2/23/13

Thomas Edison favored direct current (DC), that is, steady

current that does not vary with 0me.

Chapter 31

Alterna0ng Current

H.D. Young and R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern

Physics 11th Edi0on, Pearson Educa0on Inc., Publishing as Pearson
Addison-Wesley, 1301 Sansome St., San Francisco, CA, 2004.

Goals:
To introduce phasors and alterna0ng current .
To study voltage, current and phase angle.
To introduce impedance and its applica0on to
the L-R-C series circuit.
To consider power in AC circuits.

George Wes0nghouse favored alterna0ng current (AC) with

sinusoidally varying voltages and currents.
He argued that transformers can be used to step the voltage up
and down with AC and not with DC; low voltages are safer for
consumer use, but high voltages and correspondingly low
currents are best for long-distance power transmission to
minimize i2R losses in the cables.

To supply an alterna0ng current to a circuit, a source of

alterna0ng emf or voltage is required.
An example is a coil of wire rota0ng with constant angular
velocity in a magne0c eld.
We use the term AC source for any device that supplies a
sinusoidally varying voltage (poten0al dierence) or current.

To consider resonance in AC circuits.

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A sinusoidal voltage might be described by a func0on such as:

v = V cos t

i = I cos t
i instantaneous current

v instantaneous potential
difference
V maximum potential
difference
voltage amplitude

I maximum current
current amplitude
angular frequency
= 2 f

angular frequency
= 2 f

The instantaneous value of a

quan0ty that varies
sinusoidally with 0me is
represented by the
projec0on onto a horizontal
of a vector with a length
equal to the amplitude of
the quan0ty.
The vector rotates
counterclockwise with
constant angular speed .
These rota0ng vectors are
called phasors and diagrams
containing them are called
phasor diagrams.

A sinusoidal current might be described as:

To represent sinusoidally
varying voltages and
currents, we will use
rota0ng vector diagrams.

Phasor Diagram

How do we measure a sinusoidally varying current?

A diode (or rec0er) is a device that
conducts be^er in one direc0on than in
the other.
An ideal diode has zero resistance for
one direc0on of current and innite
resistance for the other.
The current through G pulsates but
always has the same direc0on hence the
average meter deec0on is not zero.
This arrangement of diodes is called a
full-wave rec0er circuit.

2/23/13

The rec0ed average current

(Irav) is dened so that during
any whole number of cycles, the
total charge that ows is the
same as though the current
were constant with a value
equal to Irav.
Irav is not the average of the original sinusoidal current.
The total charge that ows in 0me t corresponds to the area under the
curve of the i versus t, this area must equal the rectangular area with
height Irav. Irav is less than the maximum current I.

I rav =

2
I = 0.637 I

Voltages and currents in an AC source are usually described by its

root-mean-square value.
Root-mean-square Voltage (Vrms):
Instantaneous voltage:

v = V cos t

v 2 = V 2 cos2 t
Using a double-angle formula: cos2 A =

1
(1+ cos2A)
2

!1
$
v 2 = V 2 # (1+ cos2 t )& = 1 V 2 + 1 V 2 cos2 t
"2
% 2
2
Geang the average, no0ng that: ( cos2 t )ave = 0

1
V
v = V 2 Vrms =
2
2
2

(root-mean-square value of a
sinusoidal voltage)

Voltages and currents in an AC source are usually described by its

root-mean-square value.
Root-mean-square Current (Irms):
Instantaneous current:

i = I cos t

i 2 = I 2 cos2 t
Using a double-angle formula: cos2 A =

1
(1+ cos2A)
2

!1
$
i 2 = I 2 # (1+ cos2 t )& = 1 I 2 + 1 I 2 cos2 t
"2
% 2
2
Geang the average, no0ng that: ( cos2 t )ave = 0

i2 =

1 2
I
I I rms =
2
2

(root-mean-square value of a
sinusoidal current)

Ex.1 The plate on the back of a personal computer says that it

draws 2.7A from a 120-V, 60Hz line. For this computer, what
are (a) the average current, (b) the average of the square of
the current, and (c) the current amplitude?
(a) The average of any sinusoidal alterna0ng current, over any
whole number of cycles, is zero.
(b) Note: Irms = 2.7A

i2 =

(i )
2

ave

1 2
I
I I rms =
2
2

=?
2

( I rms )

" I %
2
=$
' = (i )ave
# 2&
2

= ( 2.7A) = 7.3 A 2
(c) I = ?

I = 2 ( I rms ) = 2 ( 2.7A) = 3.8 A

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Resistor in an AC-circuit:

Inductor in an AC-circuit:

i = I cos t ; I current amplitude

vR = iR = ( I cos t ) R = VR cos t
VR = IR

(amplitude of voltage
across a resistor, AC circuit)

i = I cos t
d ( I cos t )
di
= I L sin t
vL = L = L
dt
dt
Using the iden0ty: cos ( A + 90) = sin A
vL = I L cos ( t + 90)

Inductor in an AC-circuit:

Inductor in an AC-circuit:

i = I cos t

i = I cos t

vL = I L cos ( t + 90)
VL = I L (amplitude of the inductor voltage)
X L = L (induc0ve reactance)
VL = IX L (amplitude of voltage across an
inductor, AC-circuit)

We will usually describe the phase of the voltage rela0ve to the current,
not the reverse.
If the current in the circuit is:

i = I cos t

The voltage of one point with respect to another is: v = V cos ( t + )

phase angle; it gives the phase of the voltage rela0ve to the

current. 0 for pure resistor and 90 for pure inductor.

VL = I L

; vL = I L cos ( t + 90)
; XL = L

; VL = IX L

XL is a descrip0on of the self-induced emf that

opposes any change in the current through the
inductor.
If an oscilla0ng voltage of a given amplitude VL is applied across the inductor
terminals, the resul0ng current will have a smaller amplitude I for larger values of XL.
Since XL is propor0onal to frequency, a high-frequency voltage applied to the inductor
gives only a small current, while a lower-frequency voltage of the same amplitude
gives rise to a larger current.
Inductors are used in some circuit applica0ons, such as power supplies and radio-
interference lters, to block high frequencies while permiang lower frequencies or
DC to pass through.
A circuit device that uses an inductor for this purpose is called a low-pass-lter.

2/23/13

Ex.1 Suppose you want the current amplitude in a pure inductor in a radio receiver
to be 250A when the voltage amplitude is 3.60V at a frequency of 1.60MHz
(corresponding to the upper end of the AM broadcast band). (a) What
induc0ve reactance is needed? What inductance? (b) If the voltage amplitude
is kept constant, what will be the current amplitude through this inductor at
16.0MHz?

(a) X L = ?

L =?

(b)

I =?

VL
3.60V
=
= 14.4 10 4
I
250 10 6 A
X
14.4 10 4
L = L=
= 1.4310 3 H
2 (1.60 10 6 Hz )

Capacitor in an AC-circuit:

i = I cos t =

Integra0ng, dq =

V
VL
V
; I= L = L =
X L L ( 2 f ) L
=

3.60V

2 "#16.0 10 6 Hz$% (1.4310 3 H )

Capacitor in an AC-circuit:

(capaci0ve reactance) Using the iden0ty: cos ( A 90) = sin A

(amplitude of voltage
across an inductor,
AC-circuit)

vC =

I
cos ( t 90)
C

VC =

I
(amplitude of the capacitor voltage)
C

Capacitor in an AC-circuit:

i = I cos t
VC =

1
C

VC = IXC
= 250 10 7 A

I cost dt

!1$
I
q = I # & sin t = sin t
" %

I
q
=
sin t
Note: vc =
C
C

; XL =

XC =

dq
dt

I
C

I
cos ( t 90)
C
1
; VC = IXC
XC =
C
; vC =

i = I cos t
VC =

I
C

I
cos ( t 90)
C
1
; VC = IXC
XC =
C
; vC =

XC of a capacitor is inversely propor0onal both to C and to ; the greater

the capacitance and the higher the frequency, the smaller the XC.
Capacitors tend to pass high-frequency current and to block low-
frequency currents and DC, just the opposite of inductors.
A device that preferen0ally passes signals of high frequency is called a
high-pass lter.

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Ex.1 A 200 resistor is connected in series with a 5.0F capacitor. The voltage
across the resistor is vR = (1.20V)cos(2500rad/s)t. (a) Derive an expression for
the circuit current. (b) Determine the capaci0ve reactance of the capacitor.
(c) Derive an expression for the voltage across the capacitor.

(a)

i=?

(b) XC = ?

(c) vC = ?

v
(1.20V ) cos (2500rad s) t
; i= R =
R
200
3
= ( 6.0 10 A) cos ( 2500rad s ) t
; XC =

Circuit Element

Amplitude Rela0on Circuit Quan0ty

Resistor

VR = IR

Inductor

VL = IX L

Capacitor

VC = IXC

R
XL = L
1
XC =
C

Phase of v
In phase with i.
Leads i by 90.
Lags i by 90.

1
1
= 80
=
C ( 2500rad s) ( 5.0 10 6 F )

" 2500rad
%
t rad '
; vC = VC cos ( t 90) = 0.48V cos $
#
&
s
2

VC = IXC =

" 1.20V %
Vmax
XC = $
' (80) = 0.48V
# 200 &
Rmax

i = I cos t
I = 2A
R = 1k
(a) Vrms = I rms R =

5 $

(a) What is the RMS voltage?

(b) What is the instantaneous current?
(c) What is the instantaneous voltage
across the resistor?

2A
2
(1k) = kV = 2kV
2
2
! 5 $

! 5 $

(b) i # t =
& = I cos t = ( 2A) cos # & = ( 2A) cos # &
" 6 %
" 6 %
6 %
"

Low-frequency sounds are produced by

the woofer (speaker w/ large diameter).
High-frequency sounds are produced by
the tweeter (speaker w/ small diameter).

" 3%
= ( 2A) $ ' = 3 A
# 2 &
! 5 $
" 5 %
(c) v # t =
& = V cos t = IR cos t = ( 2A) (1k) cos $ '
" 6 %
# 6 &
# 3&
= ( 2A) (1k) % ( = 3kV
$ 2 '

2/23/13

The L-R-C Series Circuit

The L-R-C Series Circuit

What is the instantaneous poten0al
dierence v across a and d?
Assume that the source supplies a current:

i = I cos t

Source voltage phasor V is the vector

sum of the VR, VL and VC phasors.

If X L > XC :
V
VL

VL VC

VR

V = VR2 + (VL VC )

Since in series, i is equal all throughout.

v = vab + vbc + vcd

Note that the maximum voltages across
each circuit element are:

VR = IR ; VL = IX L ; VC = IXC

The L-R-C Series Circuit

2

Z = R + ( X L XC )

V=

VC

But the instantaneous voltage would be:

By Pythagorean theorem:
2

( IR) + ( IX L IXC )

V = I R 2 + ( X L XC )

The phasor VR is in phase with

the current phasor.
The phasor V L leads the
current by 90.
The phasor VC lags the current
by 90.

R 2 + ( X L XC ) = Z

V = IZ
(amplitude of voltage across an AC
circuit, valid for any network of
resistors, inductors and capacitors)

The L-R-C Series Circuit

If X L > XC :
V

(Impedance) - the ra0o of the voltage amplitude across

the circuit to the current amplitude in
the circuit.

"
1 % (Impedance of an LRC circuit, only
Z = R + $ L
'
#
C & valid for LRC series circuit)
2

Similar to V
=
IR
of DC circuits.
Just as direct current tends to follow the path of least resistance,
alterna0ng current tends to follow the path of lowest impedance.

VL
VL VC

VL VC IX L IXC
=
VR
IR
1
L
X XC
C
tan = L
=
R
R
tan =

VR
VC

What is the angle by which the

source voltage leads the current?

"
1 %
$L
'

C'
= tan $
R
$
'
#
&
1

(phase angle of an LRC series

circuit)

So if the instantaneous current is: i = I cos t

The instantaneous voltage is:
v = V cos ( t + ) = IZ cos ( t + )

2/23/13

The L-R-C Series Circuit

If X L > XC :
V
VL

VL VC

If X L < XC :
I

VL

VR

VR

All the expressions that we developed for an LRC

series circuit is valid even if:

V
t

VL VC

VC

L=0
R=0
C =
VC

X L XC > 0
tan > 0
posi0ve angle from

X L XC < 0
tan < 0
nega0ve angle from

The source voltage phasor

leads the current source.

The source voltage phasor lags

the current source.

Note that quan00es are described in terms of the

root mean square.

V
IZ
=
2
2

0 to -90.

0 to 90.

Vrms = I rms Z

For a pure resistor:

Power in AC Circuits

The power curve is symmetrical

about a value equal to its
maximum value VI.

The instantaneous power delivered for an AC

circuit is given by:

p = vi

; i = I cos t

p = iv

P = IV
I V
1
Pave = VI =
2
2 2
Pave = I rmsVrms = I rms ( I rms R)
Pave = ( I rms )

(V )
R = rms

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For a pure inductor:

For a pure capacitor:

VL leads current I by 90.

VC lags current I by 90.

T h e p o w e r c u r v e i s
symmetrical about the
horizontal axis, it is posi0ve
half the 0me and nega0ve
half the 0me.

T h e p o w e r c u r v e i s
symmetrical about the
horizontal axis, it is posi0ve
half the 0me and nega0ve
half the 0me.

Pave = 0

Pave = 0

General form:

General form:

p = iv = [ I cos t ]!"V cos ( t + )#$

= [ I cos t ] V [ cos t cos sin t sin ]
= IV "#cos2 t cos cos t sin t sin $%
1
; sin t cos t = sin 2 t
2

"
%
1
p = IV $cos2 t cos sin 2 t sin '
#
&
2
1
; averageof cos t =
2
averageof sin 2 t = 0
2

Pave =

1
IV cos
2

Pave =

1
I V
IV cos =
cos = I rmsVrms cos
2
2 2

(average power into a general AC circuit)

cos power factor

Pure resistor

power factor

Pave

0
Pure inductor +90

I rmsVrms

Pure capacitor 90

0
R
Z

LRC in series

___

I rmsVrms

R
Z

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Resonance in AC circuits
Much of the prac0cal importance of LRC series circuits arises from the
way in which such circuits respond to sources of dierent angular
frequency .

Recall:
In an AC circuit:

In a DC circuit:

One type of tuning circuit used in radio receivers is simply an LRC

series circuit.
A radio signal of any given frequency produces a current of the same
frequency in the receiver circuit, but the amplitude of the current is
greatest if the signal frequency equals the par0cular frequency to
which the receiver circuit is tuned.
This eect is called resonance.
The circuit is designed so that signals at other than the tuned
frequency produce currents that are too small to make an audible
sound come out of the radios speakers.

Resonance in AC circuits

V = IR
V
; V constant
I=
R
I is highest if R is minimum.

V = IZ
V
I=
Z
I is highest if Z is minimum.

So at resonance for LRC circuits,

Note: The maximum value of I in an AC circuit occurs at the frequency

at which the impedance Z is minimum.
Resonance
the peaking of the current amplitude at a certain frequency.
Resonance angular frequency (0)
the angular frequency at which the resonance peak occurs.

Z = R 2 + ( X L XC )

; Z is minimum if X L = XC

0 L =

1
0C

02 =

1
LC

Z = R 2 + ( X L XC )

; Z is minimum if X L = XC

Z=R

0 =

1
(resonance angular frequency for an LRC in series)
LC

The current at any instant is the same in L and C. VL leads I by 90. VC

lags I by 90. vL and vC dier in phase by 180, they have opposite signs
at each instant.
At resonance since VL = VC, the instantaneous voltage across L and C add
to zero at each instant and the total voltage across the LC combina0on is
zero. The circuit behaves as if the L and C werent there at all.
The voltage across the resistor is then equal to the source voltage.

10

2/23/13

The shape of the response curve

is important in the design of
radio and television receiving
circuits.
The sharply peaked curve is
what makes it possible to
discriminate between two
s t a 0 o n s b r o a d c a s 0 n g o n
adjacent frequency bands.
Graph of current amplitude I as a
func0on of angular frequency for an
LRC series circuit with V=100V,
L=2.0H, C=0.50F and R=200,
500, 2000.

But if the peak is too sharp,

some of the informa0on in the
received signal is lost, such as
the high-frequency sounds in
music.

Consider an LRC circuit with L = 40H, R = 2, C = 1mF and resonance

angular frequency 0 = 5rad/s connected in series across an AC source
with 8V peak voltage. (a) What is the peak current that the circuit can
have? (b) What is the total average power dissipated in the circuit?

(a) V = IZ ; I = V = V = 8V = 4A
Z

Z = R 2 + ( X L XC )

"
1 %
= R 2 + $ L
'
#
C &

"
%
$"
'
%
rad
1
2
'
= ( 2) + $$ 5
' ( 40H )
"
%
rad
$# s &
'
$5
' (1mF ) '
$
# s &
#
&

= 42 + ( 2002 2002 ) = 2

11