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Element exist as
diatomic Molecule(gas)
Element exist as
solid
Helium (He)
Oxygen (O2)
Carbon (Graphite
& Diamond)
Neon (Ne)
Argon (Ar)
Krypton (Kr)
Xenon (Xe)
Radon (Rn)
Nitrogen (N2)
Gold
Silver
Platinum
In nature, we can find millions of substances, which means most of the chemical
substances exist as compound in nature.
In short, elements tend to form compound in nature.
The charge on the nucleus and the number of electrons in the valence shell
determine the chemical properties of an atom.
The stability of noble gas is due to their electrons arrangement.
The diagram above shows the first four elements of Noble Gas.
We can see that the outer most shell (valence shell) of Helium has 2 electrons. We
call this duplet electron arrangement. We should take notes that the maximum
number of electrons can be filled in the first shell is 2 electrons, which means 2
electrons in the first shell is considered FULL.
The valence shell all other Group 18 elements (including Xenon and Radon which
is not shown in the diagram) has 8 electrons, and we call this octet electron
arrangement.
When the electron arrangement of an atom is duplet or octet, the energy of the
electrons is very low, and it is very difficult (even though it is not impossible) to
add or remove electrons from the atom.
This explain why noble gases are reluctant to react with all other elements.
So far we have learnt that the electon arrangement of noble gases are octet duplet,
and this is the most stable electron arrangement of an atom.
Atoms of other main group elements which is not octet tend to react with other
atoms in various ways to achieve the octet.
The tendency of an atom to achieve an octet arrangement of electrons in the
outermost shell is called the octet rule.
If the outermost shell is the first shell, then the maximum number of electrons is
two, and the most stable electron arrangement will be duplet.
A configuration of two electrons in the first shell, with no other shells occupied by
electrons, is as stable as the octet electron arrangement and therefore is also said
to obey the octet rule.
Important Notes
Most of the elements (except
noble gases) are chemically not
stable.
It is the aim of every atom to
achieve the duplet or octet
electron arrangement. This makes
them very stable.
It is only the valence electrons in
the outermost shell involved in
bonding. The electrons in the
inner shells are not involved.
The maximum number of
electrons in the first shell is two.
This is called a duplet.
1. Ionic Bond
2. Covalent Bond
By sharing electron(s), the atoms will form covalent bond between the atom and
the molecule formed is call the covalent molecule.
Covalent bond is always formed between non-metal with another non-metal.
1. The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (cation) and is usually a metal.
2. The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (anion) and is usually a nonmetallic element.
Number of proton = 9
Number of electron = 9
Eelctron Arrangement = 2.7 (Not Octet)
Charge = 0
Fluoride Ion
Number of proton = 9
Number of electron = 10
Eelctron Arrangement = 2.8 (Not Octet)
Charge = -1
After forming an ion, the electron arrangement of the ion is similar to the noble
gases.
For example, the electron arrangement of fluoride ion is 2.8 which is similar to a
Neon atom, 2.8.
By referring to the electron arrangement, sometime, students may mistaken an ion
as noble gas.
We should take notes that even though the fluoride ion and the neon atom have
similar electron arrangement, fluoride ion carry charge whereas neon atom is
neutral.
As shown in the diagram above, after losing 2 electrons, the electron arrangement
of magnesium become 2.8, which is an octet arrangement of electrons.
At the same time, the number of electrons has reduced by 2 and become 10
electrons while the number of proton remain unchanged.
Hence the charge of the magnesium ion is +2.
The table below shows the difference between a magnesium atom and a
magnesium ion in term of its number of proton and electron and its electron
arrangement.
Fluorine Atom
Fluoride Ion
Number of proton = 9
Number of electron = 9
Eelctron Arrangement = 2.7 (Not Octet)
Charge = 0
Number of proton = 9
Number of electron = 10
Eelctron Arrangement = 2.8 (Not Octet)
Charge = -1
Ionic Bonding 1. Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons to another
atom to form ions. Ions are atoms, or groups of atoms, which have lost or gained
electrons. 2. The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation) and is usually a
metal. The overall charge on the ion is positive due to excess positive nuclear charge
(protons do NOT change in chemical reactions). 3. The atom gaining electrons forms a
negative ion (an anion) and is usually a non-metallic element. The overall charge on the
ion is negative because of the gain, and therefore excess, of negative electrons. 4. Ions of
opposite charge will attract one another, thus creating an ionic bond. 5. The examples
below combining a metal from Groups 1 (Alkali Metals), or 2, with a non-metal from
Group 6 or Group 7 (The Halogens)
[edit] Example
[edit] A Group 1 metal + a Group 7 non-metal
In terms of electron
arrangement, the
sodium donates its
outer electron to a
chlorine atom
forming a single
positive sodium ion
and a single
negative chloride
ion.
The valencies of
Na and Cl are both
1, that is, the
numerical charge
on the ions. NaF,
KBr, LiI etc. will
all be electronically
similar.
The atoms have
become stable ions,
because
electronically,
sodium becomes
like neon and
chlorine like argon.
In terms of electron
arrangement, the
magnesium donates
its two outer
electrons to two
chlorine atoms
forming a double
positive
magnesium ion and
two single negative
chloride ions.
The atoms have
become stable ions,
because
electronically,
magnesium
becomes like neon
and chlorine like
argon.
NOTE you can
draw two separate
chloride ions, but
in these examples a
number subscript
has been used, as in
ordinary chemical
formula. The
valency of Mg is 2
and chlorine 1, ie
the numerical
charges of the ions.
BeF2, MgBr2,
CaCl2 or CaI2 etc.
will all be
electronically
similar.
In terms of electron
arrangement, one
Magnesium atom
donates its two
outer electrons to
one oxygen atom.
This results in a
double positive
magnesium ion to
one double
negative oxide ion.
All the ions have
the stable
electronic
structures 2.8.8
(argon like) or 2.8
(neon like). the
valency of both
calcium and
oxygen is 2.
Charge of the
ion
Element Y
from
Charge of the
ion
Group I
+1
Group V
-3
Group I
+1
Group VI
-2
Group I
+1
Group VII
-1
Group II
+2
Group V
-3
Group II
+2
Group VI
-2
Group II
+2
Group VII
-1
Group III
+3
Group V
-3
Group III
+3
Group VI
-2
Group III
+3
Group VII
-1
[edit] Hydrogen
[edit] Fluorine
[edit] Water
[edit] Ammonia
[edit] Tetrachloromethane
[edit] Oxygen
Image:FormationCO2.png
[edit] Nitrogen
Group V
Group V
Group VI
Group V
Group VII
Group VI
Group VI
Group VI
Group VII
Group VII
Group VII
The alternate positive and negative ions in an ionic solid are arranged in an
orderly way in a giant ionic lattice structure shown on the left.
The ionic bond is the strong electrical attraction between the positive and negative
ions next to each other in the lattice.
The bonding extends throughout the crystal in all directions.
Salts and metal oxides are typical ionic compounds.
Some of these compounds, like magnesia (MgO) and alumina (Al2O3), are so
stable that they are used as refractory material, to line the inside of furnaces. Such
substances must be stable up to at least 1500 C.
Another property of crystal lattices is that they are non-conductors of electricity.
This is because the ions are in fixed positions and are unable to move.
This strong bonding force makes the structure hard (if brittle) and has high
melting and boiling points, so they are not very volatile!
The bigger the charges on the ions the stronger the bonding attraction eg
magnesium oxide Mg2+O2- has a higher melting point than sodium chloride
Na+Cl-.
Unlike covalent molecules, ALL ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room
temperature.
They are hard but brittle, when stressed the bonds are broken along planes of ions
which shear away. They are NOT malleable like metal.
Many ionic compounds are soluble in water but not all, so don't make
assumptions.
The solid crystals DO NOT conduct electricity because the ions are not free to
move to carry an electric current.
However, if the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water, the liquid will
now conduct electricity, as the ion particles are now free.
Covalent compounds can be divided into those which form small (simple)
independent molecules and those which form giant molecular lattices.
[edit] Structure
The electrical forces of attraction, that is the chemical bond*, between atoms in
any molecule are strong and most molecules do not change chemically on
moderate heating.(* sometimes referred to as the intramolecular bond)
However, the electrical forces** between molecules are weak and easily
weakened further on heating.
These weak attractions are known as **intermolecular forces and consequently
the bulk material is not usually very strong.
Consequently small covalent molecules tend to be volatile liquids, easily
vapourised, or low melting point solids.
On heating the inter-molecular forces are easily overcome with the increased
kinetic energy gain of the particles and so have low melting and boiling points.
They are also poor conductors of electricity because there are no free electrons or
ions in any state to carry electric charge.
Most small molecules will dissolve in a solvent to form a solution.
These have giant, covalent molecules with extremely large molecular lattices.
They are very stable, as all the atoms are joined together by strong covalent bonds
to give a giant three-dimensional lattice.
Often the lattice is tetrahedral in shape, as every atom is covalently linked to four
others.
Examples of such macromolecules are diamond and sand (see Figure 6.8).
A diamond crystal or a grain of sand is just one giant molecule. Such molecules,
because they are so rigid and strong, have very high melting points.
This type of structure is thermally very stable and they have high melting and
boiling points.
They are usually poor conductors of electricity because the electrons are not
usually free to move as they can in metallic structures.
Also because of the strength of the bonding in all directions in the structure, they
are often very hard, strong and will not dissolve in solvents like water.
Silicon dioxide (silica, SiO2) has a similar 3D structure and properties, shown
below diamond.
The hardness of diamond enables it to be used as the 'leading edge' on cutting
tools.
[edit] Graphite