WHERE DO COUNSELLORS WORK?

Educational Settings
Some counsellors work in educational settings such as elementary schools, secondary schools,
and colleges/universities.
School counselling involves a wide range of ages, developmental stages, background
experiences, and types of problems (Gladding, 2009). Some schoolchildren are developmentally
ready, eager and able to go to school, whereas others are disadvantaged because of physical,
mental, cultural, or socioeconomic factors. Some schoolchildren also have traumas, such as
various forms of abuse. American schoolchildren regardless of their age and environment, for
example, face multiple events and processes such as alcohol and drug abuse, changing family
patterns, poor self-esteem, hopelessness, AIDS, racial and ethnic tensions, crime and violence,
teenage pregnancy, sexism, and so forth (Gladding, 2009). Thus, school counsellors and
guidance and counselling programmes help schoolchildren become better adjusted academically
and developmentally while feeling safer, having better relationships with teachers, believing their
education is relevant to their futures, having fewer problems in school, and earning higher grades
(Gladding, 2009). The aim of school counselling is to promote educational, social, career, and
personal development so that students can become responsible, productive citizens (Nystul,
2011). School counsellors work with all students, school staff, families, and members of the
community as integral part of the education programme (Nystul, 2011).
Elementary school counselling focuses on preventive services (e.g., preventing difficulties and
bullying in school) and increasing student awareness of individual needs and healthy, prosocial
ways of meeting them. Secondary school counselling has traditionally emphasized individual
counselling services with high-risk and high-achieving individuals. However, today, secondary
school counselling focuses more on positive whole-school environment and both prevention
(e.g., primary prevention through classroom activities to cultivate better self-reliance and less
domination by peers among students; and prevention against substance abuse, suicide/homicide,
HIV/AIDs infection, and abusive relationships) and remediation programmes to help students
with problems in adjustment, behaviour, anxiety, substance abuse, and eating (Gladding, 2009).
College counselling typically offers services related to (1) student behaviours (e.g., achievement,
attrition, campus activities); (2) student characteristics (e.g., aptitudes, aspirations); (3) student
growth (e.g., cognitive, moral, social/emotional); and (4) academic performance (e.g., study
skills) (Gladding, 2009). College counselling emphasizes the total growth and maturation of
students in college/university environments and has an optimistic outlook, focusing on the
benefits of certain environments and events that encourage students to be more self-aware and
use their abilities fully (Gladding, 2009).
Community and Agency Settings
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Counsellors in community settings deal with diverse populations with many different concerns.
These concerns range from continuous developmental needs to crises requiring immediate
attention (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).
In most community health agencies, counsellors work alongside other helping professionals such
as psychiatrists, clinical and counselling psychologists, and psychiatric social workers.
Psychiatrists typically lead the team because they have a medical background and may perform
physical examinations, prescribe drugs, and admit people to hospitals for the treatment of
behaviour abnormalities (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).
Private Practice
Counsellors who are private practitioners work for themselves in individual or group practice
unaffiliated with an agency (Gladding, 2009). They can enter general practice or specialize in
areas such as addictions, careers, children, and so on (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). Before entering
private practice, counsellors should consider whether their professional interest and expertise are
relevant to a sufficient client population in the geographic area of practice to adequately support
private practitioners. They must know and adhere to legal and ethical guidelines in private
practice. They must also consider licensure and eligibility for third-party payment (Gibson &
Mitchell, 2008).
Counsellors in private practice must either have business and counselling abilities to be
successful or they must hire business managers (Gladding, 2009). This is not surprising given
that private practitioners should address fiscal issues (such as fees, billing policies, insurance,
office overhead), logistical issues (such as office location, hours, furnishings, record keeping,
secretarial help), and public relation and communication issues (including advertising of
services) (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). There are some difficulties associated with private practice,
such as finding support and supervision groups for oneself. There are advantages as well, such as
setting ones own hours and avoiding the headaches of managed care regulations. Overall,
private practice continues to be a popular alternative for counsellors (Gladding, 2009).

COMMUNITY AND MENTAL HEALTH AGENCIES

The Agency
Community mental health agencies provide counselling services for the general population
within a specified geographic area. They typically offer inpatient and outpatient, emergency, and
educational and consultation services. Many centres also offer partial hospitalization services,
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diagnostic services, pre-care and post-care through home visits, foster home placement, and
halfway houses (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).
In addition to community mental health agencies, a variety of related community counselling
services have developed over the past decades. These include hotlines or crisis centres, drop-in
or open-door centres, and specialized counselling centres. Hotlines or crisis centres typically
provide sympathetic and helpful listeners and reliable information for dealing with common
concerns such as drug overdose, suicide, spouse abuse, alcoholism, and mental breakdown.
These hotlines and crisis centres have nonprofessionals and paraprofessionals on staff and in
some settings, professional volunteers or a professional supervisor (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).
Drop-in or open-door centres provide havens for people who need a place to come to or to get off
the streets, i.e., a place where they can feel secure and get sympathetic attention and counselling
help. In many of these centres, record keeping is minimal and clients may not even be required to
give their names or personal details (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).
Specialized counselling service centres serve special populations with specific problems such as
alcohol or drug addiction, spouse abuse, marital relations, and sexual problems (Gibson &
Mitchell, 2008). These centres also serve special populations by age classifications or racial or
religious groups. These centres tend to have professionals, paraprofessionals, and volunteers on
staff. Their facilities are also diverse (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).
Community Counselling
Community counselling is defined more by the setting in which a counsellor works than anything
else (Gladding, 2009). Community counsellors are typically generalists who identify more with
the profession of counselling as a whole than with any counselling specialty, process, or
orientation.
An increasing number of community counsellors is hired in employee assistance programmes
(EAPs) in businesses and institutions. These counsellors work with employees to help them
avoid or solve problems that might negatively affect their on-the-job behaviour (Gladding,
2009).
Community counsellors may also be employed at crises-oriented organizations such as the Red
Cross or local emergency telephone and walk-in counselling centres. In crisis situations, many
needs ranging from physical to mental health must be taken care of. So, at such organizations
and centres, counsellors are needed to offer counselling and supportive services to victims of
natural or human-made disasters (Gladding, 2009).

Community counsellors are also found in settings where other helping professionals work such
as substance abuse, hospice, child guidance clinics, wellness centres, colleges, hospitals, and
private practice (Gladding, 2009).
Employment Counselling
Employment counselling is also known as career counselling. The National Career Development
Association defines career counselling as a process of assisting individuals in the development
of a life-career with a focus on the definition of the worker role and how that role interacts with
other life roles (p. 2, as cited in Gladding, 2009). Career counsellors consider many factors
when helping individuals make career decisions. Among these factors include avocational
interests, age or stage in life, maturity, gender, familial obligations, and civic roles (Gladding,
2009). Career counsellors have many functions: (1) administering and interpreting career-related
tests and inventories; (2) conducting personal counselling sessions; (3) developing personalized
career plans; (4) helping clients integrate vocational and avocational life roles; (5) facilitating
decision-making skills; and (6) providing support for clients experiencing job stress, job loss, or
career transitions (Gladding, 2009).
Correctional Counselling
Correctional counselling is used in various law enforcement settings including those that serve
first-time juvenile probationary offenders to persons incarcerated in penal institutions (Gibson &
Mitchell, 2008). Counsellors in these settings typically have training in psychology, sociology,
criminal justice, or forensic studies. Among their duties are counselling and interviewing, using
analytical techniques (including standardized tests), referrals, parole recommendations, and
placement. In some juvenile settings, counsellors may be employed as live-in advisors.
Counsellors of juvenile offenders work closely with police officers and other authorities. In other
correctional settings, counsellors play an important role in changing closed, traditional, punitive
systems into those that are more positive, helping, and rehabilitative. In these settings,
counsellors emphasize positive interpersonal climates and open lines of communication among
inmates, correctional officers, and guards (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).
Rehabilitation Counselling
Rehabilitation counselling helps individuals overcome their disabilities or deficits in their skills
(Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). Rehabilitation counsellors may work with special groups such as
those with hearing loss, mental illness, or physical or other kinds of disabilities. Their role is
complex: They provide a wide range of psychological and career-oriented services and work
with or often coordinate efforts of community agencies on their clients behalf.

Vocational rehabilitation counsellors help people with disabilities prepare for gainful
employment and appropriate job placement. Some rehabilitation counsellors work in inpatient
and outpatient facilities for substance abusers. They also work with ex-offenders to adjust to life
in societys mainstream (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).
Marriage and Family Counselling
Marriage and family counselling focuses on family life and the growth and developments that
take place within it (Gladding, 2009). Marriage and family counselling recognizes the
importance the family plays in the individuals life, deals with problem behaviours and conflicts
between the individual and the environment, and generally includes family members. It
emphasizes on dynamics as opposed to linear causality as in much individual and group
counselling (Gladding, 2009).
Couples seek counselling for various reasons, including finances, children, fidelity,
communication, and compatibility (Gladding, 2009). Regardless of who initiates the counselling,
it is crucial for the counsellor to see both members of the couple from the beginning if at all
possible (Gladding, 2009).
Families seek counselling for various reasons as well. Usually, there is an individual who is seen
as the cause of trouble within the family and whom family members use as the cause for
counselling (Gladding, 2009). Most family counsellors do not see one member of a family as the
problem but work with the whole family system.
Important theoretical foundations for marriage and family counselling include systems theory
and the family life cycle. Systems theory is based on the principle of circular causality: Actions
of one family member influence the actions of all other family members, affecting the
functioning of the family system, including the person who was responsible for the initial action
(Nystul, 2011). The family life cycle refers to the eight stages a family goes through as it evolves
from married couples (without children) to aging family members (retirement to death of both
spouses) (Duvall, 1957). These stages sometimes parallel and complement those in the individual
life cycle, but often they are unique because of the number of people involved and the diversity
of tasks to be accomplished (Gladding, 2009; Nystul, 2011). Failure to master the developmental
tasks associated with a particular stage could disrupt a familys functioning. Thus, an important
task in counselling is to help families resolve developmental issues so that they can advance in
the family life cycle (Nystul, 2011).

Gerontology Counselling
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Gerontology counselling focuses on helping older adults (above 65 years old) face challenges
associated with aging. It aims at promoting successful aging (through adjusting to transitions);
overcoming stereotypes associated with ageism (negative attitudes and stereotypes about older
adults; developing personal strengths; promoting lifestyle factors associated with longevity;
encouraging optimal physical, cognitive, social, and personality development; and coping
successfully with end of life issues (Nystul, 2011).

SPECIAL COUNSELLING POPULATIONS

Substance Abusers
The ill effects of abusing substances such as alcohol and drugs are well publicized. In the United
States, alcohol, marijuana and nicotine are commonly used as well as abused substances (Gibson
& Mitchell, 2008). Substance abuse is directly or indirectly related to many emergency room
admissions, domestic violence cases, and homicides (Steven & Smith, 2001, as cited in Gibson
& Mitchell, 2008). Further, in the United States, substance abuse is not uncommon among high
school students, and there is increased experimentation among elementary school children.
Cocaine, a very addictive drug, is more popular among adults, but its use is increasing among
youth (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).
In Malaysia, substance abuse is on the rise. A major factor for this is Malaysias geographic
location in the Golden Triangle (Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand) that produces and processes
drugs (Ibrahim & Kumar, 2009; Kulsudjurit, 2004). Relapses in substance abuse are common
and worrying: An estimated 70-90% of substance abusers who have received treatment at
rehabilitation centres in Malaysia return to drugs after a year (Reid, Kamarulzaman, & Sran,
2007).
In the past tobacco has been overlooked as an abuse substance and was and still is glamorized.
Today we are much more aware of the deadly effects of its addiction (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).
It is estimated that over 66.5 million Americans over age 12 smoke regularly; 4.1 million of
American children ages 12 to 17 also smoke regularly. Recent reports indicate an increase in the
percentage of teenage girls who smoke. In Malaysia, it is estimated that 17.5% of teenage boys
and 3.4% of teenage girls (ages 13-17) experiment with smoking whereas 4.7% of teenage boys
and 0.1% of teenage girls (ages 13-17) are current smokers (Hammond, Kin, Prohmo,
Kungskulniti, Lian, et al., 2008).
The concept of alcoholism as a disease that is treatable has gained popularity in recent
generations (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). In the United States since the mid 1970s, alcohol has
been the single most abused drug in adolescent culture. Almost half of Americans age 12 or older
reported being current drinkers of alcohol. About 20.5 percent of Americans age 12 or older
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engaged in binge drinking at least once in the 30 days prior to the survey. About 5.7 percent of
Americans age 12 or older reported heavy drinking (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, 2002, as cited in Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). Adolescents who abuse alcohol are likely
to have high absentee rates, poor academic achievement, appear resentful of adult interest in their
personal lives, have little interest in school activities, and often have an alcoholic aroma about
them (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). According to World Health Organization (2011), Malaysians do
not consume much alcohol. With a per capita consumption at 0.8 litres (of pure alcohol),
Malaysia is ranked at 167th in the world for alcohol consumption. Alcohol abuse among
Malaysians aged 15 and above stands at 3.74% for males and 0.42% for females.
Counsellors may be involved in the prevention, intervention, and crisis treatment or remediation
of substance abuse. They need specialized training to work with substance abusers because this
population is typically resistant to change and have facilitating conditions that are often beyond
the counsellors control (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). They need to be aware of the resources
available for substance abusers such as emergency clinics, specialized centres, hospital care,
crisis centres, and special assistance groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous. The counsellors
generally have a specialized knowledge of the pharmacological, physiological, psychological,
and sociocultural aspects of alcohol and drug use.
In many substance abuse counselling programmes, both individual and group counselling are
used. Counsellors have knowledge of the causes, symptoms, and potential outcomes of the
substance abuse. In many individual situations, substance abusers need medical treatment and
referral to a psychiatrist. Further, following diagnosis, counsellors develop a treatment plan that
takes into account factors such as the seriousness of the clients condition and motivation,
projected length of treatment, external factors affecting the treatment, and the prognosis for
success of the treatment.
Women
Women are the primary consumers of counselling services (Wastell, 1996 in Gladding, 2009).
They have special needs related to biological differences and socialization patterns that make
many of their concerns in counselling different from those of men (Gladding, 2009). Compared
to men, women differ in their interest and involvement in issues such as intimacy, career options,
and life development. Among their major concerns include development and growth, depression,
eating disorders, sexual victimization, widowhood, and multiple roles (Gladding, 2009).
Women are basically relational beings, and counsellors approaches should take that into
consideration (Gladding, 2009). Thus, counsellors to women should be highly emphatic, warm,
understanding, and sufficiently well developed as a person to appreciate women clients
predicament.

One of the main issues of counselling women is the counsellors knowledge about them and
ways of responding to them as individuals and in groups (Gladding, 2009). Counsellors should
have specialized knowledge for counselling women at different stages of life (such as
adolescence, midlife, and old age). Counsellors must also understand the dynamics of working
with women under different conditions such as eating disorders, sexual abuse and rape, suicide,
and career development (Gladding, 2009). Common settings for counselling women include
work/professional, family, community, and private practice.
The Elderly
In the US and many developed countries, the elderly are defined as persons over age 65. In
contrast, the elderly (warga emas) in Malaysia are individuals over the age of 55 and have
retired from work. In many countries in the world, populations are aging and there are higher
percentages of older adults, due in part to improved healthcare, better nutrition, reduced
infectious diseases, and so forth. Older adults face a variety of issues including changes in
physical abilities, social roles, relationships, and residential relocation (Gladding, 2009).
According to Havighurst (1959, as cited in Gladding, 2009), older adults must learn to cope with
death of spouses or friends, reduced physical vigour, retirement and decreased income, more
leisure time, new social roles, dealing with adult children, and changing living arrangements or
making satisfactory ones.
Unfortunately, many older adults do not receive attention from counsellors (Gladding, 2009).
One reason is that many counsellors do not understand them and therefore do not work with
them. Second, is the investment syndrome: Some counsellors feel their time and energy are
better spent working with younger people who may contribute to society. Third, is the irrational
fear of aging and the resulting psychological distancing from older adults. Finally, older adults
problems may be mistaken for other conditions related to aging. For example, alcohol abuse
among older adults is prevalent but frequently undiagnosed (Williams, Ballard, & Alessi, 2005,
as cited in Gladding, 2009).
To work more effectively with older adults, counsellors need to undergo specialized training
(Capuzzi & Gross, 2009). Often, the goals of counselling older adults include the following: (1)
to decrease anxiety and depression; (2) to reduce confusion and loss of contact with reality; (3) to
increase socialization and improve interpersonal relationships; (4) to improve behaviour within
institutions; (5) to cope with crisis and transitional stress; and (6) to become more accepting of
self and the aging process (Wellman & McCormack, 1984, as cited in Capuzzi & Gross, 2009).
Common settings for counselling the elderly are community and health settings as well as private
practice.

Abuse Victims
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Domestic violence characterized by spouse abuse and/or child abuse is rampant in the United
States (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). Reports indicate that one third of all married people engage in
spouse abuse. In Malaysia, 39% of women above the age of 15 years were estimated to have
been physically beaten by their partner (Abdullah, Raj-Hashim, & Schmitt, 1995) and one in
seven female patients at University Malaya Medical Centre outpatient clinic came with a
background in domestic violence (Abdul Samad, 2003).
Spouse abuse is typically associated with poverty, substance abuse, and career disappointments.
The most popular response for abused spouses is providing shelters and crisis hotlines. For these
settings, most of the personnel are paraprofessional and volunteer workers, but professionals
such as counsellors, social workers, and/or psychologists are increasingly involved.
In the United States the public has also become more aware of the nature and extent of child
abuse in recent years (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). Unfortunately, many cases of child abuse have
not been reported. In Malaysia, an average of 7 child abuse cases a day were reported in 2008,
and these cases are on the rise (Department of Social Welfare Malaysia, as cited in UNICEF
Malaysia, 2010). Child abuse destroys the joys and memories of youth; it can also cause
psychological problems throughout the victims adulthood. School counsellors are the main
helpers in any school systems child abuse prevention efforts. They must recognize the
symptoms of possible abuse and their legal responsibility to report abuse cases. They must also
recognize their responsibility to lead in developing and implementing an effective programme of
child abuse prevention (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).
The public has also become more aware of cases of sexual abuse as the victims come forward
and discuss the harmful effects of their experiences (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). Women are most
likely to be victims of domestic violence and sexual abuse. However, young boys are more likely
to be abused outside the family than girls. It is assumed that many sexual abuse cases are not
reported because of guilt, stigma, and fear. The emotional effects include a sense of guilt or
responsibility for the abuse, low self-esteem, depression, anger, fear and the inability to trust
others, helplessness, and negative attitudes toward sexuality (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).
Counsellors who work at settings serving abused spouses or children need special skills in
individual and group counselling and crisis and short-term interventions. They also need
adequate knowledge of marriage and family dynamics (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). The four most
common treatments for spouse/partner abuse are marital therapy, anger management training,
individual therapy, and domestic conflict containment programmes (Gladding, 2009). Prevention
and treatment of child abuse and neglect is often complicated because it involves legal,
developmental, and psychological issues (Pistorello & Follette, 1998, and cited in Gladding,
2009; Wilcoxon, Remley, Gladding, & Huber, 2007, as cited in Gladding, 2009). Counsellors
must deal with feelings of guilt in the abused child and with anger and feelings of betrayal of the
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abuser before working with the family in correcting the problem and preventing it from
happening again. In addition, because of legal issues involved, the abuser may be separated from
the family, making the job of working with the family more challenging (Gladding, 2009).
People with Disabilities
A disability is either a physical or a mental condition that limits a persons activities of
functioning (U.S. Department of health, Education, and Welfare, 1974, as cited in Gladding,
2009). Clients with disabilities have physical, emotional, mental, and behavioural manifestations,
including diagnoses such as alcoholism, arthritis, blindness, cardiovascular diseases, deafness,
cerebral palsy, epilepsy, mental retardation, drug abuse, neurological disorders, orthopaedic
disabilities, psychiatric disabilities, renal failure, speech impairments, and spinal cord conditions
(Gladding, 2009).
Rehabilitation counselling focuses on serving individuals with disabilities. Rehabilitation refers
to the re-education of individuals with disabilities who have previously lived independent lives.
The ultimate goals of rehabilitation counselling are successful employment, independent living,
and community participation (Gladding, 2009).
Traditionally, most rehabilitation counsellors have been hired by federal, state, and local agencies
(Gladding, 2009). However, since the late 1960s, more rehabilitation counsellors have moved
into non-profit agencies and private practice because of developments such as economic
changes, new emphases by businesses and insurance companies, national professional
certification requirements, and state licensure laws (Gladding, 2009). Rehabilitation counsellors
assess the clients current level of functioning and environmental situation that either encourage
or discourage functionality. After making the assessment, counsellors use a variety of counselling
theories (affective, behavioural, cognitive, and systemic) and techniques (such as role-playing,
fantasy enactment, and psychodrama to help with adjustment).
Individuals with physical disabilities (such as spinal cord damage or blindness) due to physical
injuries experience a major loss and physical and emotional consequences (Gladding, 2009).
Counselling and rehabilitation in such cases require adjustment by the client and his/her family
to the situation. Clients with physical disabilities go through 12 phases of adjustment: shock,
anxiety, bargaining, denial, mourning, depression, withdrawal, internalized anger, externalized
aggression, acknowledgment, acceptance, and adjustment/adaptation (Livneh & Evans, 1984, as
cited in Gladding, 2009). The clients behave according to the phases, therefore intervention
strategies should be suitable to these phases. For example, a client in shock may be immobilized
and cognitively disorganized. Therefore, helpful intervention strategies include comforting the
client, listening and attending, offering support and reassurance, allowing the person to ventilate
feelings, and referring the person to institutional care if appropriate (Gladding, 2009).
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Clients with mental abilities include those with who have mild to severely limited cognitive
abilities (Gladding, 2009). They need much time and effort in attending to psychosocial issues,
regardless of their age and the cause of impairment (Kaplan, 1993, as cited in Gladding, 2009).
Many people with varying degrees of physical or mental disabilities are unemployed (Gibson &
Mitchell, 2008). Those who are employed often face significant environmental and attitudinal
barriers, often subtle. Because of the special needs of this population, rehabilitation counselling
emerged as a specialty following World War I and accelerated following World War II (Gibson &
Mitchell, 2008).
In many locales, rehabilitation counsellors are not available (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). This is
unfortunate given that employment and retention are enhanced for the disabled with counselling
and even more so where training and support groups are available. The career development
issues of the disabled are very similar to those of other people, but the disabled often require a
recognition of their disability in the planning strategies for their career development, including
the education of employers (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).
Counsellors, particularly school counsellors, also work with children with special needs. In the
US, school counsellors, for example, must be aware of legislation such as Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) that focus on
issues of disability in the educational process (Nystul, 2011). The No Child Left Behind Act of
2001 established standards for students, expectations regarding yearly progress, and strategies
for overcoming learning barriers (Nystul, 2011).
Counsellors working with children who have mental disabilities have tasks and use techniques
similar to those employed with an adult or adolescent with physical disabilities (supportive
counselling and life-planning activities) (Gladding, 2009). However, these young clients require
more and different activities. Counsellors also help parents work through their feelings about
their child with a disability and promote positive interactions that encourage maximum child
development (Huber, 1979, as cited in Gladding, 2009).
The Poor
Many poor people live in common geographic settings: large industrial cities and rural areas with
few natural resources (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). They also are born into the cycle of poverty,
where generations live in poverty. The public schools in these settings are often the poorest, with
little educational stimulation and motivation to prepare the poor to move out of the cycle. The
poor also have public apathy and little political action. In addition, career counselling
programmes and career training programmes are rare in these settings. If they exist, they are
often viewed with suspicion or simply ignored because of a lack of public information. To be
effective in the settings of the poor, counsellors must first understand the culture of the poor.
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They must inform their clients; they must also be able to relate to the clients on a one-on-one
basis. Group work can also be very helpful where counsellors recognize the uniqueness and the
problems of the poor (Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). In Malaysia, Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat
has a programme called Program Organisasi Komuniti whose objectives include eradicating
poverty and marginalization in society through economic and social education projects.

REFERENCES
Nystul, M.S. (2011). Introduction to counseling, (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Gibson, R. L., & Mitchell, M. H. (2008). Introduction to counselling and guidance (7th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Gladding, S.T. (2009). Counselling: A comprehensive profession (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson.

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