Feedback and Control Systems

SYSTEM MODELING
At the end of this chapter, the students shall be able to:
2.1 Discuss the two methods of modeling dynamic systems.
2.2 (a) Find the Laplace transform of a given function in time domain, and obtain the time domain
function given its Laplace transform; (b) Solve differential equations using Laplace transform
methods.
2.3 (a) Write a transfer function associated with a given differential equation and vice versa; (b) Solve
the output of a system with a given differential equation or transfer function for a given input.
2.4 Obtain transfer functions for single and multiple loops, passive and active (op-amp) electrical
networks.
2.5 Determine the transfer function of translational, rotational and translational-rotational mechanical
systems, including systems with gears.
2.6 Obtain transfer function relating the output displacement to the input voltage of electromechanical
systems.
2.7 Define terms associated with state-space modeling of systems and enumerate steps in obtaining
the state-space representation of a system.
2.8 Obtain the state-space model of electrical and mechanical systems.
2.9 Convert a transfer function into state-space representation and vice versa.
2.1 Introduction
Intended Learning Outcome: Discuss the two methods of modeling dynamic systems.
In the previous discussion, the analysis and design sequence that included obtaining the systems
schematic and demonstrated this step for a position control system. The next step is to develop
mathematical models from schematics of physical systems. Two methods will be discussed: (1) transfer
functions in the frequency domain and (2) state equations in the time domain.
It should be remembered that in any case, the first step in developing a mathematical model is to apply the
fundamental physical laws of science and engineering. When electric networks are being modeled, Ohms
law and Kirchhoffs laws are applied initially. For mechanical systems, Newtons laws will be used.

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From previous courses, it is seen that a differential equation can describe the relationship between the
input and the output of the system. The form of the differential equation and its coefficients are a
formulation or description of the system. Although the differential equation relates the system to its input
and output, it is not a satisfying representation from a system perspective. It is much preferred that a
mathematical representation such as shown in figure 2.1(a) where the input, output and the system are
distinct and separate parts. Also, a representation where several interconnected subsystems like the
cascade connection of figure 2.1(b) can also be conveniently written as a single system like that of figure
2.1(a). It is then preferred that a single mathematical function, called the transfer function, will represent the
system.

Figure 2.1. Block diagram representation of a system, showing the relationship between the input r(t) and the output c(t)

Note in figure 2.1, rt represents the reference input while ct represents the controlled variable.

A major advantage of frequency-domain modeling is that they rapidly provide stability and transient
response information. Thus, we can immediately see the effects of varying system parameters until an
acceptable design is met.
The primary disadvantage of this approach, also called the classical approach is its limited applicability. It
can be applied only to linear, time-invariant systems or systems that can be approximated as such.
With an increasing design scope, the modern or time-domain approach of modeling systems is devised.
The state-space approach is a unified method for modeling, analyzing, and designing a wide range of
system. It can model nonlinear systems and systems with nonzero initial conditions. Time-varying systems
and systems with multiple inputs and multiple outputs can be compactly represented in state-space model
which is similar to the form of single input, single output systems.

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The time-domain approach can also be used for the same class of systems modeled by classical approach.
This alternate model gives the control systems designer another perspective from which to create the
design. The main drawback of the time-domain approach is its lack of intuition compared to the classical
approach. A few calculations must be made before the physical interpretation of the model becomes
apparent.
2.2 The Laplace Transform: A Review
Intended Learning Outcomes: (a) Find the Laplace transform of a given function in time domain, and obtain
the time domain function given its Laplace transform; (b) Solve differential equations using Laplace
transform methods.
The Laplace transform satisfies the requirements for the convenient mathematical representation of
systems using the transfer function as discussed previously. Furthermore, the Laplace transform makes the
relationships between systems algebraic.
The Laplace transform is defined as

ft = Fs = fte dt

(2.1)

where s = + j, a complex variable. The function ft is in t-domain (or time domain) and has a
Laplace transform Fs in s-domain (or the complex frequency domain) if the integral of Equation 2.1
exists.

The inverse Laplace transform, is defined as

where

Fs = ftut =
u t =

0,
1,

Fse ds
j2
t < 0

t>0

(2.2)

(2.3)

called the unit step function. Multiplication of a function with a unit step function yields a function that is zero
for negative values of t.

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Tables 2.1 and 2.2 summarize the Laplace transform of commonly used functions and the properties of the
Laplace transform, respectively.

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Find the Laplace transform of the function ft = e cost +
Example 2.1

s + a cos sin
s + a +

Answer:

Example 2.2

Find the inverse Laplace transform of Fs = .

Answer:

ft =

5
40
10
5e + e + te
9
9
3

Example 2.3
Solve the differential equation

d y
dy
+ 12 + 32y = 32ut

dt
dt

using Laplace transform when all the initial conditions are zero.

Answer:

yt = 1 + e 2e ut

1. Find the Laplace transform of the function ft = 3te sin4t + 60 .

Drill Problem 2.1

a. ft = sinh at

2. Find the Laplace transform of the following functions

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b. ft = t cos 5t
c. ft = sin t

3. Determine the inverse Laplace transform of the following functions in s-domain.

a. Fs = s2 4s12.
2s56

b. Fs =

c. Fs =

4. What is the time domain function that has Fs = s2s2 + 2 as its Laplace transform?
1

a. y y 6y = 0, with initial conditions y0 = 6 and y 0 = 13.

5. Determine the solution of the following differential equations using Laplace transform.
b. y 4y + 4y = 0, with initial conditions y0 = 2.1 and y 0 = 3.9.
c. y + ky 2k y = 0, with initial conditions y0 = 2 and y 0 = 2k.

2.3. The Transfer Function

Intended Learning Outcomes: (a) Write a transfer function associated with a given differential equation and
vice versa; (b) Solve the output of a system with a given differential equation or transfer function for a given
input.
The Laplace transform, as stated before, can be used to establish algebraic input-system-output
relationship as depicted in figure 2.1(a). Furthermore, it will allow algebraic combination of mathematical
representations of subsystems to yield a total system representation.
For an nth-order, linear, time-invariant differential equation,
a

d ct
d ct
d r t
d rt

+
a
+

+
a
c
t
=
b
+
b
+ + b rt

dt
dt
dt
dt

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(2.4)

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Feedback and Control Systems

where ct is the output, rt is the input, and a s, b s and the form of the differential equation

represents the system. Taking the Laplace transform of equation 2.4, and solving for the ratio of with
zero initial conditions yield

Cs
b s + b s + + b

=G s =
Rs
a s + a s + + a

(2.5)

with Gs, called the systems transfer function, evaluated at zero initial conditions. Thus, a system can

now be represented by a block diagram as seen in figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2. System representation using transfer function

From here, it can be seen that equation 2.5 can be used to determine the output when the systems
transfer function and the input are known, as

Cs = RsGs

(2.6)

Example 2.4
dct
+ 2ct = rt
dt

Find the transfer function of the system represented by the differential equation
assuming zero initial conditions. Then find the system response to a step input rt = ut.
Answer:
The transfer function is

Gs =

and the system response for the specified input is

ct =

System Modeling

1
s+2

1 1
e
2 2
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Feedback and Control Systems

1. Find the transfer function Gs = Cs/Rs corresponding to the differential equation

Drill Problems 2.2

d c
dc
d r
dr
d c
+
3
+
7
+
5c
=
+ 4 + 3r

dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

2. A system is described by the following differential equation

d y
d y
dy
d x
d x
dx
+
3
+
5
+
y
=
+
4
+ 6 + 8x

dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

Find the expression for the transfer function .

3. Find the differential equation corresponding to the transfer functions

a. Gs = =

b. Gs = =

c. Gs = =

d. Gs = =

4. For each of the systems described by the transfer functions in number 3, find the response of the
system to a step input.
5. Find the ramp response for a system whose transfer function is
s
Gs =
s + 4s + 8
In general, a physical system than can be represented by a linear, time-invariant differential equation can
be modeled as a transfer function. The subsequent sections will demonstrate the use of the transfer
functions to model electrical networks, mechanical systems, and electro-mechanical systems.

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2.4 Electrical Network Transfer Functions
Intended Learning Outcome: Obtain transfer functions for single and multiple loops, passive and active (opamp) electrical networks.
Passive Networks. In this section, mathematical models of electric circuits including passive networks and
operational amplifiers will be obtained. Equivalent circuits for the electric networks will first consist of
resistors, inductors and capacitors. Table 2.3 summarizes the components and the relationships between
voltage and current and between voltage and charge under zero initial conditions.
As stated before, the first step in formulating the mathematical model of a system is to use fundamental
laws governing the system. Since the systems being modeled in this section are electrical networks, Ohms
Law and Kirchhoffs Laws will be used.

Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage V s to the input voltage Vs for the circuit
Example 2.5

shown below.

Answer:

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Feedback and Control Systems

V s

Gs =
=

V s
s + s+

Example 2.6

Determine the transfer function H s =

using mesh analysis. Obtain the transfer function H s =

for the network shown below using nodal analysis.

Answers:

H s =

I s
LCs
=
Vs R + R LCs + R R C + Ls + R

s
V s

H s =
=

Vs
G + G s +
s+

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From the foregoing examples, a technique in which mesh equations can be written can be developed. For
two loop electrical network as shown in example 2.6, the mesh equations can be written as

Sum of
Sum of impedances

I
s
=
applied
voltages
common to

the two meshes

around mesh 1
Sum of
Sum of impedances
Sum
of
impedances
I s +
I s = applied voltages

common to
around mesh 2
the two meshes
around mesh 2
Sum of impedances

I s
around mesh 1

(2.7a)

(2.7b)

This technique can be expanded to three-loop electrical network. The use of the technique is illustrated in
the following example.
Example 2.7
Write, but do not solve, the mesh equations for the network shown below

Answer:

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Find the transfer function Gs = V s/Vs for the circuit shown below. Solve the problem in two ways
Example 2.8

mesh analysis and nodal analysis.

Answer:

Gs =

V s s + 2s + 1
=
Vs s + 5s + 2

Operational Amplifiers. An operational amplifier is an electronic amplifier used as a basic building block to
implement transfer functions. It has the following characteristics:

Differential input v t v t

High input impedance, Z = (ideal)

Low output impedance, Z = 0 (ideal)

High constant gain amplification, A = (ideal)

The output of the operational amplifier v t is

v t = Av t v t

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(2.8)

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Figure 2.3. Operational amplifier

Example 2.9
Determine the transfer function

for each of the op-amp configurations shown below. Assume that the

op-amp has ideal characteristics.

(a)
Answers:
a.
b.

(b)

= , an inverting amplifier

= 1 + , a non-inverting amplifier

Example 2.10
Find the transfer function

System Modeling

for the circuit given below.

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Feedback and Control Systems

V s
s + 45.95s + 22.55
= 1.232
V s
s

Answer:

Example 2.11
Find the transfer function

Answer:

Drill Problems 2.3

for the op-amp configuration shown below:

V s
R R C C s + R C + R C + R C s + 1
=
V s
R R C C s + R C + R C s + 1

1. Find the transfer function Gs =

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for each of the networks shown below:

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Feedback and Control Systems

2. Find the transfer function Gs =

for each of the networks shown below:

3. Using mesh and nodal analysis, find the transfer function Gs =

below:

for each of the networks shown

4. For each of the operational amplifiers shown, find the transfer function Gs =

5. Determine the transfer function Gs =

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for each of the networks shown below:

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Feedback and Control Systems

2.5 Mechanical System Transfer Function
Intended Learning Outcome: Determine the transfer function of translational, rotational and translationalrotational mechanical systems, including systems with gears.
In the previous section, the transfer function for electrical networks was obtained. In this section, transfer
function for translational and rotational mechanical systems will be obtained. It will be evident later on that
the transfer functions of both systems are mathematically indistinguishable. Hence, an electrical network
can be interfaced to a mechanical system by cascading their transfer functions provided that one system is
not loaded by the other.
Translational Mechanical Systems. Table 2.4 below shows the components of mechanical systems and
relationships between force, velocity and displacement.
In mechanical systems there are three components:

Spring, with the spring constant K as the parameter

Viscous damper, with the coefficient of friction f as the parameter

Mass, M as its parameter

These components can be compared to the passive electrical components:

Capacitor

Resistor

Inductor

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Comparing Tables 2.3 and 2.4, the following analogy between the mechanical and electrical systems can
be formulated.

The capacitor and inductor of the electrical system are energy-storage devices, whereas for
mechanical system, these are analogous to the spring and the mass.

Both the resistor of the electrical system and viscous damper of the mechanical system dissipate
energy.

The mechanical force is analogous to electrical voltage and the mechanical velocity is analogous to
electrical current.

Summing forces in terms of velocity is analogous to summing voltages written in terms of current
and the resulting mechanical differential equations are analogous to mesh equations.

Example 2.12

Find the transfer function for the system shown below.

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Answer:

Gs =

Xs
1
=

Fs Ms + f s + K

Many mechanical systems are similar to multiple-loop and multiple-node electrical networks, where more
than one simultaneous differential equation is required to describe the system. In mechanical systems, the
number of equations of motion required is equal to the number of linearly independent motions. Linear
independence implies that a point of motion in a system can still move if all other points of motion are held
still; the number of these linearly independent motions is called the degrees of freedom of the system. For
mechanical systems with multiple degrees of freedom, use superposition: for each free-body diagram, hold
all other points of motion still and find the forces acting on the body only due to its own motion. Do this for
all of the bodies and the result will be a system of simultaneous equation of motion.
Example 2.13
Find the transfer function

Answer:

where

for the system shown below.

Gs =
D=

X s f s
=
Fs
D

M s + f + f s + K + K

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f s + K

f s + K

M s + f + f s + K + K

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Feedback and Control Systems

The method by which the equation in each degree of freedom is obtained similar to the one done with
electrical networks, as

Sum of impedances
Sum of impedances
Sum of applied

X s
X s =

connected to the motion at x

between x and x
forces at x

Sum of impedances
Sum of impedances
Sum of applied
X s +
X s =

between x and x
connected to the motion at x
forces at x

(2.9a)
(2.9b)

This can also be expanded to systems with multiple degrees of freedom, as illustrated in the example
below.
Example 2.14
Write, but do not solve, the equations of motions for the mechanical network below.

Answer:

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Find the transfer function Gs = X s/Fs for the translational mechanical system shown below.
Example 2.15

Answer:

Drill Problems 2.4

Gs =

1. Find the transfer function Gs =

ss

3s + 1
+ 7s + 5s + 1

for the translational mechanical system shown below.

2. Find the transfer function Gs = X s/Fs for the translational mechanical network shown below.

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Feedback and Control Systems

3. Find the transfer function Gs = X s/Fs for the translational mechanical system shown below.

4. Find the transfer function G s =

for the translational mechanical system shown below.

5. Write, but do not solve, the equations of motion for the translational mechanical system shown below

Rotational Mechanical Systems. The rotational mechanical systems are handled the same way as
translational mechanical systems, except that the torque replaces force and angular displacement replaces
translational displacement. The mechanical components for rotational systems are the same as those for
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translational systems, except that the components undergo rotation instead of translation. Table 2.5 shows
the components along with the relationships between torque, angular velocity and angular displacement.

For rotational systems, the mass is replaced by inertia, and its parameter, called the moment of inertia, J.

The concept of degrees of freedom carries over to rotational systems, except that we test a point of motion
by rotating it while holding still all other points of motion. Writing the equations of motion for rotational
systems is similar to writing them for translational systems; the only difference is that the free-body diagram
consists of torques rather than forces.
Find the transfer function Gs = s/Ts for rotational systems shown.
Example 2.16

Answer:

where

System Modeling

Gs =

s K
=
Ts
D

J s + D s + K
D=
K

J s + D s + K
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Feedback and Control Systems

Notice that the above system has that now well-known form

Sum of impedances
Sum of impedances
Sum of applied

s
s =

connected to the motion at

between and
torques at

Sum of impedances
Sum of impedances
Sum of applied
s +
s =

between and
connected to the motion at
torques at

(2.10a)
(2.10b)

Example 2.17
Write, but do not solve, the Laplace transform of the equations of motion for the system shown below.

Answer:

Find the transfer function Gs = s/Ts for the rotational mechanical system shown below.
Example 2.18

Answer:

System Modeling

Gs =

1
2s + s + 1

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Feedback and Control Systems

Systems with Gears. Gears provide mechanical advantage to rotational systems. Gears allow a system to
match the driving torque and the load a trade-off between speed and torque. The linearized interaction
between gears is seen in figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4. A gear system

An input gear with radius r and N teeth is rotated through angle t due to a torque T t. An output

gear with radius r and N teeth responds by rotating through angle t and delivering a torque T t.
The distance traveled along each gears circumference is the same, thus

or

r = r

(2.11)

r N
= =
r N

(2.12)

since the ratio of the number of teeth along the circumference is in the same proportion as the ratio of the
radii. Thus, the ratio of the angular displacement of the gears is inversely proportional to the ratio of the
number of teeth. For the input and output torques, assuming that the gears are lossless (they neither
absorb nor store energy),

T N
=
=
T N

(2.13)

Figure 2.5. Transfer functions for angular displacement and torques in lossless gears.

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Rotational mechanical impedances can be reflected through gear trains by multiplying the mechanical
impedance by the ratio

Number of teeth of
gear on the shaft

Number of teeth of
gear on the shaft

Example 2.19
Represent the rotational mechanical system shown to an equivalent system without gears.

Answer:

Find the transfer function Gs = s/T s for the system shown below
Example 2.20

Answer:

System Modeling

Gs =

s
N /N
=
T s J s + D s + K
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Feedback and Control Systems

where

N
J = J + J
N

D = D

N
+ D
N

K = K

In order to eliminate gears with large radii, a gear train is used to implement large gear ratios by cascading
smaller gear ratios. Also, gears may exhibit inertia and damping. Handling of cases when the gears are
non-ideal is illustrated in the next example.
Find the transfer function Gs = s/T s for the system shown below.
Example 2.21

Answer:

where

and

System Modeling

Gs =

1
s
=
T s J s + D s

J = J + J + J

N
N N
+ J + J

N
N N

N
D = D + D
N

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Find the transfer function Gs = s/Ts for the rotational mechanical system with gears shown in
Example 2.22

the figure below.

Answer:

Gs =

1/2
+s+1

Example 2.23
Gs = Xs/Ts

For the combined translational and rotational mechanical system shown below, find the transfer function

Answer:

System Modeling

Xs
8
=

Ts 59s + 13s + 6

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Feedback and Control Systems

1. For each of the rotational mechanical systems shown below, determine the transfer function Gs =
Drill Problems 2.5
s/Ts.

2. For the rotational mechanical system shown below, find the transfer function Gs = s/Ts.

3. Find the transfer function Gs = s/Ts for the rotational mechanical system shown in the figure
below.

4. For the rotational mechanical system shown, find the transfer function Gs = s/Ts

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function Gs = Xs/Ts.

5. Given the combined translational and rotational system shown in the figure below, find the transfer

2.6 Electromechanical System Transfer Function

Intended Learning Outcome: Obtain transfer function relating the output displacement to the input voltage
of electromechanical systems.
A motor is an electromechanical component that yields a displacement output for a voltage input, that is, a
mechanical output generated by an electrical input. The transfer function for the armature-controlled dc
servomotor will be derived. Its schematic and block diagram is shown in the figure below.

Figure 2.6. The schematic and block diagram representation of a DC motor.

electromagnet called the fixed field. A rotating circuit, called the armature, through which the current i t

In the above figure, a magnetic field is developed by stationary permanent magnets or a stationary
flows, passes through this magnetic field at right angles and feels a force F = Bi t, where B is the
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magnetic field strength and is the length of the conductor. The resulting torque turns the rotor, the rotating
member of the motor.

There is another phenomenon that occurs in the motor: A conductor moving at right angles to a magnetic

field generates a voltage at the terminals of the conductor, equal to e = Bv, where e is the voltage and v
is the velocity of the conductor normal to the magnetic field. Since the current-carrying armature is rotating
in a magnetic field, its voltage is proportional to speed. Thus,
v t = K

d t
dt

(2.13)

wherev t is the back electromotive force, K is the back emf constant (in volt-second/radian) and

= t is the angular velocity of the motor. Taking Laplace transform,

V s = K s s

(2.14)

The relationship between the armature current and, i t, the applied armature voltage, e t and the
back emf v t is found by writing a loop equation around the Laplace transformed armature circuit.
R I s + L sI s + V s = E s

(2.15)

The torque developed by the motor is proportional to the armature current;

T s = K I s

(2.16)

whereK is the motor torque constant (in Newton-meters/ampere), which depends on the motor and
magnetic field characteristics. Solving equation 2.16 in terms of the armature current and substituting this
and the back emf of Equation 2.14 to equation 2.15,

R + L sT s
+ K s s = E s
K

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(2.17)

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To solve for the transfer function of the motor Gs = s/E s, an expression for T in terms of
s must be obtained. The equivalent mechanical loading on a motor is shown in a figure below.

Figure 2.7. Equivalent mechanical loading on a DC motor.

J is the equivalent inertia at the armature and includes both the armature inertia and the load inertia

reflected to the armature. D is the equivalent viscous damping at the armature and includes both the
armature viscous damping and the load viscous damping reflected to the armature. From figure 2.7,
T s = J s + D s s

(2.18)

Substituting this to equation 2.17 and assuming the armature inductance L is small compared to the

armature resistance R which is very usual for a DC motor, the transfer function of the motor is solved as
Gs =

s
K /R J
=
E s s s + D +

Note that equation 2.19 is of the form

Gs =

K
s s +

(2.19)

(2.20)

To find the constants J and D , refer to figure 2.8, with a motor with inertia J and damping D at the
armature driving a load consisting of inertia J and damping D .

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Figure 2.8. DC motor driving a rotational load

If all of the inertias and damping values are known, the load inertia and load damping can be reflected back
to the armature as some equivalent inertia and damping to be added to armature inertia and armature
damping. Thus,

N
J = J + J
N

D = D + D

(2.21a)
(2.21b)

The electrical constants of the motor can be obtained through a dynamometer test of the motor, where a
dynamometer measures the torque and speed of a motor under the condition of a constant applied voltage.

It can be shown that the relationship between motor torque T when a voltage e is applied and the motor

speed is

T =

K K
K
+ e
R
R

(2.22)

which is linear. The y-intercept is called the stall torque and is the torque of the motor when the angular
velocity is zero. Thus,
T =

K
e
R

(2.23)

The x-intercept is called the no-load speed and is the angular velocity of the motor at zero torque. Thus,
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=

e
K

(2.24)

Thus if T and the is known, through the dynamometer test, the electrical constants can be
found as

K T
=
R
e

and
K =

(2.25)

(2.26)

The figure bellow shows the plot as a result of dynamometer test.

Figure 2.9. Torque-speed curves with an armature voltage as a parameter

Given the system and torque-speed curve below respectively, find the transfer function Gs =
Example 2.24

s/E s.

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Answer:

Gs =

s
0.0417
=
E s ss + 1.667

Find the transfer functionGs = s/E s for the motor and the load shown below. The torque-speed
Example 2.25

curve is given by T = 8 + 200 when the input voltage is 100 volts.

Answer:

System Modeling

Gs =

1/20
ss + 15/2

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Feedback and Control Systems

1. For the motor, load, and torque-speed curve shown, find the transfer function Gs = s/E s.
Drill Problems 2.6

inertia. Find the transfer function Gs = s/E s.

2. The motor whose torque-speed characteristics and the load drives are shown. Some of the gears have

3. A dc motor 55 N-m of torque at a speed of 600 rad/s when 12 volts are applied. It stalls out at this
s/rad, respectively, find the transfer function Gs = s/E s of this motor if it drives an inertia

voltage with 100 N-m of torque. If the inertia and damping of the armature are 7 kg-m2 and 3 N-m-

load of 105 kg-m2 through a gear train as shown below.

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4. In this chapter, the transfer function of a dc motor relating the angular displacement output to armature
input voltage. Often, we want to control the output torque rather than the displacement. Derive the
transfer function of the motor that relates output torque to input armature voltage.
5. Find the transfer function Gs = Xs/E s for the system shown below.

2.7. The General State-Space Representation and Application

Intended Learning Outcome: Define terms associated with state-space modeling of systems and
enumerate steps in obtaining the state-space representation of a system.
In previous articles, the frequency-domain, or the classical technique of modeling physical systems was
discussed. This approach is based on converting a systems differential equation to a transfer function, thus
generating a mathematical model of the system that algebraically relates the representation of the output to

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a representation of the input. Replacing a differential equation with an algebraic equation not only simplifies
the representation of individual subsystems but also simplifies modeling interconnected subsystems.
This section presents a method by which an alternative to transfer functions in modeling dynamic systems
is presented; the method is called state-space modeling. It can be used for the same class of systems that
the transfer functions can model. The discussions presented here are on the introductory level; advanced
techniques for state-space modeling is beyond the scope of this course. Also, since state-space
representations of systems are expressed as matrices, the student may want to review matrices and linear
algebra.
The following are the steps in writing a state-space model for physical systems:
1. Select a particular subset of all possible system variables and call the variables in this subset state
variables.

2. For an nth-order system, write n simultaneous, first-order differential equations in terms of the
state variables. These systems of simultaneous differential equations are called state equations.

3. If the initial condition of all the state variables at t as well as the system input for t t is known,
the simultaneous differential equations for the state variables can be solved for t t .

4. The state variables with the systems input will be algebraically combined and all of the other

system variables for t t will be found. The algebraic equations that will arise are called the
output equations.

5. The state equations and the output equations of the system are its state-space representation or
state-space model.
The application of such process is demonstrated using an RL and an RLC circuit.
Example 2.26
Find a possible state-space representation for the RL circuit shown below. Follow the steps enumerated
above.

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Example 2.27
Find a possible state-space representation for the RLC circuit shown below.

If the system is linear, the state and output equations can be written in vector-matrix form. But before the
general state-space representation is presented, some definitions are in order.

A linear combination of n variables, x , for i = 1 to n is given by the following sum, S,

S = k x + k x + + K x

where each K is a constant.

A set of variables is said to be linearly independent if none of the variables can be written as a
linear combination of the others.

A system variable is any variable that responds to an input or initial condition in a system.

The state variables are the smallest set of linearly independent system variables such that the

determine the value of all system variables for all t t .

A state vector is a vector whose elements are the state variables.

The state equations are a set of n simultaneous, first order differential equations with n variables

values of the members of the set at time t along with known forcing functions completely

The state space is the n-dimensional space whose axes are the state variables.

The output equation is the algebraic equation that expresses the output variables of a system as

where the n variables to be solved are the state variables.

linear combinations of the state variables and the inputs.

The general state-space representation of a linear system is given as

= +

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(2.27a)
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Feedback and Control Systems

= +

(2.27b)

for t t and initial conditions, t , where:

= state vector
=

= derivatives of the state vectors with respect to time

=output vector

= input or control vector

= system matrix
= input matrix

= output matrix

= feedforward matrix

The state equation is given by equation 2.27a and the vector , the state vector, contains the state

variables. As discussed previously, if the initial conditions of the state variables and the input vector are

known, this equation can be solved for the state variables. Equation 2.27b, the output equation, can be
used to solve for other system variables.
The choice of state variables for a given system is not unique. However, they must satisfy the following
requirements:
1. They must be linearly independent.
2. The minimum number of state variables to completely describe the system is equal to the order of
the differential equation representing the system.

Although the rule specifies the minimum number of state variables to be identified, the number can exceed
this minimum as long as all the chosen state variables are linearly independent. In some cases, this can
simplify the writing of state equations and output equations.

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Example 2.28
Write the state-space representation of the systems in examples 2.26 and 2.27 in vector matrix form.

Answers:
For the RL network, the state equation is
di
R
= i + v t
dt
L

and an output equation is

v t = Rit

Thus, letting x = , x = i , A = , B = 1 , y = v , C = R , D = 0 , and u = vt .

R
x = x + vt
L

Therefore

y = Rx

For the RLC network, the state equations are

dq
=i
dt

di
1
R
1
= q i+ v
dt
LC
L
L
1
v t = q Ri + v
C

and an output equation is

Thus, letting =

dq/dt
q
0
1
0
, = , =
, =
, y = v , = 1/C R,
t
1/LC R/L
1/L
di/dt

D = 1, u = v. Therefore

System Modeling

dq/dt
0
1
q
0
=
+
v
1/LC R/L t
1/L
di/dt

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Feedback and Control Systems

q
v = 1/C R + v
t

2.8 State-Space Representation of Electrical and Mechanical Systems

Intended Learning Outcome: Obtain the state-space model of electrical and mechanical systems.
This section discusses the methods by which electrical and mechanical systems will be modeled through
state-space. In the previous section, it is stated that the choice of state variables are arbitrary. This section
describes a systematic technique by which these state variables can be selected. The approach is done as
follows:
1. Write a simple derivative equation for each energy-storage element and solve for each derivative
term as a linear combination of any of the system variables and input that are present in the
equation.
2. Select the differentiated variable as a state variable.
3. Express all other system variables in the equations in terms of the state variables and the input.
4. The output variables are written as linear combinations of the state variables and the input.
These steps will be demonstrated for electrical and mechanical systems through the following examples.
Example 2.29
Find a state-space representation of the network shown below if the output is the current through the
resistor.

Answer:

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For mechanical systems, it is more convenient to obtain the state-equations directly from the equations of
motion rather than from the energy-storage elements. Thus, in mechanical systems, the position and
velocity of each point of linearly independent motions are selected as state variables. The procedure is
illustrated in the following example.
Example 2.30
Find the state and output equations of the translational mechanical system shown below

Answers:

x
1
= = x =
0

0
0

x
0 0 v

1 0 x
v

Find the state-space representation of the electrical network shown. The output is v t.
Example 2.31

Answers:

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Feedback and Control Systems

Represent the translational mechanical system shown below in state-space, where x t is the output.
Example 2.32

Answers:

1. Represent the electrical network shown in the figure below in state-space, where v t is the output.
Drill Problems 2.7

2. Find the state-space representation of the network shown below if the output is v t.

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Feedback and Control Systems

3. Represent the system shown below in state-space where the output is x t.

4. Represent the rotational mechanical system shown below in state-space where t is the output.

5. Represent the system shown below in state-space where the output is t.

2.9 The Transfer Function and the State-Space Relationship

Intended Learning Outcome: Convert a transfer function into state-space representation and vice versa.
To convert a transfer function into state-space representation, state variables must be chosen. One choice
would be that of phase variables, that is, each subsequent state variable is defined to be the derivative of
the previous state variable.
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Feedback and Control Systems

Consider the differential equation

d y
d y
dy
+
a
+ + a + a y = b u

dt
dt
dt

(2.28)

A convenient way to choose state variables is to choose the output, yt and its n 1 derivatives.
Choosing the state variables, x ,

x = y

x =

x =

Differentiating both sides yields

dy
dt

d y
dt

d y
x =
dt
x =

dy
= x
dx

x =

d y
= x
dx

d y
x = = x
dx

x =

d y
= x
dx

x = a x a x a x + b u

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In vector-matrix form,

(2.28)

and the output equation is

(2.29)

Thus, to convert a transfer function into state equations, convert the transfer function to a differential
equation by cross-multiplication and taking the inverse Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions.
Then the differential equation is represented in state-space in phase-variable form.
Example 2.33
Cs
24
=
Rs s + 9s + 26s + 24

Find the state-space representation in phase-variable form for the transfer function
Gs =

Answer:

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Generating an equivalent block diagram based on the phase variable form of the state-space
representation of the previous example will yield

which means that the output is generated by integrators and constant-gain blocks. The previous example
has a constant numerator. The next example illustrates the procedure when the numerator is a polynomial
of lower degree than the denominator.
Example 2.34
Find the state-space representation of the transfer function

Answer:

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Gs =

s + 7s + 2
s + 9s + 26s + 24

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Feedback and Control Systems

In the previous example, it can be seen that the denominator yields the state equations, while the
numerator yields the output equation. A similar equivalent block diagram can also be obtained for this
example, illustrating how the state-space representation is implemented using block diagrams, as in

Example 2.35
Find the state equations and the output equation for the phase-variable representation of the transfer
function

Gs =

2s + 1
+ 7s + 9

Answer:

To convert a state-space representation into its equivalent transfer function, given the state and output
equations,

= +
= +

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(2.30a)
(2.30b)

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Feedback and Control Systems

Take the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions,

ss = s + s
s = s + s

For the first equation, solving for s,

Substituting this to the second equation

s = s s

s = s + s

(2.31)

in which the quantity s + is called the transfer function matrix since it relates the output

s to the input s. However, if the input and the output are scalars, then
Gs =

Y s
= s +
Us

(2.32)

Note that this equation evaluates an inverse of a matrix. A review on how to evaluate this must be done by
the student. One method is by
s =
The method is illustrated in the following examples.

adjs
det s

Example 2.36
Given the system defined as

Find the transfer function Gs = Ys/Us.

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Answer:

Gs =

10s + 3s + 2
s + 3s + 2s + 1

Example 2.37
Convert the state and output equations to transfer function.

Answer:

Gs =

3s + 5
s + 4s + 6

Drill Problems 2.8

1. Find the state-space representation in phase-variable form for the system shown below.

2. Write the state equations and the output equation for the phase-variable representation.

3. Represent the transfer function in state-space. Give the answer in vector-matrix form.
Gs =

s + 3s + 8
s + 1s + 5s + 5

4. Find the transfer function Gs = Ys/Rs for the following system represented in state-space.

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Feedback and Control Systems

5. Determine the transfer function Gs = Ys/Rs equivalent to the state and output equations
shown below.

References:
N. Nise. (2011). Control Systems Engineering 6th Edition. United States of America: John Wiley & Sons.
R. Dorf& R. Bishop. (2011). Modern Control Systems 12th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

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