Tests of Hypothesis

Basic Concepts
Testing a Hypothesis on the Population Mean
Testing a Hypothesis on Proportions
Testing the Difference Between Two Population Means
Testing the Difference Between Two Proportions
Testing of Independence

Basic Concepts
A statistical hypothesis is a conjecture concerning one or more populations whose
veracity can be established using sample data. The null hypothesis, denoted as Ho,
is a statistical hypothesis which the researcher doubts to be true. The alternative
hypothesis, denoted as Ha, is the operational statement of the theory that the
researcher believes to be true and wishes to prove and is a contradiction of the null
hypothesis.
We can only determine whether or not the sample data provide us with sufficient
evidence supporting Ha.

Basic Concepts
A one-tailed test of hypothesis is a test where Ha specifies a one-directional
difference for the parameter of interest. A two-tailed test of hypothesis is a test
where Ha does not specify a directional difference for the parameter of interest.

Example:
Null Hypothesis
Ho: p = 15
Ho: p = 15

Alternative Hypothesis
Ha: p < 15
Ha: p > 15

Ho: p = 15

Ha: p 15

Basic Concepts
A test statistic is a statistic whose value is calculated from sample data, which will
be the basis for deciding whether to reject Ho or not in a test of hypothesis.
The critical region or region of rejection is the set of values of the test statistic for
which we reject Ho. The acceptance region or region of nonrejection is the set of
values of the test statistic for which we do not reject Ho. These two regions are
separated by the critical value of the test statistic.

Basic Concepts
The Type I error is the error committed when we decide to reject Ho when in
reality Ho is true. The Type II error is the error committed when we decide not to
reject Ho when in reality Ho is false.

A level of significance, denoted by , is the maximum probability of committing a

Type I error that the researcher is willing to commit.
Example: If = 0.01, then we are assured that when we decide to reject Ho, the
probability that this decision is wrong will not exceed 0.01.

Basic Concepts
The p-value is the probability of selecting a sample whose computed value for the
test statistic is equal to or more extreme (in the direction stated in Ha) than the
realized value computed from the sample data, given that Ho is true.
It is often referred to as the observed level of significance.
Rule: If the p-value , reject Ho.
Reading Assignment: Section 15.1 of Elementary Statistics

Basic Concepts
Hypothesis Testing Using the Critical Value
Step 1. State the hypotheses.
Step 2. Choose .
Step 3. Determine the appropriate statistical technique and corresponding test
statistic to use.
Step 4. Set up the decision rule. Identify the critical value or values that will
separate the rejection and nonrejection regions.
Step 5. Collect data and compute the value of the test statistic.
Step 6. Determine whether the value of the test statistic falls in the rejection or
nonrejection region. Make the statistical decision.
Step 7. Express the statistical decision in terms of the problem.

Basic Concepts
Hypothesis Testing Using the p-Value
Step 1. State the hypotheses.
Step 2. Choose .
Step 3. Determine the appropriate statistical technique and corresponding test
statistic to use.
Step 4. Collect data and compute the value of the test statistic.
Step 5. Compute for the p-value. Compare the p-value with . Make the statistical
decision.
Step 6. Express the statistical decision in terms of the problem.

Hypothesis Tests for the Mean

Summary of Hypothesis Tests for the Population Mean (Ho: = o )
Cases

Ha

Case 1: is known

< o
> o
o

Case 2: is
unknown
Case 3: is
unknown
(and n > 30)

< o
> o
o

< o
> o
o

Test Statistic

Z=

o
X

Region of Rejection

z < z
z > z
|z| > z
2

T=

o
X
S

t < t ( = 1)
t > t ( = 1)
|t| > t ( = 1)
2

Z=

o
X
S

z < z
z > z
|z| > z
2

Hypothesis Tests for the Mean

Example: A certain restaurant advertises that it puts 0.25 pound of beef in its
burgers. A customer who frequents the restaurant thinks the burgers actually
contains les than 0.25 pound of beef. With permission from the owner. The
customer selected a random sample of 60 burgers and found the mean and
standard deviation to be 0.22 and 0.07, respectively. Test the consumers assertions
at 0.01 level of significance using the critical value approach.
How are confidence interval estimation and hypothesis testing related?

Hypothesis Tests for the Mean

Example: A test can be conducted to determine the length of time required for a
student to read a specified amount of material. In this test, students were
instructed to read at the maximum speed at which they could still comprehend the
material. A random sample of 16 students took the test, with the following results
(in minutes):
18
27
29
20
19
25
24
21
24
19
23
28
31
22
27
21
Assume that the results of the test are normally distributed. Let = mean length of
time (in minutes) required to read the material for all students in the population.
Test Ho: = 25 against Ha: 25 at = 0.05.

Hypothesis Tests for the Proportion

Hypothesis Test for the Population Proportion
Ho

p = po

Ha

p < po
p > po
p po

Test Statistic

Z=

Region of Rejection

Y npo
npo (1po )

where Y = number of
successes in a random
sample of size n

z < z
z > z
|z| > z
2

Hypothesis Tests for the Proportion

Example: The brand executive of a company claims that they have failed to meet
their goal because less than 80% of all target consumers are familiar with the
shampoo commercial that they had broadcast on radio and television during the
past month. A random sample of 500 respondents indicated that 388 were familiar
with the said commercial. Is the claim valid? Use the 0.05 level of significance.

Hypothesis Tests for Two Means

Tests of Hypotheses for the Difference of Means Based on Two Independent
Samples (Ho: x y = d0 )
Ha

x and y
are known
x and y
are
unknown
x = y

x y < d0
x y > d0
x y d0
x y < d0
x y > d0
x y d0

Test Statistic

z=

(
X
Y) d0
2x 2y
+
n1 n2

t=

Region of Rejection

z < z
z > z
z > z
2

X
Y d0
Sp2 Sp2
+
n1 n2

2
2
n

1
S
+
n

2
S
1
x
2
y
Sp2 =
n1 + n2 2

t < t (n1 + n2 1)
t > t (n1 + n2 1)
t > t (n1 + n2 1)
2

Hypothesis Tests for Two Means

Tests of Hypotheses for the Difference of Means Based on Two Independent
Samples (Ho: x y = d0 )
Ha

x and y
are
unknown
x y

x y < d0
x y > d0
x y d0

Test Statistic

t=

Y
d0
X
Sx2 Sy2
+
n1 n2

Region of Rejection

t < t (v)
t > t (v)
t > t (v)
2

v=

Sx2
n1

Sy2
+
n2

2
Sx2
n1
n1 1

Sy2
n2
+
n2 1

Hypothesis Tests for Two Means

Tests of Hypotheses for the Difference of Means Based on Two Independent
Samples (Ho: x y = d0 )
Ha

x and y
x y < d0
are
unknown, x y > d0
but
x y d0
n1 , n2 > 30

Test Statistic

z=

Y
) d0
(X
Sx2 Sy2
+
n1 n2

Region of Rejection

z < z
z > z
z > z
2

Hypothesis Tests for Two Means

Example: A study was conducted to compare the length of time it took male and
female students from the same year level and college to answer a 50-item IQ test.
Independent samples of 50 male students and 50 female students were asked to
take the test in which each person was timed. The results were as follows:
Males

Females

x = 42 min

y = 38 min

2 = 18

2 = 14

Did the data present sufficient evidence to suggest a difference between the true
mean completion times of male and female students at 5% level of significance?

Hypothesis Tests for Two Means

Tests of Hypotheses for the Difference of Means Based on Paired Observations
Ho

Ha

D = do

D < d0
D > d0
D d0

Test Statistic

T=

do

Region of Rejection

t < t ( = 1)
t > t ( = 1)
|t| > t ( = 1)
2

Hypothesis Tests for Two Means

Example: An ornithologist wishes to know if the habitat is used by migrating reed
warblers for fattening up before taking off on migration. A sample of reed warblers
were weighed in August and the same set of birds were weighed in September.
Reed Warbler
Aug
Sept

1
10.3
12.2

2
11.4
12.1

3
10.9
13.1

4
12
11.9

5
10
12

6
11.9
12.9

7
12.2
11.4

8
12.3
12.1

9
11.7
13.5

Is there evidence here to suggest that the mean weight tends to be heavier in
September? Assume that the weights are normally distributed. Use = 0.05.

10
12
12.3

Hypothesis Tests for Two Proportions

Tests of Hypotheses for the Difference Between Two Proportions
Ho

Ha

Test Statistic

Z=
p1 p2 = 0

p1 p2 < 0
p1 p2 > 0
p1 p2 0

Region of Rejection

1 2

1+1)
(1
)(

1

where =

+
1+2

z < z
z > z
|z| > z

X = no. of elements in the first sample possessing the characteristic of interest

Y = no. of elements in the second sample possessing the characteristic of interest

Hypothesis Tests for Two Proportions

Example: (Research on Shopping) Suppose two samples were taken in the
Philippines. The first sample consists of 2,015 adult males while the second sample
consists of 2,085 adult females. 850 males and 570 females think shopping is an
unpleasant experience. We want to test the hypothesis that males dislike shopping
more than females at 0.05 level of significance.

Test for Independence

Step 1. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
Step 2. Choose the level of significance.
Step 3. Collect the data.
Step 4. Construct the r x c contingency table. Compute for the row totals and
column totals.
Step 5. Compute for the expected frequencies.
Step 6. Compute the test statistic.
Step 7. Make the statistical decision.

Test for Independence

Example: A study was conducted to determine whether the leader-follower
tendency of a person is associated with his height. In this study, a sample of 95
people were selected. Based on the data collected, each one in the sample was
classified according to their leader-follower tendency and height.
HEIGHT

LEADER-FOLLOWER
TENDENCY

Short

Tall

Follower
In-between

22
9

14
6

36
15

Leader
Total

12
43

32
52

44

Total

95

Test the hypothesis that there is relationship between leader-follower tendency

and height at 0.01 level of significance.