WSU Economics PhD Mathematics Bootcamp

Assignment 1

August 10, 2016

Directions Problems 1-18 are required for assignment number 1 and are to be typed. The
remaining problems are optional. Note: Just because material is not explicitly required on the
assignment does not mean that it wont be useful or that you are not responsible for it.
Problems with a (BoP x.yz) are problems from the text Book of Proof and should have
answers at the end of the book. Please try to avoid cheating yourself of learning by looking at
the answers too soon.
I will try and find some material that could be useful for the calculus questions which are
not covered in Book of Proof. However, using the proof methods we cover and the definition
of a sequence plus your previous experience with calculus, youll have the fundamentals you
need to solve those problems.
If you need help, please feel free to email me.

Problem 1. Direct Proof (BoP 4.1) If x is an even integer, then x2 is even.

Problem 2. Direct Proof (BoP 4.13) Suppose x, y R. If x2 + 5y = y2 + 5x, then x = y or x + y = 5.
Problem 3. Contrapositive Proof (BoP 5.3) Suppose a, b Z. If a2 (b2 2b) is odd, then a and b
are odd.
Problem 4. Proof by Contradiction (BoP 6.5) Prove that

3 is irrational.

Problem 5. Biconditional (BoP 7.1) Suppose x Z. Then x is even if and only if 3x + 5 is odd.
Problem 6. Sets (BoP 8.5) If p and q are positive integers, then {pn : n N} {qn : n N} , .
Problem 7. Sets (BoP 8.11) If A and B are sets in a universal set U, then A B = A B.
Problem 8. Sets (BoP 8.23) For each a R, let Aa = {(x, a(x2 1)) R2 : x R}. Prove that
\

Aa = {(1, 0), (1, 0)}

aR

Problem 9. (BoP 9.1) The following statement is either true or false. If the statement is true,
prove it. If the statement is false, disprove it. If x, y R, then |x + y| = |x| + |y|.
Use the following definitions to help answer Problem 10.
1

Definition 1 (Antisymmetric). A relation R on a set X is antisymmetric if x, y X such that

xRy and yRx we have x = y.
As an example consider the ordering on N. If for two numbers a, b N we have a b and
b a then we know it must be that a = b. There does not exist two distinct natural numbers
that are both less than or equal to the other. This property is important to ordering the natural
numbers, real numbers, etc. In general we can order elements of any set leading intervals and
so on if the relation on that set is a partial order.
Definition 2 (Partial Order). Let X be a nonempty set with relation  X X. Then  is a
partial order if it is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive.
Problem 10. Let C be a set of consumption bundles. A preference relation is a binary relation,
%, where x % y reads x is at least as good as y. We say that % is a rational preference relation if
it satisfies the following properties:
(i) x, y C, [x % y y % x] (Completeness)
(ii) For x, y, z C if [x % y y % z] = x % z (Transitivity)
Use the above definitions to complete the following exercises.
(a) Prove that the rational preference relation, %, is reflexive.
(b) Defining the indifference relation, , as x y if [x % y y % x], prove that is an
equivalence relation.
(c) Define the quotient set, call it I, associated with (C, ) using set notation and prove that I
is a partition of C.
(d) Interpret the equivalence classes of I and show that % is a partial order on I.
Solution:
(a) Let x1 , x2 C such that x1 = x2 . Then x1 must be at least as good as x2 and x2 must be at
least as good as x1 . Hence we have [x1 % x2 x2 % x2 ] and by transitivity we have x1 % x1 .
Therefore for any pair (x, x) we have (x, x) % . In reality this is rather self-evident, a bundle
should be at least as good as itself. The idea is to test your knowledge of what reflexive means and
trying to use the assumptions (completeness and transitivity) to show the result.
(b) Let % be a rational preference relation on C. Let x C. Then by reflexiveness of % we know
that x % x and x - x which implies x x and so the indifference relation is reflexive. Let
x, y C such that x y. Then x % y y % x which is logically equivalent to y % x x % y
which is the definition of y x. Since (x, y) implies (y, x) the indifference relation
is symmetric. Finally, let x, y, z C such that x y and y z. Then x % y y % x
and y % z z % y. Since both statements are true we can infer that x % y % z is true and
that z % y % x is also true. By transitivity of % we know that x % z z % x which is the
definition of x z. Hence is transitive. The indifference relation is reflexive, symmetric
and transitive, therefore it is an equivalence relation. 
(c) Let be the indifference relation on the set C. We know (from part (b)) that is an
equivalence relation. An equivalence class is a set of the form [x] = {y C : x y}
consisting of all elements y C that are indifferent (equivalent) to x C. The quotient
set of C modulo the equivalence relation is the set of all equivalence classes {[x] : x C}.
This is a set of sets where every element of a set is equivalent or in our case indifferent
2

to every other element in the set (think indifference curves from undergraduate micro). I
dont know why they call it a quotient set, but it might be because its kind of like dividing the
set C by the equivalence relation , resulting in a set of blocks of equivalent elements. To show
that the quotient set is a partition of C we need to show that it is a collection of nonempty
sets that are pairwise disjoint and that the union of all sets in the collection equals the
set C. So let Q = (C, ) be the quotient set of C modulo , the indifference relation. Let
[x] = {y C : x y} be an arbitrary equivalence class in Q. Then by the completeness and
reflexiveness of % we know that x % x and by the reflexiveness of we have x x. Hence,
the set [x] always contains x and is therefore nonempty. Let x, y C such that x , y and
x / y and let [x] and [y] be the respective equivalence classes. Now assume to the contrary
that [x] [y] , and let z [x] [y]. Then z [x] z [y] which implies that z x and
z y. By symmetry of , we know z x = x z giving us x z y and by transitivity
of this implies that x y which is a contradiction since we assumed x / y. Finally we
want to show that xC [x] = C. Let z xC [x]. Then z [x] = {y C : x y} for some x C
and clearly z C. Now Let z C. Then z [z] = {y C : z y} where [z] {[x] : x C}.
Hence z xC [x]. This implies that xC [x] C and C xC [x] and therefore xC [x] = C.

(d) The equivalence classes of I = {[x] : x C} constitute the indifference sets of a rational
preference relation %. When combined with a utility function they will be indifference
curves. The rational preference relation % is what is known as a total pre-order. It gives us
a basic notion of greater than and less than. For example if x is at least as good as y we are
in a way saying that x is no less than y. Furthermore, if we were to say x % y and y  x then
we could use a symbol like x  y implying that x is at least as good as y but that y is NOT
at least as good as x. We could rephrase this as x is preferred to y which essentially ranks x
as greater than y in terms of preference. So now consider how the preferences % rank
the indifference sets in the quotient set I.
Consider [x] and [y] such that x / y. Then for any x0 [x] and any y0 [y] we know it must
be that x0 / y0 . Hence we have either x0  y0 or y0  x0 . So if we consider the Cartesian
product I I then we say [x] % [y] if x % y. Notice that if this is true for (x, y) then it will
be true for some other pair (x0 , y0 ) when x0 [x] and y0 [y]. A binary relation, like %
is a partial order if it is reflexive, transitive and antisymmetric. For the reflexive property
note that [x] % [x] since every element of x0 [x] has the property x x since x % x. For
transitivity let [x], [y], [z] be in I such that [x] % [y] and [y] % [z]. Then for all x0 [x] and
y0 [y] we know x0 % y0 and for all z0 [z] we have y0 % z0 . Hence by transitivity of %
on C we have x0 % z0 . Since every element of [x] is equivalent to x0 , every element of [y]
is equivalent to y0 and every element of [z] is equivalent to z0 this holds for any elements
of theses sets and we have [x] % [y] % [z] implying [x] % [z] so the relation is transitive.
Finally consider [x] % [y] and [y] % [x]. This implies that x y which implies y x. By
transitivity if x y then x y0 for any y0 [y]. By symmetry if y x then y x0 for
any x0 [x]. Hence every element of [x] is indifferent (equivalent) to every element of
[y]. Based on the definition of equivalence classes this is only possible if [x] = [y]. Since
[x] % [y] [y] % [x] = [x] = [y] the relation is antisymmetric. The relation is reflexive,
transitive and antisymmetric on I, therefore it is a partial order on I.
Problem 11. (BoP 12.2.13) Consider the function f : R2 R2 defined as f (x, y) = (xy, x3 ). Is f
injective? Is it surjective? Bijective? Explain.
Problem 12. Let f be a function from A to B and let E, F A. Prove statements a through e.
(a) If E F, then f (E) f (F),

(b) f (E F) f (E) f (F),

(c) f (E F) = f (E) f (F),
(d) f (E F) f (E)
Solution:
(a) Let E F and y f (E) = { f (x) : x E}. Then x E such that y = f (x). Since E F we
know x F which implies that f (x) f (F). But f (x) = y so y f (F) therefore f (E) f (F).
(b) Let y f (E F) = { f (x) : x E x F}. Then x E F such that y = f (x). Hence
f (x) f (E) and f (x) f (F). But y = f (x) so y f (E) and y f (F) so y f (E) f (F).
Therefore f (E F) f (E) f (F).
(c) ()Let y f (E F) = { f (x) : x E x F}. Then x E F such that y = f (x). Furthermore,
x E F implies that x is in either E and not F, F and not E or in both E and F. If x E then
f (x) f (E). If x F then f (x) f (F). Because one or both are true, f (x) f (E) f (F). But
y = f (x) so y f (E) f (F).
() Now let y f (E) f (F). Then y f (E) y f (F). Then x EF such that y = f (x). But
x E F implies f (x) f (E F) and y = f (x) so y f (E F). Therefore f (E F) f (E) f (F)
and f (E) f (F) f (E F) which gives the result f (E F) = f (E) f (F).
(d) Let y f (E F). Then x E F such that y = f (x). Since E F = {z A : z E z < F}
we know that x E which means f (x) f (E). But y = f (x) so y f (E) and therefore
f (E F) f (E). 
Problem 13.

(Level sets of functions) Let f : A B be a function. Define a relation on A

denoted a f a0 if b B such that a, a0 f 1 (b). Prove the following statements.

(a) Show that f is an equivalence relation on A.
(b) Show that [a f a0 ] [ f (a) = f (a0 )].
(c) Prove that the inverse images f 1 (b) and f 1 (b0 ) are disjoint when b , b0 . (This means that
indifference curves never intersect.)
Solution:
(a) Let a A and b = f (a). Then for the pair (a, a) clearly a f a since a f 1 (b) and so f
is reflexive. Let a f a0 . Then b B such that f (a) = f (a0 ) = b. Hence a, a0 f 1 (b) and
(a, a0 ) f = (a0 , a) f and f is symmetric. Finally let a, a0 , a00 A such that a f a0
and a0 f a00 . Then b B such that a, a0 f 1 (b) and b0 B such that a0 , a00 f 1 (b0 ).
By definition, functions can only map elements of A into exactly one element in B. Hence
if f (a0 ) = b and f (a0 ) = b0 it must be that b = b0 . But this implies that f (a) = f (a0 ) = f (a00 )
and so a, a0 , a00 f 1 (b) and hence b B such that a, a00 f 1 (b) and therefore a f a00 so
the relation is transitive. Since the relation f is reflexive, symmetric and transitive it is an
equivalence relation.
(b) () Let a f a. Then b B such that a, a0 f 1 (b) = {a A : f (a) = b}. Hence we have
f (a) = b f (a0 ) = b and therefore f (a) = f (a0 ).
() Let a0 , a00 A such that f (a0 ) = f (a00 ). Furthermore let b B be the element b = f (a0 ) =
f (a00 ). Then a0 , a00 {a A : f (a) = b} = f 1 (b). Hence b B such that a0 , a00 f 1 (b) and
therefore a0 f a00 . 
4

(c) Let b, b0 B such that b , b0 and consider the sets f 1 (b) and f 1 (b0 ) and assume to the
contrary that f 1 (b) f 1 (b0 ) , . Then there exist elements in f 1 (b) f 1 (b0 ) and let
a f 1 (b) f 1 (b0 ). Then a f 1 (b) a f 1 (b0 ) which implies f (a) = b f (a) = b0 . Since
the definition of a function requires that a A, !b B such that b = f (a) it must be that
b = b0 which is a contradiction, implying that f 1 (b) f 1 (b0 ) = when b , b0 . (FYI, the
compound symbol ! means there exists a unique)
Problem 14. Prove the following statements. Let f be a function mapping A to B, and let G,
H B. (Reminder: the notation here f 1 (X) is the pre-image of some set X in the codomain
under the function f .)
(a) If G H, then f 1 (G) f 1 (H),
(b) f 1 (G H) = f 1 (G) f 1 (H),
(c) f 1 (G H) = f 1 (G) f 1 (H), and
(d) f 1 (G H) = f 1 (G) f 1 (H).
Solution:
(a) Let G H B and a f 1 (G) A. Then f (a) G and since G H we know f (a) H.
Hence, a f 1 (H) and therefore f 1 (G) f 1 (H). 
(b) () Let a f 1 (G H). Then f (a) G H which is equivalent to f (a) G f (a) H.
But this implies that a f 1 (G) a f 1 (H) which is equivalent to a f 1 (G) f 1 (H).
Therefore f 1 (G H) f 1 (G) f 1 (H).
() Let a f 1 (G) f 1 (H). Then a f 1 (G)a f 1 (H) which implies f (a) G f (a) H
f (a) G H. Since f (a) G H implies a f 1 (G H) we have f 1 (G) f 1 (H) f 1 (G H).
Therefore f 1 (G H) = f 1 (G) f 1 (H).
(c) () Let a f 1 (G H). Then f (a) G H f (a) G f (a) H. If f (a) G, then a f 1 (G)
and if f (a) H, then a f 1 (H). Hence f (a) G f (a) H implies a f 1 (G) a f 1 (H)
which is equivalent to a f 1 (G) f 1 (H).
() Let a f 1 (G) f 1 (H). Then a f 1 (G) a f 1 (H). If a f 1 (G) then f (a) G. If
a f 1 (H) then f (a) H. Hence a f 1 (G) a f 1 (H) implies f (a) G f (a) H f (a)
G H. But f (a) G H implies a f 1 (G H). Therefore f 1 (G H) = f 1 (G) f 1 (H). 
(d) () Let a f 1 (G H). Then f (a) G f (a) < H which implies that a f 1 (G) a < f 1 (H).
Therefore a f 1 (G) f 1 (H).
() Let a f 1 (G) f 1 (H). Then a f 1 (G) a < f 1 (H) which implies f (a) G f (a) < H.
Hence we have f (a) G (B H) = (G B) H = G H. Since f (a) G H we know
a f 1 (G H). Therefore f 1 (G H) = f 1 (G) f 1 (H). 
Problem 15.

A sequence in A is a function f : N A and the range of the sequence is a

list { f (1), f (2), . . . } = {a1 , a2 , . . . }. By definition limn an = L if for every positive real number
(no matter how small)  > 0, there exists a positive integer N such that if n is an integer with
n > N, then |an L| < . By taking the negation of this definition, write out the meaning of
limn an , L using quantifiers. Then write out the meaning of {an } diverges using quantifiers.
(Hint: the definition of convergence using quantifiers is: ( > 0), N N, n > N, |an L| < .
Or in terms of an implication  > 0, N N, [n > N = |an L| < ])
Solution: Negation: There exists a real number  > 0 such that for each positive integer N,
5

there exists an integer n > N such that |an L| . Divergence: For each real number L, there
exists  > 0 such that for each positive integer N, there exists n > N such that |an L| .
Symbolic:  > 0, N N, n N, n > N, |an L| . Notice the difference between negation
and divergence. The definition of convergence included as specific limit L. Negation just says that the
sequence doesnt converge to L, but may still converge to some other L0 , L. Divergence on the other
hand says there does not exist any limit L that the sequence converges to (note: but there may be a
subsequence that does see real analysis).
Problem 16. Using the definition of convergence in the previous problem, prove that the
n o
1
sequence 2n
converges to 0.
Solution: Let  > 0 be given. Choose N = d1/(2)e where d1/(2)e represents the ceiling
integer of 1/(2) (essentially round it up to the nearest integer). Now let n > N. Thus n > 1/(2)
1
1
1
1
1
and so | 2n
0| = 2n
< 2N
< 2(1/(2)
= 1/
= . 
Definition 3 (Limit of a Function). Let f be a real-valued function defined on a set X of real
numbers. We say L R is the limit of f (x) as x approaches a R if for every real number  > 0,
there exists a real number > 0 such that for every real number x with 0 < |x a| < , it follows
that | f (x) L| < .
(  > 0, > 0, x [|x a| < ] = [| f (x) L| < ])
Definition 4 (Epsilon Neighborhood). Let a R and  > 0. Then the set (interval) defined as
B (a) = {x R : |x a| < } = (a , a + ) is called an -neighborhood (or epsilon-ball) of a.
The above definition is very important and you will see this used a lot in the future. We
can use it to restate the definitions of limits used earlier.
We say the sequence {an } converges to the limit L if
 > 0, N N such that n > N, an B (L)
Similarly for the limit of a function, we say that the limit of the function f over sequence {an } is
L if
 > 0, > 0 such that x B (L) = f (x) B (L)
Definition 5 (Continuity). Let f : X R. We say that f is continuous at a point nR if
limxa f (x) = f (a). Using our previous methods of defining limits this means we can phrase
continuity also as
 > 0, > 0, x such that |x a| < , [ f (x) f (a) < ]
 > 0, > 0, such that x B (a) = f (x) B ( f (a))
In general there are three criteria for f to be continuous at point a.
(i) f is defined at a
(ii) limxa f (x) exists
(iii) limxa f (x) = f (a)
Problem 17. Prove that the function f : [1, ) [0, ) defined by f (x) =

x 1 is continuous

at x = 10.
Solution: (From Chartrand 12.39) Let  > 0 be given and choose = min(1, 5). Let x Rn

such that 0 < |x

10|
<
.
Since
|x

10|
<
1,
it
follows
that
9
<
x
<
11
and
so
x 1 + 3 > 5.

Therefore, 1/( x 1 + 3) < 1/5. Hence




 ( x 1 3)( x 1 + 3) 
|x 10|
1
| x 1 3| = 
< (5) = 

 =

5
x1+3
x1+3
6

which completes the proof. 

Problem 18. Let f : R R. We say the function f is differentiable at a and is denoted f 0 (a) if
the following limit exists.
f 0 (a) = lim
xa

f (x) f (a)
xa

Let f be defined as f (x) =

Determine f 0 (3) and verify that your answer is correct with
an  proof.
Solution: (From Chartrand 12.41) f 0 (3) = 6.
x2 .

Proof. Let  > 0 be given and choose = . Let x R such that 0 < |x 3| < = . Then
 

  2

  (x 3)(x + 3)
 f (x) f (3)
  x 9

6 = 
6 = 
6
 x3
 x3

x3
= |(x + 3) 6| = |x 3| < 
Thus, f 0 (3) = 6. 

1
1.1

Extra Practice Exercises

Direct Proof

Problem 19. (BoP 4.9) Suppose a is an integer. If 7 | 4a then 7 | a.

1.2

Contrapositive Proof

Prove the following using the method of contrapositive proof.

Problem 20. (BoP 5.9) Suppose n Z. If 3 - n2 , then 3 - n.

1.3

Either Direct or Contrapositive Proof

Use either direct or the contrapositive method to prove the statements.

Problem 21. (BoP 5.15) Suppose x Z. If x3 1 is even, then x is odd.
Problem 22. (BoP 5.21) Let a, b Z and n N. If a b( mod n), then a3 c3 ( mod n).

1.4

Proof by Contradiction

Use the method of proof by contradiction to prove the following statements.

Problem 23. (BoP 6.11) There exist no integers a and b for which 18a + 6b = 1.

1.5

Proving Non-conditional Statements

Problem 24. (BoP 7.1) Suppose x Z. Then x is even if and only if 3x + 5 is odd.
Problem 25. (BoP 7.21) Every real solution of x3 + x + 3 = 0 is irrational.

1.6

Proofs Involving Sets

Book of Proof Chapter 8 Exercises: 1,5,7,9,11,21,23 Use any of the methods weve covered to
prove the following statements.
Problem 26. (BoP 8.1) Prove that {12n : n Z} {2n : n Z} {3n : n Z}.
Problem 27. (BoP 8.9) If A,B and C are sets, then A (B C) = (A B) (A C).
Problem 28. (BoP 8.21) Suppose A and B are sets. Prove A B if and only if A B = .

1.7

Disproof

Each of the following statements is either true or false. If a statement is true, prove it. If a
statement is false, disprove it.
Problem 29. (BoP 9.34) If X A B, then X A or X B.

1.8

Relations

Problem 30. (BoP 11.0.1) Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Write out the relation R that expresses > on A.
Problem 31.

(BoP 11.1.6) Consider the relation R = {(x, x) : x Z} on Z. Is R reflexive?

Symmetric? Transitive? If a property does not hold, say why. What familiar relation is this?
Problem 32. (BoP 11.1.8) Define a relation on Z as xRy if |x y| < 1. Is R reflexive? Symmetric?
Transitive? If a property does not hold, say why. What familiar relation is this?

1.9

Functions

Problem 33. (BoP 12.1.7) Consider the set {(x, y) Z Z : 3x + y = 4}. Is this a function from
Z to Z? Explain.
Problem 34. (BoP 12.1.9) Consider the set f = {(x2 , x) : x R}. Is this a function from R to R?
Explain.
Problem 35. (BoP 12.2.5) A function f : Z Z defined as f (n) = 2n + 1. Verify whether this
function is injective and whether it is surjective.
Problem 36.

(BoP 12.5.7) Show that the function f : R2 R2 defined by the formula

f (x, y) = ((x2 + 1)y, x3 ) is bijective. Then find its inverse.

1.10

Calculus Topics

Problem 37. Prove that if a sequence {sn } converges to L, then the sequence {sn2 } also converges
to L.
Problem 38. Give an  proof that limx1 (3x 5) = 8.
Problem 39. Show that limx0

1
x2

does not exist.