RELATIVES

EXERCISE 202. Elementary

Note: General Remarks:
The apparently haphazard English system of relatives is best approached by teaching them from the beginning
in their two main groups of defining and non-defining relatives. Although the following exercises are
meant for practice in spoken English, the points they deal with are equally applicable to the written language.
By far the greater number of relatives in general use is of the defining type; this kind should therefore be
taught first, though most grammar books deal with the forms of the non-defining relative as the standard,
and include the defining relative rather as an after-thought.
For the sake of clarity, the following forms should be taught and practised in writing and speaking. The
forms in square brackets are acceptable alternatives, but are not recommended for active teaching; teach
contact-clauses by omitting that whenever possible. The that's in round brackets can be omitted;
they usually are in spoken English.
A. Defining Relative.
Subject
Object
Preposition
Possessive

People
Things
who, [that]
that, [which]
(that)
(that)
(that)
preposition (that) .....preposition
whose
of which [whose]

B. Non-defining Relative.
People
Things
,who ,
, which. . .,
, whom,
, which. . .,
,preposition + whom ,
, preposition + which . . ., [, which . . . preposition],
[..., who(m)... preposition],
Possessive
, whose,
, of which,[, whose]

Subject
Object
Preposition

Defining Relative.
Here the relative clause is an essential part of the idea being expressed, in that it defines or limits its antecedent
to one particular selected type.
The man is coming to tea. (Well, what man?)
The man who [that] wrote this poem is coming to tea.
who wrote this poem cannot be omitted, since without it we cannot define the man.
Most of the relatives of spoken English, probably at least 90 per cent, fall into this category.
It would be convenient to use that" throughout, but custom prefers who in the subject for persons (especially
proper names), and inefficient mechanism gives us whose and of which for the possessive, since that has
no possessive of its own, and cannot suffer a preposition before it.
We can therefore tabulate the following elementary types:
Subject: The man who [that] wrote this poem is coming to tea.
The book that [which] is lying on the table is mine.
Object: The man you met yesterday is coming to tea. (The man that you met yesterday is coming to tea.)
The book I put on the table is mine. (The book that I put on the table is mine.) We prefer the contact
clause without "that."
(For Prepositional and Possessives see next exercise.)
The forms in square brackets are possible alternatives, but the main forms as outlined above should be insisted
on in the exercises.
N.B.- Defining relative clauses are NEVER preceded by a comma in writing.
Add the missing relative, but make a contact clause where Possible:
1. The man ... you want has just left.
2. The lady ... was here yesterday has gone to London.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

The magazine ... you lent me is very interesting.

The chair ... was broken is now mended.
The old man ... lives next door has just died.
Women ... work in hospitals are to be admired.
The cigarette ... you are smoking is a Player's.
The girl ... lives opposite my house is very pretty.
The fish ... I ate yesterday was not good.
The street . . . leads to the school is very wide.
The flowers ... I cut this morning are still fresh.
The dress . . . you are wearing is lovely.
The person ... is sitting next to me is not very clever.
The man ... cut your hair did it very badly.
The letter ... we received today had no stamp on it.
The music ... the orchestra is playing is a Strauss waltz.
Was the hat . . . you were wearing yesterday very expensive?
The boy ... threw that stone will be punished.
The doctor . .. she visited is famous.
The noise . . you hear is only our dog fighting.
The pencil . . is lying on the desk is mine.
The ring . . my fianc gave me has three diamonds.
The tree ... stands near the gate has lovely flowers.
The butcher . . . sold me this beef always gives me good meat.
The garden ... is at the back of the house has a tennis-court.
The pen ... I lost was not a good one.
The pudding ... she made this morning is a very good one.
The flowers ... my friend gave me have died.
The little boy . . . brings the milk hasn't been for three days.
The eggs ... I bought yesterday are bad.

EXERCISE 203. Elementary

Note: Defining Relative.
The prepositional and possessive forms are as follows:
Prepositional:
1. People:
The man you spoke to yesterday is coming to tea. (The man that you spoke to yesterday is coming to tea.)
Use of whom should be strongly discouraged here.
2. Things:
The book you were looking at just now belongs to me. (The book that you were looking at just now belongs to me.)
Use of which should be strongly discouraged here.
Possessive:
1. People:
The man whose name I always forget is coming to tea, or The man I always forget the name of is coming to tea.
2. Things: This case is very rare with things; we prefer a way out. Example: The book with the torn cover is mine.
= The book of which the cover is torn . . . (very clumsy).
N. B.-A defining relative clause is never preceded by a comma.
Add relatives, where needed:
1. The book .I was reading yesterday was a detective story.
2. The man .you spoke to in the street is my English teacher.
3. I should like to see the trees . you picked these apples from.
4. There's the lady ... purse has been stolen.
5. The people .. you were living with in London are coming to see you.
6. The picture . you were talking about has been sold.
7. "People . live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones."
8. Buy it back from the man . . you sold it to.
9. What's the name of that man .. wife has run away and left him?
10. Can you remember the person . .. . you took it from?
11. Where is there a shop ... sells picture-postcard?
12. That's the knife and fork . . . I eat with.

13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

Where is the man ... sold me these sun-glasses?

What's that music ... you are listening to?
I don't like the house ... he lives in.
The man ... made these shoes doesn't know his trade.
Here comes the girl ... I am hiding from.
The people .. are looking at that house are my parents.
The house ... they are looking at is my house.
And the girl .. you see at the door is my sister.

EXERCISE 204. Intermediate

Note: Defining Relative.
(See Notes to Exercises 202 and 203.)
Although it was pointed out in Exercise 202 that custom prefers "who" in the subjective case, the following
Expressions almost invariably take "that."
Superlatives; all; any; only; it is.
Examples: She is the finest woman that ever lived
He is the on1y American that has swum the Hellespont.
It's the teacher that decides what to read.
Add relatives, where needed (.e. use contact clauses where. possible):
1. The knife ... we use to cut the bread with is very sharp.
2. The man ... I gave the book to has died.
3. The shop ... we buy our cakes from is shut.
4. The girl ... works in the box-office is my sister.
5. I'm afraid that's all ... I've got.
6. The paint on the seat ... you are sitting on is still wet.
7. The ties ... my boy-friend Cyril wears are awful.
8. Any man ... listens to you is a fool.
9. The old gentleman . . . lives across the road has got married for the fifth time.
10. The policeman ... helmet you knocked off is at the door.
11. The horse ... you were telling me about yesterday came in last.
12. The man ... is sitting at the desk is the secretary.
13. The man ... you see at the desk is the secretary.
14. The girl ... mother I was talking to has left the room.
15. The man ... I pointed out to you in the street is a crook.
16. The pretty girl you were speaking to just now slapped my boy-friend Cyril's face yesterday.
17. This is the very room ... I first met my wife in.
18. It's a wise child ... knows its own father.
19. All the people . . . I have ever met have disliked him.
20. The coat ... I gave my girl-friend Maisie for her birthday is already wearing out.
21. Any paper ... you. read will give the same story.
22. The glass ... you are drinking out of hasn't been washed.
23. A woman ... mind is made up is more obstinate than a mule.
24. The man ... you. are talking about left last week.
25. The meat ... we had for lunch was very tough.

EXERCISE 205. Elementary and Intermediate

Note: Non-defining Relatives.
This kind of relative is not very common in speech, but occurs quite frequently in the written language.
The reason is that speech prefers simple sentences, and the non-defining relative is a deliberate inclusion
of unnecessary decoration within the sentence. It has already been shown that the very common and very
important defining relative is so much an integral part of the ideas to be expressed, that no pause is wanted
before it, and even the conjunction that is dropped. The -non-defining relative is a mere parenthesis, a
casual aside or reminder to the listener or reader.
Compare the following examples:
(a) The boy (that) you saw yesterday is coming to tea.
(b) My brother Dick, whom you saw yesterday, is coming to tea.
The relative clause in (b) can be left out without any material damage to the sense, whereas the same omission

in (a) robs the sentence of a most essential fact. The normal conversational form of (b) would probably be:
" My brother Dick's coming to tea; you saw him yesterday, you know," or, " You remember you saw my
brother Dick yesterday? Well, he's coming to tea."
A comma in writing ALWAYS precedes the non-defining relative. This is very important in the written
language, because only " whom " belongs exclusively to the non-defining relative, and such sentences as:
(a) My wife, who lives in New York, has just written me a letter.
(b) My wife who lives in New York has just written me a letter.
have startlingly different meanings.
Or (a) He has two sisters, who work in the Ministry (= only two sisters).
(b) He has two sisters who work in the Ministry (= and presumably other sisters who work elsewhere).
The two (a) sentences show the two principal uses of the non-defining relative.
1. Parenthetic.
2. Connective (= and ...).
Forms to be used:
People
Subject
Object

, who. .,
,whom . .,

Things
,which..,
,which ...,

N.B.-The non-defining objective case whom, unlike the defining objective case that, can never be omitted
in this kind of relative clause.
Add the necessary relative pronoun to the following.
1. My sister, ... you met yesterday, wants to speak to you.
2. The gardener's wife, ... has been married for ten years, has just had her ninth baby.
3. Her father, ... has been to Paris, has just returned.
4. Bill, ... we saw at the dance, wants to go out with me.
5. The London train, ... should arrive at 2.30, is late.
6. Budapest, ... is on the Danube, is a beautiful city.
7. Bernard Shaw, . had a long beard, was a very clever writer.
8. Flies, ... come most1y in the summer, carry disease.
9. The BBC, . . . is world-famous, spends millions of pounds every year.
10. Love, . . . is a wonderful feeling, comes to everyone at some time in his life.
11. Oxford University, ... is one of the oldest in the world, has many different colleges.
12. Swimming, ... is a good sport, makes people strong.
13. Julius Caesar, ... was a great general, was also a writer.
14. Grass, . . . cows and horses love, is always green in England.
15. Air, ... we breathe, is made up of many gases.
16. My employer, . . . I dislike, works in the next room.
17. Whisky, ... is very expensive, is the national drink of Scotland.
18. Tommy and Mary, ... are playing in the garden, are very naughty children.
19. Fear, ... is an evil, may lead to sin.
20. My wife's mother, ... I haven't seen for a year, talks too much.
21. George Washington, ... became President of the United States, never told a lie.
22. Grammar, ... I dislike very much, is good for me.
23. Shakespeare, ... is the world's greatest dramatist, was born in a little cottage.
24. In Norway, ... is a Baltic country, you can see the midnight sun.
25. Smoking, . . . is a bad habit, is nevertheless popular.
EXERCISE 206. Elementary and Intermediate
Note: Non-defining Relative.
The other cases are:
People
Possessive
Prepositional

,whose ...,
,to etc. whom . . .,
[ ., who(m) ... to, etc.]

Things
,of which . . ., [, whose . . ,]
to etc. which ...
[.,which . . . to, etc.]

The forms in square brackets are alternatives that occasionally occur, but which should not be taught to foreign
students.

N.B.-The "whom" of the non-defining relative is never omitted like the corresponding that of the defining
relative.
Add relative pronouns to the following:
1. The Pope, ... I had never heard before, spoke on the wireless last night.
2. He met my mother, from ... he got the news of my marriage.
3. The teacher in the next class, ... name I can never remember, makes a lot of noise.
4. The elephant, ... is an animal that never forgets, lives more than a hundred years.
5. My wife, to ... you were speaking just now, wants you to come to dinner.
6. He is a famous scientist, about ... many books have been written.
7. The chief of police, ... work is very important, takes care of the public safety.
8. Geometry, about ... I know nothing, seems a very dull subject.
9. Our wireless set, ... has been broken for weeks, is now mended.
10. The King, . . . life has been devoted to his country, deserves his popularity.
11. Parliament, ... has just started a new session, is going to discuss the new Bill today.
12. My bank manager, with ... I was speaking yesterday, is concerned about the state of my account.
13. The Tower of London, about ... a lecture is to be given tomorrow, is a famous historic building.
14. Beethoven, ... music you have just been listening to, was one of the world's finest composers.
15. Your eldest son, ... I happened to meet just now, has become a remarkably handsome boy.
16. The lark, ... has a very sweet song, builds its nest on the ground.
17. We cannot decide whether tomatoes, ... we are all fond of, are a fruit or a vegetable. (See End-preposition note, Ex. 211).
18. The science of medicine, in ... progress has been very rapid lately, is perhaps the most important of all the sciences.
19. Chess, ... is a very old game, is difficult to play.
20. Mme Curie, ... discovered radium, is one of the greatest women of our age.
EXERCISE 207. Intermediate
Note: Non-defining Relative. (See Notes to Exercises 205 and 206.)
Combine the following pairs of sentences by means of non-defining relative pronouns:
1. Julius Caesar came to Britain in 55 BC. He was a powerful Roman general.
2. Those dead flowers smell awful. You put them in the vase ten days ago.
3. I met your Air Ministry friend yesterday. You introduced me to him last week.
4. The antiquities of Egypt should not be missed. Such a lot has been written about them.
5. The pelican is a very queer-looking bird. His beak (says a popular rhyme), can hold more than his belly can.
6. The Irawaddy flows through countless large swamps. It is one of the most important rivers in Asia.
7. My grandfather is ninety-seven today. His whiskers come down to his bottom waistcoat-button.
8. It is strange that the peacock butterfly has a similar name in most languages. It is found in most parts of Europe.
9. The great fire of London destroyed a large part of the city. It broke out in 1666.
10. Mr. Johnson came here only last week. He is living next door to us.
11. My girl-friend Maisie can't cook at all. Her mother is very fond of me.
12. He on1y let me have one pound, of tea. I must give a quarter of it to my sister.
13. The world was to be a great adventure for him. He knew very little about the world.
14. My uncle Harry says I ought to pass my exam if I work hard. I have great confidence in him.
15. My old headmaster has just paid me a visit. Through his kindness I got my present job.
EXERCISE 208. Intermediate
Note: Mixed Types.
Two other important occasions where that is preferred to who are:
1. After an interrogative.
Example: Who that understands music could say his playing was good? (More usually found in writing
Than in speech.)
2. After much; "little"; "few." (Compare all, any, only, - Exercise 204.)
Example: The few that came were enthusiastic.
Combine the following ideas by means of defining or non-defining relatives, using a contact clause wherever
possible:
1. Is that the new station? You pointed it out to me last week.
2. This is the man. I gave money to him this morning.
3. My youngest sister has just got married. You met her at my house last week.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

Who would stay away from home as he does? He has such a charming wife.
An old soldier sits begging on the pavement. His legs were shot away in the last war.
My stepmother is not very kind to me. Im living with her.
Ive seen only a few. They were all black. (Begin with The few . . .)
Last week I went to see the country town. He used to live in that town.
Bring me the cigarettes. I left them on the table. The table stands by the window.
My old music teacher has already left the country. You were taken into his house last week.
What was the name of the girl? She came here last night.
This large map belonged to my uncle. In the middle of it you can see part of the Arctic Circle.
My girl-friend Maisie sends you her kind regards. Im sure you are very well acquainted with her by now.
Im sure it was my boy-friend Cyril. He told her to do it.
The matter has been settled. You were arguing about it last night.

EXERCISE 209. Advanced

Note: It has been pointed out that; the non-defining relative is not heard in spoken English, except as a connective.
(See next exercise.)
The idea of parenthetical and supplementary remarks is achieved in speech by simple conjunctions like and,
but, "because," "for," since, as, etc., or by various speech devices for introducing parentheses and
asides, like by the way, You remember," incidentally, etc.
Example: The Lord Mayor, whom you met at the reception yesterday, gave me a handsome present.
The above sentence would never occur in spoken English, but is quite a normal written English construction.
In speech it would be expressed as two separate ideas:
Either 1. You remember you met the Lord Mayor yesterday?
2. Well, look what a handsome present he gave me !
Or
1. The Lord Mayor gave me this handsome present.
2. You met him at the reception yesterday (you know).
Using any simple connective devices, or splitting the material into conversational units, reduce the following
series of non-defining relatives to an acceptable spoken form of narrative:
1. The Prime Minister of Ruritania, to whom I introduced you last week, is inordinately fond of his national drink.
2. The national drink of the Ruritanians, which (as you know) is mint tea, comes from the neighbouring country of Rsticaria.
3. So the import tax on mint, by which the Ruritanians vastly increase their national income, is a very high one.
4. My friend the Prime Minister, who after all on1y had the best interests of his country at heart, attempted to cut the tax down
by ha1f.
5. The leader of the ensuing revolution, which succeeded in overthrowing the government, dismissed my friend from his post.
6. The return of the old high tax, which now seemed inevitable, would mean that the neighbouring mint-growing country must
sell at rock-bottom prices to enable the Ruritanians (who aren't, on the whole, very rich), to buy the commodity at a
reasonable price.
7. The Rusticarians, many of whom had hoped for better selling-prices, were terribly upset by the revolution, which to them
meant a return to pinching and scraping.
8. The Ruritanians, most of whom had been looking forward to bigger and better tea-parties, at which of course their own
national delicacy, pickled peach-stones, would be consumed in large quantities, were also terribly upset by the revolution,
which to them meant a return to pinching and scraping too.
9. The revolutionaries, who had only used the Prime Minister's attempt to reduce the mint import tax as an excuse to get
control, were terribly upset by the result, through which they were now compelled to buy their tea at the old high price,
which prevented them from celebrating as much as they would have liked.
10. The Rusticarians, in whose minds their neighbours' revolution figured as a blow against their own national prestige as the
Land of Mint and Honey, at once broke off all diplomatic relations with the Ruritanians.
11. The impending state of war, which would probably bring about the ruin of both countries, was only less tragic than the
cutting off of the supplies of luscious green mint, without which the Ruritanians could scarcely live.
12. The situation was aggravated by the action of the Urticarians (from whose country the Ruritanians import their national
delicacy, pickled peach-stones), who suddenly announced a rise in the price of that commodity, which according to them
was due to the scarcity of fruit because of drought.
13. The despair of the Ruritanians, for whom life was now scarcely worth living, was so great that the Revolutionary
Government, in which nobody now had much confidence, recalled my friend the ex-Prime Minister, who had spent a happy
week trying to grow mint in the stony soil of his country estate.
14. My friend the Prime Minister at once cut the import tax on mint by half, in honour of which Ruritanian flags were flown
throughout Rusticaria; and peach-trees began to flourish miraculously throughout Urticaria, whose government were willing
to sell their produce to their neighbours at any price.

15. So my friend has brought peace to the Ruritanians, who now consume even more of their national drink, fresh mint tea,
which they get from the gratified Rusticarians, and enjoy their national delicacy, pickled peach-stones, which they get from
the thankful Urticarians, who would otherwise have half their crops rotting on the trees.
EXERCISE 210. Intermediate and Advanced
Note: Connective Relative.
The on1y form of non-defining relative found with any frequency in the spoken language is the "who,"
"which," etc., replacing "and." It forms a stronger link with the first part of the sentence when we wish to
avoid a repetition of either the subject or object or the whole idea of the first part.
Examples: It crashed into a bus-load of children, and they were all killed.
It crashed into a bus-load of children, who were all killed (or ... all of whom ... ).
He bored a hole in my tooth, and it was very unpleasant.
He bored a hole in my tooth, which was very unpleasant.
Reconstruct the following sentences, using a relative pronoun as a connective:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

He walked along the wall on his hands, and that was a very difficult thing to do.
He has three sons, and they all work in the same office.
I gave my girl-friend Maisie a box of Turkish delight, and this pleased her very much.
He studied hard in his youth, and that contributed to his success in later life.
My cousin built several houses, and they are none of them more than five miles from the heart of London.
My boy-friend Cyril used to be fond of boxing, and that accounts for his crooked nose.
John went fishing last week-end and that is one of the pleasantest ways of spending one's leisure.
We have two spare rooms upstairs, and neither of them has been used for years.
They have four children, and they all go to the Grammar School.
He passed his examination with honors, and this made his parents very proud of him.
The soldier on overseas service had a baby girl aged three years, but he had never seen her.
He was dropped when he was a baby, and that made him a permanent invalid.
We are going on a voyage of exploration to the South Pole, and it will be a dangerous undertaking.
I saw two dwarfs at the circus, and neither of them was over three feet high.
I came home drunk the other night, and that shocked the whole neighborhood.

EXERCISE 211. Advanced

Note Defining relative.
Read Notes to Exercises 202, 203, and 204, for general remarks on the defining relative.
Advanced students frequently ask why we say such and such a thing. The following brief notes on the relative
are added for this purpose to be expanded as required by the teacher.
Historical. " That was originally used in all kinds of relative clauses, the " wh- - forms were purely interrogative.
Gradually the "wh- forms came to be used side by side with "that and since the eighteenth century have
gained great popularity in English, largely through the efforts of classical writers, especially Addison and Johnson,
who attempted to make an English imitation of Latin grammatical forms. Dr. Johnson refers to end prepositions,
that --and contact-clauses as " colloquial barbarisms.- Dryden writes of himself, "I am often put to a stand
in considering whether what I write be the idiom of the tongue, . . . and have no other way to clear my doubts
but by translating my English into Latin." Addison has an enlightening essay in the Spectator, in which he reverses
historical development by maligning the " Jacksprat " " that ", which he asserts has been damaging poor "who"
and "which." All this classical imitation caused a great deal of confusion, and introduced several erroneous ideas
and clumsy forms. " That fell into disuse in written English, but lived happily on in speech. Oddly enough the
pendulum swung the other way when things with an archaic flavor became popular through the later Romantics,
especially through the works of De Quincey. Partly because of this contrived lapse from use in the written language,
and partly because we have come to feel it as a "neuter-word" it is rarely heard for persons in the subjective case;
and as it is the custom to make a contact-clause with the objective and prepositional cases, we don't hear it there
either. We have had to borrow "whose for the possessive.
End-Proposition. The defining-relative with "that" or as a contact-clause frequently requires the preposition at
the end of the clause. This valuable idiomatic device in the English language should not be forced into the
background in favor of the unnatural Latin-English form with the preposition in front of the word it governs.
Many hideous phrases are written, and sometimes even spoken, in a misguided effort to avoid what is really a
sound English construction. Such phrases as " it's worth waiting for, it depends on who you're dealing with,"
we've done the best we could think of, " that was all it amounted to, - etc., etc., can scarcely be expressed in
any other way. Students should beware of trying to use the Latin construction with strongly associated verbs and

particles (laugh at, wonder at, take care of, do without), and when such combinations form one semantic whole
(give up, take over, etc.) where the particle has an adverbial force. A lieutenant once dared to correct a telegram
from a superior officer on this point. He received a further telegram reading " Insolence is something up with which 1 wil not
put.
OTHER USES OF "THAT" AS DEFINING RELATIVE
1. Double Control. "Which or "who are definitely at a disadvantage here, and may cause one to make
stupid mistakes, especially when writing with the erroneous idea that "wh- is better style.
Examples: "The book you spoke of and recommended to me" cannot be "the book of which you spoke
and recommended to me.
Similarly,
"The book I referred to and read out of."
2. Double relatives. We normally find the wh- form for the second of two relatives, whether the second
one further defines the first or is co-ordinate with it.
Examples: (a) You're the only person I've ever met who could do it.
(b) The paper I read every day and which I find so enjoyable.
(e) These are forms that occasionally occur but which should not be taught.
3. Predicative " that (nearly always omitted). " Wh- " forms never found.
Examples: (a) She's not the woman she was before she married.
(b) Im not the fool you thought me.
(This is not to be confused with the common colloquial idiom: I met Mrs. Taylor; Miss Binks that was. ")
4. "That" + "there is." Never "wh-" forms, and nearly a1ways omitted.
Examples: (a) Its the only one there is in the shop.
(b) The number of mistakes there are in this homework is simply astounding.
5."All that." We have seen that "all" as an adjective usually has " that, like other superlative ideas. As
a pronoun, however, we now prefer all who for persons.
Examples: (a) A we1come is extended to all who (or that) wish to come.
(b) It was all (that) I could do to keep myself from laughing.
6. Uses of "that" as a short cut in clauses of a relative type.
(a) Ellipse.
Examples: (i) He did it in the way (that) I should have done it myse1f. (= in which)
(ii) You can break it with the same ease (that) you can break an egg. (= with which)
N.B.-The preposition implied by that;" must have appeared already.
(b) " That to indicate time.
Examples: (i) By the time (that) you have finished, it'll be too, late.
(ii) I met her the year (that) my Uncle William died.
(c) "That to indicate place.
Example: Ill go anywhere (that) you want me to (= Ill go to any place (that) you want me to)
N.B.-From this it is but a short step to the forms with introductory it.
Examples: It was there (or/while at school, at five o'c1ock, then, at the seaside, etc.) that I first met my wife.
It's to you (that) I'm talking.
It's you (that) Im talking to.
which lead one to consider that a conjunction and not a pronoun. (See Note to Exercise 205.)
7. Connective Relative.-As, same, such, so + as.
Examples: Ive done the same as you have. (= Ive done the same thing that you have)
She was as nice as could be.
You're just the same as you always were.
8. Non-defining Relatives.
For general remarks see Exercises 205, 206, and 207.
There are certain cases where the preposition cannot be put at the end of a defining clause. (See above, End-Preposition);
here the wh form must be used. The clause may, of course, still be a defining relative, in which case it is spoken

without a pause or written without a comma; (see 2 below).

1. Partitive use of " of."
Examples: I have two friends, both of whom are on holiday at the moment.
The train ran into a bus-load of children, many of whom were hurt. (Compare Exercise 210.)
2. Inseparable Adverbial Phrases.
Example: The courage with which he faced his enemies was truly inspiring.
(We cannot say the courage he faced his enemies with" as we can say the pen I wrote the letter with has a steel nib.-)
3. Beyond, round, around, opposite, besides; than whom, than which: the last two never occur in the spoken
language.
Examples: (a) The man opposite whom I am sitting has a new book.
(b) This is the point beyond which Ive never been.
(c) St. John's Glacier, beyond which I've never climbed, is only about 8,000 feet high.
Only (c) is non-defining. Even with these words the "end-preposition form of clause is on the increase.
Examples: The man Im sitting opposite.
The fountain they are standing round was built by the Romans.
OVERHEARD IN A CLASSROOM
Teacher: A preposition is a bad word to end a sentence with.
Pupil: Please, teacher, you've just ended a sentence with "with
Teacher: Ah, but what did I end the sentence with -with- for? Do you know ?
Pupil: No, teacher; and I don't know what you ended that one with with with for for !
Add relatives where necessary, or combine sentences with relatives; use a contact clause wherever possible:
1. The best play ... Shakespeare wrote, but ... I haven't read, is probably King Lear.
2. It was the sergeant-major ... told me to fetch the rifle ... I had been practising with.
3. The gentleman is the Finance Minister. You trod on his foot.
4. The building is the Finance Ministry. I live opposite it.
5. The old man has died. You were talking to me about him and told me to go and see him.
6. He's the person ... I meet at the club every day and .. . Ive invited home to dinner tonight.
7. I gave him the one . . I want to keep, fool ... I was.
S. We ate some fish. They must have swum out of the Ark.
9. Miss Harland has several new friends. All of them are atheists. Her father is the vicar of Nether Puddling.
10. The house is mine. In its windows there is a light. (This makes a clumsy relative, what other way can you find?)
11. It's all ... there is to last us a week, ... is not a very cheering thought, is it?
12. It'll be dark by the time ... you get to the river, so Im afraid youll have to go back the same way . . . you came.
13. Mr. Trotter was born in Omsk in 1892. He came to London three years ago.
14. I appreciate the kind words. You have welcomed me with kind words.
15. Grandfather was very fond of us when we were children. He was a dull old bore.
16. Put it down anywhere ... you like and take anything else ... you. want ... you can see.
17. So that's ... you met at the party, is it? She's about the only friend of yours ... Ive met ... I really like.
18. Im just the same ... I was the day ... I first met you.
19. 0. W. Holmes was one of America's most gifted humorists. He said that the American constitution could never be used to
further private interests.
20. The statements were all untrue. He made statements concerning his Aunt Tabitha's strange disappearance.
21. The tree fell on to a party of fishermen. All of them were injured.
22. He repudiated the charge with dignity. His dignity greatly impressed the judge. (Begin, "The dignity . . .)
23. The spoon was stolen from a hotel. He was eating the soup with it.
24. This is the horse. It kicked the policeman. I saw him-trying to clear away the crowd. The crowd had collected to watch a
fight. Two men had started the fight.
25. He's the best man . . . I can find . . . can mend it within an hour.
26. My watch doesn't show the time very clearly. Its hands have been missing for some time now.
27. All the while . . . Im working, it's you ... Im thinking of.
28. He played the piece, . . . was quite difficult, in the exact manner . . . I play it myself, but on an instrument ... I wouldn't even
accept as a gift.
29. I have forgotten whether music soothes the savage "breast" or the savage beast". According to Shakespeare music is the
food of love. He ought to know.
30. All ... applied were given such jobs ... were suited to them; but those ... applied first, of ... were selected the best . . . could be
found, were given the job . . . they most desired; any ... came later could not always get the jobs ... they were looking for.
Note the different uses of " that in:

1
2
3 4 5
"I pointed out that that 'that' that that man had written was in the wrong place."
type

How Pronounced

1. Conjunction
2. Demonstrative
3. Noun
4. Relative
5. Demonstrative

weak form
strong form
emphatic form
weak form
strong form

Here is a favourite nursery-rhyme:

"This is the farmer that sowed the corn
That fed the cock that crowed in the morn
That wakened the priest all shaven and, shorn
That married the man all tattered and torn
That kissed the maiden all forlorn
That milked the cow with the crumpled horn
That tossed the dog
That bit the cat
That killed the rat
That ate the malt
That lay in the house
That jack built. (All defining relatives.)

Defining / non-defining relative clauses

Las oraciones de relativo pueden ser defining o non-defining.
Defining relative clauses definen el antecedente de tal manera que sin ellas el sentido de
la frase quedara incompleto:
The boy who ran the fastest won the race.
En este caso, como puede verse, la oracin de relativo se escribe a continuacin de su antecedente,
sin coma.
Non-defining relative clauses expresan una cualidad o circunstancia del antecedente,
pero a modo de parntesis, de tal manera que aunque se suprimiera quedara completo el
sentido de la frase principal:
My uncle Albert, who lives in Australia, is a very rich man.
Recuerda que en las defining relative clauses el relativo puede omitirse siempre que no sea
sujeto de su oracin (the fur coat I bought at Harrods), pero en las oraciones que pertenecen
al grupo de las non~defining relative clauses el relativo no puede omitirse.
Tarea 1
Pon comas donde proceda para delimitar las non-definng relative clauses:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

My car which is black is very smart.

The handbag which I bought is made of leather.
The people who were at the party were very friendly.
Mlaga which is in Southern Spain is a beautiful city.
Cervantes who is Spains most famous writer was born in 1547.
The exhibition which I visited was very interesting.
Pilar Lpez who is our Spanish teacher has short black hair.
Mary who won the prize is very intelligent.
Have you seen the book that I put on the table?
The new Steven Spielberz film which I saw yesterday is playing at our local cinema.
The man whose car was stolen lives next door to us.

Tarea 2
Une estas oraciones mediante un pronombre. Pon el relativo entre parntesis si se puede
omitir. No olvides poner comas donde sea necesario.
1. Yesterday I met Elizabeth. John is going to marry her.
2. This is the table. I bought it last week.
3. My brother is at university. He is 21 years old.
4. My father is ill. He is very old.
5. There is Buckingham Palace. I spoke to you about it.
6. This is the lady. You met her daughter at the party.
7. We planted a peach tree in spring. It hasn't produced a single peach.
8. He is a politician. I admire him very much.
9. This is the bridge. Mr. Brown built it.
10. The woman's a designer. You met her last night.

Tarea 3
Completa estas frases con which, whose, what, who o that. Pon entre parntesis el pronombre
relativo cuando puede omitirse.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

The merchandise, . wasn't in good condition anyway, was returned today.

You dont know . you are talking about.
Tim, brother is my best friend, gave us a discount.
The retail price is 10, I think is a very good price for such high quality.
She's a reliable, practical woman, .. is important to me.
Give her .. she deserves.
The noise ... you heard must have been the wind.
The town .. we are going to visit is mentioned in the novel.

Defining relative clauses with who, which, that or whose

1 If we use a sentence like:
The police have found the boy. it may not be clear which boy. We can make it clear like
this:
The police have found the boy who disappeared last week. Who links the relative clause
(who disappeared last week) to the main clause (The police have found the boy) .
2 When we talk about people, we use that or who:
I talked to the girl that (or who) won the race.
When we talk about things or animals, we use that or which:
1 like the car that (or which) won the race.
3 That, who, or which can be the subject of the relative clause, like this:
I talked to the girl

That is the dog

SUBJECT
who
The girl

that
The dog

won.
won.

attacked me.
attacked me.

There is no other pronoun (e.g. it, they):

Not: That is the dog that it attacked me
4 That, who, or which can be the object of the relative clause, like this:
The card
Ken sent

OBJECT
which
the card.

Ken sent was nice.

The man
I saw

that
the man.

I saw was very rude.

There is no other pronoun (e.g. him, them):

Not: The man I saw him was very rude
When that, who, or which is the object of the relative clause (e.g The card which Ken sent),
we can leave them out:
The card Ken sent was nice.
The man I saw was very rude.
5 Now look at this sentence with whose:
Susan is the woman whose husband is an actor. (= Her husband is an actor.)
We use whose in place of his, her, their, etc. We only use it with people, countries and organizations,
not things. It has a possessive meaning. Here is another example:
The man whose dog bit me didn't apologise. (= The man didn't apologise. His dog bit me.)
Practice
A Complete the sentences using the information in brackets and who or which.
0 (I went to see a doctor. She had helped my mother.)
I went to see the doctor who had helped my mother.
1 (A dog bit me. It belonged to Mrs Jones.)
The dog __________________belonged to Mrs Jones.
2 (A woman wrote to me. She wanted my advice.)
The woman ___________________wanted my advice.
3 (A bus crashed. It was 23 years old.)
The bus _______________________was 23 years old.
4 (Ann talked to a man. He had won a lot of money.)
Ann talked to the man __________________________
5 (Mary was staying with her friend. He has a big house in Scotland.)
Mary was staying with her friend ___________________
6 (He's an architect. He designed the new city library.)
He's the architect ________________________________

B Complete the sentences using the information in brackets and that.

0 (Jack made a table. It's not very strong.)
The table that Jack made is not very strong.
1 (I read about a new computer. I had seen it on TV)
I read about the new computer ________________________
2 (Jane made a cake. Nobody liked it.)
Nobody liked the cake ________________________________
3 (Mary sent me a letter. It was very funny.)
The letter ______________________________was very funny.
4 (My sister wrote an article. The newspaper is going to publish it.)
The newspaper is going to publish the article _______________
5 (I met an old lady. She was 103 years old.)
The old lady __________________________was 103 years old.

6 (I saw a house. My brother wants to buy it.)

I saw the house _______________________________________
C Complete the sentences with one of the phrases in the box and who or whose.
interviewed me
had saved their son
book won a prize last week
car had broken down

has visited so many different countries

wives have just had babies
divorce was in the papers
complain all the time

0 The parents thanked the woman who had saved their son.
0 The couple whose divorce was in the papers have got married again.
1 It is very interesting to meet somebody _______________________
2 The person ______________________________________ asked me some very difficult questions.
3 In my office there are two men ______________________________
4 What's the name of that writer _______________________________?
5 1 dont like people ________________________________________
6 We helped a woman _______________________________________
D Put in who or that ONLY IF NECESSARY.
0 The match
we saw was boring.
0 Did I tell you about the people
who
live next door?
0 The horse
that won the race belongs to an Irish woman.
1 I love the ice-cream
they sell in that shop.
2 The book
Im reading is about jazz.
3 The woman
came to see us was selling magazines.
4 We'll go to a restaurant
has a children's menu.
5 The factory
closed last week had been there for 70 years.
6 Have you read about the schoolgirl
started her own business and is now a millionaire?
7 Jane says that the house
Tom has just bought has a beautiful garden.

43 Non-defining relative clauses with who, which or whose

1 Look at these two sentences:
> London has over6million inhabitants.
> London, which is the capital of Britain, has over 6 million inhabitants.
Which is the capital of Britain gives us more information about London, but we do not need this
information to define London. We can understand the first sentence without this extra information. Which is
the capital of Britain is a non-defining relative clause. It has commas (,) to separate it from the rest of the
sentence.
2 For things or animals, we use which (but not that) in non-defining relative clauses:
Fred sold his computer, which he no longer needed, to his cousin. (Not ... that he no longer needed)

In the summer we stay in my uncle's house, which is near the sea.

3 For people, we use who (but not that) in non-defining relative clauses. We use who when it is the subject
of the relative clause:
[-Subject
Elvis Presley, who died in 1977, earned millions of dollars.
(Presley died in 1977.)
We use who (or sometimes whom) when it is the object of the relative clause:
[-0bject
My boss, who (or whom) I last saw before Christmas, is very ill.
(I last saw my boss before Christmas.)
4 We use whose to mean 'his', 'her, or 'their':
Marilyn Monroe, whose real name was Norma lean, was born in Los Angeles.
(Her real name was Norma Jean.)
5 We can also use which (but not that) to refer to a whole fact:
Ann did not want to marry Tom which surprised everybody.
Here, which refers to the fact that Ann did not want to marry Tom.

Practice
A Make one sentence from the two that are given. Use who or which with the underlined words.
0 Mont Blanc is between France and Italy. It is the highest mountain in the Alps.
Mont Blanc,- which is between France and Italy, is the highest mountain in the Alps.
0 Alfred Hitchcock was born in Britain. He worked for many years in Hollywood.
Alfred Hitchcock, who was born in Britain, worked for many-years in Hollywood.
1 The sun is really a star. It is 93 million miles from the earth.
2 John F. Kennedy died in l963. He was a very famous American President.
3 Charlie Chaplin was from a poor family. He became a very rich man.
4 The 1992 Olympics were held in Barcelona. It is in the north-east of Spain.
5 We went to see the Crown Jewels. They are kept in the Tower of London.

B From the notes, make one sentence. Use who or which with the words in brackets.
0 Greta Garbo. (She was born in Sweden.) She moved to America in 1925.
Greta Garbo, who was born in Sweden, moved to America in 1925.
1 Football. (It first started in Britain.) It is now popular in many countries.
Football,
2 Margaret Thatcher.(She was the Prime Minister of Britain for 11 years.) She studied science at university.
3 Michelangelo. (He lived until he was 90.) He is one of Italy's greatest artists.
4 The Nile.(It runs through several countries.) It is the longest river in Africa.
5 Gandhi.(He was born in l869).He became Indias nationalist leader.
6 Elephants. (They are found in Africa and India). They live to a great age.
C From the notes make one sentence. Use who or which with the words in brackets.
0 Martina Navratilova.(She was born in Prague.)She became a US citizen in l981.
Martina Navratilova, who was born in Prague, became a US citizen in 1981.
0 Darwin. His ideas changed our view of the world. He travelled to a lot of countries when he was young.
Darwin , whose ideas changed our view of the world, travelled to a lot of countries when he was young.
1 Madonna. (Her parents were born in Italy.) She is a famous American singer.
2 Bill Clinton. (His wife is a brilliant lawyer.) He became President of the USA in 1993.
3 Sebastian Coe.(He was a successful English runner.) He is now a politician.
4 Catherine of Russia. (She ruled for over 30 years.) She made many important changes.

D Underline the words that which refers to.

0 They climbed Snowdon, which is the highest mountain in Wales.
0 They climbed Snowdon, which made them very tired.
1 Maria sang and played the guitar, which everyone enjoyed a lot.
2 The boat stopped at Sousse, which is in Tunisia.
3 The coach stopped at a petrol station, which allowed everyone to get out.
4 We listened to the news, which was in French.

Practice
o We use who for people: I'm the person who phoned you.
And which for things: Is this the bus which goes to the town centre?
We often use that for both who and which.
I'm the person that phoned you. Is this the bus that goes to the town centre?
o Who, that, which are usually left out when they are the object of the relative clause.
He's the man(that / who)I saw at the station. These are the photos (that / which) I took on holiday
o A preposition comes at the end of the relative clause: (I go to church.) This is the church I go to.
1 Look at the information and write sentences with who. Use the information given.
Example: Albert Einstein (scientist). He was the scientist who created the theory of relativity.
o He helped to make India independent from Britain. o He conquered the Inca Empire of Peru in 1532.
o She discovered radium. o He painted the roof of the Sistine Chapel in Rome.
1 Leonardo da Vinci. (artist)
2 Gandhi (Indian leader)
3 Marie Curie (scientist)
4 Francisco Pizarro (soldier)

2 Complete the text, using who, which or that and put (-) if no relative pronoun is necessary.
The film (1) ...... ...1 saw last night wasn't very good. It was about a woman (2) could
see into the future. Her name was Petra. She lived in a house (3) was full of strange
objects - pieces of rock (4) came from the Moon, dinosaur bones (5)

....

she'd found in the Arizona

desert and beautiful pieces of crystal (6) ... had been found in the Andes. The people (7)
.. came to see her wanted to know about their future. One day a young man (8)
felt he had no future came to see her. He was the kind of man (9) ... Petra found very attractive.
The things (10) she told him really surprised him. She said he was going to get married in two
months time. Marriage was something (11) .. he'd never wanted. She said the woman (12)
..he would marry was beautiful and intelligent. He was mystified and came to see Petra every day.
He really enjoyed the time (13) .......................he spent with her. He realised that she was the only woman
(14) . .. ....could make him happy. After two months they got married! What a surprise!

3 Mark is showing his friends the video of a holiday he had in India. Make sentences, using a relative
clause.
Example: I went with this girl. This is the girl I went with.
1 We stayed with this family in Bombay.
2 We went on this train to Goa.
3 We stayed at this hotel in Goa.
4 We sat on this beach every day.
5 We ate at this restaurant every evening.
6 I had a ride on this elephant.
7 We spent a lot of time with these Indian friends.
8 We flew back on this plane.

Practice
o This is the house where I used to live. (= the house in which I used to live)
This is where I used to live. (= the place where I used to live)
o Thats the girl whose brother plays in a rock band.(Her brother plays in a rock band.)
That's the girl whose brother 1 know. (1 know her brother.)
This is the country whose population is growing the fastest. (Its population is growing the fastest.)
o What='the thing(s)that'
Nobody saw what happened. I don't like what he said. What you need is a holiday.
1 Peter Rigg is showing his son round the village he used to live in when he was young.
Rewrite the sentences, using where.
Example: I lived in this house for fifteen years.
This is the house where I lived for fifteen years.
1 I used to play football in this field.
2 I worked in this shop for two years.
3 We used to play tennis here.
4 My old friend Tom lived in this house.
5 I learnt to swim in this river.
2 Alan Owen is reading the local newspaper. He is asking his wife who certain people are.
Give her answers, using whose.
Mike Rowe's got a sister who works for the UN. Jane Bells mother won 100,000 in the Lottery.
Nicky Bland's house was burnt down last week. The Owens met Anna Thorpe's brother at the
cinema last night. They went to Jack Birch's 50th birthday party
two years ago.
Example: Who's Mike Rowe? Hes the man whose sister works for the UN.
1 Who's Jane Bell? She's the girl ........................
2 Who's Nicky Bland? He's the man ........................
3 Who's Anna Thorpe? She's the woman ........................
4 Who's Jack Birch? He's the one ........................
3 A detective is interviewing Mark Knott about a crime that took place on Thursday evening.
Complete the sentences,' using what or that or (-) if no word is necessary.
Detective: Tell me again (1) ................ happened on Thursday.
Mark: Ive told you everything (2) .................I know. I was at home all day.
Detective: That isn't (3) .. ........................ you said a moment ago.
Mark: Well, I stayed in the house all evening. That's all (4) ........................I can say. I can tell you
(5) ........................I watched on television. I can describe all the programmes (6) ........................ I watched.
Detective: But you can't prove it, can you? Listen! We simply want the truth.

4 Here are the views of three different people on politics in Britain., Rewrite the sentences using What
at the beginning to give more emphasis to what they say.
Example: This country needs a new government. What this country needs is a new government!
1 I'd like to see more women in Parliament. ........................
2 It annoys me that rich people don't pay enough tax. ........................
3 It surprises me that people don't complain more. ........................

Practice

Defining relative clause: Hes the man who looks like the Prime Minister.
Non-defining relative clause: Thats my friend Tony, who looks like the Prime Minister.
We must use who, which, whose, where in non-identifying relative clauses. We can't leave out who or
which. We can't use that.
We use commas (,) with non-identifying relative clauses.
Which (NOT what) can refer to a whole clause: He hasn't eaten anything today, which is worrying.

1 Make complete sentences, using the sentences in brackets as non-identifying relative clauses. Put
commas (,) where necessary.
George Thompson (1 He lives on a boat on the River Thames.) is 100 years old today. He keeps his boat at
Richmond. (2 It's on a very beautiful part of the river.) George (3 His wife died ten years ago.) lives alone
with two dogs and a cat. But he's got a lot of friends in Richmond. (4 They look after him well.) His boat (5
It was built in the 1920s.) is a very comfortable home. Every day he walks into Richmond. (6 He does his
shopping and meets his friends there.) Today he's having a big birthday party. (7 All his friends and family
are coming to it.)
1. George Thompson, who lives on a boat on the River Thames, is 100 years old today.
........................
2.
........................
3.
........................
4.
........................
5.
........................
6.
........................
7.

2Write Defining or Non-defining after the relative clauses. Add commas (,) where necessary.
'I know that girl. Look! The one who's standing at the bar.' (1) .............
Yes, it's Melanie Rigg who sings with "The Machine".' (2) ........................
'Do you mean the rock group that was on television last night? (3) .....................................
Yes. She lives in Henley which is about two miles from here. (4) ........................
She's got a house that was built in the sixteenth century. (5) ........................
She's got her own recording studio which is in the garden. (6) ........................
She's also got a house in California where she spends six months of the year.' (7) ........................
'Who's the guy she's talking to?' (8) ........................
'That's Gary Trench whose brother's the drummer with "The Machine".' (9) ........................
'Have you got a piece of paper I can write on? (10) ........................
Im going to get her autograph.'
3 Choose items from the list and make single sentences, using the relative pronoun which. Don't forget
the comma (,).
o This was 20 minutes after the beginning of the match. o This meant I arrived late. o He refused to do it.
o This took me another ten minutes. o He wasnt allowed to do it. o That was very expensive. o That made
me very angry.
1 I paid 50 for a ticket for the match.
I paid 50 for a ticket for the match, which was very expensive.
2 When I left home there were traffic jams everywhere.
3 When I arrived, I found a man sitting in my seat.
4 He didn't want to move.
5 I asked him to show me his ticket.
6 I went to find a policeman.
7 I finally sat down at 3 o'clock.

Practice
o Clauses with -ing:
I found someone trying to steal my car. (=who was trying to steal my car)
There's a man at the door asking to see you.
o Clauses with a past participle (a passive meaning):
Many of the cars made in British factories are Japanese. (= that are made in British factories)
There was a parking ticket stuck on the car window.
1 Heavy rain has caused serious flooding in the Orlando area of Florida. Rewrite the two sentences as
one, using the -ing form of a verb.
Example: Travellers have been told they can't get into the city. They're arriving at Orlando Airport.
Travellers arriving at Orlando Airport have been told they cant get into the city.
1 This morning the road was blocked by floodwater. The road connects Orlando to the coast.
2 A woman had to abandon her car and walk home. She was taking her children to school.
3 A train fell into the river below when a bridge collapsed. It was carrying 73 passengers.
4 A car was swept into the river. It belonged to the mayor of Orlando.
2 Rewrite the two sentences as one sentence, using a past participle.
Example: Four fishermen are still missing. They've been lost for 12 hours off the coast of Scotland.
Four fishermen lost for 12 hours off the coast of Scotland are still missing
1 A life-raft was empty. It was found at the scene.
2 A helicopter is still searching. the area. It was called from Lossiemouth.
3 Last week another Scottish fishing boat sank in the same area. It was hit by a submarine.
4 There have been three fishing boats. They been hit by submarines this year.
3Complete the text, using an - ing form, a past participle or the word with. Use each of the verbs once:
play, live, make, build, grow, buy, spend, be married, study, teach.
Rowan Greaves comes from a big family. They're all very different. He's got a sister (1) three
children (2) in Australia and (3) to an Australian farmer. She's the one (4)
blond hair and blue eyes. He's got another sister (5) English in Tokyo. She's the one
(6) dark hair and brown eyes. He's got a brother (7) professional football in Italy.
He lives in a luxury house (8) on the shore of Lake Maggiore. He's got another brother (9)
Chinese medicine in Beijing. He lives a simple life. He only eats food (10) organically.
And he goes everywhere on a bicycle (11) for 2 at a Beijing market. Rowan lives in London.
He works for an electronics company (12) computers. His friends at work think he's lucky when
he tells them about his holidays (13) in China, Italy, Australia and Japan.