rate and time intervals (eq. (7)). Segment capacity is

M. Kamali et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 187 (2017) 43e53

the total void volume in each segment wherein water can occupy. It
is worthy to note that all the calculations were done in unit of area.


Sij Iij dij
1
dij
qij Iij dij
1

VACij Sij *Dt

Kh
Kv


1 qij

(6)
(7)

During this experiment, 62 mm/h uniform and steady precipitation was applied to the PP. This applied precipitation is about 70%
times greater than the rst experiment to study the PP capacity and
overow. As compared with the rst experiment, the runoff rate
applied to the rst segment during this experiment was three times
greater than precipitation (3*62192 mm/h). In addition, the
application of source water (precipitation and runoff) on the PP
lasted one hour and then the PP was left to drain the applied runoff
and precipitation.
2.3.2. Experimental set 2: performance evaluation of PP for clogging
under sediment loading
The aim of the second experimental set was to get the age of the
PP before having any overow bypass. Inltration of runoff that
contains sediments leads to PP clogging. This clogging depends on
PP hydraulic conductivity, sediment and runoff loadings.
An articial runoff was prepared by addition of dry sediments
collected from the streets to the tap water in a mixing tank depicted
in Fig. 1b. This mixing tank was used to keep the TSS concentration
constant during the experiments. Based on a study carried out by
Kamali et al. (2012), the median concentration of TSS was about
400 mg/L in urban runoff of Tehran during nine eld measurements
from different surfaces including urban stream, rusted iron roof,
galvanized iron roofs, asphalt street and storm channels. Therefore,
runoff with average TSS concentration of 400 mg/L was exposed to
the PP. The runoff was transported to the surface of the PP by a
pump. A oat ball used to x the water elevation in tank. During
6.67 h, steady-state precipitation rate of 36 mm/h and runoff
108 mm/h were applied to the PP during each hydrological year.
Generally, there was a day gap between each hydrological simulation to make the needed TSS for the next hydrological year.
Dry sediments were swept up from the edges of streets with
low, medium and high trafc volumes. Average of annual daily
trafc of these streets is about 1200. After sampling, they were
carried to the laboratory to be washed and granulated, respectively,
and nally were dried in an oven. The sieving results of these
sediments revealed that sediment sizes in streets with medium and
low trafc volumes are somehow similar. One representative
example of a sample sediment size distribution is displayed in
Fig. S1 (supplementary document). As shown, about 50% of sediment size was smaller than 150 mm. For this reason and the fact that
particle less than 150 mm is more responsible for clogging in PPs
(Coleri et al., 2013), these particle size ranges were used during our
experiments.
2.3.3. Experiment set 3: performance evaluation of PP for pollutants
removal
This part of the experiment aims to determine pollution removal
efciencies of the PP and detect inuences of drainage path length
in nutrient removal efciencies. Four different water quality parameters were taken into account to assess PP performances

including: TSS, PO
3
4 , NH4 and NO3 . The pollutants were selected
because an elevated concentration of these constituents were
measured in storm drain channels; especially when mixed with
wastewater streams (Kamali et al., 2012). Discharge of storm drains
containing these pollutants into surface water bodies causes

47

eutrophication and reduces the overall quality of water.

To carry out these experiments, the 150 lit tank was lled with
an urban stream with base ow around the studied streets. The TSS,

PO
3
4 , N
NH4 and N
NO3 concentrations in the tank were about
720, 3, 3.5 and 2.2 mg/L. For a better control of inuent and efuent
rates and path of pollutants, the direct rainfall is removed from the
setup. It should be noted that the PP surface had been fully cleaned
before this stage was begun. Pollutants had a higher inuent concentration at the beginning of this experiment to consider the rst
ush phenomena. To achieve this goal, tap water was added to the
tank as the polluted water was conveyed to the PP. This substitution
makes the pollutants diluted and keeps the water at a constant
owrate (108 mm/h). Runoff ew for 240 min and the measurements went on 30 min after the runoff stoppage. Seven samples
were harvested from inuent runoff and efuent discharge of each
segment. A spectrophotometer device was utilized to measure the
concentrations of the pollutants. The concentration differences
between inuent and efuent from the segments indicated the role
of PP in the nutrients removal efciency.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Performance results based on hydraulic behavior
The results of this experiments are categorized into two
different parts: (1) nding the ratio of hydraulic conductivities and
(2) validating the model by predicting the runoff overow under
more intense rainfall and runoff rates. This validated model is used
to better understand the governing mechanisms and evaluate the
long-term hydraulic performance of the pavement structure.
3.1.1. Ratio of hydraulic conductivities
The results of exiting discharge for four different segments
during the experiment set 1 are tabulated in Table S1 (supplementary document). As shown, higher drainages occurred in the
farther segments to the inuent and the rst segment underwent
the least water drainage, which can be explained by slope of the
experimental setup (2%) that enforces the water to move downstream. This observation is consistent with literature (e.g. Castro
et al., 2007). Castro et al. (2007) investigated the role of PP's
slope on the water discharge and found that the slope affects the
drainage path. They reported that although over 70% of total water
was drained from the rst half of the PP under zero slope condition,
the water drainage path shifted to the middle and end of the PP
when the slope gently increased to 2%.
The water inuent into the PP in 180 min was 898.2 lit and the
amount of efuent was 821 lit. Afterward, 7.15 lit water exited from
the PP in 24 h. Totally, 8% difference was found between water fed
into the PP and the outlet volume. This difference between the
volumes of water in the inuent and efuent has a descending
trend. We associated this observation with 1) grain afnity in
adsorbing water, 2) errors in measurements, 3) incomplete inltration of the rainfall into the PP (e.g. forming ponds on the PP), and
4) water retention in the PP due to the slope, which brings about
incomplete discharge.
Insignicant storage in all the segments was assumed during
this experiment, so water would only be discharged out or drained
 
to the adjacent segment in KKhv ratio over vertical discharge. A
 
global KKhv value was searched for the PP, which means that this
ratio was considered to be for the whole of the PP during the
experimental steps. The least square error between the observed
discharge qi and predicted values was used to get the most

48

M. Kamali et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 187 (2017) 43e53

 
representative value

Kh
Kv

 
. The representative ratio for

Kh
Kv

ob-

tained was 3.5, which is reasonable for a porous media with large
void ratio, less matric suction, and lower horizontal water
movement.

3.1.2. Evaluating the PP capacity

As discussed in the methodology section, the applied rainfall
and runoff intensities were 62 and 186 mm/h, respectively. The PP
was saturated 26 min after experimental initiation and a pond was
formed in the outlet. A higher discharge rate was seen for the rst
hour when we had both runoff and rainfall. A decreasing trend in
water drainage after the rst hour is related to stopping water ow
entrance the PP. The third and fourth segments made the highest
contributions in discharge, which was related to the horizontal
water movement in the porous structure. In this experiment, the
relative difference between the total water that came into the PP
module and exited was about 1.4%, which infers that water was not
noticeably stored in the PP.
 
Knowing the KKhv , which is porous medium specic, helps us
model more experimental setups. PP performance under high
rainfall intensity and drainage prediction would be another interesting point about the PP. Applying higher rainfall and runoff rates
than PP capacity would lead to a runoff overow. Observation of
runoff that is overowing from the fourth segment infers that the
PP failed at controlling runoff quantity. The data of this experimental setup are displayed in Table S2.
The results presented in Table S2 reveal that water was more
discharged from the third and fourth segments compared to the
rst and second one. The authors believe that this distribution of
water discharge highly depends on PP slope, PP particle size distributions and water ow rates. As water inuent stops (after one
hour), discharged volume was decreased in all the segments except
the rst one. We related this observation to water backward
movement from the farther segments to the rst one due to unbalance water distribution in segments after stoppage of water

inuent.
Predicted discharges (qij for each segment at different times are
plotted vs. observed discharges in Fig. 3. Predicted water discharge
from each segment was compared to the measured value to assess
 
the accuracy of KKhv . The results unveil an acceptable prediction of
this ratio for the studied PP. Total measured and predicted overow
are 7.7*10
5 and 3.6*10
5m/s, respectively. It can be seen that they
are in order of magnitude; however, this difference might be
associated with the quasi-steady state assumption, complicated
behaviors of water during recession and averaging long intervals of
measurements.

3.2. PP performance for clogging under sediment loading

Evaluating the PP clogging trends under sediment loading was
the primary objective of this stage of the experiments. The water
discharge of these four segments and runoff coefcient during all
seven hydrological years are displayed in Fig. 4. The PP had a free
drainage condition that was governed in the rst two years. The
drainages prevented releasing of water in the rst hour of each
other hydrological year. As shown in Fig. 4, runoff overow was not
observed in the rst ve years. The runoff coefcient in the sixth
year was 15%. During the seventh period, the runoff coefcient
increased from 15% to 35%. During all these hydrological years,
coarse sediments inlled the gaps between the blocks, which increase the runoff coefcient (Pezzaniti et al., 2009). Castro et al.
(2007) compared inltration rate and runoff percent between
two conditions (no clogging, fully clogging) in 2% slope. They found
that the lter water volume decreased from 98.45% to 70.98% and
runoff percentage increased from 1.6% to 29%, which is consistent
with our observation. During all seven years of our experiment,
water discharge from segments 1 and 2 decreased from 48.4% to
10.5%, and water discharge from segments 3, 4 and the weir
increased from 51.6% to 89.5%.
The hydraulic heads recorded by piezometers for the experiments since the fourth until seventh hydrological years are shown

Fig. 3. Predicted and observed discharge for each segment at each measurement time.

M. Kamali et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 187 (2017) 43e53

segment 1

segment 2

segment 3

segment 4

49

runoff

Outflow percentage (%)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1

4
Hydrological year

Fig. 4. Comparison between the percent output water volume water efuent percentage from the drainages and weir in seven hydrological periods during the experiments with
clean runoff.

Forth
FourthSimulation
SimulationPeriod
Period
Sixth Simulation Period

Fifth Simulation Period

seventh Simulation Period

Pizeometeric head (mm)

160
140
120
100
80
60
First segment

40

Second segment

Fourth segment

Third segment

20
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

distance from upsteam of the PP (mm)

Fig. 5. Temporal and spatial variations in piezometric heads.

in Fig. 5. As seen, there is a noticeable clogging in the PP in a distance about 80 cm from the zone where runoff was applied during
the fourth and fth hydrological years. However, the observations
are different in last two hydrological years. During these years, a
sharp drop occurred in the third segment. The clogging in these two
years occurred in a distance about 130 cm from the beginning of the
PP, which is located in the third segment. It can be seen that the
drop was shifted from the second to the third segment during the
last three years. According to Fig. 5, water discharge from the rst
and second segments decreased from 22% to 10.5%, and from the
third, fourth segments and weir increased from 78% to 89.5%.
Pezzaniti et al. (2009) reported that these changes are associated
with 1) accumulations of ne sediments on the geotextile layers,
and 2) coarse sediments on PP surface that bring about an increase
in drainage passage from the fourth to the seventh year.
Eqn. (3) was taken into account as the governing equation to
obtain the temporal and spatial clogging trends. Although the
maximum inltration rate of the PP might not be affected by particles trapped in the initial years (because of higher hydraulic
conductivity compared to the runoff and precipitation rates),
inltration rate should be decreased as sediments are introduced to
the PP. A cake was formed on top of the pavement as the

experiments went on. It was related to sediments trapped in the

particles of the PP at the surface, which is concurrent with former
studies (James, 2004; Teng and Sansalone, 2004; Kayhanian et al.,
2012a). James (2004) and Pratt et al. (1995) reported that the majority of TSS usually accumulate on a very thin layer on top of the PP.
Teng and Sansalone (2004) called this thin layer schmutzdecke
cake and found that this layer forms when the ratio of sediment
diameter to the medium diameter is less than 10. Here, since the
ratio of the medium diameter was about 2.7 mm and the sediment
diameter was about 150e300 mm, sediments were strained in this
cake on top of our PP. In another study, Kayhanian et al. (2012a)
utilized scanned image analysis and found that top 2.5 cm of a PP
had noticeable smaller porosities compared to the bottom of the PP.
Further, no water receded from inside the PP into the surface during
this experimental stage. It means that the reason for runoff efuent
after a few years is surface clogging and capacity of the PP is still
higher than water that enters the PP. Thus, a thin cake layer (1 cm)
was assumed to be formed on top of the PP. Further, since water can
be drained easily, no water storage inside the PP was assumed
within each two consecutive measurements. It means that as water
comes into each segment, it discharges out of the system or travels
to the next segment. This quasi-steady state assumption eases the

50

M. Kamali et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 187 (2017) 43e53

modeling of water ow in the PP.

The inltration model was used to simulate the temporal and
spatial clogging trends. Hydraulic conductivity variations during
seven hydrological years are shown in Fig. S2. It can be seen that the
rst and fourth segments did experience insignicant variations,
while the second and the third segments got clogged (about 12%),
which complies with literature. During an experiment with
200 mg/L sediment, a formpave showed 10% decline in hydruclic
conductivity after 5 hydrological years (Valkman, 1999). Based on
the results presented in Fig. S2, the second segment was clogged
since the third hydrological year, which is somehow consistent
with piezometric observations (Fig. 4). Furthermore, it was found
that the third segment had clogging since the sixth hydrological
year, which is concurrent with the piezometric measurements.
Comparing our observations with other studies (Castro et al.,
2007; McKenzie et al., 2008; Pezzaniti et al., 2009) reveals that
the clogging of the PP highly depends on sediments loading, the
way of applying sediments to the PP, PP hydraulic conductivity, and
particle size distribution. We learnt that sediment loadings have a
big inuence on age of the PP. Pezzaniti et al. (2009) reported that
their PP age was about 35 years in experimental setup; however,
our PP clogged after 7 years. They imported sediments with a rate
32.62 gr/yr to the PP, while we applied 583.2 gr/yr of sediments to
the PP. Therefore, our sediment load was about 18 times greater
than the load in Pezzaniti et al. (2009).
Particle size distribution plays an important role in PP clogging.
Generally, the range of urban runoff particle size has been reported
in great variety. For instance, just 3% of the dry solids in runoff were
smaller than 50 mm (Li et al., 2005). In another study, Sansalone and
Tribouillard (1999) reported that the fraction of particles less than
50 mm in a PP was 10%, while in another research, majority of
particles on a PP were less than 50 mm (McKenzie et al., 2008).
According to Stoke's law, this variety in particle size distribution
would lead to different settling velocities. Sphere shapes were
assumed for the particles to calculate the horizontal distance that
the particles pass to settle down; however, small particles might
have non-sphere shapes, which makes them more suspended than
sphere shapes. The results of Stoke's law reveal that if the second
segment in the PP (50e100 cm) was noticeably clogged, the majority of sediments should have particle sizes less than 7 mm. In an
investigation about road dust and stormwater sampling, McKenzie
et al. (2008) found that the majority of particles are smaller than
7 mm, which conrms the results found here.
The way of importing sediments to the PP is one of important
elements in evaluating PP performances. In this study, sediments
were imported to the PP from one side and clogging occurred from
upstream of the water ow, which is called clogging front. In this
condition, upstream of the PP is initially clogged and then clogging
extends to downstream regions. Although what Pezzaniti et al.
(2009) found in their eld work accords well with our observation, they did not observe this process in their experimental effort.
Moreover, their results showed that clogging occurs in a faster rate
in the eld compared to the laboratory experiment. Therefore, this
comparison infers that our experimental setup is closer to what
happens in reality (elds).
Another key element in the PP performance is hydraulic conductivity, which causes easier ow in PPs. The PP utilized in
Pezzaniti et al. (2009) had a hydraulic conductivity more than two
orders (4.7*10
2 m/s) of magnitude greater than our PP
(2.1*10
4m/s). This difference can somehow explain the higher
duration of their PP. However, a hydrapave constructed in Australia
with a hydraulic conductivity 6.5*10
3m/s (one order of magnitude
greater than ours) had about 10 year as effective life (Yong et al.,
2008), which is closer to the age of our PP.

3.3. Performance evaluation of PP in pollutants removal

As mentioned before, if PPs are properly designed, constructed,
and maintained, they can be a good alternative method to manage
stormwater runoff in urban areas. Beside the runoff volume
reduction, PPs are capable to remove most of the particulate and
some dissolved pollutants in the urban runoff. The performance of
the PP for the removal of selected pollutants investigated in our

3
study (namely, TSS, NH4 , NO

3 and PO4 ) are discussed below.
3.3.1. Total suspended solids (TSS)
Total suspended solids are an important water quality parameter that is commonly used to design and evaluate the performance
of best management practices or sustainable urban drainage systems. Although TSS intuitively are not a pollutant of concern, their
measurement could be used as a surrogate parameter to evaluate
particle bound organic and inorganic pollutants in runoff. TSS could
also impact the turbidity of runoff and inuence the quality of
receiving waters. The concentration of TSS in urban runoff may vary
between 100 and 3000 mg/lit. Generally, the size of particles found
in runoff inuences the measurement of TSS in laboratory and
settling or their removal in BMPs (Kayhanian et al., 2012b).
Permeable pavements are generally considered a good LID to
remove TSS or particle bound pollutants with an efciency varying
between 72% and 100% (Pezzaniti et al., 2009; Yong et al., 2008;
Rowe et al., 2009; Brown et al., 2009; Tota-Maharaj and Scholz,
2010). A complete removal (100%) of TSS with our PP module was
accomplished during 180 min. Although TSS are captured
throughout the PP depth, the geotextile layer improved the efciency of removal TSS in this experiment. In a study, a geotextile
layer between gravel layers increased efciency of TSS removal by
about 30% (Rowe et al., 2009). Although PPs have great performances in TSS removal from urban runoff, this TSS capturing
hardens water ow in PPs. These TSS trapped in structures of PPs
occupy pore spaces that leads to a decrease in porosity of PPs and as
a result, a decrease in hydraulic conductivity of PPs.
3.3.2. Orthophosphate PO
3
4
Fig. 6 displays efuent PO
3
4 concentrations from the rst and
fourth segments. The PP removed 32% and 35% of PO
3
4 from the
rst and fourth segments in the rst 30 min, respectively. The total
removal efciency was 9% and 38% for the rst and fourth segments, respectively. This better PO
3
4 removal seen at initial time of
the experiment can be explained by chemical adsorption. Lower
efuent PO
3
4 concentrations in the fourth (last) segment than the
rst segment implies time dependency of PO
3
4 removal from this

porous medium. It infers that as the travel time lengthens, PO
3

4
removal increases. The results obtained from our study are comparable with other studies. For instance, the PO
3
removal ef4
ciencies reported by Tota-Maharaj and Scholz (2010) and Collins
(2007), were about 78% and 58%, respectively. The lower removal
efciencies of PO
3
4 in our study may be due to minimum adsorption capacity by granular gravel (and aggregates), and lack of
insufcient nutrient and time for biogeochemical processes
including biological activities within the short depth of PP depth.
3.3.3. Ammonia nitrogen (N
NH4
Fig. 7 compares N
NH4 efuent concentrations from the rst

and fourth segments. As shown, the concentration of N
NH4

increased in the efuent of the fourth segment is greater than the
rst segment between 70 and 170 min. This event was coincident
with the runoff overow of the PP. However, the concentration in
this segment dropped compared to the rst one after this period.

M. Kamali et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 187 (2017) 43e53

51

3.5
influent concentration

Concentration (mg/L)

effluent concentration of the first segment

2.5

effluent concentration of the fourth segment

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0

30

60

90

120
150
Time (min)

180

210

240

270

Fig. 6. Performance of PP in Orthophosphate removal. Time in X-axis begins as the water discharge was seen in each segment.

4.5

influent concentration

concentration (mg/l)

effluent concentration of the first segment

effluent concentration of the fourth segment

1.5

0
0

30

60

90

120
150
Time (min)

180

210

240

270

Fig. 7. Performance of PP in ammonia removal.[Note: Time in X-axis begins as the water discharge was seen in each segment].

We relate less N
NH4 concentrations in the fourth segment

compared to the rst segment after 170 min to thriving nitrication
conditions that convert N
NH4 to N
NO

3 . The removal ef-

ciencies of N
NH4 during early part of the experiment (e.g.,

30 min) were 68% and 79% in the rst and the fourth segments,
respectively. However, removal efciencies decreased to 57% and
60% in the rst and fourth segments in total of the experiment time
period. We believe that oxygen is being consumed as runoff moves
through the PP (increasing degree of saturation) and this low level
of oxygen could prevent nitrication process that is required for the
oxidation of available N
NH4 . Comparing our results with literature [e.g. Tota-Maharaj and Scholz (2010)], the lower N
NH4
removal in our PP could be related to lower retention times and less
available nutrients to support effective biological conversion in our
experiment.

3.3.4. Nitrate nitrogen (NO

3
Fig. 8 compares efuent N
NO

3 concentrations of the rst and
fourth segments. Comparing Fig. 8 and 11 reveals that N
NO

3
concentrations are lower in the fourth segment compared to the
rst segment between 70 and 220 min, which is coincident with
higher N
NH4 concentrations in the fourth segment than the rst
one. This negative correlation between N
NH4 and N
NO

3
clearly represents the importance of the nitrication process. After

this period, we believe that nitrication process was evolved and

N
NO

3 concentration is higher in the fourth segment. During our
measurements, N
NO

3 removal efciencies were 3% and 15% for
the rst and fourth segments at rst 30 min, respectively. Concentrations of N
NO

3 in the efuent were usually lower in the
fourth segment than the rst segment. In total, this removal efciency decreased to
17% and
6% for the rst and fourth segments, respectively. It can be associated with the higher N
NO

3
production rate in the nitrication than its removal in the denitrication process. This low N
NO

3 removal efciency is consistent
with the ndings in literature. Tota-Maharaj and Scholz (2010) and
Collins (2007) reported that removal efciencies for N
NO

3 in PPs
are low.

3.4. Limitations and uncertainty

Although this study reveals some interesting points about the
behaviors of PPs, there are some uncertainties and limitations in
this investigation that should be pointed out to be considered in
future studies. These limitations originated from our experimental
setup, measurements, and model assumptions include:
 Limitation in the size of the PP because of module weight and
laboratory limitations.

52

M. Kamali et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 187 (2017) 43e53

3
influent concentration

Concentration (mg/l)

effluent concentration of the first segment

2

effluent concentration of the fourth segment

0
0

30

60

90

120
150
Time (min)

180

210

240

270

Fig. 8. PP performance inN
NO

3 removal. Time in X-axis begins as the water discharge was seen in each segment.

 Systematic errors in the measurements and human errors that

are inevitable during our measurements. For instance, the water
might not be completely discharged from the PP due to the
slope.
 Some assumptions were made during model development that
might be violated under some conditions. For instance, although
water was not signicantly accumulated in the PP, a small
fraction might be stored in the PP. Other assumption is quasi
steady-state condition. Since one measurement was carried out
during a long period (e.g. 30 min for the rst experiment), this
assumption was inevitable. However, water discharge might
alter within each measurement time interval. Utilizing a data
logger, which obtains data in a shorter time interval, can
improve the accuracy of the model.
 Although our experimental setup has high similarity to actual
conditions, we believe that PPs should have better performances
compared to our experiment for some reasons. We loaded oneyear rainfall to the PP during only 6.7 h, which puts the PP under
more stress compared to the actual conditions. Some exterior
parameters such as sunlight can dry the sediments on the PP
and makes a hard cluster on it, which improves the PP performance (Brown et al., 2009).
 Although we evaluated the performance of the PP for one
greater rainfall, the sensitivity of the PP performance to water
and sediment loadings are of interest in this regard. The authors
suggest more investigations about the sensitivity of the PP to
these loadings.

4. Conclusions
This study investigated the performance of a PP under sediment
loadings during its life span. Main purpose of this study was to
evaluate the temporal and spatial clogging trends of this PP and
nd the vulnerability of the PP to sediment loadings during rainfalls. Afterward, simple inltration models were validated by the
laboratory experiments to evaluate the trend and extend of the PP
inltration capacity throughout the life of the operation. At the end,
performances of the PP in removing TSS and selective nutrient

3
pollutants such as NO

3 ; NH4 and PO4 from the surface runoff were
investigated. The conclusions drawn from this study are:
The

Kh
Kv

ratio was determined to be about 3.5, which is much

smaller than the KKhv ratio for normal soils. This low value for KKhv ratio
for the PP system was related to low matric suction that mostly due

the larger aggregate and sand size.

The experimental results with applied sediment loads showed
that the PP failure occurred in the seventh hydrological year. Runoff
overow was not observed during the beginning ve hydrological
years with zero runoff coefcient. The runoff coefcient in the sixth
year increased to 15%. During the seventh period, the runoff coefcient increased from 15% to 35%. Coarse sediments inlled the
gaps between pavements blocks during all these years, which
increased the runoff coefcient.
The experimental results were further used in a simple inltration model to simulate the clogging effect. Both experimental
observations and simulation performance revealed that the midsection (e.g., 9 cm from the pavement surface) of the PP were
clogged during the hydrological years.
The performance of the PP highly depends on the local conditions including particle size distribution, sediments loadings, and
the way of importing sediments to the PP. It means that each region
should have specic experiments to evaluate the performances of
the PP instead of comparing the results of different PP under
different conditions.
The experimental results also showed that PPs could completely
remove TSS; however, medium removal efciencies were measured


for N
NH4 and PO
3
4 , while the removal efciency for N
NO3
was negative.
We suggest further researches about inuences of the rainfall
intensity, slope, particle size distribution of sediments, block dimensions of pavements, and space between blocks on hydraulic
conductivity as well as lifespan of PPs. These investigations can
evaluate these inuences on performance of PPs in pollutants
removal. Moreover, they can help develop more accurate inltration models.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.11.027.
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