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com

IN PRACTICE

MARCH 1994

Strategies for
the control
of parasitic
ga stroenteritis

j~:.10000;. X~i.

David WVhite
After a short spell in cattle practice,
David White joined the department of
large animal medicine and surgery at
the Royal Veterinary College as lecturer in farm animal medicine. His
particular interest is in cattle medicine, especially of the growing animal. In addition to a PhD, he has published widely on aspects of cattle
health and production and has a
small herd of commercial beef cattle.

IN the UK, the single most important cause of parasitic gastroenteritis (PGE) in cattle is infection with the abomasal nematode,
Ostel tatgi o(steltagi, although concomitant infection with the less
pathogeniic intestinal helminth, Coop)eria oncolpho-a, is common.
The clinical signs of type I ostertagiasis, which is seen in groups
of young grazing cattle usually three to four weeks after exposure
to large numbers of infective larvae, include inappetence, profuse
watery diarrhoea, dehydration and marked weight loss. The economic importance of PGE is mainly due to loss of productivity in
terms of diminished weight gain, even in subclinical infection,
particularly in calves durinlg their first grazing season. Infection in
the latter part of the grazing season can lead to the establishmiient
of an arrested larval burden which, if high enough, may be followed by type 11 ostertagiasis as the worms emerge in the sprilg.
Usually only a few of a group are affected in an outbreak of type
II disease but case mortality rates are high. Affected animals often
have a 'starey' coat and intennittent diarrhoea. Treatment of clinical cases of type II ostertagiasis may be unsuccessful due to the
established pathology in the abomasum.
Grazing cattle are infected when they ingest infective larvae
from the pasture. In the early part of the grazing seasoni these
larvae will be the remainder of the previous season's population
which have overwintered on the pasture. Later in the season the
larvae on the grass will result from infection passaging through
the calves themselves. Development of these larvae is accelerated
by warmer ambient temperatures and this leads to a build up of
infection on the pasture later in the summer (as illustrated in the
diagram overleaf). Interaction with the weather-, which dictates
conditions for larval development and survival on pastur-e anid
influences the inhibition of parasite development within the host,
largely determines whether type I disease, an arrested burden,
neither of these, or a combination occurs. This is also affected by
host immunity to 0 osteiwtagi, which is acquired slowly and
depends on exposure to the parasites. There is evidence of a more
rapid acquisition of immunity in the case of C oncopho a.

OPTIONS FOR THE CONTROL OF PGE

Title picture shows a typical strongyle
egg, approximately 70,tm in length,
among faecal debris

Methods to prevent clinical outbreaks of PGE canl be divided

into strategies based on anithelmintic usage which include prophylactic and strategic treatments, combined grazing and anithelmintic
systems or grazing strategies alone.

IN PRACTICE
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74

) 10

MARCH 1994

a)

8
L-

a)

CD

m
0
CD

.0

E
z
( I.

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Turnout

Jul

Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Housing (depending on area)

Pattern of larvae on pasture grazed by set-stocked, untreated, parasitenaive calves. --- Overwintered larvae from previous season, - Larvae
from eggs deposited during current grazing season

Prophylactic regimes
Prophylactic or preventive regimes during the early part of the
grazing season are designed to prevent recycling of the infection
acquired from overwintered larvae on pasture. This effect is illustrated for each of the methods in turn in the figures opposite,
which assume turn out in early April. These regimes have largely
superseded the traditional strategic treatment of animals in July
and September. Many people like to treat stock at housing
because most of these regimes only provide cover during the first
part of the grazing season. In general, this is a good policy if there
is likely to be disease due to a heavy late-season challenge.

four months of age, including second season cattle. It can be used

at any time during the grazing season to control PGE but is usually administered at turn out. Once inside the rumen the trilaminate
bolus unfurls and is trapped. Morantel tartrate, sandwiched
between two layers of ethylene vinyl acetate, dissolves continually into the rumen liquor for at least the next 90 days. Incoming
animals can each be given a Paratect Flex Sustained Release
Bolus at the time of joining a group of bolused animals. The bolus
does not confer protection against Dictyocaulus viviparus for
more than 60 days. There is no meat or milk withdrawal period
and each bolus costs 8.73.
Autoworm Pulse Release Bolus with Systamex Cattle Wormer

Boluses
There are three commercially available boluses for the control
of PGE in grazing cattle. All three are suitable for animals weighing 100 kg or more at turn out. The Ivomec Bolus (MSD AgVet),
Paratect Flex (Pfizer) and Autoworm Bolus (Pitman-Moore) have
to be given using specially designed dosing guns which are not
interchangeable. For animals weighing more than 200 kg, PitmanMoore has also produced 'Autoworm Big 5'. The major advantage of using these preparations is the minimal labour involved
animals can be treated prior to turn out and need not be handled
again until the autumn housing period.

Ivomec Bolus
The Ivomec Bolus (MSD AgVet) contains 1-72 g ivermectin
which is released continuously using an osmotic pump system
over 135 days from the time of administration. It is suitable for
cattle up to 300 kg bodyweight. Animals that are set stocked or
moved on to clean pasture mid-season should be protected for the
whole grazing season. The bolus controls adult and larval gastrointestinal nematodes, lungworms and some ectoparasites. There
is a 180-day meat withdrawal period and each bolus costs 1 1.25.
Paratect Flex Sustained Release Bolus

11

Each Paratect Flex Sustained Release Bolus (Pfizer) contains

-8 g of morantel tartrate and is administered orally to cattle over

There are three types of Autoworm bolus (Pitman-Moore) containing either 5 x 750 mg doses, 5 x 1250 mg doses or 6 x 1250
mg doses. The 5 x 750 mg bolus is for cattle in the weight range
100 to 250 kg and the larger boluses are for animals weighing 200
to 400 kg at the time of administration. The five-dose boluses are
designed to be administered at turn out, while the six-dose bolus
should be used when moving cattle (which may already have
acquired infection) from contaminated pasture or when the previous helminth control strategy is unknown (eg, cattle purchased
mid-season).
The double-metalled bolus remains in the reticulum/rumen
where the core corrodes at a predictable rate so that the active
ingredient is exposed to the rumen liquor at approximately 21day intervals. The first dose is released a few hours after administration from the six-dose bolus, but release is delayed for 21
days in the five-dose bolus. Protection, therefore, lasts for just
over 100 days. Grazing cattle that are added to a group treated
with pulse release boluses should themselves be treated on joining the group with either a six-dose bolus or a dose of benzimidazole and a five-dose bolus, while parasite-free calves (ie, housed
since birth) should be given a five-dose bolus on addition. The
benefit persists if the animal is moved mid-season to clean
pasture but, as protection only lasts until the last pulse is
released, animals should not be moved on to contaminated pasture
later in the season.
Release of the first pulse has been reported to be erratic
(Holmes and others 1991) although this, together with the occasional regurgitation of the bolus in individual animals, usually
shortly after administration, is rarely of any practical importance.
There is a six-month withdrawal period for meat and the bolus is

IN PRACTICE

75

MARCH 1994

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not recommended for use in milking cattle or in dairy heifers

within six months of calving. Offal manufacturers, incidentally,
do not like the spent metal boluses!
Each bolus costs 9.27 for the 5 x 750 mg preparation, 9.27
for 5 x 1250 mg and 9.85 for 6 x 1250 mg. The programme usually provides protection against lungworm infection during the
lifespan of the bolus.

10

6
4

IVOMEC SR BOLUS
2

Prophylactic dosing

_____________________

0
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

June

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

All the commercially available anthelmintics can be used in

prophylactic dosing regimes but they vary considerably in their
efficacy. The timing of the treatments is critical, which makes
these schemes unsuitable for mixed enterprises where other
demands on labour may take precedence. The system is without
the constraint of long withdrawal periods, allowing farmers to
change their stocking policies at short notice and thereby enabling
them to take advantage of market conditions and unexpected grass
growth (drought conditions, early availability of aftermath, etc).
The cattle have to be handled many times and thus it is labour
intensive even when there are ideal handling facilities.

10
8

PARATECT FLEX

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

June

Ivomec 3, 8, 13
10

Under the Ivomec 3, 8, 13 (MSD AgVet) regime, three doses of

ivermectin are given to set-stocked calves at a dose rate of either
200 gg/kg by subcutaneous injection or 500 jg/kg as a pour-on,
three, eight and 13 weeks after turn out. Each treatment clears any
existing infection and protects against reinfection with gastrointestinal larvae for more than seven days; there is at least a 99 per
cent reduction in reinfection for 14 days (Barth 1983). Incoming
cattle should be treated at the time of introduction and then join
the subsequent treatments unless they are 'clean' (ie, housed since
birth) in which case their first treatment can be given when the
existing group is next treated. This regime is very effective and is
claimed to confer protection against D viviparus infection for the
grazing season as long as the animals remain set stocked. There
are occasional injection site reactions, particularly if the injection
is inadvertently administered intradermally (not relevant to pouron). The meat withdrawal time is 21 days for the injectable preparation and 28 days for the pour-on. The cost of a dose per 100 kg
bodyweight is 82p to 89p for the injectable drug and 91p to 99p
for the pour-on.

AUTOWORM PULSES

et

0-

0
Jan

0E

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

June

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

10
8

IVOMEC TREATMENTS

0
Jan

Benzimidazoleslprobenzimidazolesllevamisole
Feb

Mar

Apr

May

June

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

10
8

6
4

TREATMENTS

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

Turnout

May

June

Jul

Housing (depending on area)

Pattern of larvae on pasture grazed by cattle with

(from top to bottom) Ivomec SR, Paratect Flex,
Autoworm Pulse Release Bolus, Ivomec 3, 8,
13 regime, and benzimidazole-probenzimidazolelevamisole
i

Benzimidazoles or probenzimidazoles can be administered orally in the feed, or by drenching or intraruminally in the case of
some benzimidazoles, at 21-day intervals post turn out.
Levamisole can be used at the same intervals by subcutaneous
injection, pour-on or oral drench. Improved efficacy would be
expected following treatment with the newer benzimidazoles than
with thiabendazole or levamisole. Treatments are repeated at
three-weekly intervals until late June/early July when pasture contamination from overwintered larvae has fallen to insignificant
levels. Typically, two or three treatments are used although, particularly in the case of turn out in early April, up to five doses are
advisable. The optimal number of doses required will vary from
season to season, depending on grass growth, stocking density and
the costs (labour and drug) involved.
Some vigilance is required to ensure that calves do not develop
disease late in the summer because this system may not be totally
effective in suppressing pasture larval populations. The main
advantage of the system is the low financial outlay on drugs; the
short withdrawal periods of eight to 42 days may also influence
the choice of treatment in some groups, such as autumn-born beef
calves. The cost of a dose per 100 kg bodyweight is 26p to 50p for
benzimidazoles/probenzimidazoles; levamisole injection costs
17p, oral drench 19p to 29p and pour-on 45p.

76)

7IN 1'RACTICE

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MARCH 1994

a) 10

c)

co

-0E

a)

-0

5-61
C)

>

co

0
a)

Jul

Aug Sep Oct

TREATMENTS

z
O0
Jan

Feb

Mar Apr May Jun

1i

Turnout

Nov Dec

Housing (depending

on

area)

Pattern of larvae on pasture grazed by cattle treated twice in July and

September

Strategic anthelmintic treatments

Bys midcl-JuN int'ection1 in cal\ves will have reached suf't'icient
lecls that, if' left, would sooii coiipromilisc the productivity of thc
animi.als. Additionallvy the animials will have bcgunL to reinfcct the
paIsture witi large numilbers ot egTs. Conversely pasture that has
nlot becin grazed in the cur-renit seasoni will by this time be l'ree of
inl'cctioni as any overwi ntering larvae will halve died otf.

season is taken into consideration, ther-e is little to recomimiilenid this

strlategy. It does not requirc after-milathi to be avaLilalble, althougzh the
lower the stocking cdensities the better-, especially in the seconid
half of the grazing season wheni pasture larval counts can be as
high as in the unitreated situLation (see diagram above). Again, the
cost ol' a close per I 00 kg bodyweight is betweeni l9p anid 50p.

Combined grazing and anthelmintic

systems

Set stocking
Cattle ai-c set stockcd f'or thc duratioii of thic iaztillue saiCl.
ThNcy arc giveii anthlilinitic treatments twice - once in mid July
;and agta>.lin in micl-Septemnber. Ag,ain, the type of anthelinllltic usecd
iS un1impportant. although better efficacy would be obtained with
iverimectin or the nc\wer benzimilclazoles. This regime allows cattle
to be intfected but it is supposed to prevent outbreaks of clinic.Id
disease. Sinice only two doses ol'drug- are used, it appears the most
attractive of' all the regimics. However, once the suboptimlial
grIoWl thltt oCCIurs particu larly in the seconid hailt' of' the grazing

Combined g-razing anid anithielmintic systems are the so-called

evasie strategies sslherehy calves aie movei l off contaiiniiated
pastur-e onl to clean grazing.

I)ose and moxe (Wevbridge) strategy

As the naime suggests, the close andci ImlovC (Weybridge) strategy
requires that all the cattle are treate(d with a single dose of any
anthelImintic anid moved at the samile time to cleain pasture. The

a, 10
cm

ac

DOSE AND MOVE

a)

5o
CD
a)

a)

z
O

Jan

Feb

Mar

SILAGE
Apr May Jun

Turnout

Jul

Aug Sep

AFTERMATH
Oct Nov Dec

Housing (depending

on

area)

Pattern of larvae on two pastures grazed by cattle dosed and moved midLarvae counts on
Larvae counts on ungrazed pastures,
July.
grazed pastures
--

IN PRACTICE

MARCH 1994

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optimal time for this single treatment is mid-July, before the

major summer rise in pasture larval contamination. The treatment
at moving reduces contamination of the clean pasture (as illustrated below left). The main advantages are that only one dose of
drug is necessary, with minimal labour inputs, and that exposure
may aid the development of immunity. The most significant disadvantages are the suboptimal growth between turn out and treatment in mid-July, compared with the prophylactic regimes, and
the dependency on the availability of clean grazing in mid-July;
this strategy is not always feasible even on the best run farms. It
also limits the use of the first pasture from mid-July onwards to
animals other than first-year grazing calves. Younger stock should
not be added to the group subsequently as pasture contamination
may build up sufficiently to produce an overwhelming challenge
to these parasite-naive animals.
This strategy works well on farms where there are low stocking
densities and may become more common with the extensive husbandry systems being encouraged by recent changes to the
Common Agricultural Policy. The cost of a dose per 100 kg bodyweight is between 21p and 50p.

Grazing strategies
Where management philosophy allows, or demands, minimal
anthelmintic input, various systems have been devised to minimise the risk of cattle coming into contact with gastrointestinal
larvae or, if they do, to minimise the risk of the infection building
up to levels where productivity is grossly reduced or disease
occurs. The carcases of such animals may be eligible to attract an
,organic' premium. Farm management needs to be of a high standard for these systems to work and faecal egg counts should be
regularly monitored so that treatment and/or movement can be
carried out when necessary.

Clean grazing systems

77

sites of generally less importance can complete their life cycle in

sheep, horses or cattle; levels consequently accumulate, making
therapeutic anthelmintic treatment advisable at the end of the

grazing season.
Mixed grazing systems within a grazing season: with cattle
When young, susceptible cattle are grazed alongside nonsusceptible animals (eg, suckler calves alongside their dams), the
latter do not perpetuate the life cycle of the parasites. In the case
of spring- or summer-born calves, the initial intake of grass is
likely to be too low for marked passaging of infection to occur.
Conversely, autumn- or winter-born calves are likely to ingest a
substantial amount of grass from turn out and, therefore,
anthelmintic prophylaxis of these animals may be advisable, even
if they are not weaned at turn out.

Alternate grazing systems

Alternate grazing systems have been developed where adult

cattle and weaned calves graze the same sward. This requires a
system of paddocks. Calves graze as a group in one paddock and
once the leafy upper parts of the grass have been removed, the
calves are moved on to the next paddock. Older cattle are moved
on to the first paddock and thereafter follow the calves. The older
cattle graze the grass more closely, thereby 'vacuuming up' infective larvae and, since they are partly immune to infection, they
produce fewer eggs in their faeces. When all the paddocks have
been grazed, the young calves are put back on the first paddock,
by which time there should be a fresh flush of grass with few or
no infective larvae, and the rotation is repeated.
Alternate grazing systems are expensive in terms of fencing and
need a high degree of organisation and labour input to move the
cattle. The ratio of calves to adults must not exceed 3:1 and the
systems only work if the older cattle have already had sufficient
exposure to ensure a good immunity.

There are two options available under clean grazing systems.

Both require that 'clean' cattle are turned out on to 'clean' pasture.

The first option is to turn cattle out after mid-July, ie, on to

hay/silage aftermath. This can be very flexible, unaffected by the
time of haymaking and the subsequent grass growth, though it is
very expensive to keep cattle housed during the early grazing
season. It is conceptually simple, easy to follow and works well
where it is practised.

Mixed grazing systems within a grazing season: with sheep

and/or horses
An alternative strategy is to graze cattle alongside sheep and/or
horses. While this does not suffer from the inflexibility of the
rotational grazing systems, it is far from ideal. The optimal sward
length for horses is shorter than that for sheep, which in turn is
shorter than that for cattle. Either option will require the first season cattle to be treated at housing.

Rotational grazing systems between grazing seasons

The second, and perhaps more common, way to obtain 'clean'
grazing is to turn cattle out in the spring on to pasture which has
not been grazed by cattle since mid-July or, preferably, not at all
during the previous year. This relies heavily on an accurate grazing history which fails if there are incomplete management
records and/or poor fences. It requires strict grazing control and is
difficult to repeat year on year. Breakdowns occur if contaminated
cattle are purchased or pasture is contaminated indirectly (for
example, after the spreading of slurry, or by birds, wildlife,
machinery or escapees).
Since the most important pathological gut parasites of cattle
cannot survive in other species, their life cycles can be interrupted
by rotating cattle with sheep, horses or arable crops. The system
provides clean grazing for parasite-naive cattle the following year.
On a commercial enterprise, the cost of keeping other livestock
cannot be justified for the benefit of rotation alone and the income
generated by the alternative enterprises must be sufficient to support them. Where an alternating sheep and cattle enterprise is
planned, it should be borne in mind that, apart from some minor
parasites that can complete their life-cycle in cattle and sheep,
Nematodirus battus, a parasite associated with severe disease in
lambs, can also cause disease in calves. In addition, other para-

CONTROL IN OLDER CALVES

The requirement for control strategies in second and subsequent
years depends on the immunity acquired by the host in the first
year. In general, the more effective the anthelmintic and the
longer the period of protection against infection, the less the animal will have been exposed to stimulation by parasite antigens.
Whether the level of immunity acquired will afford sufficient protection to second year grazing animals depends on the level of
first year exposure and the challenge they encounter during their
second grazing season.
Some of the anthelmintic strategies described can readily be
adapted to second year animals, if this is considered necessary,
but regimens involving drugs with long withdrawal times should
be avoided as the animals may reach slaughter weight during that
season. Bodyweights need to be assessed accurately as the majority of second year animals will be too big for the Ivomec or standard Autoworm boluses. The cost of treatment versus the possible
loss of a valuable second year animal, together with their previous
and probable future exposure to infection, needs careful consideration to maximise profit.

78

IN PRACTICE

MARCH 1994

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CONTROL IN SUBSEQUENT YEARS

Criteria for decision-making in the control of PGE

Resistance to the anthelmintics nmentionied in this article has not

beeni reported in the UK in 0 ost.crtgi and C on(opItora(. At the
saime time, resistance to the benzimidazoles has been described
for sheep and goat neiimatodes in many parts of the UK. This difference is probably at least partly because treatment of cattle tends
to occur less frequently and therefore less selection pressure is
applied to cattle nematodes. So. while there is currently no need to
control a resistance problem, practices to prevent resistance occurring shoulcd be carried out where possible (Craig 1993, Waller
1993).

* Availability of clean grazing

* Level of pasture contamination
* Type of farm enterprise
* Knowledge f local climate, incliuding temperature
and rainfall
* Risk of other parasitic disease (eg, fluke, lungworm)
* Labour availability/handliing facilities
* Desired cattle growth rates and antidcipated grass

growth

ADVICE TO CLIENTS

* Cost of anthelmintic

There is no one 'best scheme' for the control of PGE and clinicians must use their knowledge of the epidemiology of ostertagiasis, the properties of the anthelmintic preparations used and the
cconomiccs pertinent to each individual enterprise. FoI these reasons, the veterinary surgeon in practice is singularly well suited to
aclvisin_ his or her clients oni the best strategy for them. The quality of this advice should not be underestimnated and may have to
vary from year to year to take account of changes in any of the
criteria listed in the box.
The costs of drugs ( 1994 prices) have been included for illustrative puLpOSCS Ollly. The price rangel where present, refers to the
purchase of' a small or a large volume of anthelmiiintic - the unit
price is lower the larger the volume purchased. No attempt has
been made to evaluate the cost of administering these comnpounds
because of the wide variatioin in circumstances between different
farlm1s. It should be noted that the withdrawal times, taken froim

the NOAH publication Withdrawal Periods for Veterinary

Products - June 1993'3 miay change especially with new formulations of established products.

References
nBARTI. ). ( 1983) Pet-sistenit anthelmintic cI
etect ol ivCtiemctint in cattle. ('thriffilltRciordi 133. 1I- 131
T.N1.
Aiithelititic
1993)
tesistance.
V c tcriitrv Putriiitthlo)t4v 46h
-1 31
CRAIG,
HOLMES, P. H., BAIRDEN. K., GETTINBY C,. & NMcWI IANM. P. N. 1991
on the dexvelopment ol
c
Effect of sustaitted r eleaxse ainthelminticincnItlatrnInll decex
pathophyxsiologticl cIaclines and pat- Le
popnltiolis ill cl vs inlected withl
_

_3

W\ALLER. P J
Patr iitolo/(Ev 113,

1993) C(ontrol str,tictes

1

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Strategies for the control of parasitic

gastroenteritis
David White and Maggie Fisher
In Practice 1994 16: 73-78

doi: 10.1136/inpract.16.2.73
Updated information and services can be found at:
http://inpractice.bmj.com/content/16/2/73.citation

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