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CONTENTS
Sl. No.
TOPICS
Pg. No.
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY
1.
Science And Technology In India .......................................................... 5-19
2.
Health And Hygienc ............................................................................. 20-44
3.
Electronics and Computers .................................................................. 45-79
4.
Robotics Technology ............................................................................. 80-85
SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
DEVELOPMENT HISTORY
In 1947, with the emergence of a new
politically independent nation, India continued
to march ahead pursuing a programme of using
modern science and technology for national
development. Today India spends about 1.5 per
cent of its GNP on science and technology. In
this effort not only has India established
capabilities of its own but has also cooperated
with developed as well as developing countries
in its progress towards the use of science and
technology for national development.
Soon after Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru became
the Prime Minister of India, he created a Ministry
of Scientific Research and Natural Resources,
and actively supported the atomic energy
programme for peaceful purposes. In 1948, the
Atomic Energy Act was passed and the
Department of Atomic Energy was directly
under his charge. Till his death in 1964, he was
the Chairman of the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research. His long association with
the India Science Congress Association is well
known. Under the farsighted leadership of
Nehru, the nation, the government and the
public leaders became committed to the
promotion of science and technology for
national development in a phased manner.
Madras, Kanpur and Delhi, besides a number

of regional engineering colleges. A number of
institutions for specialized training such as the
National Institute of Foundry and Forge
Technology, School of Planning and
Architecture, the Institutes of Management and
the All India Institute of Medical Sciences were
set up. A similar expansion took place in science
education. The number of universities and
science graduates and post-graduates
multiplied. Nehru diversified the area of
operation in science and technology. India was
the first country, originally on the foot-pound
system, to change over the metric system during
the present century. In 1948, Nehru directed the
SCIR to prepare a National Register of Scientific
and Technical Personnel. The Defence Science
Organisation was set up in 1948, on the advice
of Professor P.M.S. Blackett, for the scientific
evaluation of weapons and equipment,
operational research and special studies using
scientific technique.
The enthusiastic efforts of Mr. Shanti Swarup

Bhatnagar led to the expansion of the Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research into a chain
of national laboratories spanning a wide
spectrum of science, technology, engineering
and biomedical sciences. The vision of Homi J.
Bhabha led to advanced research in nuclear
energy and other fundamental areas through the
creation of the Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research (TIFR) and what has now come to be
known as the Bhabha Atomic Research Center
(BARC), and the entire gamut of activities today
coming under the Atomic Energy Commission.
Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi gave the

highest priority to self- reliance in science and
technology and the achievement of selfsufficiency in food. In 1971, recognizing the
importance of developing integrated and selfreliant electronic capabilities in the country, she
set up the Electronics Commission. There have
been many accomplishments in the field. To
ensure that developmental activities took place
in harmony with the environment, Mrs. Gandhi
created a new Department of Environment at
the Centre in 1980. It was at her initiative that
the first Indian scientific expedition to Antarctica
took place in December 1981. She was deeply
aware of the great importance of energy for
development and, in particular, the pressing
needs in rural areas. Accordingly, she set up a
Commission on Additional Sources of Energy in
March 1981, and thereafter a Department of
Non-Conventional Energy Source.
Soon after assuming office, Nehru appointed

a Scientific Man-power Committee and had the
satisfaction of seeing five Institutes of
Technology come up at Kharagpur, Bombay,
Indias development plans have consistently

emphasised the need for sustained investment
in research and related activities leading to
creation of substantial capacity and capabilities
Chronicle IAS Academy
[5]
in science and technology (S&T). The fruits of

this effort are evident in Indias nuclear and
space
programmes,
information
and
communication technology services, automotive
and pharmaceuticals industries and other areas.
increasing the share of global scientific

publications from 3.5 per cent to over 7
per cent and quadrupling the number of
papers in top 1 per cent journals from the
current levels).
As the Indian economy continues on the

path of rapid, more inclusive and sustainable
growth, it will be necessary to ensure that Indias
capabilities in S&T grow in strength. This is
especially important if India is to become one of
the major economies of the world over the next
20 years.
Linking contributions of Science Research

and innovation system with the inclusive
economic growth agenda and combining
priorities of excellence and relevance.
Creating an environment for enhanced

private sector participation in R &D.
The country needs to move up from investing

1 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) in
the R&D sector to 2 per cent of GDP and more,
as has been the case with several developed and
emerging economies for quite some time now.
This must be achieved not only through an
additional government effort, but also a much
increased private sector effort.
Enabling conversion of R & D output with

societal and commercial applications by
replicating hitherto successful models, as
well as establishing of new PPP structures.
Seeking S&T based high risk innovation

through new mechanisms.
Fostering resource optimized cost-effective

innovation across size and technology
domains.
Triggering
in the mindset and value
systems to recognize respect and reward
performances which create wealth from
S&T derived knowledge.
Creating a robust national innovation

system.
Establishing linkages between discovery

processes of science and developmental
priorities of the country in agriculture,
manufacturing, services and infrastructure
sector.
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND

INNOVATION POLICY 2013
New Science, Technology and Innovation
(STI) policy has been formulated and enunciated
in 2013 and was formally released at the 100th
Session of Indian Science Congress at Kolkata
on 3rd January, 2013 by the Prime Minister Dr.
Manmohan Singh. The policy seeks to focus on
both STI for people and people for STI. It aims
to bring all the benefits of Science, Technology
& Innovation to the national development and
sustainable and more inclusive growth. It seeks
the right sizing of the gross expenditure on
research and development by encouraging and
incentivizing private sector participation in R &
D, technology and innovation activities. Main
features of the STI policy 2013 include:
Promoting the spread of scientific temper

amongst all sections of society.
Enhancing skills for applications of science

among the young from all social sectors.
Making careers in science, research and

innovation attractive enough for talented
and bright minds.
Establishing world class infrastructure for

R&D for gaining global leadership in some
select frontier areas of science.
Positioning India among the top five

global scientific powers by 2020 (by
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

POLICY-2003
The Science and Technology Policy-2003
envisages an implementation strategy for
revitalization of the Science & Technology
institutions in the country. The key elements of
the strategy include:
(i) S&T governance and investment;
(ii) Strengthening of infrastructure for
Science and Technology in academic
institutions;
(iii) New funding mechanisms for basic
research;
(iv) Human resource development;
[6]
(v) Optimal Utilization of Existing

Infrastructure and Competence;
(vi) Technology Development, Transfer and
Diffusion;
(vii) Indigenous Resources and Traditional
Knowledge;
(viii) Technologies for Mitigation and
Management of Natural Hazards;
(ix) Promotion of Innovation;
(x) Generation and Management
Intellectual Property;
of
(xi) Industry and scientific R&D;

(xii) Public Awareness of Science and
Technology; and
(xii) International Science and Technology
cooperation.
TECHNOLOGY MISSIONS
The Technology Missions were the brain
child of Mr. Rajiv Gandhi. The missions started
in 1985 and were an offshoot of the Seventh Plan.
Launched in the fields of literacy, immunization,
oilseeds, drinking water, dairy products and
telecommunication, it had the following aims:
1. Make a substantial improvement in the
literacy level of the population.
2. Immunize all infants against six diseases and
women against tetanus.
3. Cut down imports of edible oils.
4. Improve the availability and quality of
drinking water in rural areas.
5. Improve milk production and rural
employment.
6. Extend and improve the telecommunication
network especially in the rural areas.
In the light of the new industrial and
economic policies adopted by the Government,
the approach to technology development has
had to be fine-tuned. Besides enhancing the flow
of technology from abroad, the Department of
Electronics has decided to launch a series of
Technology Missions, essentially to meet the
following three objectives:
(a) Strengthening the technology base
infrastructure.
(b) Commercializing indigenous technolog-
ies which improve the performance of

selected
industries
and
their
competitiveness.
(c) Focus attention on certain emerging and
frontier technologies.

INFRASTRUCTURE
Besides having the third largest scientific
manpower, India also possess a large
infrastructural network. Scientific and
technological activities in India can be classified
into these sectors, viz., (i) Central government;
(ii) State government; (iii) higher education
sector; (iv) public sector industry and; (v) nonprofit
institutions/associations.
These
institutional structures comprise mainly of major
scientific departments of the Central
Government, with their research laboratories,
institutions, which are the main contributors to
the research activities being carried out in the
country. These are the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR), Indian Council
of Medical Research (ICMR), the Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE), Defence Research and
Development
Organisation
(DRDO),
Department of Ocean Development (DOD),
Department of Environment (DOE), and
Ministry of Science and Technology comprising
of three departments-Science and Technology,
Scientific and Industrial Research and
Biotechnology. Besides, there are other Central
Government ministries/departments and
number of research institutions under their
administrative and financial control. In addition,
there are in-house R & D units of public-sector
undertakings. The private sector industries have
established their own in-house R & D units,
which are responsible for undertaking R & D
activities for their respective industries. The state
governments have their own research institution,
which mainly comprise agriculture universities
and their research stations besides having other
research institutions directly under different
departments of the state governments.
Infrastructure for education, research and
development has expanded enormously over the
years.
1. Department of Science and Technology

The Department of Science and Technology,
set up in 1971, has been concerned with various
[7]
our sub-continent, the Department has set

up a National Centre for Medium Range
Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) with the
installation of a sophisticated supercomputer at its premises in New Delhi. The centre
is involved in developing models, which will
hopefully be able to predict the behaviour
of monsoons at least seven to ten days in
advance.
facets of promoting Science and Technology in

the Country. In this process, it has evolved policy
statements and guidelines, provided mechanisms
of coordination of areas of science and
technology for which a number of institutions
and departments have interests and capabilities,
supported grants-in-aid of scientific research
institutions and professional bodies.
By the very nature of the activities of the
department, it has to play a catalytic and
coordinating role, and, in this process over the
past few years, the efforts at promoting science
and technology in the states and union territories
have also gathered considerable momentum.
Survey of India (SOI): The information

obtained from accurate surveys are
enormously useful for various development
and strategic needs. The Survey of India
(SOI), another premier organisation, is
responsible for the production of
topographical maps and providing services
to defence forces and also to other users for
various developmental activities. Modern
facilities for map making, including the
setting up of modern cartographical centre,
digital mapping centre, etc. are some of the
important schemes undertaken by the SOI.
National Atlas and Thematic Mapping

Organisation (NATMO): While Survey of
India meets the national needs in
cartography, etc., some specialized thematic
maps required to meet the needs of specific
users are taken care of by the National Atlas
and Thematic Mapping Organisation
(NATMO), operating under the Department.
Autonomous Scientific Institutions: As part

of its programmes for supporting science
and technology activities in the country, the
Department provides grants-in-aid to 13
autonomous scientific research institutions
and the four national academies, including,
the Indian National Science Academy, New
Delhi and the India Academy of Science,
Kolkata. Thirteen autonomous research
institutions take up programme, which are
in the frontline areas of life sciences,
physical sciences and engineering sciences.
These institutions, having a large body of
scientists carrying out research, have made
very valuable contribution in the form of
research publication in prominent national
and international journals.
The programmes of Department of Science

and Technology are summarized below:
Formulation of policies relating to S&T
Promotion of new areas of S&T
Support and Grants-in-aid to Scientific

Research Institutions, Scientific Associations
and Bodies.
R & D Promotion Programme
Technology Development
S & T Programmes for Socio-economic

Development
Natural Resources Data Management

System (NRDMS)
S & T Entrepreneurship Development
S & T Communication and Popularization
Promotion of S&T at the State, District, and

Village levels for grassroots development
through State S&T Councils and other
mechanisms.
All other measures needed for the promotion

of S&T and their application to the
development and security of the nation.
2. India Meteorological Department (IMD)

The objectives of the India Meteorological
Department (IMD) are to provide and forecast
meteorological information on weather sensitive
activities, warning against severe weather
phenomena, and provide meteorological
statistical data. The Department has its
observatory and offices in different parts of the
country.
National Centre for Medium Range

Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF): In order
to study and analyze the weather and
climate behaviour of particular interest to
3. Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)

India embarked on an ambitious nuclear
power programme over four decades ago. The
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) set up in
[8]
1948, is the apex body, which lays down policies

pertaining to atomic energy programmes. To
execute these policies, the Department of Atomic
Energy (DAE) was formed in 1954. The activities
of DAE are grouped under research and
development, nuclear power production and
industries and minerals. The Department also
extends financial support to several institutions
carrying out basic research in nuclear and allied
sciences.
Nuclear Power Programme: To use the

countrys uranium and vast thorium
resources, a three stage atomic power
programme was envisaged in 1940s. The
ongoing first stage uses natural uranium
fuelled pressurized heavy water reactors
(PHWRs) for producing electricity. The
spent fuel when reprocessed yields
plutonium, which can be used as fuel and
results in production of more plutonium and
uranium-233 when thorium is used as a
blanket. The third stage reactors will be
using uranium-233 in the thorium cycle.
Research and Development Units: R & D

activities of DAE, are concentrated at four
research centres namely the Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre, Kalpakkam; Mumbai;
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research,
Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore,
and Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre,
Kolkata.
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC):

Set up in 1957, the Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre (BARC) is a premier research
institution of the country working in nuclear
sciences and related fields. The countrys
first 1- MW research reactor APSARA was
built indigenously in 1956. In 1960, a 40
MW
research
reactor
CIRUS
commissioned at Bombay for developmental
work, including production of isotopes,
experimentation, and training. CIRUS is
still in operation. A new high flux
indigenous 100 MW reactor DHRUVA
was commissioned in August 1985 for
research in advanced nuclear physics and
production of isotopes. Other facilities of
BARC include a research reactor PURNIMA
III using Uranium-233 as fuel, a neutron
source reactor KAMINI (at Kalpakkam), 5.5
MeV Van-de-Graaff accelerator set up in
collaboration with TIFR, a Beryllium Plant
(PREEFREE) and Waste Immobilisation

Plant at Tarapur, and a seismic station at
Gauribidanur (Karnataka). The Radiation
Medicine Centre at Mumbai uses
radioisotopes for diagnostic and therapeutic
applications.
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic

Research: Set up in 1971, at Kalpakkam,
near Madras, the Centre carries out R and
D activities relating to fast breeder
development. It has set up a FBTR, which
is presently operating at a power level of 1
MWe, which will be gradually raised to the
design value. Based on the experience
gained from FBTR, this Centre has evolved
a design for the prototype 500 MWe reactor
(PFBR). The Centre is equipped with
modern laboratories for carrying out work
in metallurgy, radiochemistry and fuel
reprocessing related to fast reactors.
Over the years, the centre has established

comprehensive R & D facilities covering the
entire spectrum of FBR technology related to
Sodium Technology, Reactor Engineering,
Reactor Physics, Metallurgy and Materials,
Chemistry of Fuels and its materials, Fuel
Reprocessing, Reactor Safety, Control and
Instrumentation, Computer Applications, etc.
and has developed a strong base in a variety of
disciplines related to this advanced technology.
Centre for Advanced Technology: The

centre, set up in 1984 at Indore, Madhya
Pradesh, has been developing technologies
in the area of lasers and accelerators. The
synchrotron radiation facility is being set
up here which will be a major research
facility in the country.
Variable Energy Cyclotron: It is a premier

R & D setup in 1980, a unit of the
Department of Atomic Energy and one of
the constituent institution of Homi Bhahba
National Institute. This centre is dedicated
to carryout frontier research and
development in the feld of Accelerator
Science & Technology, Nuclear Science
(Theoretical and Experimental), material
science & other relevant areas.
Public Sector Undertakings under DAE

Nuclear Power Corporation of India

Limited (NPCIL): The Corporation is
responsible for designing, constructing, and
[9]
operating nuclear power reactors. At

present it has eight reactors in operation,
with a total installed capacity of 1500 MWe.
Fundamental Research (TIFR), Saha Institute of

Nuclear Physics (SINP), Tata Memorial Centre
(TMC) and Institute of Physics (IOP).
Uranium Corporation of India Limited:

The Uranium Corporation of India Limited
(UCIL) was formed for mining, milling and
processing of uranium ores. The
Corporation operates Uranium mill at
Jadugoda (Jharkhand) and two uranium
mines at Jadugoda and Bhatin (Jharkhand).
It also has facilities to recover minerals such
as copper concentrates and molybdenum
from the ores. Major projects under
construction are at Narwapahar and
Turamdih, both in Jharkhand, being set up
for mining and milling of uranium ores. In
1950, the India Rare Earths Limited was
incorporated as a company of DAE. It has
mineral sand separation plants at
Manavalakurichi (Tamil Nadu) and
Chavara (Kerala), rare earths plant for
Monazite processing at Alwaye (Kerala) and
the Orissa Sand Complex (OSCOM) at
Chhattarpur (Orissa). The major products
of IREL are: ilmenite, rutile, zircon, rare
earths chloride and others. It is a major
exporter of rate earth minerals and value
added products.
The TIFR set up in 1945 at Colaba,

Bombay, is engaged in fundamental
research mainly in the fields of
mathematics, physics, astrophysics,
molecular biology and computer science.
The facilities under TIFR include: Balloon
Facility at Hyderabad, Radio Astronomy
Centre and National Image Processing
Facility for Astronomy at Ootacamund
(Tamil Nadu) and FTNMR (Fourier
Transform Nuclear Magnetic Resonance)
national facility at Bombay.
The Tata Memorial Centre at Bombay is

the foremost institution in the country in
research, diagnosis and treatment of
cancer. It is also a premier education centre
in oncology.
The Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics,

established in 1951 at Calcutta, is a major
centre for advanced research in nuclear
and allied sciences.
The Institute of Physics at Bhubaneshwar

has facilities for advanced research in
nuclear science. A 3 MV Pelletron
accelerator is a major research facility of
the institute.
Electronics Corporation of India Limited:

In operation since 1967, ECIL has pioneered
in the production of wide ranging
indigenously developed sophisticated
electronic systems, instruments and systems
for use in the nuclear power programme
and other industries. The Corporation is one
of the leading organisations of the country
in the field of manufacture of computers,
control
and
instrumentation,
communication system, and consumer
electronics.
Board of Radiation and Isotope
Technology: Radioisotopes find extensive
use in medicine, crop improvement, food
irradiation, industry and research. To carry
out activities in the above fields on
commercial lines, the Board of Radiation
and Isotope Technology was set up in
March 1988.
Support to Research
The Department has been funding four
institutions namely the Tata Institute of
Atomic Energy Regulatory Board

The regulatory and safety function, as laid
down in the Atomic Energy Act, 1992, are
carried out by the Atomic Energy Regulatory
Board (AERB) constituted in 1983. The Board is
empowered to frame rules and regulations
relating to safety and regulatory requirement for
establishments engaged in works relating to and
use of radiation. Safety standards, codes and
guides to be followed by DAE and non-DAE
nuclear installations are regularly issued. The
Departments emergency preparedness and
plans of all its nuclear installations are monitored
by AERB.
4. Department of Space (DOS)

In India, space programme was formally
organised in 1972 with the setting up of the
Space Commission and the Department of Space.
The primary objective of the programme is to
[10]
provide space based services in areas of

communication, meteorology and resources
survey and management and, as integral to it,
develop satellites, launch vehicles and associated
ground systems. The past two decades have
already seen the Indian space programme
making a remarkable progress through a wellintegrated, self-reliant programme. Space
communication has not only enhanced the
communication capabilities in the country but
also it is now being widely deployed for
providing advanced disaster warning, search
and rescue measures and distance education to
remote areas.
Space Centre and Units

Research and development activities under
the space programme are carried out in various
centres/units of ISRO/DOS. The major projects
of ISRO are executed by identified lead centres
depending upon the technology base established
in them.
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC),

Thiruvananthapuram, is the lead centre
for launch vehicle development and it
pioneers in rocket research and the
planning and execution of launch vehicle
development projects.
ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), Bangalore,

is responsible for the design, fabrication,
testing and management of satellite
systems for scientific, technological and
application missions.
Space Application Centre (SAC),

Ahmedabad, is ISROs research and
development centre for conceiving,
organizing and building systems for
practical applications of space technology.
The major fields of activity cover satellite
communications,
remote
sensing,
meteorology and geodesy.
SHAR (Sriharikota High Altitude

Rocket) Centre, Sriharikota, located on
the east coast of Andhra Pradesh, is the
main launch centre of ISRO. This centre
also undertakes large scale production of
solid rocket propellant and ground testing
of solid fuelled rocket stages of the Indian
launch vehicles.
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre

(LPSC) is the key centre for development
of liquid propulsion systems. With its
facilities located at Thiruvananthapuram,
Bangalore and Mahendragiri, the Centre
undertakes research, development and
testing of liquid propulsion systems for
ISROs launch vehicle and satellite
programmes.
5. Department of Electronics (DOE)

Productions of electronic equipment and
component has come a long way since the days
of radio receivers in 1940s. Electronics industry
in India has grown with domestic demand as a
result of import substitution efforts. In order to
keep pace with developments in the
international scene and also considering the
increasing importance of electronics for
diversified applications the Department of
Electronics was set up by the Government of
India in 1971. Since then, the Department has
been coordinating development of electronics
in India and reviewing constantly the growth
achieved in the industrial front and in the R and
D capabilities.
Manpower Development
The Department of Electronics has been
supporting projects relating to manpower and
skill development. The programme on generation
of special manpower of computers aims at
bridging the gap between supply and demand
of trained manpower of computers. Activities
under this programme include providing funds
for courses such as M. Tech., B. Tech., MCA,
PGDCA, etc and training for teachers of DCA,
MCA and ITIs.
Seven Centres of Electronic Design and
Technology (CEDT) have been set up for
imparting training in design and manufacturing
aspects of electronics products. The department
has launched a pilot programme for Computer
Literacy and Studies in Schools (CLASS) in
participation with other PSUs like BEL, ECIL,
ITI, BHEL, etc.
CMC Limited
CMC Ltd., set up in 1976 is committed to
the creative use of computers and information
technology tools in core sectors of the economy
[11]
through applications, which increase

productivity and improve the quality of life. It
provides hardware maintenance support to
various equipments supplied by over 30
manufacturers. It coordinated implementation
of project INCONET, which is an integrated
information management and data processing
facility spanning the entire country.
Electronics Trade and Technology

Development Corporation Limited
ET and T was set up with objectives of
expanding foreign trade in electronics and
undertaking developments of technology in key
areas. The Corporation has taken up a
programme known as MTB programme to
manufacture 17 B/W TV and 53 cm FST colour
TV. Low cost PC project launched by ET and T
to spread education through electronic media in
a wider sense viz., curricular, vocational,
community development, adult literacy and to
make children available with educational video
cassettes at an affordable price. It has also taken
over total management of the Software
Technology Park at Gandhinagar.
Semiconductor Complex Limited

Semiconductor Complex Limited (SCL) was
set up primarily to design, develop and
manufacture LS/VLSI circuits. SCL commenced
commercial production in April 1984. Presently
SCL is concentrating on rebuilding its assembly,
test and wafer fabrication facilities and has
expanded its product portfolio to keep pace with
the current market trends. The company has also
undertaken a turnkey project to set up a stateof-the-art Gallium Arsenide Enabling
Technology Centre (GAETEC) at Hyderabad. It
has achieved full capacity utilization in Quartz
Analog Watch-Chip on Board and Electronic
Circuit Block (QAW-COB and ECB) assembly
lines.
Centre for Development of Advanced

Computing (C-DAC)
In addition to the development of parallel
computers and associated software, C-DAC has
also initiated development programmes in other
areas, including knowledge based computer
systems (KBCS), language technology, VLSI
design and rural technology. C-DAC started
building Indian Language Computing Solutions
with setting up of GIST group (Graphics and
Intelligence based Script Technology); National

Centre for Software Technology (NCST) set up
in 1985 had also initiated work in Indian
Language Computing around the same period.
Major focus of C-DAC was on consolidating
and stabilizing its hardware products developed
in the first mission, commercialization of
products, carrying out R&D to enhance the
throughput and power of the PARAM series of
parallel computers, conduct research in the state
of the art in advanced computing and develop
new products in the language technology area.
C-DAC has today emerged as a premier third
party R&D organization in IT&E (Information
Technologies and Electronics) in the country
working on strengthening national technological
capabilities in the context of global developments
in the field and responding to change in the
market need in selected foundation areas.
6. Department of Scientific and Industrial

Research: (DSIR)
It is a part of Ministry of Science and
Technology. Apart from a number of its own
units, it includes the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR); National Research
Development Corporation, Central Electronics
and National Information System for Science and
Technology (NISSAT). It has evolved
programmes for absorption by industry. A
National Register on Foreign Collaboration
(NRFC) was started in 1985-86 for the creation
of a data bank on the import of technology,
analysis of financial, economic and legal matters
pertaining to foreign collaborations (FCs), and
preparation of reports on technology status in
identified sectors/products. CEL has specialized
in selected electronics components; specific
electrical systems and Solar Photo-voltaic cells
(SPV), modules and systems for a variety of
applications.
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

(CSIR)
(CSIR), which was constituted in 1942 is an
autonomous body registered under the
registration of Societies Act, 1860. Functions
assigned to the Council are: (i) promotion,
guidance and coordination of scientific and
industrial research in India, including the
institution and financing of specific researchers;
[12]
ORGANISATIONS UNDER CSIR

CBRI
Central Building Research Institute
Roorkee (Uttarakhand)
CCMB
Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology
Hyderabad
CDRI
Central Drug Research Institute
Lucknow
CECRI
Central Electro Chemical Research Institute
Karaikudi (T.N.)
CEERI
Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute
Pilani (Raj)
CFRI
Central Fuel Research Institute
Dhanbad
CFTRI
Central Food Technological Research Institute
Mysore
CGCRI
Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute
Kolkata
CIMAP
Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Lucknow
CLRI
Central Leather Research Institute
Chennai
CMERI
Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute
Durgapur (W.B.)
CMRI
Central Mining Research Institute
Dhanbad
CRRI
Central Road Research Institute
New Delhi
CSIO
Central Scientific Instruments Organization
Chandigarh
CSIR
New Delhi
IHBT
Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology
Palampur (H.P.)
CSMCI
Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute
Bhavnagar (Guj.)
ERDA
Electronics Research and Development Association
Vadodara
IICB
Indian Institute of Chemical Biology
Kolkata
IICT
Indian Institute of Chemical Technology
Hyderabad
IIP
Indian Institute of Petroleum
Dehradun
IMT
Institute of Microbial Technology
Chandigarh
INSDOC
Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre
New Delhi
ITRC
Industrial Toxicology Research Centre
Lucknow
NAL
National Aerospace Laboratory
Bangalore
NBRI
National Botanical Research Institute
Lucknow
NCL
National Chemical Laboratory
Pune
NEERI
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
Nagpur
NGRI
National Geophysical Research Institute
Hyderabad
NIO
National Institute of Oceanography and Development Studies
Panaji, Goa
NISTADS
National Institute of Science, Technology and
New Delhi
Development Studies
NML
National Metallurgical Laboratory
Jamshedpur
NPL
National Physical Laboratory
New Delhi
PID
Publication and Information Directorate
Delhi
RRL
Regional Research Laboratory
Bhopal, Jorhat,
Thiruvananthapuram,
Jammu, Bhubaneswar
TES
Tocklai Experimental Station
SERC
Structural Engineering Research Centre
Chennai
[13]
(ii) establishment of and assistance to special

institutions for scientific study of problems
affecting particular industries and trades; (iii)
establishment and award of research
studentships and fellowships; (iv) utilization of
the result of researches conducted under the
auspices of the Council towards development of
industries; (v) establishment, maintenance and
management of laboratories, workshops,
institutes and organisations to further scientific
and industrial research. (vi) Publication of
scientific papers and journals, and (vii) any other
activity or activities to promote generally the
objectives of the resolution.
Technological Boom to Industries: Ranging
from antenatal oxygen analysis to a rapid test
for presence of viruses in water, the CSIRs
Madras complex (CMC) has come out with a
bunch of technologies which will be a boon to
different industries.
A conglomerate of the extension centres of
six major laboratories, CMC, setup on a
sprawling campus at Taramani on the outskirts
of Madras, has more than met the objectives with
which it was formed to develop new process and
products, especially import substitutes, fight
pollution in industry and environment, upgrade
traditional crafts into productive and drudgeryfree operations and assist in quality certification.
Assistance to Industry: The interdisciplinary expertise generated over the year by
CSIR helps industry in various ways. Some of
them are: (i) assessment of technology options,
including technology assessment and choice of
technology; (ii) absorption, adaptation and
updating
of
imported
technology;
(iii) identification or areas of R&D that will
maximize returns, including R and D project
definition, planning and programming;
(iv) productivity improvement through cost
reduction, energy conservation and waste
utilization; (v) substitution of imported raw
materials, components and process; (vi) pollution
and effluents control, including location of safe
discharge points; (vii) repair and maintenance;
(viii) trouble shooting, condition monitoring and
maintenance scheduling, computer simulation
and modeling; (ix) optimization of novel
technological designs; (x) analysis, interpretation
and validation of tests results and data; (xi) laying
down of standards and test-protocols and
quality assurance; (xii) survey of literature and
state-of-art-reports, and (xiii) feasibility studies

and projects report and analysis.
7. Department of Ocean Development

Indias coastline is more than 6000 km long
and its territory includes 1256 islands. Its
exclusive economic zone covers an area of 24
lakh sq km and the continental shelf extends upto
350 nautical miles from the coast. Indeed, the
domain for the development of oceanic resources
and protection of the marine environment
extends from the coastal lands and islands to the
wide Indian Ocean. Recognizing the crucial role
that the ocean plays in influencing our climate,
environment and resource base, the Government
of India set up the Department of Ocean
Development in 1981 to promote and coordinate
the multifaceted endeavor needed to accomplish
the task as well as to develop the new emerging
area of Antarctic research and deep seabed
mining.
National Institute of Oceanography: The
National Institute of Oceanography was
established in 1966 under the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi.
The main objective of the Institute is to develop
adequate knowledge related to physical,
chemical, biological, geological and engineering
aspects of the seas around India through: (i)
study of physical process in the ocean, including
monsoon; (ii) exploration of living resources of
the sea; (iii) sea-farming technology; (iv) deep
sea exploration for minerals; (v) coastal zone and
harbour development; (vi) studies for effective
control of marine pollution; (vii) ocean modeling;
(viii) processing of satellite imagery data and
(ix) acoustic topography.
8. Department of Biotechnology (DBT)

To promote R and D and manufacturing
activities in the area of biotechnology, the
Government set up the National Biotechnology
Board in 1982. In February 1986, a separate
Department of Biotechnology (DBT) in the
Ministry of Science and Technology replaced the
Board. The main responsibilities entrusted to the
Department include planning, promotion and
coordination of biotechnological programmes in
the country.
The Department since its inception has been
functioning with the advice of two advisory
committees i.e. Scientific Advisory Committee
[14]
(SAC-DBT) and Standing Advisory CommitteeOverseas (SACO). With the advice of SAC-DBT,
13 task forces have been constituted in the areas
of : (i) aquaculture and marine biotechnology;
(ii) animal biotechnology, veterinary sciences,
animal husbandry and leather biotechnology; (iii)
basic research emerging areas and R and D
facilities; (iv) biochemical engineering,
downstream processing and instrumentation; (v)
bioinformatics; (vi) biological pests control,
diseases and weeds; (vii) environmental
biotechnology; (viii) fuel, fodder, biomass,
horticulture and plantation crops and
sericulture; (ix) industrial biotechnology; (x)
microbial biotechnology; (xi) plant molecular
biology and agricultural biotechnology.
Initiatives have been taken to promote
transgenic research in plants with emphasis on
pest and disease resistance, nutritional quality,
silk-worm genome analysis, molecular biology
of human genetic disorders, brain research, plant
genome research, development, validation and
commercialisation of diagnostic kits and vaccines
for communicable diseases, food biotechnology,
biodiversity conservation and bioprospecting,
setting up of micropropagation parks and
biotechnology based development for SC/ST,
rural areas, women and for different States.
9. Department of Defence Research and

Development (DRDO)
Defence Research and Development
Organization (DRDO) was established in 1958
by amalgamating Defence Science Organisation
and some of the technical development
establishments. A separate Department of
Defence Research and Development was formed
in 1980 which now administers DRDO and its
48 laboratories/establishments.
The Department of Defence Research and
Development formulates and executes
programme of scientific research, design and
development, fields of relevance to national
security leading to the induction of new weapons,
platforms and other equipment required by the
Armed Forces. It also functions as the nodal
agency for the execution of major development
programmes of relevance to Defence through
integration of research, development, public
sector undertakings and other agencies. It
functions under the control of the Scientific
Adviser to the Defence Minister who is also the

Secretary, Defence Research and Development.
Research and development activities at
DRDO cover important demarcated disciplines
like aeronautics, rockets and missiles, electronics
and instrumentation, combat vehicles,
engineering, naval systems, armament
technology, including explosives research,
terrain research, advanced computing, artificial
intelligence, robotics, works study, systems
analysis and life sciences, including high altitude
agriculture, physiology, food technology and
nuclear medicine.
DRDO offers specialized training at its two
premier training institutions called Institute of
Armament Technology, Pune and Defence
Institute of Work Study, Musoorie. The courses
at these institutes have been evolved to meet the
needs of DRDO, Department of Defence
Production and Supplies and the three services.
AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTIONS
The Department has set up under its
administrative control two autonomous
institutions in the country. These are the National
Institute of Immunology (NII) at New Delhi and
the National Facility for Animal Tissue and Cell
Culture (NFATCC) at Pune. Both these
institutions have independent governing bodies
and scientific advisory committees. At NII,
significant developments have been made in the
field of immunodiagnostics. The facility at
NFATCC acts as a cell repository, tissue bank in
the area of molecular biology, immunology and
cell products preparation. It has already supplied
a number of consignments of cell lines to different
laboratories in the country.
Indian Council of Agriculture Research

(ICAR)
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR) is a registered society and is the apex
body responsible for promoting, conducting and
coordinating research and education in the fields
of agriculture, including horticulture, animal
science, fisheries and the allied sectors in the
country. With 99 ICAR institutes and 53
agricultural universities spread across the
country this is one of the largest national
agricultural systems in the world.
The ICAR has played a pioneering role in
[15]
ushering Green Revolution and subsequent

developments in agriculture in India through its
research and technology development that has
enabled the country to increase the production
of foodgrains by 4 times, horticultural crops by
6 times, fish by 9 times (marine 5 times and inland
17 times), milk 6 times and eggs 27 times since
1950-51, thus making a visible impact on the
national food and nutritional security. It has
played a major role in promoting excellence in
higher education in agriculture. It is engaged in
cutting edge areas of science and technology
development and its scientists are internationally
acknowledged in their fields.
The primary functions of the Council are

discharged through its permanent research
institutes/centres/units, regional medical
research centres, centres for advanced research,
research units, task force projects and national
multicentric collaborative projects in different
parts of the country. In addition, there are ad
hoc schemes and fellowships generated by active
scientists in biomedical institutions/universities
in different parts of the country. ICMR also
attempts to strengthen indigenous capabilities,
promote a broad-based and balanced cadre of
research personnel in the country and develop
facilities to tackle the present and future health
problems.
In order to perform these functions in an

integrated manner, the ICAR has created a
National Grid of Cooperatives Research in which
ICAR institutes, state agricultural universities
and other educational and scientific institutions
participate in their programmes as equal
partners. In addition, the ICAR also operates 61
All India Coordinated Research Projects, which
are multi-locational and multi-disciplinary in
nature on important commodities and research
areas. The mechanism of this coordinated
research has proved its efficacy and utility over
the last successive plan periods as an effective
instrument to tackle the diverse problems
characteristic of Indian agriculture.
CAPART
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)

The Indian Council of Medical Research
(ICMR) is the apex body in India for the
formulation, coordination and promotion of
biomedical research. The Councils research
priorities coincide with the National health
priorities such as control and management of
communicable diseases, fertility control,
maternal and child health, control of nutritional
disorders, developing alternative strategies for
health care delivery, containment within safety
limits of environmental and occupational health
problems; research on major non-communicable
diseases like cancer, cardiovascular diseases,
blindness, diabetes and other metabolic and
haematological disorders; mental health research
and drug research (including traditional
remedies). All these efforts are undertaken with
a view to reduce the total burden of disease and
to promote health and well-being of the
population.
The Council for Advancement of Peoples

Action and Rural Technology (CAPART) was
registered under the Societies Registration Act,
1860, on 1 September, 1986, with headquarters
in New Delhi with the merger of Peoples Acton
for Development India (PADI) and Council for
Advancement of Rural Technology (CART). It
aims at encouraging, promoting and assisting
voluntary action for enhancement of rural
prosperity.
In pursuance of these objectives, CAPART
makes available financial assistance to voluntary
organisations under the following schemes:
(i) Promotion of voluntary action in rural
development (ii) Development of Women and
Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA); (iii)
Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programmes
(ARWSP); (iv) Central Rural Sanitation
Programme (CRSP); (v) Organisation of
Beneficiaries of Anti-poverty Programme (OB);
(vi) Integrated Rural Development Programme
(IRDP); (vii) Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY); and
(viii) Advancement of Rural Technology Scheme
(ARTS).
DEPARTMENT OF DEFENCE
PRODUCTION AND SUPPLIES
A substantial part of defence stores needed
by the Services is now being developed and
produced in the country. The responsibility for
this has been entrusted to the Department of
Defence Production and Supplies in the Ministry
of Defence. The Department directs and
coordinates production of material and
equipment required by the armed forces.
[16]
Ordnance Factories
At present, 41 ordnance factories spread all
over India operate a wide-range of technologies
and product mix. Some of the important products
are field guns, anti-aircraft guns, various small
arms, ammunition for weapons and guns,
rockets, projectiles, pyrotechnics, bombs,
grenades, mines, demolition clothing, optical
and fire control instruments, engineering
equipment, supply dropping equipment,
including parachutes, rubberized items, various
knitted and woven items like blankets, web
equipment and a wide range of general stoppers
are produced by them.
Defence Undertakings
There are eight public sector undertakings
under the Department of Defence Production
and Supplies. These are Hindustan Aeronautics
Ltd. (HAL), Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL),
Bharat Earth Movers Ltd. (BEML), Mishra
Dhatu Nigam Ltd. (MIDHANI) and others.
Seven of these undertakings are wholly owned
by the Government of India.
Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd., set up in
1964, has 19 production divisions, 10 R &
D Centres and one Facility Management
Division spread across various locations at
Bengaluru, Nashik, Hyderabad, Lucknow,
Kanpur, Korwa, Koraput and Barrackpore,
with its corporate office at Bangalore. The
principal function of the company is to
design, manufacture, repair and overhaul
various types of aircrafts, helicopters and
related aero engines avionics, instruments
and accessories.
HAL is currently manufacturing SU-30MKI
multi-role fighter, Hawk Advanced Jet Trainer,
Light Combat Aircraft (LCA), Intermediate Jet
Trainer (IJT), Jaguar, Dornier 228 Light
Transport Aircraft, Dhruv (Advanced Light
Helicopter), and Chetak, Cheetah and Cheetal
helicopters and various types of aero-engines.
HAL is also participating in future acquisitions
planned by IAF and other Defence Services.
These are Medium Multi-role Combat Aircraft
(MMRCA), Multi-role Transport Aircraft (MTA),
Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft (FGFA) and
Indian Multi Role Helicopters (IMRH) and Naval
Multi-role Helicopter (NMRH).
Bharat Electronics Ltd. was established in
1954 at Jalahalli, Bangalore. Since then, it
has emerged as a leader in professional

electronics. The company has core
competencies in the areas of Radars &
Weapon Systems, Sonars, Communication,
Electronic Warfare Systems, Electro Optics
and Tank Electronics, etc. It has nine units
at
Bangalore,
Ghaziabad,
Pune,
Machilipatnam, Taloja, Panchkula and
Kotdwara. Two support centres also exist
at Hyderabad and Chennai. The products
manufactured include low and high power
communication equipment in the HF, UHF,
VHF and microwave ranges; high power
static and mobile radars, static and mobile
troposcatters with line of sight equipment,
broadcast transmitters, gun control
equipment, weapons control system for
frigates and electronic voting machines. BEL
has been conferred the Navratna status on
June 22, 2007.
Bharat Earth Movers Ltd. (BEML),
incorporated in 1964, commenced
operations in January 1965. BEML is
engaged in the design, manufacturing,
marketing and after sales service of a wide
range of mining and construction
equipment, defence and aerospace products
and rail and metro products such as
excavators, bulldozers, dumpers, loaders,
scrapers, cranes, etc.
BEML has its corporate headquarters and
central marketing division at Bengaluru and 4
manufacturing complexes with 9 production
units located in Bengaluru, Mysore, Kolar Gold
Fields and Palakkad. It also supplies aircraft
towing tractors to the Air Force and at present
it is manufacturing transmissions and allied
assemblies for combat vehicles. The Companys
International Business covers over 58 countries
in Asia, Africa, Europe and Latin America.
Mazgaon Dock Ltd., Mumbai, Goa
Shipyard Ltd., Goa and Garden Reach Ship
Builders and Engineers Ltd., Kolkata, are
leading ship building and ship repairing
units in the defence public sector having
facilities to build sophisticated warships like
frigates, seaward defence boats, survey
vessels, offshore and onshore patrol vessels.
MDL has constructed three indigenously
designed Godavari class frigates.
Bharat Dynamics Limited was incorporated
at Hyderabad as a public sector
[17]
undertaking in 1970 with the prime

objective of establishing a production base
for guided missiles and for the development
of missile production technology in the
country. The company undertook the
manufacture of SSIIBI, the first generation
anti tank missile, under license agreement
with M/s Aerospatiale of France. The
company has commenced the manufacture
of second generation anti tank missiles.
Mishra Dhatu Nigam Limited, located in
Hyderabad, was incorporated in 1973. The
commercial production of the company
started in July 1983. MIDHANIs product
range includes super alloys, titanium alloys,
maraging steels, heat resistant alloys, soft
magnetic alloys, controlled expansion alloys,
tungsten, molybdenum, etc., in a wide
variety of mill forms. It is a unique, modern
and integrated metallurgical plant for
manufacturing a wide range of special
metals and alloys for meeting the critical
requirement of strategic industries such as
space, defence, power, aeronautical,
automobile, electrical, telecommunications,
petrochemicals, lamp and general
engineering industries.

APPROACH TO TWELFTH PLAN
India had made substantial investments in
the R&D sector during the Eleventh Plan period
laying a strong foundation for building a vibrant
and dynamic S&T sector in the country. Average
growth rate of publications from India in
scientific journals is about 14 per cent during the
last three years of the Eleventh Plan period. This
is against the global average of 4.1 per cent
during the same period. The share of scientific
publications emanating from universities
increased from 15 per cent in 2003 to 31 per cent
in 2012.
To face up to the increasing challenges in the
new world order, the Indian S&T landscape
needs to undergo a paradigm shift. It needs to
evolve new delivery mechanisms for innovative
deployment of technologies and business models
for financing deployment of innovations. This
calls for a well enunciated Science, Technology
and Innovation policy. The Twelfth Plan should
therefore work to develop an ecosystem that
addresses the national priority for sustainable,

inclusive and accelerated growth taking along
the education, research and corporate sectors.
The corporate sector, in particular, must play a
much larger role in building research capability
as happens in other countries.
A competitive knowledge economy must be
built on the pillars of: (i) an educational system
that produces human resources which are
employable and globally benchmarked; (ii) S&T
pursued on an enormous scale to generate
knowledge for long-term use and (iii) strategic
translational research inspired by national
needs and global opportunities. In pursuit of
these objectives the Twelfth Plan should be
geared to achieve the following:
Evolve a new Science, Technology and

Innovation policy to bring in more
resources from both public and private
sector for R&D for socially and
strategically relevant projects and
mainstream innovation- related activities
with a focus on affordable and sustainable
innovations;
Catalyse a radical but participative

transformation of the Indian S&T system
by refocusing the efforts of the designated
Departments/Agencies at:
National Focusbuild partnership

with identified players of the National
Innovation System to build the
scientific, technological and human
resource niches for the country;
Organisational Focusaddress the

needs of each Department/Agency
for achieving the goals in national
focus and rigorously review the
ongoing projects/programmes to
phase out those which have by and
large fulfilled their goals; and
Leadership Focusstimulate the

Department/Agencys leadership in
identified domains of science,
technology and human resource
development.
Ensure that S&T becomes an

integral component of the national
developmental
processes
by
interconnecting competencies and
[18]
research resources and strengthening

interconnections with the weakly
connected stakeholders to the R&D
outputs;
Increase the number of full-time

researchers/scientists from the current
level of 1.54 lakh to 2.50 lakh; the volume
of publication outputs in basic research
from a global share of 3 per cent to, say,
5 per cent; improve the global ranking
from 9th to 6th by the end of the Twelfth
Plan; focus on doubling the number of
patents
and
increase
the
commercialization of patent portfolio to
56 per cent from a level of less than 2
per cent;
Increase R&D expenditure to 2 per cent
of GDP and significantly enhance
corporate sector R&D expenditure to at
least 1 per cent of GDP by attracting
investments and engaging the corporate
sector in R&D through policy and reforms
processes; earmark 1015 per cent of public
investment exclusively for publicprivate
partnership (PPP) R&D to private sector
through the competitive grant process
with a stipulation that comparable
provisions would be made by the private
sector under PPP model;
Provide more flexibility to the younger
generation of scientists to pursue their
ideas and greater mobility between
industry, academia and R&D institutions;
strengthen gender parity in R&D by way
of mobility and women re-entry
programmes; consolidate on the gains
achieved during the Eleventh Plan in
nurturing students to pursue science as a
career;
Build technology partnerships with States

through new models of technological
solutions, design, development and
delivery;
Initiate Grand Challenge Programmes and

launch PAN-India missions to address
national
priorities
in
various
developmental sectors through bottom up
approach, particularly in the areas of
Health, Water, Energy and Food through

consortia of institutions and agencies
cutting across public and private sectors;
two major areas which require immediate
focus during Twelfth Five Year Plan are
Energy and Water;
Encourage large Indian industries to

establish globally benchmarked R&D
centres on the lines of R&D centres set up
by multinational companies (MNCs);
Leverage the large-scale innovative

component of strategic research spin-offs
from defence, space and atomic energy
for civilian benefits in a much larger
segment.
Create new Inter-University Centres

(IUCs) and Inter-Institutional Centres
(IICs) in chosen areas of Science and
Engineering, which will provide access to
state-of-the-art facilities and academic
ambience for researchers in universities
and academic institutions;
Create new R&D institutions in transdisciplinary science and engineering to

achieve leadership positions;
Create Peta-scale supercomputing

facilities and provide high-performance
computing for various applications such
as climate modelling, weather prediction,
aerospace engineering, computational
biology, nuclear applications, earthquake
simulations, animation in movies, national
security and finance;
Create an independent institutional

arrangement for Technology Assessment
capability.
Partner with high-value global mega

projects in the areas of contemporary
scientific interest and technological
relevance and enhance Indias role in
global mega projects; and
Enhance collaboration with reputed

foreign universities/agencies towards
addressing the scientific aspects of
common interest and global in nature.
[19]
HEALTH AND HYGIENE
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
Greece, it was introduced by the Arabs in India.

It also adopts holistic approach. Main types of
treatment are regimen therapy, diet therapy,
pharmaco-therapy and surgery.
C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y
Health and human development form

integral components of overall socio-economic
development of any nation. Under the
Constitution, Public health and sanitation,
hospitals and dispensaries fall in the state list.
Population control and family planning, medical
education, adulteration of food stuffs and other
goods, drugs and poisons, medical profession,
vital statistics, including registration of births
and deaths, lunacy and mental deficiency are
in the concurrent list. Union Ministry of Health
and Family Welfare plays a vital role in the
national efforts to help citizens lead a healthy
and happy life. The ministry is responsible for
implementing programmes of national
importance like family welfare, primary health
care services, prevention and control of disease,
etc. which form the main plank of our
development efforts.
INDIAN MEDICINE SYSTEMS
The traditional systems of medicine are of

great relevance to the health care of the people.
It is calculated that majority of the world
population are still relying on traditional system.
Kerala is the first state in the country, which
separates the traditional systems of medicine into
Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Yoga & Naturopathy
respectively. Indian systems of medicine (ISM)
include all the non-allopathic systems of
medicine and regimens, excluding Homeopathy,
viz. Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Nature Cure,
Yoga, Tibbia and Amchi.
Ayurveda and Siddha are the most ancient

ISM practised in India. These deal with
preventive, promotive and curative concepts of
health and are holistic systems of medicine
dealing with body, mind, soul and the
phenomena of nature. Ayurveda makes use of
the medicinal properties of plants. Siddha is
practised mainly in Tamil-speaking and nearby
areas
Unani system of medicine has a long and
impressive record in India. Having its origin in
[20]
Naturopathy is commonly known as

drugless treatment of disease and is based mainly
on the ancient practices of the application of the
simple laws of nature. It lays special emphasis
on eating and living habits, adoption of
purificatory measures, use of hydrotherapy, cold
packs, mud packs, baths, massage, etc.
Yoga is as old as Ayurveda. It was about

2500 years back when Patanjali propounded it
in a systematic form, which consists of eight
components. Yoga helps in improving physical,
mental and social well-being as also builds up
improved resistance to disease and endurance
against stress.
Homeopathy is based on the principle of

Simila Similibus Curantur, i.e., like cures, and
that too with minute doses of medicines, and was
discovered by the German physician Dr.
Christian Frederick Samuel Hannemann.
Homeopathy has wide acceptability because of
its holistic and intrinsic values, low cost medicines
and absence of any side effects of the drug.
Sowa-Rigpa Became Part Of Indian Medical

System:
The Parliament on August 31, 2010 adopted

a Bill to recognise within the definition of Indian
medicine the Sowa-Rigpa system practised in
sub-Himalayan region of the country. The Indian
Medicine Central Council (Amendment) Bill,
2010 was then passed by a voice vote by the Lok
Sabha. Rajya Sabha had passed the Bill on
August 25.
It is practiced in the sub-Himalayan region
and other parts of the country, besides Tibet,
Mongolia, Japan and some other countries. The
Bill seeks to include registered practitioners of
Sowa-Rigpa in the Indian Medical Council. The
Indian Medicine Central Council (Amendment)

Bill, 2010, seeks to include Sowa-Rigpa along
with Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani medicine in
the system, set minimum standards for
education, and maintain a register of all
practitioners in these fields.
C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y
The Bill would ensure protection and

preservation of the Sowa-Rigpa system and help
in its development. Besides, it would lead to the
setting up of a regulatory mechanism in the
education and practice of Sowa-Rigpa. The
government will take all steps for research and
development of the Sowa-Rigpa system with a
regulatory body in place. The legal recognition
of Sowa-Rigpa will help in preserving this
ancient system of medicine along with boosting
its education and practice. It will also open new
avenues of research and development of new
medicines by combining new techniques with
Sowa-Rigpa.
In order to strengthen the AYUSH systems

and their revalidation, various initiatives have
been taken by the Health Ministry. These include
infrastructure development by establishing five
Research Councils dedicated for research in each
of the AYUSH systems; establishment of
Pharmacopoeia Commission of Indian Medicine
for developing standards of Ayurveda, Siddha
and Unani drugs; promoting collaboration
among various research councils under different
ministries as well as universities and
organizations. The interdisciplinary research
involving scientists of basic sciences, chemists,
pharmacologists, biologists as well as engineers
has also been encouraged in core areas of
research in AYUSH systems. These include
Fundamental Research comprising of
interpretation and revalidation of basic principles
of AYUSH systems; Literature Research covering
revival, preservation, translation, critical
analysis, systematization and publication of
manuscripts; Drug Research including Medical,
Ethnic and Botanical Surveys, Cultivation of
Medicinal Plants, Standardization and Quality
control, Preclinical safety, Toxicity and Biological
activity screening and Clinical Research
encompassing observation studies and phased
clinical trials. Modern advanced technologies like
Genomics are also being used to study the
fundamental concepts of Prakriti; i.e. Body
constitution described in Ayurveda. AYUSH
drugs are being studied with advanced
techniques for their activity on immune systems
in disease like HIV-AIDS, for Anti-cancer activity
and Anti-diabetic activity. In order to make
research findings in AYUSH systems and allied
faculties accessible through the web, the
Department of AYUSH has developed an
AYUSH research portal which can be accessed
by everyone.
The government had also decided to set up

a Pharmacopoeia Commission for Indian
Systems of Medicine, which now would also
include Sowa-Rigpa. The passage of the Bill will
enable setting minimum standards for education
and maintain a register of all practitioners of
Sowa-Rigpa. It was being done as recommended
by the National Medicinal Plant Board, which is
working on Indian herbs and plants used in
various traditional systems. A task force was set
up by the Health Ministry to reach out to
inaccessible areas and places, where tribals live
in, to identify their system of medicine and
practitioners.
Sowa Rigpa or commonly known as

Amchi is an ancient system of Tibetan
medicine.
Since ancient times this system has been

used to cure people in Sikkim, Jammu &
Kashmir, Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh and
other Himalayan belt of the population.
Sowa Rigpa is practiced in many

countries. But due to its origin in ancient
Tibet, it is also known as Tibetan medicine.
This ancient system of treatment

resembles Ayurveda but it also has some
principles of Traditional Chinese Medicine.
It is believed that Lord Buddha taught

the fundamental text book rgyud-bzhi of
Sowa-Rigpa.
During 12th plan period stress is likely to be

given on Integration of AYUSH systems in health
care delivery and their incorporation in National
Health Programmes through co-locating such
facilities at sub-centres and primary health care
centres.
Some of the new initiatives which are under
consideration during the 12th Plan include,
setting up of a National Commission for Human
Resource in; Referral hospitals in 8 National
Institutes to provide world class treatment
facilities; a National Institute of Medicinal Plants;
Research and Quality Control Laboratories in 8
[21]
Passive immunity is rapidly established but

lasts for a short while. Passive immunization has
therefore limited utility as compared to active
immunization and is used mainly as a short-term
preventive measure.
Immunization Programme
Reduced immunity of the body results in its
unusually high susceptibility to infection and
may lead to a number of disorders or diseases.
Immune deficiencies may arise due to some
genetic defects in the body. They may also be
acquired as a consequence of malnutrition,
metabolic abnormalities, and exposure to X-rays,
toxic effects of drugs or pathogenic organisms.
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National Institutes; a Central Drugs Controller

for AYUSH drugs to facilitate standardization
of ASU products; 5 Hi-Tech Quality Control
Labs under the Research Councils at regional
levels; setting up of a Homoeopathic Medicines
Pharmaceutical Corporation Limited to provide
facilities for manufacturing of Homoeopathic
medicines and to set up an All India Institute of
Homoeopathy to fulfil the emerging interest of
scientists for research in homoeopathy.
IMMUNITY AND IMMUNISATION

PROGRAMMES
The resistance of the body to the effects of

pathogenic organisms is called Immunity. It is
an important defence mechanism of the body to
fight against several diseases. Immunity may be
active or passive.
Active Immunity: It develops as a result of

the contact of an individual with pathogenic
organisms or their products. These stimulate the
body to produce antibodies (gamma globulin
proteins) in response to the antigens (foreign
substances). The immunity thus produced is
specific for a particular disease, for example, the
immunity established against chicken pox or
measles is not effective against cholera or
tuberculosis. Immunity may be acquired either
through the infection of a pathogen or
administration of a vaccine (a suspension of
attenuated or killed microorganisms). Active
immunity takes a few weeks to a few months to
develop but persists for long periods.
Passive Immunity: It is produced when

antibodies formed in one human being are
transferred to another. It may be acquired
through (i) Transmission of maternal antibodies to
the foetus through the placenta e.g.
chicken pox, measles, diphtheria, polio,
tetanus.
(ii) Injection of antiserum (blood plasma

containing anti-bodies) prepared against
a specific disease e.g. tetanus, diphtheria
or rabies.
(iii) Administration of immune globulins or

human gamma globulins.
The transfer of lymphocytes also gives
passive cellular immunity against viruses,
intercellular bacteria, fungi and some protozoa.
[22]
A virus has been identified to be responsible

for Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS). The AIDS virus is believed to have
originated in the African green monkey and then
spread to humans. It is known to get transmitted
from the infected persons to other not through
casual contact, but through either sexual contact
or blood transfusions or contaminated injection
needles. In the host, this virus attacks those White
Blood Corpuscles (WBC), which are responsible
for developing the immunity. As it multiplies
within the WBC at an exceedingly fast rate, it
devastates the immune system of the body. AIDS
virus can also cause serious damage to brain that
may lead to loss of memory and impaired ability
to speak and think. No suitable drug is known
at present for treatment of the disease and no
vaccine has so far been developed for use as
preventive measure.
Recognising the potential of immunization
as a low-cost efficient technology for child
survival and prevention of disabilities,
Government started the Expanded Programme
on Immunization (EPI) in 1978 with the objective
of reducing the morbidity, mortality and
disability due to diphtheria, whooping cough,
tetanus and tuberculosis by making free
vaccination services easily available to all eligible
children and expectant mothers.
Polio vaccine was included in the programme

during 1979-80 and tetanus oxide in 1980-81.
BCG was brought under EPI in 1981-82 and
measles vaccine was initiated in 1985-86. The
immunization programme is a long term one.
The immunization services are provided through
the existing health care delivery system.
Immunization Strengthening Project on

recommendation of the Committee. The
Department of Family Welfare established a
National Technical Advisory Group on
Immunization on 28th August, 2001 to assist GoI
in developing a nationwide policy framework
for vaccines and immunization.
For almost two decades, UIP did not add any
additional vaccine. However, since 2006,
vaccines namely Hepatitis B, second dose of
measles and Japanese Encephalitis (JE) vaccine
have been introduced. During the same period,
a number of other safe and efficacious vaccines
have become available for major killers like
pneumonia and diarrhoea, which are being used
in the immunization programmes of many
developing and developed countries.
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The Universal Immunisation Programme

(UIP) was launched in 1985 as part of the overall
national strategy to bring down infant and
maternal mortality in the country by providing
immunisation to all infants against six vaccinepreventable diseases (tuberculosis, diphtheria,
pertussis (whooping cough), tetanus,
poliomyelitis, and measles) and pregnant women
against tetanus. Prior to 1985, immunisation
activity was implemented under the Family
Welfare Programme, but the scheme was limited
primarily to major hospitals and the coverage
levels were also very low.
When this programme was launched in

1985, infant mortality for the country as a whole
was 97 for every 1000 live births. It was estimated
that vaccine preventable diseases were
responsible for about one-fourth of the total
infant deaths. Neo-natal tetanus itself was
responsible for 13 out of every 1000 infant deaths,
i.e., a total of 200,000 deaths every year. 150,000
children, in the absence of immunisation, are
likely to develop paralytic poliomyelitis every
year.
In 1986, the Universal Immunisation
Programme was named as one of the Technology
Missions and the following objectives were spelt
out:
(a) To cover all pregnant women against

tetanus and at least 85 per cent of all
infants against six vaccine preventable
diseases by March 1990.
(b) To increase production, upgrade testing

facilities and develop the means, support
and distribution of vaccines at the
required low temperatures to maintain
their potency.
(c) To achieve self-sufficiency in vaccine

production and manufacture of cold
chain equipment.
The programme was given the status of a

National Technology Mission in 1986 (GoI, 1988)
to provide a feeling of urgency and commitment
to achieve the goals within the specified period.
UIP became a part of the Child Survival and
State Motherhood (CSSM) Programme in 1992
and Reproductive and Child Health (RCH)
Programme in 1997. The Government of India
constituted a National Technical Committee on
Child Health on 11th June, 2000 and launched
According to United Nations Children's

Fund (UNICEF) vaccine preventable diseases
(VPDs) cause an estimated 2 million deaths or
more every year, of which approximately 1.5
million deaths occur among children below five
year age. These 1.5 million deaths represent
approximately 15 percent of under-five deaths.
Reducing child mortality by two thirds between
1990 and 2015 is the fourth of eight Millennium
Development Goals endorsed by world leaders
in the Millennium Declaration in 2000.
DESCRIPTION ABOUT DISEASES
1. Dengue
Dengue is a viral infection transmitted by the

bite of an infected female Aedes mosquito. There
are four distinct serotypes of the dengue virus
(DEN 1, DEN 2, DEN 3 and DEN 4). Symptoms
appear in 314 days (average 47 days) after the
infective bite. Dengue fever is a flu-like illness
that affects infants, young children and adults.
There is no specific treatment for dengue
fever. Severe dengue is a potentially lethal
complication but early clinical diagnosis and
careful clinical management by experienced
physicians and nurses often save lives.
More than 70 per cent of the disease burden
is in South-East Asia and the Western Pacific.
In Latin America and the Caribbean, the
incidence and severity of disease have increased
rapidly in recent years. The African and Eastern
Mediterranean regions have also recorded more
outbreaks of the disease in the last ten years.
[23]
Urbanization, rapid movement of people and

goods, favourable climatic conditions and lack
of trained staff have all contributed to the global
increase of dengue.
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The latest research has shown that the

dengue fever virus can mutate much more
rapidly than anyone though, which could
thwart the efforts of the scientists to create a
vaccine. Over the past few decades, the
mosquito-borne virus has spread dramatically
and now about 50 million people each year are
affected in tropical areas. About 40 per cent of
the world population is at risk. The phenomenon
of global warming will further allow the virus
to increase its range. The development of an
effective vaccine that protects against each of the
four main types of the dengue virus has proved
difficult, as a successful vaccine might not remain
effective for long. The scientists have found that
two mutated strains of dengue-I caused 25 per
cent of 15,000 cases in Myanmar in 2001. These
strains evolved locally within a year. Two
different dengue-2 strains had recombined in a
mosquito to create a third strain, which showed
the direct evidence that new strains can emerge
anytime. In 2002 researchers found that two new
strains of a dengue-3 virus in Thailand had
evolved in less than a year replacing the
dominant local strain and causing the biggest
dengue epidemic in Thailand.
This scheme has been initiated to fill up

geographical gaps in the availability of
cancer treatment facilities in the
country. According to the scheme,
financial assistance upto Rs. One crore
is provided to the concerned State
Government for procurement of
equipment which includes one Cobalt
Unit. The civil works and manpower
are to be provided by the concerned
State Government/Institution.
2. Cancer Control
In India, it is estimated that there are about

two million cancer patients at any given point
of time with 0.5 million new cases coming every
year. The following new schemes have been
initiated starting from the year 1990-91:
(i) Scheme for district projects for

preventive health education, early
detection and pain relief measures:
Under the scheme financial assistance
of Rs. 15 lakh is provided to the
concerned State Governments for each
district project selected under the
scheme. The projects are implemented
through the State Governments and
concerned Regional Cancer Centres/
Government Medical Colleges having
reasonably good facilities for treatment
of cancer.
(ii) Scheme for development of Oncology

wings of Medical Colleges/hospitals:
[24]
(iii) Scheme for financial assistance to

Voluntary Organisations: Under the
Scheme, financial assistance upto Rs. 5
lakh is provided to the registered
voluntary organisations recommended
by the State Government for the
purpose, for undertaking health
education and early detection activities
in cancer.
3. Malaria Eradication
Malaria is one of the major public health

problems of the country. Around 1.5 million
laboratory confirmed cases of malaria are
annually reported in India. The organised Public
Health Programme to control malaria was
launched in India in the year 1953, the
encouraging results of which prompted Govt. of
India to switch the strategy from control to
eradication in 1958. The National Malaria
Eradication Programme made spectacular
progress till 1965. But this success was short-lived.
In 1976, the number of confirmed malaria cases
reached 6.47 million which necessitated
renewed vigorous anti-malaria activities and the
programme was modified.
After all these programmes, numbers of

malaria cases have increased in the urban areas.
The causative agent for common malaria,
Plasmodium vivax, was eradicated satisfactorily
while the Plasmodium falciparum responsible
for spreading more lethal form of malaria, the
cerebral malaria, showed an upward trend
during 70s and thereafter. The multi-drug
resistant strain of the disease also threatens to
pose serious problems owing to inadequate
coverage of the programme and lack of
coordination between public and private health
care systems.
It is proposed to intensify the efforts for the
full containment of the disease to acceptable
levels. Accordingly, major focus is being given

to insecticidal spraying for vector control in areas
having more than 2/1000 cases reported and
early cases detection and treatment. In the
remaining areas, focal spraying and effective
case surveillance is being taken up. These efforts
are being appropriately developed with training
of workers and enthusing community
participation, alongside decentralisation of drug
distribution and fever treatment etc.
Effective treatment of malaria under the

National Drug Policy aims at:
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Around 50 per cent of the total malaria cases

reported is due to P.falciparum. One of the
reasons attributed to rise in proportion of P.
falciparum cases is resistance to chloroquine,
which was used for a long time as the first line
of treatment of malaria cases. P. falciparum
infections are known to lead to severe malaria,
if timely treatment with effective drugs is not
administered.
remote areas where microscopy is not available

within 24 hrs. of starting of fever. In high
P.falciparum predominant areas where it is not
possible to get microscopy results within 24
hours, ASHAs/other community health
volunteers/MPWs should be provided with
rapid diagnostic kits and anti-malarials
(including ACT) for early diagnosis and
treatment of P.falciparum cases.
With a view to bring down the incidence of

malaria in the country, it is now under
consideration to revise the approaches adopted
earlier. The new strategy consists of an attempt
to : (i) categorise the infected areas into high,
moderate and low for a more focused, needbased, cost-effective and rational implementation
of anti-malarial measures (this approach of
malariogenic stratification is being attempted in
the States of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh); (ii) focused attention to the tribal areas
of all 14 States (while tribals constitute 8 per cent
of the P. falciparum cases in the country); and
(iii) control urban malaria which is indicating a
very high trend in the levels of incidence.
Providing complete cure (clinical and

parasitological) of malaria cases.
Prevention
of
progression
of
uncomplicated malaria into severe malaria
and thereby reduce malaria mortality.
Prevention of relapses by administration

of radical treatment.
Interruption of transmission of malaria by

use of gametocytocidal drugs.
Preventing development of drug

resistance by rational treatment of malaria
cases.
Urban Malaria Scheme
National Drug Policy on Malaria (2010)
The Urban Malaria Scheme (UMS) came into

effect in 1971. The main objective of the Scheme
is to control malaria by reducing the vector
population in the urban areas through recurrent
anti-larval measures. At present, Urban Malaria
Scheme is protecting 130.3 million population
from malaria as well as from other mosquito
borne diseases in 131 towns in 19 States and
Union Territory.
The National Drug Policy on Malaria was

first formulated in 1982 and has subsequently
been reviewed and revised periodically. The
present National Drug Policy for Malaria (2010)
has been drafted keeping in view the availability
of more effective antimalarial drugs and drug
resistance status in the country.
Madhok Committee in 1970, investigated the

problem and assessed that 10 to 12% of total
cases were contributed by urban areas. The
committee recommended anti larval measures
for containment of urban malaria, because it was
feared that proliferation from urban to rural may
spread and nullify the gains already made.
Early diagnosis and complete treatment is one

of the key strategies of the National Malaria
Control Programme. All fever cases clinically
suspected of malaria should be investigated for
confirmation of malaria by either microscopy or
Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT). As and when the
bivalent RDT is introduced, it will be used for
diagnosis of malaria cases at the field level in
4. Kala-Azar Control
Kala-azar has become a serious public health

problem in Bihar and West Bengal. After its
resurgence in Bihar in early 70s, the disease
spread from 4 districts to adjoining areas and
30 districts in Bihar and 9 districts in West
Bengal were affected by Kala-azar. As evident,
[25]
the problem has assumed serious dimensions in

Bihar, where there has been a steep rise in
reported incidence which itself is not an actual
magnitude of the problem because some cases
go to private practitioners and remain
unreported.
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In view of the rising problem, organised

control measures were initiated to control Kalaazar. Until 1990-91, the assistance for Kala-azar
control was being provided by Government of
India out of NMEP budget provision.
India. Whenever the disease becomes chronic, it

is irreversible. The disease has been prevalent
throughout India except Jammu & Kashmir,
Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram,
Meghalaya, Tripura, Manipur, Rajasthan,
Arunachal Pradesh, Delhi, Chandigarh,
Haryana, Sikkim & Nagaland. Present estimate
indicates that about 389 million people are living
in 175 known endemic districts of which about
103 million are living in urban areas and the rest
in rural areas.
The strategy for Kala-azar control broadly

includes 3 major activities:
(i) Interruption of transmission for

reducing vector population by
undertaking indoor residual insecticidal
spray twice annually,
(ii) Early diagnosis and complete treatment

of Kala-azar cases, and
(iii) Health education for community

awareness in its involvement.
Kala-azar Elimination Initiative
National Health Policy Goal: Kala-azar

Elimination by the year 2010 (which could
not be attained).
Elimination Programme is 100 per cent

Centrally Supported (except regular staff
of State governments & infrastructure).
In addition to kala-azar medicines and

insecticides, cash assistance is being
provided to endemic states since
December 2003 to facilitate effective
strategy implementation by states.
5. Filaria Control
What is Filaria?
Filariasis is caused by several round, coiled

and thread-like parasitic worms belonging to the
family filaridea. These parasites after getting
deposited on skin penetrate on their own or
through the opening created by mosquito bites
to reach the lymphatic system. The disease is
caused by the nematode worm, either
Wuchereria bancrofti or Brugia malayi and
transmitted by ubiquitous mosquito species
Culex quinquefasciatus and Mansonia
annulifera/M.uniformis respectively.
Filariasis is a major public health problem in
[26]
For the control of Filariasis, the National

Filaria Control Programme was launched in
1955. Under the Programme, the following
activities have been undertaken:
(i) Delimitation of the problem in hitherto

unsurveyed areas;
(ii) Control in urban areas through:
(a) Recurrent anti-larval measures.

(b) Antiparasitic measures.
The National Filaria Control Programme

carries out anti-larval anti-mosquito measures,
establishes filaria clinics and makes provision for
underground drainage. Training in Filariology
is imparted at three regional Filaria Training and
Research Centres, situated at Calicut,
Rajamundary and Varanasi under the National
Institute of Communicable Diseases of Delhi.
6. Leprosy Eradication
Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused

by Mycobacterium leprae. It usually affects the
skin and peripheral nerves, but has a wide range
of clinical manifestations. The disease is
characterized by long incubation period
generally 5-7 years and is classified as
paucibacillary or mulitbacillary, depending on
the bacillary load. Leprosy is a leading cause of
permanent physical disability. Timely diagnosis
and treatment of cases, before nerve damage has
occurred, is the most effective way of preventing
disability due to leprosy.
The Government of India launched the
National Leprosy Eradication Programme in
1983 with the objective of arresting the
transmission of the disease by 2000 A.D. It is a
100 per cent Centrally-sponsored programme.
The strategy adopted under the programme

involves : (a) provision of domiciliary multi-drug
treatment coverage in 135 districts having
problems of 5 or more cases per 1000 population,
by specially trained staff in leprosy; (b)

introduction of modified MDT scheme in the
remaining 66 endemic districts through existing
health care staff; (c) introduction of MDT services
through existing general health care services in
the low endemic districts ; (d) Multi-drug
therapy to Dispose refractory cases in other
districts. Treatment with combination of drugs
includes treatment with 3 drugs, viz. Rifampicin,
Clofazimine and Dapsone. Education of the
patients and the community about the curability
of the disease and their socio-economic
rehabilitation are other two key components of
the control strategy.
Milestones in NLEP
The national Institute of Immunology (NII),

New Delhi has developed an antileprosy drug.
It was introduced on January 30, 1998, the 50th
death anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi.
7. Tuberculosis
1955 - National Leprosy

Programme (NLCP) launched.
Control
1983 - National Leprosy Eradication

Programme launched.
1983 - Introduction of Multidrug therapy

(MDT) in Phases.
2005 - Elimination of Leprosy at National

Level.
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The central government appointed a

working group headed by the eminent scientist
Dr M.S. Swaminathan to develop an action plan
for eradicating leprosy. The working group's
recommendations include:
Control programme should be renamed

as eradication programme with time
bound and specific goal of arresting the
disease activity in all leprosy cases by the
turn of the century;
Existing
dapsone
monotherapy
supplemented with one or more
bactericidal drugs (multi-drug treatment)
for treatment of the disease to achieve cure
of diseases;
Efforts should be made to obtain selfsufficiency in the requirements of antileprosy drugs;
Activities of voluntary organisations in

leprosy control should be recognised,
supported and dovetailed into the national
programmes;
Leprosy Act of 1898, which discriminated

against leprosy patients should be
repealed;
Setting up of National Leprosy

Eradication Commission (NLEC) under
the Chairmanship of Union Minister of
Health and Family Welfare for
programme policy guidance and National
Leprosy Board (NLEB) under the
chairmanship of Union Health Secretary
for monitoring the activities of the
programme.
2012 - Special action plan for 209 high

endemic districts in 16 States/UTs.
In India today, two deaths occur every three

minutes from tuberculosis (TB). But these deaths
can be prevented. With proper care and
treatment, TB patients can be cured and the
battle against TB can be won. Tuberculosis has
taken the form of an epidemic in India and
remains the leading infectious cause of death in
the country, killing close to 500,000 people each
year. The country also has about 2 million new
cases of TB each year, far more than any other
country, and accounts for nearly one-third of the
global burden of TB.
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease
caused by a bacterium, Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. It is spread through the air by a
person suffering from TB. A single patient can
infect 10 or more people in a year.
India has a long and distinguished tradition
of research in TB. Studies from the Tuberculosis
Research Centre in Chennai and the National
Tuberculosis Institute in Bangalore provided key
knowledge to improve treatment of TB patients
all around the world.
What is more frightening, the incidence of
multi-drug resistant TB has been rising rapidly,
underscoring an urgent need to take remedial
measures. There are two reasons why TB has
assumed alarming proportion. First it has been
seen that treatment in most cases has been
irregular and inadequate due to variety of
reasons, poverty being the single most important
one. People do not pursue the long-drawn
treatment schedule and relapses are quite
common.
[27]
Second, there are lots of quacks in this field

and the government's direction is completely
lacking. Also, since Tuberculosis is a micro
bacterial droplet infection, it is quite common
among the lower strata of the society where
proper hygiene levels are not maintained. It is
also quite prevalent at places which are
overcrowded and over populated like
J.J. Clusters.
and to sustain the achievements for decades to

come in order to achieve ultimate objective of
TB control in the country.
All components of new Stop TB Strategy
are incorporated in the second phase of RNTCP.
These are:
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Directly Observed Treatment, Short-course

(DOTS)
Pursue quality DOTS expansion and

enhancement, by improving the case
finding are cure through an effective
patient-centred approach to reach all
patients, especially the poor.
The DOTS strategy along with the other

components of the Stop TB strategy,
implemented under the Revised National
Tuberculosis Control Programme (RNTCP) in
India, is a comprehensive package for TB control.
The DOTS strategy is cost-effective and is today
the international standard for TB control
programmes. To date, more than 180 countries
are implementing the DOTS strategy. India has
adapted and tested the DOTS strategy in various
parts of the country since 1993, with excellent
results, and by March 2006 nationwide DOTS
coverage has been achieved.
Multi-drug-Resistant Tuberculosis (MDRTB)

MDRTB refers to strains of the bacterium
which are proven in a laboratory to be resistant
to the two most active anti-TB drugs, isoniazid
and rifampicin. Treatment of MDRTB is
extremely expensive, toxic, arduous, and often
unsuccessful. DOTS has been proven to prevent
the emergence of MDRTB, and also to reverse
the incidence of MDRTB where it has emerged.
MDRTB is a tragedy for individual patients and
a symptom of poor TB management. The best
way to confront this challenge is to improve TB
treatment and implement DOTS.
Address TB-HIV, MDR-TB and other

challenges, by scaling up TB-HIV joint
activities, DOTS Plus, and other relevant
approaches.
Contribute
to
health
system
strengthening, by collaborating with other
health programmes and general services.
Involve all health care providers, public,

non-governmental and private, by scaling
up approaches based on a public-private
mix (PPM), to ensure adherence to the
International Standards of TB care.
Engage people with TB, and affected

communities to demand, and contribute
to effective care. This will involve scalingup of community TB care; creating
demand
thorugh
context-specific
advocacy, communication and social
mobilization.
Enable and promote research for the

development of new drugs, diagnostic and
vaccines. Operational Research will also
be needed to improve programme
performance.
Second Phase of RNTCP
8. Blindness
In the first phase of RNTCP (1998-2005), the

programme's focus was on ensuring expansion
of quality DOTS services to the entire country.
There are many challenges remaining that are
to be addressed in order to achieve the TB-related
targets set by the Millennium Development Goals
for 2015 and to achieve TB control in the longer
term.
India has the largest blind and potentially

blind population in the world. Cataract, which
is curable, is the major cause (nearly 80 per cent),
followed by trachoma, smallpox, malnutrition,
vitamin A deficiency, injuries and glaucoma. 85
per cent of blindness is either preventable or
curable.
The RNTCP has now entered its second

phase in which the programme aims to firstly
consolidate the gains made to date, to widen
services both in terms of activities and access,
National Programme for Control of Blindness

(NPCB) was launched in 1975-76 which
incorporated the earlier Trachoma Control
Programme started in 1963. This was 100 per
[28]
cent Centrally sponsored scheme with the goal

to reduce the prevalence of blindness from 1.4
per cent to 0.3 per cent. As per Survey in 200102, prevalence of blindness was estimated to be
1.1 per cent. Target for the 10th Plan was to
reduce prevalence of blindness to 0.8 per cent
by 2007 prevalence of Blindness was 1 per cent
(2006-07 Survey).
Endemic goitre has been recognised as an

age-old health problem in the Himalayan belt
with recent extensive studies. It is now
established that about 17 crore people in the
country are exposed to Iodine-deficiency
disorders. Out of which, it is estimated that
about 4.5 crore people are suffering from some
of the manifestation of these disorders. National
Goitre Control Programme (1962) is being
implemented on a priority basis. The
Government of India has decided to iodise the
entire edible salt in the country in a phased
manner with a view of ensuring proper
monitoring and effective implementation of the
National Goitre Control Programme. State/
Union Territories have been advised to establish
a goitre cell.
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The approach under the UPCB consists of

intensive health education for eye care through
the mass media and extension education
methods; extension of ophthalmic services in the
rural areas through mobile units and eye camps
and establishment of permanent infrastructure
for eye health care as an integral part of general
health services. Since 1981-82, cataract
operations have been accorded high priority in
the programme and targets for different States/
UTs have been set.
growth and development. Deficiency of iodine

may cause following disorders: Goitre,
Subnormal intelligence, Neuromuscular
weakness, Endemic cretinism, Still birth,
Hypothyroidism, Defect in vision, hearing, and
speech, Spasticity, Intrauterine death, Mental
retardation.
The concept of District Blindness Control

Societies (DBCS) has been successfully
implemented under the programme. The
programme is receiving assistance from Danish
International Development Agency (DANIDA).
A project has been approved under the World
Bank to boost up the activities of the programme
in seven major States- Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa,
Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.
The objectives of the NPCB are:
To reduce the backlog of blindness

through identification and treatment of
blind.
To develop Eye Care facilities in every

district.
To develop human resources for providing

Eye Care Services.
To improve quality of service delivery.
To secure participation of Voluntary

Organizations in eye care.
9. Goitre Control
Iodine is required for the synthesis of the

thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3) and essential for the normal
growth and development and well being of all
humans. It is a micronutrient and normally
require around 100-150 microgram for normal
In recent years, it has become increasingly

clear that iodine deficiency leads not only to
goitre, but also to other Iodine Deficiency
Disorders (IDD) like still births, cretinism, neonatal hypothyroidism, juvenile hypothyroidism,
impaired hearing and brain development and
function. Recognising the widespread IDD in
India, the Government has redesignated NGCP
as National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control
Programme (NIDDCP). Iodine deficiency has
been identified all over the world. It is a
significant health problem in 130 countries and
affects 740 million people. One third of the world
population is exposed to the risk of IDD.
It is estimated that in India alone, more than
6.1 crore people are suffering from endemic goitre
and 88 lakh people have mental/ motor
handicaps. A national level survey has been
carried out in 25 states and 5 union territories in
the country and found that out of 282 districts
surveyed, in 241 districts it is a major public
health problem where the prevalence rate is more
than 10%. It is estimated that more than 71
million persons are suffering from goitre and
other iodine deficiency disorders like mental
retardation, deaf mutism, squint, and
neuromotor defects.
[29]
Programme
Following the successful trial of iodised salt
in Kangara valley, Himachal Pradesh in 1962,
India has launched a 100 per cent centrally
sponsored National Goitre Control Programme.
In 1992, the National Goitre Control Programme
(NGCP) was renamed as National Iodine
Deficiency Disorder Control Programme
(NIDDCP).
Symptoms: In the first few days of infection,

the patient develops influenza-like symptoms
with fever and mild pain in chest. As it gains a
firm foothold in the host body, there occurs a
massive release of bacterial toxins which causes
the lymph nodes to break down and bleed, thus
spreading the infection in the chest. Infected
fluids slowly build up in the lungs causing
difficult breathing and high fever. Death occurs
due to toxin- induced shock. Control measures
for breaking the cycle of anthrax infection
include:
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Objectives
through ingestion of contaminated meat of

infected animals or drinking water containing
anthrax spores and lastly, pulmonary or
inhalation anthrax caused by breathing in of air
borne spores.
Initial survey to identify magnitude of

problem in the country;
Production and supply of iodized salt to

the endemic regions;
Health Education & Publicity;
To undertake monitoring of the quality of

iodized salt assessing urinary iodine
excretion pattern and monitoring of
Iodine Deficiency disorder; and
Re-survey in goitre endemic regions after

five years continuous supply of iodized
salt to assess the impact of the control
programme. The result of re-survey in
some areas has revealed that the
prevalence of goitre has not been
controlled as desired.
10. Anthrax
Anthrax is primarily an infectious bacterial

disease of animals, particularly herbivores such
as cattle, sheep, horses, mules and goats where
this disease was known to cause uncontrolled
mortality at one time. These animals usually get
infected by ingestion of the anthrax spores while
grazing on contaminated soil and drinking water
contaminated with anthrax spores. Human
beings invariably contract anthrax by direct or
indirect contact with diseased animals; handling
infected animal products like flesh, bones, hides
and hair, eating infected meat and of course, by
breathing weaponized anthrax spores.
The severity of anthrax infection in human
beings depends upon many factors such as the
route of infection, nutritional status of the host
and also the virulence of the infected strain.
Three types of anthrax occurs in human beingscutaneous anthrax acquired through a skin
lesion, gastrointestinal anthrax contracted
[30]
Quick disposal of anthrax carcasses.

Disinfection, decontamination and
disposal of all contaminated materials.
Vaccination of exposed susceptible
animals and humans involved in at risk
occupations.
Anthrax bacterium genome sequenced:

TIGR (The Institute for Genomic Research)
deciphered the genome of an isolate of the socalled Ames strain of Bacillus anthracis.
Scientists say they have found potential new
targets for drugs and vaccines against the
anthrax germ by deciphering and analyzing the
bacteriums complete genetic makeup.
Researchers identified several genes that might
play key roles in anthrax infections. Such genes
might prove to be good leads for developing new
treatments. The effort is crucial for anthrax,
which can be lethal, as it is a potential weapon
of future terrorism.
11. Hepatitis-C
Although the world is full of nasty viruses,

the Hepatitis-C virus is particularly trickier.
Medical science recognised decades ago that not
all cases of hepatitis were caused by the two
viruses (A and B) that have already been
identified. But Hepatitis-C virus (HCV), which
is spread mainly by contaminated blood from
shared syringes, was not isolated and identified
until 1989.
HCV is believed to have infected some 170

million people and another 3 million join their
ranks every year. In most cases it settles down
to form a chronic infection of the liver which,
over the course of several decades, can lead to

severe forms of liver damage such as cirrhosis
and fibrosis, as well as cancer.
SEXUALLY-TRANSMITTED
DISEASE CONTROL
Sexually-transmitted diseases (S.T.D.) like
syphilis and gonorrhoea are fairly widespread
in India. For the management and control of
STD, the Government initiated a centrally -aided
National Control Programme on STD during the
Second Five year plan.
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According to the World Health Organisation,

Hepatitis-C kills around 500,000 people a year.
It is less deadly than AIDS, which claims more
than 3 million lives annually. However its higher
prevalence (at the moment, some 42 m people
are infected with HIV), longer incubation period
and the absence of effective drugs, mean that it
is potentially a more lethal epidemic. Considering
the severity of this nasty virus immediate steps
are needed to tackle it. German scientists have
shown that a molecule code named BILN 2061
can block the activity, both in the test tube and
in experimental animals, of an HCV protein
called NS 3 protease, without which the virus
cannot go about its business. More significantly,
the drug also seems to work in people. Although
this is a significant success, we have to go a long
way to achieve the final therapy.
and human chemical trials of the vaccine are

expected to begin soon. This vaccine will provide
long term immunity to West Nile virus.
12. West Nile
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne

zoonotic arbovirus belonging to the genus
Flavivirus. This flavivirus is found in temperate
and tropical regions of the world. It was first
identified in the West Nile subregion in the East
African nation of Uganda in 1937. Prior to the
mid-1990s, WNV disease occurred only
sporadically and was considered a minor risk
for humans, until an outbreak in Algeria in 1994,
with cases of WNV-caused encephalitis, and the
first large outbreak in Romania in 1996, with a
high number of cases with neuroinvasive disease.
WNV has now spread globally.
West Nile is one of the emerging infectious
diseases. West Nile virus is spread to people by
mosquitoes, usually producing mild, flu-like
symptoms but can cause a deadly encephalitis
or inflammation of the brain. The virus was first
detected in the United States. Since then, it has
spread rapidly from the northeastern United
States throughout North America; this year it
has again made havoc, claiming 10 lives and
making over 500 sick.
The US researchers have created a promising
vaccine against West Nile virus by replacing part
of a distantly related virus with proteins from
the West Nile virus, creating a hybrid virus
vaccine. It protects monkeys from West Nile virus
S.T.D. was introduced as a National Control

Programme during the Second Five year Plan
by the Government of India. The Programme
was then primarily a Centrally- aided scheme
concerned mainly with: (i) establishing S.T.D.
clinics throughout the country; (ii) supply of
drugs to the earlier existing and newly
established clinics; and (iii) conducting training
courses for the in-service medical and paramedical personnel.
The scheme was, however, converted into a
Centrally- sponsored scheme during the Fourth
Five year Plan and the Central government
assistance was limited to (i) giving grants-in-aid
to States for establishing new STD clinics, and
(ii) supplying drugs (Benzathine, Penicillin) to
the STD clinics for the in-service medical and
paramedical personnel.
Recognising STD as one of the major factors
for transmission of HIV infection, the programme
has been merged with the AIDS Control
Programme. The existing components of the
programme, viz. teaching, training, and research
however, has been retained outside the World
Bank assisted activities of the National AIDS
Control Programme.
AIDS Programme
HIV infection in the country has been

reported from as many as 23 States/UTs, and of
these Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Delhi and
Manipur have the highest incidence. In
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, the pattern of
HIV infection is that of sub-Saharan type, i.e.,
through sexual transmission. In the North
Eastern States, the pattern of HIV infection
follows a course similar to that of Southern
Europe and Thailand, i.e., through drug abuse.
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has
[31]
set up a National AIDS Control Organisation as

a separate wing within the Ministry to
implement and closely monitor the various
components of the programme as documented
in the Staff Appraisal Report of I.D.A. (World
Bank). The ultimate objective of the project
would be to arrest the pace of HIV infection in
the country with a view to reducing the future
morbidity, mortality and impact of AIDS.
AIDS can take around 7-10 years to develop

after infection with HIV. The AIDS virus causes
a weakness of the immune system. It attacks the
cells responsible for maintaining our immuno
response called lymphocyte. When it infects the
body, it prefers to cells of our defence system.
These cells are called helper T cells which are a
fundamental part of our immune system. The
AIDS virus almost fully specialises on these white
blood cells since these helper T cells have CD 4
molecules on the surface to which the AIDS
virus binds.
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The Project would consist of the following

components:
first identified by chemical medicine in the

United States and it was only in 1981 that the
world was alerted to what has become a global
scourge rivaling the medieval plague.
(i) Strengthening Programme Management Capabilities: National AIDS

Control Organisation would primarily
be involved in planning, consulting,
implementing and monitoring the
various activities under the project
through the AIDS Control Cell at the
State/UT level.
(ii) Strengthening of IEC : The project

would seek to carry out an intensive
public awareness and community
support campaign through mass media
and sustained dissemination of
information and health education about
HIV and AIDS to all levels and
categories of personnel.
(iii) Prevention of Transmission through

Blood and Blood Products: The project
seeks to upgrade the blood banking
capabilities in the public sector and
expansion of HIV screening of all blood
used for transfusion and blood-products
in the country.
(iv) Strengthening Clinical Management

capabilities: The project seeks to
strengthen the institutional capabilities
at the State/UT level for monitoring the
development of HIV and AIDS epidemic
and planning and programming
interventions to control such epidemics.
(v) Controlling S.T.D.:
One of the
predominant mode of transmission of
HIV infection is through sexual contact.
The project seeks to take up activities to
strengthen the clinical services and case
management activities in STD centres.
The Disease: It is the late stage of infection

with the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus
(HIV). The Virus is of course much older and it
is believed that it originated in Africa. This was
[32]
To put it simply, the AIDS virus consists of

genetic information on the inside and a
protective outer shell of proteins and
glycoproteins. Since viruses use the host cell's
resources for reproduction, they do not need to
contribute much of itself. That is why they are
much smaller than the host cells, e.g. helper T
cells. In the host cell's nucleus, there is more than
100,000 times as much genetic information
stored than under the protein shell of the AIDS
virus. However, there is no way to stop the virus
once the cell has been infected.
AIDS now kills about three lakh Indian adults
each year. This is roughly 15 times the number
of people killed in the Gujarat earthquake. It was
first noticed in 1986 when six sex workers of
Chennai were found infected with HIV. Since
then some 20 lakh to 25 lakh Indians have died
of AIDS.
The 2006 estimates suggest national adult
HIV prevalence in India is approximately 0.36
per cent, amounting to between 2 and 3.1 million
people. If an average figure is taken, this comes
to 2.5 million people living with HIV and AIDS;
almost 50 percent of the previous estimate of 5.2
million.
More men are HIV positive than women.

Nationally, the prevalence rate for adult females
is 0.29 per cent, while for males it is 0.43 per
cent. This means that for every 100 people living
with HIV and AIDS (PLHAs), 61 are men and
39 women. Prevalence is also high in the 15-49
age group (88.7 percent of all infections),
indicating that AIDS still threatens the cream of

society, those in the prime of their working life.
We then need to insist that our health

care system is improved, right-away. The
Government simply has to find the money
and commitment to ensure that every
Indian has access to decent health
services, including prevention and care for
sexually transmitted diseases and T.B.
HIV/AIDS cannot be fought where health
services barely exits.
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AIDS is the record largest killer of Indian

adults; second only to T.B. Heterosexual contact
is the most prevalent mode of transmission here
in which infected males have the largest
contribution (90 per cent). Infection through
blood and blood products account for 7 per cent
only of the total AIDS cases, 89 per cent are in
the age group of 15-44 years. About 70 per cent
infections are reported to be among men and 85
per cent transmission are through multipartner
sex- both among high risk group and general
population.
is to end our foolish denial that our society

is somehow impervious to AIDS, which it
cannot go the way of Africa.
If the rapid rate continues, AIDS- caused

deaths will outstrip TB very soon. At a minimum,
between 40 lakh to 50 lakh Indians are currently
infected, not including the 20 lakhs to 25 lakhs
who have already died. Another five lakh Indian
adults are getting infected every year- one new
adult every minute!
Three states- Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh
and Karnataka- are in the midst of full-blown
epidemic, with well over two per cent of all
adults infected. Another three states follow just
behind- Tamil Nadu, Manipur and Nagaland.
In about eight to ten urban areas of these six
states, three to five per cent of adults are infected.
These include such major cities as Pune,
Kolhapur and Hyderabad. These are among the
most severely affected areas outside Africa, on
par with Thailand, which has been battling a
severe epidemic for a decade. And every year,
the number of states with worsening epidemics
swells- Kerala just crossed the one per cent
infection level against adults, and even remote
Orissa is nearly there.
It is not just the poor who are contracting
HIV. For proof, look at the members of the
Positive People's Group that are mushrooming
in every major urban area, from Delhi to
Bangalore to Vajayawada- they are middle and
upper income, not blue- collar, not poor.
How to check the pandemic
India will not be able to avert an epidemic

unless our politicians, bureaucrats and
journalists immediately end their knee-jerk
response to AIDS. An essential first step
National AIDS Control Organisation

(NACO) be run in a committed,
transparent and participatory fashion,
serving the needs of all Indians, not as
the high-handed, secretive, stonewalling
bureaucracy.
Our efforts should be dedicated to

ensuring that no more Indians get infected,
and that no more die because they cannot
afford treatment with antiretroviral and
other medicines. All Indians should
mandatorily be given comprehensive sex
education that will dispel the confusion
about HIV/AIDS and enable them to
protect themselves. In addition, young
people everywhere must have regular face
to face counselling on safe sex.
Laws and policies should also be changed

to empower and protect people already
infected or those especially from vulnerable
groups.
Discrimination in the private sector

against infected people must be made
illegal.
MENTAL HEALTH
The government of India decided to launch

the National Mental Health Programme (NMHP)
during the 7th Five year Plan period in 1982 to
ensure availability and accessibility of minimum
mental health care for all in the foreseeable
future, particularly to the most vulnerable and
under-privileged sections of the population, to
encourage application of mental health
knowledge in general health care and social
development, and to promote community
[33]
participation in the mental health service

development and stimulate efforts towards self
help in the community.
Aims of NMHP
Prevention and treatment of mental and
neurological disorders and their
associated disabilities.
2.
Use of mental health technology to

improve general health services.
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1.
that is a major obstacle to its treatment.

According to WHO, an estimated 39 million
people in the world suffer from epilepsy, but
some 39 million of them- almost three out of
every four get little help for the condition. In
developing countries, 60-90 per cent of people
with epilepsy are excluded from treatment.
There is thus a huge treatment gap where
epilepsy is concerned. To combat epilepsy,
education of health workers, patients, and the
wider community is essential.
3. Application of mental health principles

in total national development to
improve quality of life.
Objectives of NMHP
1.
To ensure availability and accessibility

of minimum mental health care for all
in the foreseeable future, particularly to
the most vulnerable and underprivileged
sections of population.
2. To encourage application of mental
health knowledge in general health care
and in social development.
3. To promote community participation in
the mental health services development
and to stimulate efforts towards selfhelp in the community.
Alzheimer's disease
Alzheimers disease is a progressive,

degenerative disease that attacks the brain and
results in impaired memory, thinking and
behaviour. It is the most common form of
primary dementia. It afflicts 1 in 10 people over
age 65 and nearly half of all people aged 85 and
over. It has been estimated that more than
1,00,000 die of Alzheimers disease annually,
which makes it the fourth leading cause of death
in adults, after heart disease, cancer and stroke.
Common Symptoms: Memory loss,

Difficulty performing familiar tasks, problems
with language, Disorientation to time and place,
Poor or decreased judgment, Problems with
abstract thinking, Misplacing things, changes in
mood or behaviour, changes in personality, loss
of initiative, etc.
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is the most common of many severe

neurological disorders. But in contrast to other
chronic diseases such as diabetes and heart
disease, epilepsy carries a heavy burden of stigma
[34]
Cantab-paired Associate Learning (Cantabpal) test: This test was invented by Dr. Barbara
Sahakian and Professor Trevor Robbins which
detects Alzheimers disease with 98 per cent
accuracy. It distinguishes Alzheimers sufferers
from patients with depression and people
without any neuropsychiatric disorder.
Cantab-pal works by flashing patterns and
images on the computer screen. Patients have to
identify where the image first appeared.
According to Dr. Sahakian, Cantab will be,

useful not only for early detection of Alzheimer's
disease but could also be used to measure the
beneficial effects of current pharmacy ecological
treatments such as cholinesterase inhibitors, as
well as future drugs, including neuroprotective
agents.
The test's sensitivity to Alzheimer's disease
is related to the fact that the areas in the brain
first affected are those utilized when performing
the test.
SARS AND BIRD FLU
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)

was recognized at the end of February 2003.
Emerging and re-emerging epidemic diseases
pose an on-going threat to global health security.
According to Klaus Stohr, a virologist for the
WHO, there is nearly conclusive evidence to
implicate a type called a coronavirus for SARS.
Coronavirus belongs to a family of viruses that
can cause among other things, the common cold
in humans.
The WHO Specialist's conclusion is based on

the fact that out of 55 SARS patients tested, 45
either had the virus in their faeces, or had
antibodies to it in their body fluids. The virus
has, moreover, been isolated from patients during
all stages of the disease.
It is still not clear where the virus first came

from but genetic work suggests it is related to
mouse hepatitis C, transmissible gastroenteritis
in Pigs, and the human coronavirus. Such links
add force to the theory that the disease originated
in livestock in rural China, where humans and
animals live in close contact, and then jumped
to humans.
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Initially, the epidemiologists believed that the

virus spread by the transmission of droplets, that
is, through coughing and sneezing. But some
cases caused particular alarm because they do
not appear to follow a droplet pattern of
infection, so new routes of transmission, via air
and water, are being examined.
contaminated nasal respiratory and faecal

material from infected birds. Bird flue symptoms
in humans are fever, cough, sore throat and
muscle aches. Other symptoms include eye
infection, pneumonia, acute respiratory distress,
viral pneumonia and kidney failure. The latest
AF outbreak was particularly alarming from the
perspective of human health because the
causative agent for most of these outbreaks was
a highly pathogenic strain, (H5N1) which is
deadly to poultry, particularly chickens. Birds
that survive infection shed the virus for at least
10 days, orally and through faeces, thus
facilitating its spread. H5N1 also has the unique
capacity to jump the species barrier. The virus,
which was first isolated from terns in South
Africa in 1961, mutates rapidly and has the
propensity to acquire genes from influenza
viruses, affecting other animal species.
Without knowing the precise transmission

routes, it is difficult to contain a disease. As a
precautionary step, WHO recommended that all
but essential travel to Hong Kong and
Guangdong should be postponed. Fortunately,
after WHO's alert, health authorities were
primed to isolate these cases, and they were able
to prevent any subsequent spread. The alert,
though, came just too late to prevent an
outbreak in Canada.
At the moment only time and labourintensive laboratory testing can determine if
someone is infected with the disease.
American Scientists at the Center for Disease

Control and Prevention (CDC), after identifying
the new coronavirus, proposed that the virus
should be named after a doctor, Carlo Urbani,
who first identified the disease and then became
a victim. Dr Urbani succumbed to the disease
later.
After SARS the world has once been rocked
by another pandemic avian havoc. Major
affected areas were South-East Asia. Mass culling
of birds was also undertaken in South Korea,
Vietnam, Japan, Taiwan, China and Pakistan.
The disease is caused by the H5N1 avian
influenza virus. The World Health Organization
(WHO) confirmed that the fatal infection had
caused some deaths.
Bird flu or AF is a form of influenza that

strikes all birds. The domestic poultry are
particularly more prone to it. This is an acute
infectious disease of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract caused by a strain of influenza
virus A. The Type A influenza virus spreads to
human beings and other animals through
FOOD ADULTERATION
The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act,

1954, has been in force since June, 1985, with
the objective of ensuring that food articles sold
to consumers are pure and wholesome. It also
aims at preventing fraud or deception and
encouraging fair trade practices. A minimum
imprisonment of six months with a minimum
fine of Rs. 1,000 is envisaged under the Act for
cases of proven adulteration whereas for the
cases of adulteration which may render the food
injurious to cause death or such harm which
may amount to grievous hurt, the punishment
may go up to life imprisonment and a fine which
shall not be less then Rs. 5,000.
The administration of the Act and the
provisions thereunder is the primary
responsibility of state government and union
territory administration. The Central
government lays down broad policies in this
regard, carries out the necessary amendments
to the Act and rules and advises state
governments and union territory administrations
in the effective implementation of the
programme. For advising the Centre or the states
with regard to implementation of the Act, there
is a statutory body, namely, Central Committee
for Food Standards. The Committee is assisted
by various technical sub-committees. The Act is,
by and large, implemented by local bodies.
There are four central food laboratories viz.
Central Food Laboratory at Central Food
Technological Research Institute (CFTRI),
[35]
Mysore; Central Food Laboratory at Food

Research and Standardisation Laboratory,
Ghaziabad; Central Food Laboratory at State
Public Health Laboratory Pune and Central Food
Laboratory, Kolkata. Samples are sent to these
appellate laboratories by courts. Statements of
facts contained in the report given by the
laboratories are considered to be the final and
conclusive evidence.
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Food Safety and Standards Authority of

India (FSSAI) had notified Rules on 5th August
2011 under FSSA Act 2006 to give guidelines to
food industry for hygiene and regulations/
standards for safe and wholesome food for
human consumption.
Though the use of Radio-isotopes to cure

diseases goes back to 1938, its full development
took place in the 70s. Nuclear medicine uses the
tracer principle which was evolved by George
Hevesy for which he got the Nobel prize in 1944.
Today, the Positron Emission Tomography has
revolutionised the field of nuclear medicine. The
main Radio-isotopes used in nuclear medicine
include Cobalt-60, Iridium-192, Gold-199,
Oxygen -15, Nitrogen-13, Carbon-11, Fluorine18, Rubidium-82, Copper-62, Gallium-68, etc.
They are used not only for curative purpose, but
also for scanning the body. Cabolt-60, Iridium192, and Gold-199 have been used to cure
cancer. Iodine-131 is being used to cure thyroid
disorders.
A nationwide project, Food and Drug

Capacity Building Project was designed to
improve the quality and safety of food and drugs
by strengthening the regulatory framework and
incorporating components of consumer
education with the assistance of World Bank. The
project remained in operation from 2003 to 2008
to improve the capacity of laboratories at central
and state levels along with other regulatory
programme. For this purpose the government of
India took nearly Rs.320 crore soft loans from
World Bank.
There are 76 food laboratories under the
control of state government/local bodies. The
samples lifted by food inspectors are sent to these
laboratories and on the basis of the reports,
prosecutions are launched in courts.
Under joint FAO/WHO Food Standards

Programme, Codex Alimentarius Commission
has been established to formulate worldwide
standards for food. India is also a member of this
body. A National Codex Committee has been set
up under the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare to formulate the Indian viewpoint on
various matters concerning International Food
Standards Programme.
NEW INVENTIONS IN THE

FIELD OF MEDICINES
1. Nuclear Medicine
In the peaceful use of nuclear science,

nuclear medicine has a prominent place. The
alpha, beta and gamma radiations from
radioactive nucleus have revealed their curative
power. Today, Radio-isotopes have become
invaluable tools to solve many complex diseases.
[36]
2. Chronotherapy
Chronotherapy is relatively a new field in

bio-medical science in which delivering the right
therapy at the right time to optimize medical
treatment and to reduce the side effects of the
medicine. With this aim, chronologists are
working to understand the mysteries of the
human biological clock (circadian rhythm) and
are producing substantial evidence of how
synchronizing treatment of chronotherapy
(timing treatment according to body's natural
rhythm) may make surgery, radiation and drug
therapy more effective, significantly reducing
side effects and even prolonging life.
3. Blood disease with GM stem cells
Two major-technical obstacles that currently

limit the success of gene therapy for human red
blood cell diseases such as beta-thalassemia and
sickle cell disease have been overcome by
researchers at the St. Jude Children's Research
Hospital.
The team overcame the obstacle passed by

the large number of defective hematopoietic stem
cells (HSCs) producing faulty red blood cells in
beta-thalassemia or sickle cell disease. The large
numbers of defective HSCs thwart attempts by
gene therapy to reverse the disease. HSCs are
parent cells in the bone marrow that give rise to
blood cells. The researchers also performed the
difficult task of integrating genes into an HSCs
own DNA so the HSCs function normally.
The results offer promise for developing gene
therapy to treat blood diseases in humans caused
by defective haemoglobin i.e. haemoglobin that
either lacks a critical protein called beta globin
or that contains a mutated form of the protein.

Haemoglobin is the oxygen carrying protein
in red blood cells. Replacing red blood cells that
carry defective haemoglobin with red cells that
carry defective haemoglobin with red cells that
have normal haemoglobin is a potential strategy
for curing these disorders.
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Beta thallassemia (Cooley's anaemia) occurs

when the haemoglobin molecule lacks the betaglobin molecule that is part of the haemoglobin
molecule. In sickle cell disease, an abnormal gene
for beta-globin causes haemoglobin molecules in
the red blood cell to dump together and distort
the cell into the shape of a sickle. Instead of
flowing freely, sickle-shaped red cells sludge and
block blood vessels. This cut off of blood flow
can cause pain, stroke, leg ulcers, bone damage
and other medical problems.
motors and batteries have made the task easy.

The pumping mechanism will be done by motors
and the microprocessors will maintain the blood
flow. The patients using Jarvik 2000 will have to
bear a belt to reactivate the battery. The battery
will be attached to a plug which will provide
energy to the heart through wires. Abiocore uses
a better technique where wires are not needed.
It uses a coil and a battery in the stomach, which
will receive the energy from outer battery by
radio waves. Scientists contemplate it to be a
substitute for ventricle.
The researchers chose beta-thalassemia and

sickle cells diseases as targets for their gene
therapy study because both diseases could
potentially be treated by modifying HSCs with
normal genes for gamma-globins, which is
usually produced only during foetal life.
4. New Technique for Regenerating Organs
An Indian doctor has achieved a major

breakthrough by developing a technique for
regeneration of organs and tissue using cells
taken from the patients themselves. The
technique has recently been granted patent by
the U.S. patent and trade mark office. The
technique is expected to revolutionize medical
science as it could do away with organ and
tissue transplants and thus avoid the problems
associated with them. The major advantage of
this new technique is that no donor would be
anymore required to replace diseased organs.
Also, as the new tissues and organs would be
formed within the body using its own cells, there
would be no problem of acceptance of foreign
bodies, which had been a major problem
associated with transplants. In addition, unlike
transplant surgeries, no post operative treatment
by expensive immune suppressant drugs would
be required.
5. Artificial Hearts
A Massachusetts based Abiomed Company

has proposed for production of artificial heart
named Abiocor and Jarvik 2000. The
development of microprocessors bio-goods,
FORENSIC TOOLS
1. Narco Analysis
This is the tool of modern forensics to catch

the culprits and trace the criminals and decipher
their modus operandi by administering
hypnotics or similar drugs into the suspects. In
the Narco Analysis Test, the subject's imagination
is neutralised by making him semi-conscious. In
this state, it becomes difficult for him to lie and
his answers would be restricted to facts he is
already aware of. Experts inject a hypnotic like
Sodium Pentothal or Sodium Amytal and the
subject which is put in a state of Hypnotism is
not in a position to speak up on his own but can
answer specific but simple questions after giving
some suggestions. This test is of great help in
tracing a crime and finding some evidence,
where no primary evidence is available.
Truth serum is a drug used in narco-analysis
that cause a person to become uninhibited and
talkative, but they do not guarantee the veracity
of the subject's statement. People who are under
the influence of truth serums enter a hypnotic
state and speak freely about anxieties or painful
memories. The subject's imagination is
neutralised when semi-conscious, making it
difficult for him/her to lie and his/her answers
would be restricted to facts of which he/she is
aware.
Limitation: Such tests generally dont have
legal validity as confessions made by a semiconscious person are not admissible in court. It
states that subjects under a semi-conscious state
do not have the mind set to properly answer any
questions, while some other courts openly accept
them as evidence.
2. Polygraph
A polygraph (commonly known as a lie
[37]
distances. The concept of telemedicine was

introduced more than 30 years ago through the
use of telephone, facsimile machine, and slowscan images. However, the enabling technology
has grown considerably in the past decade. The
term telemedicine, in short refers to the
utilization of telecommunication technology for
medical diagnosis, treatment and patient care.
Areas of Application
Telemedicine enables a physician or specialist
at one site to deliver health care, diagnose
patients, give intra-operative assistance, provide
therapy, or consult with another physician or
paramedical personnel at a remote site.
Telemedicine system consists of customized
medical software integrated with computer
hardware, along with medical diagnostic
instruments connected to the commercial VSAT
(Very Small Aperture Terminal) at each location
or fibre optics.
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detector) is a device that measures and records

several physiological variables such as blood
pressure, heart rate, respiration and skin
conductivity while the subject is asked a series
of questions. The measurements are posited to
be indicators of anxiety that accompanies the
telling of lies. Thus, measured anxiety is equated
with telling untruths. However, if the subject
exhibits anxiety for other reasons, or can control
his anxiety level voluntarily, a measured
response can result in unreliable conclusions. A
polygraph test is also questionably used as a
psycho-physiological detection of deception
(PDD) examination.
Limitation: Today, polygraph examiners use
two types of instrumentation, analog and
computerized. While some people believe that
polygraph tests are reliable, there is little scientific
evidence to buttress this claim. For example,
while some claim the test to be accurate in 70%
- 90% of the cases, critics charge that rather than
a test, the method amounts to an inherently
unstandardizable interrogation technique whose
accuracy cannot be established.
3. Brain Fingerprinting
Brain fingerprinting, invented by

Dr. Lawrence Farwell, is a technique that
measures recognition of familiar stimuli by
measuring electrical brain wave responses to
words, phrases, or pictures that are presented
on a computer screen. The theory is that the
suspect's reaction to the details of an event or
activity will reflect if the suspect had prior
knowledge of the event or activity. This test uses
the Memory and Encoding Related Multifaceted
Electroencephalographic Response to detect
familiarity reaction.
Ethical Consideration: The electrical

potential of the human brain with relation to
specific thoughts and feelings seem to some
people to be highly invasive. However, such
screening procedures might potentially be much
more effective than polygraph screening, which
has never been shown to have prevented an act
of espionage.
Although, telemedicine could potentially

affect all medical specialties, the greatest current
applications are found in radiology, pathology,
cardiology and medical education. Perhaps the
greatest impact of telemedicine may be in
fulfilling its promise to improve the quality,
increase the efficiency, and expand the access
of the healthcare delivery system to the rural
population and developing countries.
Telemedicine finds application in a wide
area. Given below are areas of application and
the advantages accrued thereof.
Specialist consultations between two or

more hospitals: Advantage to patients due to
higher accuracy of diagnosis and treatment.
Leads to shorter hospital stay, faster turnover,
increased availability of hospital beds and
conservation of medical assets.
Telemedicine
Opinions on special investigations:

Secondary medical centres can send
investigations like ECGs, EEGS, TMTs,
ultrasound/CAT/MRI scans, etc for reporting/
opinions to specialists at tertiary centres. This
would conserve scarce resources, in this case, the
specialists can lead to their better utilization.
Telemedicine involves transfer of medical

information online and in real-time for use in
diagnosis, treatment, and education across
Specialist opinions to GPs at small towns

and villages: A Telemed Unit once made
available to a general practitioner (GP) at a
TELEMEDICINE
[38]
remote site would connect him and hundreds

like him to a Central Specialist Centre (CSC). The
CSC would provide these GPs with 24 hrs 7 days
a week specialist consultancy. This would result
in a good number of patients being treated
locally, though being monitored by specialists,
remotely. Franchising of such units would be a
viable business proposition.
ISROs Network: ISROs satellite based

Telemedicine network, which started in 2001 on
an experimental basis, was aimed at linking
remote/rural district hospitals with superspecialty hospitals in major cities via INSAT.
While ISRO provides software, hardware and
communication equipment as well as satellite
bandwidth, the specialty hospitals provide
infrastructure, manpower and maintain the
system. There are currently estimated 350-400
hospitals connected by telemedicine. On the
ISRO network alone, there are 170, of which
around 35 are specialty hospitals and the rest
remote centres.
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Virtual Patient Visits: Relatives can

virtually visit their near and dear ones admitted
to hospitals 1000s of miles away with the help
of video conferencing. This would be a
tremendous psychological boost for the patient
and could speed up his recovery.
Andhra Pradesh in 1999. Apollo Hospitals,

which now has close to 150 centres in India,
Bangladesh, Maldives, Sri Lanka and
Kazakhstan, is targeting to have 500-700
locations in the next 18-24 months.
Medical Tourism: It is the Buzz word in

corporate hospitals today. Patients from far off
countries can avail of superb, immediate
treatment at less then half to one sixth the cost
that they would have paid in their own country.
Chronic patients monitored from home:
Chronic patients can be monitored from home
regularly by remote consultations, cutting down
on trips to distant hospitals. This methodology
applies well to certain cardiovascular,
respiratory, diabetic, renal, psychiatric and
dermatological cases.
Treatment of patients in inaccessible

areas: Patients in inaccessible areas like
mountains, ships at seas, islands when cut off
due to weather conditions or natural disasters
can be treated and monitored till they get access
to a hospital.
Treatment of casualties in disaster areas:
Telemedicine portable units can be setup at
disaster areas in a few hours to assist local
doctors in receiving specialist opinions and
advice for rational evacuation of casualties.
These are just a few of the areas where
telemedicine is utilized today.
DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
The concept of telemedicine, started about

ten years ago in India on a pilot basis, has
matured onto the next level. Major hospital
groups are now looking at significantly
expanding their centres not just in India but also
in neighbouring countries. The first telemedicine
project in the country was set up by the Apollo
Hospitals group in the village of Aragonda in
ISRO's Telemedicine network further

expanded with the signing of MOU on May 16,
2006 with four specialty hospitals - Manipal
Hospital, Bangalore; Sir Ganga Ram Hospital,
New Delhi; Madras Diabetic Research
Foundation, Chennai and Dr Venkatrao Dawle
Medical Foundation, Ambajogai (Maharashtra).
ISRO's telemedicine programme is an
example of societal orientation of Indian space
programme and with several private specialty
hospitals besides state governments and NGOs
showing keen interest in establishing the
telemedicine network, augurs well to the cause
of extending quality healthcare to the rural
population. Efforts are also being made by ISRO
to include telemedicine through Village Resource
Centres (VRC) which are being set up in
association with NGOs, trusts and state and
central agencies.
Providing healthcare to Indias over one
billion population of which about 75 per cent
live in villages, is a formidable task. About 75
per cent of the doctors practice in urban areas
and 23 per cent in semi-urban areas. This leaves
just 2 per cent of the qualified doctors, who are
attached to about 23,000 primary health and
3000 community health centres, to attend to 70
per cent of the population living in villages.
Telemedicine initiatives at ISRO have been
broadly divided into the following areas:
Providing Telemedicine Technology &

connectivity between remote/rural
[39]
hospital and Super Speciality Hospital

for Teleconsultation, Treatment &
Training of doctors & paramedics.
Providing Technology & connectivity for

Mobile Telemedicine units for rural
health camps especially in the areas of
ophthalmology and community health.
The mission has a special focus on 18 states

Arunachal
Pradesh,
Assam,
Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand,
Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, Mizoram,
Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Nagaland, Orissa,
Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttarakhand and
Uttar Pradesh.
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Providing the Technology & connectivity

for Continuing Medical Education
(CME) between Medical Colleges & Post
Graduate
Medical
Institutions/
Hospitals.
Health Activists (ASHA) and the Janani

Surakshay Yojana (motherhood protection
programme). It also aims at improving hygiene
and sanitation infrastructure. It is the most
ambitious rural health initiative ever.
Providing technology and connectivity

for Disaster Management Support and
Relief.
Goals of NRHM:
As telemedicine technologies and processes

gradually mature, the extent of medical
specialties where telemedicine technologies could
prove clinically useful should expand. Indeed,
reports of telemedicine implementation are
appearing in orthopaedics, dermatology,
psychiatry, oncology, neurology, pediatrics,
internal medicine, ophthalmology and surgery.
NATIONAL RURAL HEALTH MISSION
Recognizing the importance of Health in the

process of economic and social development and
improving the quality of life of our citizens, the
Government of India has launched the National
Rural Health Mission to carry out necessary
architectural correction in the basic health care
delivery system.
The Mission adopts a synergistic approach
by relating health to determinants of good health
viz. segments of nutrition, sanitation, hygiene
and safe drinking water. It also aims at
mainstreaming the Indian systems of medicine
to facilitate health care.
National Rural Health Mission was launched

on 12th April, 2005 with an objective to provide
effective healthcare to the rural population, the
disadvantaged groups, including women and
children by improving access, enabling
community ownership, strengthening public
health systems for efficient service delivery,
enhancing equity and accountability and
promoting decentralization.
The scheme proposes a number of new
mechanisms for healthcare delivery, including
training local residents as Accredited Social
[40]
a)
Reduction in Infant Mortality Rate

(IMR) and Maternal Mortality Ratio
(MMR).
b)
Universal access to public health services

such as Womens health, child health,
water, sanitation &hygiene, immunization, and Nutrition
c)
Prevention and control of communicable

and non-communicable diseases,
including locally endemic diseases.
d)
Access to integrated comprehensive

primary healthcare.
e) Population stabilization, gender and

demographic balance.
f)
Revitalize local health traditions and

mainstream AYUSH.
g) Promotion of healthy life styles.
Salient features of NRHM:

a) Innovation in Human
Management
Resource
Promote access to improved healthcare at

household level through the Accredited Social
Health Activist (ASHA). ASHA would act as a
bridge between the Auxiliary Nurse and the
village Midwives and be accountable to the
Panchayat. ASHA would facilitate in the
implementation of the Village Health Plan along
with Anganwadi workers, ANM, functionaries
of other Departments, and Self Help Group
members, under the leadership of the Village
Health Committee of the Panchayat.
b)
Strengthening Public Health Delivery in

India
New concepts of Indian Public Health

Standards have been introduced. They are a set
of standards envisaged to improve the quality

of healthcare delivery in the country under the
National Rural Health Mission.
c)
Strengthening PHCs
Strengthening
Mechanisms
Disease
Control
National Disease Control Programmes for

Malaria, TB, Kala Azar, Filaria, Blindness &
Iodine Deficiency and Integrated Disease
Surveillance Programme has been integrated
under the Mission, for improved programme
delivery and new initiatives have been launched
for control of Non Communicable Diseases.
Further disease surveillance system at village
level would be strengthened. Supply of generic
drugs (both AYUSH & Allopathic) for common
ailments at village, SC, PHC/CHC level will also
be included.
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Mission aims at Strengthening PHC for

quality preventive, promotive, curative, and
supervisory and Outreach services through
adequate and regular supply of essential quality
drugs and equipment (including Supply of Auto
Disable Syringes for immunization) to PHCs.
Provision of 24 hour service in 50% PHCs by
addressing shortage of doctors, especially in high
focus States, through mainstreaming AYUSH
manpower.
d) Strengthening CHCs
f)
NATIONAL URBAN HEALTH MISSION
Infrastructure strengthening of CHCs by

implementation of IPHS standards which
includes Promotion of Stakeholder Committees
(Rogi Kalyan Samitis) for hospital management
and developing standards of services and costs
in hospital care.
e)
Decentralized Planning
This includes the District Health Mission at

the District level and the State Health Mission at
the state level. District Health Plan would be a
reflection of synergy between Village Health
Plans, State and National priorities for Health,
Water Supply, Sanitation and Nutrition. It also
includes involvement of PRIs in planning process
to improve access of facilities.
Positive outcomes of NRHM:

National Rural Health
Proposed Goal
Mission
The Union Cabinet gave its approval to

launch a National Urban Health Mission
(NUHM) as a new sub-mission under the overarching National Health Mission (NHM). Under
the Scheme the following proposals have been
approved:
a)
One Urban Primary Health Centre (UPHC) for every fifty to sixty thousand
population.
b)
One Urban Community Health Centre

(U-CHC) for five to six U-PHCs in big
cities.
c)
One Auxiliary Nursing Midwives

(ANM) for 10,000 population.
MMR: 100/100,000 Live Births

IMR: 30/1000 Live Births
TFR: 2.1
Achievements:
MMR: 301-SRS (RGI) (2002)

254-SRS (RGI) (2005)
212-SRS (RGI) (2008)
IMR: 60-SRS (RGI) (2003)

57-SRS (RGI) (2006)
47-SRS (RGI) (2010)
U5 MR: 85-SRS (RGI) (2000)
77-SRS (RGi) (2005)
64-SRS (RGI) (2009)
Institutional Delivery:
72.9%-CES (2009)
Complete Immunization:
61%-CES (2009)
Total Fertility Rate:
3-SRS-(RGI) (2003)
2.6-SRS-(RGI)(2008)
[41]
d)
One Accredited Social Health Activist

ASHA (community link worker) for 200
to 500 households.
The main objective of this policy is to achieve

an acceptable standard of good health amongst
the general population of the country. The
approach would be to increase access to the
decentralized public health system by
establishing new infrastructure in deficient
areas, and by upgrading the infrastructure in the
existing institutions. The contribution of the
private sector in providing health services would
be much enhanced, particularly for the
population group which can afford to pay for
services. Primacy will be given to preventive and
first-line curative initiatives at the primary health
level through increased sectoral share of
allocation. Emphasis will be laid on rational use
of drugs within the allopathic system.
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The estimated cost of NUHM for 5 years

period is Rs.22,507 crore with the Central
Government share of Rs.16,955 crore. CentreState funding pattern will be 75:25 except for
North Eastern states and other special category
states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
and Uttarakhand for whom the funding pattern
will be 90:10.
the country. It calls for a strong primary health

network in rural India. Emphasis has been given
to increase the aggregate public health
investment through a substantially increased
contribution by the Central Government.
Priority has been given to preventive and
curative initiatives at the primary health level
through increased sectoral share of allocation.
The scheme will focus on primary healthcare

needs of the urban poor. This Mission will be
implemented in 779 cities and towns with more
than 50,000 population and cover about 7.75
crore people.
The interventions under the sub-mission will
result in
I.
Reduction in Infant Mortality Rate

(IMR).
II. Reduction in Maternal Mortality Ratio
(MMR).
III. Universal access to reproductive health
care.
IV. Convergence of all health related
interventions.
The existing institutional mechanism and

management systems created and functioning
under NRHM will be strengthened to meet the
needs of NUHM. City-wise implementation
plans will be prepared based on baseline survey
and felt needs. Urban local bodies will be fully
involved in implementation of the scheme.
NUHM aims to improve the health status of
the urban population in general, particularly the
poor and other disadvantaged sections by
facilitating equitable access to quality health
care, through a revamped primary public health
care system, targeted outreach services and
involvement of the community and urban local
bodies.
NATIONAL HEALTH POLICY 2002
The National Health Policy-2002 (NHP-2002)

was cleared by the Union Cabinet in May 2002.
This is the second such policy adopted by the
Government after a gap of 19 years. The National
Health Policy-2002 gave prime importance to
ensure a more equitable access to health services
across the social and geographical expanse of
[42]
The policy plannned to increase health sector

expenditure to 6 per cent of GDP, with 2 per
cent of GDP being contributed as public health
investment, by the year 2010. The State
Governments would also need to increase the
commitment to the health sector. In the first
phase, by 2005, they would be expected to
increase the commitment of their resources to 7
per cent of the Budget; and, in the second phase,
by 2010, to increase it to 8 per cent of the Budget.
With the stepping up of the public health
investment, the Central Government's
contribution would rise to 25 per cent from the
existing 15 per cent by 2010.
The NHP-2002 sets out an increased
allocation of 55 per cent of the total public health
investment for the primary health sector; the
secondary and tertiary health sectors being
targeted for 35 per cent and 10 per cent
respectively.
Delivery of National Public Health
Programmes: The NHP-2002 envisages the
gradual convergence of all health programmes
under a single field administration. Vertical
programmes for control of major diseases like
TB, Malaria, HIV/AIDS, as also the RCH and
Universal Immunization Programmes, would
need to be continued till moderate success is
achieved.
Public Health Infrastructure: The Policy

envisages kick-starting the revival of the Primary
Health System by providing some essential drugs
under Central Government funding through the
decentralized health system.
Information, Education and Communication: NHP-2002 envisages an IEC policy,

which maximizes the dissemination of
information to those population groups which
cannot be effectively approached by using only
the mass media. The focus would therefore be
on the inter-personal communication of
information and on folk and other traditional
media to bring about behavioural change.
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Extending Public Health Services: NHP2002 envisages that in the context of the
availability and spread of allopathic graduates
in their jurisdiction, State Governments should
consider the need for expanding the pool of
medical practitioners; to include a cadre of
licentiates of medical practice and also
practitioners of Indian Systems of Medicine and
Homoeopathy. Simple services/procedures can
be provided by such practitioners even outside
their disciplines, as part of the basic primary
health services in under-served areas.
disorders. The programme outline for such a

disease would involve the diagnosis of common
disorders, and the prescription of common
therapeutic drugs, by general duty medical staff.
Role of Local Self-government: NHP-2002

lays great emphasis upon the implementation of
public health programmes through local selfgovernment institutions. The structure of the
national disease control programmes will have
specific components for implementation through
such entities.
Use of Generic Drugs and Vaccines: The

2002 policy emphasizes the need for basing
heatment procedure in both the public and
private domain, on a limited number of essential
drugs of a generic nature. This is a pre-requisite
for cost-effective public healthcare. In the public
health system, this would be enforced by
prohibiting the use of proprietary drugs, except
in special circumstances.
Urban Health: NHP-2002 envisages the
setting up of an organised urban primary health
care structure. Since the physical features of
urban settings are different from those in rural
areas, the policy envisages the adoption of
appropriate population norms for the urban
public health infrastructure. The structure
conceived under NHP-2002 is a two-tiered one:
the primary centre is seen as the first-tier,
covering a population of one lakh, with a
dispensary providing an OPD facility and
essential drugs, to enable access to all the national
health programmes; and a second-tier of the
urban health organisation at the level of the
Government general hospital, where reference
is made from the primary centre.
Mental Health: NHP - 2002 envisages a

network of decentralised mental health services
for ameliorating the more common categories of
Health Research: This Policy envisages an

increase in Government-funded health research
to a level of 1 per cent of the total health spending
by 2005; and thereafter, up to 2 per cent by 2010.
Domestic medical research would be focused on
new therapeutic drugs and vaccines for tropical
diseases, such as TB and Malaria, as also on the
sub-types of HIV/AIDS prevalent in the country.
National Disease Surveillance Network:
This Policy envisages the full operationalization
of an integrated disease control network from
the lowest rung of public health administration
to the Central Government, by 2005. The
programme for setting up this network will
include components relating to the installation
of data-base handling hardware; IT interconnectivity between different tiers of the
network; and in-house training for data
collection and interpretation for undertaking
timely and effective response.
Health Statistics: The Policy envisages the

completion of baseline estimates for the incidence
of the common diseases - TB, Malaria, and
Blindness - by 2005. The policy also recognizes
the need to establish, in a longer time-frame,
baseline estimates for non-communicable
diseases, like CVD, Cancer, Diabetes; and
accidental injuries, and communicable diseases,
like Hepatitis and JE.
Womens Health: The Policy notes that

women, along with other under-privileged
groups, are significantly handicapped due to a
disproportionately low access to health care. The
various Policy recommendations of NHP-2002,
in regard to the expansion of primary health
sector infrastructure, will facilitate the increased
access of women to basic health care.
[43]
Medical Ethics: NHP - 2002 envisages that,

in order to ensure that the common patient is
not subjected to irrational or profit-driven
medical regimes, a contemporary code of ethics
be notified and rigorously implemented by the
Medical Council of India.
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Environmental and Occupational Health:

This Policy envisages that the independently stated policies and programmes of the
environment -related sectors be smoothly
interfaced with the policies and the programmes
of the health sector, in order to reduce the health
risk to the citizens and the consequential disease
burden.
Impact of globalisation on the health sector:

The Policy takes into account the serious
apprehension, expressed by several health
experts, of the possible threat to health security
in the post-TRIPS era, as a result of a sharp
increase in the prices of drugs and vaccines. To
protect the citizens of the country from such a
threat, this policy envisages a national patent
regime for the future, which, while being
consistent with TRIPS, avails of all opportunities
to secure for the country, under its patent laws,
affordable access to the latest medical and other
therapeutic discoveries. The policy also sets out
that the Government will bring to bear its full
influence in all international fora - UN, WHO,
WTO, etc. - to secure commitments on the part
of the Nations of the Globe, to lighten the
restrictive features of TRIPS in its application to
the healthcare sector.
Providing medical facilities to users from

overseas: To capitalize on the comparative cost
advantage enjoyed by domestic health facilities
in the secondary and tertiary sectors, NHP-2002
strongly encourages the providing of such health
services on a payment basis to service seekers
from overseas.
[44]
ELECTRONICS &
COMPUTERS
ELECTRONICS SECTOR IN INDIA
IAS ACADEMY
After the software boom in mid 1990s India's

focus shifted to software. Moreover the steep fall
in custom tariffs made the hardware sector
suddenly vulnerable to international
competition. In 1997 the ITA agreement was
signed at the WTO where India committed itself
to total elimination of all customs duties on IT
hardware in the near future.
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India is one of the fastest growing markets

of electronics in the world. There is potential to
develop the Electronics System Design &
Manufacturing (ESDM) sector to meet our
domestic demand as well as to use the capabilities
so created to successfully export ESDM products
from the country.
CHRONICLE
Production of electronic equipment and

components has come a long way since the days
of radio receivers in 1940s. Electronics industry
in India has grown with domestic demand as a
result of import substitution efforts. India
embarked on its Electronics journey around
1965 with an orientation towards space and
defence technologies. This was rigidly controlled
and initiated by the Government. This was
followed by developments in consumer
electronics mainly with Transistor radios, Black
& White TVs, Calculators and other audio
products. Colour Televisions soon followed.
In order to keep pace with developments in

the international scene and also considering the
increasing importance of electronics for
diversified applications, the Department of
Electronics was set up by the Government of
India in 1971. Since then, the department has
been coordinating development of electronics in
India and reviewing constantly the growth
achieved in the industrial front and in the R &
D capabilities.
In 1982, which was a significant year in the
history of television in India, the government
allowed thousands of colour TV sets to be
imported into the country to coincide with the
broadcast of Asian Games in New Delhi. 1985
saw the advent of Computers and Telephone
exchanges, which were succeeded by Digital
Exchanges in 1988. The period between 1984
and 1990 was the golden period for electronics
during which the industry witnessed continuous
and rapid growth.
In recent years the electronic industry is

growing rapidly. It is currently worth $75 Billion
but according to estimates, has the potential to
reach $ 400 billion by 2020. The largest segment
is the consumer electronics segment and the
largest export segment is of components.
Electronics plays a catalytic role in increasing
production and productivity in key sectors like
power, coal, oil, railways, communication and
process industries.
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
The Department of Electronics supports and

funds technology development through its
councils set up in various fields namely the
Technology Development Council (TDC) for
areas
like
components,
computer
communication and instrumentation, etc., the
National Radar Council (NRC) for radars,
navigational aids, sonar, underwater electronics
systems, laser and infra-red based detection/
ranging systems, National Microelectronics
Council (NMC) for design and production
technology of LSI/VLSI, ASICs, etc. Electronic
Materials Development Council (EMDC) for
materials, including special ceramics, high purity
metals, gas, etc., and the National Photonics
Council (NPC) for photonic related areas
covering also electronics devices, optical data
storage switching, imaging, vision informatics,
etc. These councils also provide inter-ministerial
forum for overall development, including
generation of production capabilities in their
respective areas. Some of the completed projects
under these programmes have made a definite
impact on the R & D capabilities of the country.
[45]
Scientific Projects in Specific Areas

Computing (C-DAC) has developed a software
under Indias IT Ministry and Israels FTK
Technologies that covers ten scripts and 3000
characters and supports Windows, MAC and
Linux.
Micro-electronics in the country began

appearing around 1970, since then it has made
a remarkable progress in various fields.
Innumerable applications have been successfully
developed and used in industrial, scientific and
other areas.
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Lekhika 2007-a software application is

expected to enable masses in India, who do not
know English, to gain computer skills in their
own language, thanks to its user-friendly,
comprehensive, cost-efficient format. The
software costing between Rs 2500 and Rs 3000
rupees currently supports Hindi, Bengali,
Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Gujarati, Kannada,
Malayalam, Urdu and Punjabi, and soon it
would include all the officially recognized Indian
languages.
There has been a radical transformation in

the character of electronics industry in India since
the development of point contact transistors in
1947-48 which laid the foundation of microelectronics.
Time bound projects in specific areas are

being implemented through separate scientific
societies like Centre for Development of
Advanced computing (C-DAC) which has
developed 256 nodes PARAM parallel super
computer of computing power IG flops/7500
MIPs and Centre for Materials for Electronics
Technology (C-MET) to establish technology for
a range of electronic materials. Other funded
projects like Fibre Optics System Development,
Knowledge Based computer System (KBCS),
Advanced Technology Programme on Computer
Networking (ERNET), development of highpower devices. etc., are making satisfactory
progress. To encourage application-oriented
research, design and development, Electronics
Research and Development Centre (ER & CDs)
and Rural Electronics Technology Centre
(RETC), Society for Applied Microwave
Electronics Engineering and Research
(SAMEER), National Centre for Software
Technology, etc., are also being funded to
strengthen respective R & D activities.
The Department has launched a
Standardization, Testing and Quality Control
(STQC) Programme for healthy growth of the
industry. Equipment Certification schemes are
operational covering television receivers and
personal computers, including allied peripherals.
STQC carries out IEC quality assessment system
for electronic components (IECQ) in its role of
National Supervisory Inspectorate (NSI).
[46]
The manufacture of integrated circuits (ICs)

started in the country in 1971 when Bharat
Electronics Limited (BEL) fabricated the TIL 7420
IC with the knowhow developed by Tata
Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR). The
IC produced by BEL so far has SSI/MSI levels of
complexity. Besides, it has fabricated a prototype
watch chip. In the next few years it proposes to
manufacture microprocessors and memory
chips, using, RCAs technology.
With the trial production of the pulse dialer
chips by the public sector Semiconductor
Complex Limited (SCL) in March 1984, the
country entered the era of large scale integrated
circuits/very large scale integrated circuits. SCL
has developed the 32 KHZ clock chip and two
kinds of semi-customs gate array circuits for
alarm enunciator for Bharat Heavy Electricals
Limited (BHEL) and KELTRON. It has stated the
design of an Electrically Erasable Programme
Read Only Memory (EEPROM) in collaboration
with the AM Santa Clara, USA. SCL would also
undertake manufacture of a broad range of
standard LSIs, including calculator chips,
telecom chips, microprocessors and speech
synthesizers.
ELECTRONICS IN THE
SERVICE OF SOCIETY
Electronics is a knowledge intensive industry.

It is a dynamic industry and it is also a global
industry. Indian electronics industry is a little
more than 40 years old. Although the numbers
by themselves appear to be quite impressive
when viewed in isolation, if we look at it from
the global point of view we find that we have
miles to go. The Indian electronics industry
constitutes less than 1 per cent of the global
electronics industry. On the other hand, India
has the potential of emerging as a global player.
Import Intensity: When we look at the

competitive advantage of the Indian electronics
industry we find that our industry has got many
weaknesses. Whereas generally in other
industries we have started from the lower end
of raw materials and components and then gone
on to the finished products, in the case of
electronics industry we started from the other
end that is from equipment and then worked in
the reverse direction. As a result there is a high
degree of import intensity in the Indian Industry
today. If we view the import intensity from the
point of view of the raw materials we find that
the import dependence in other sectors of
industry may be 10% whereas it is 50 to 80% so
far as electronics is concerned.
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Electronics therefore is vital in the context of

tackling the immediate national problems. From
the long term point of view also, electronics has
a tremendous potential to improve the quality
of the people, for instance, the electronic media
can be an effective method of eliminating
illiteracy in rural areas, bringing concepts of
public hygiene and improving the quality of life
of the women, etc. Department of Electronics
had been engaged in a programme called Vivek
Darpan which started in May, 1990 in which a
colour TV set with a VCP called Sanghamitra
was placed in different villages and programmes
were shown regularly which were aimed at
removal of illiteracy, advice to women about
public hygiene, etc. Apart from the socially
relevant aspects, a significant impact of
electronics is its employment potential especially
for women.
Electronics is also important in the concept
of planned and balanced regional development.
This is because it is a relatively footloose industry
and can be located in different parts of the
country.
It is therefore obvious that electronics is a
sector of industry which is important in the
national development effort and which can
significantly contribute to the improvement of
the quality of life of the people in our country.
Competitive Advantages: When we talk of

competing in the international market, we need
to consider major factors that the important for
a nation to develop competitive advantage. Prof.
Michael Porter had identified a diamond of
four factors, namely:
The major imports in this sector broadly fall into

the following categories:
(i)
Direct import of finished equipment by

user Ministries/ Departments such as
Defence, Communications, Railways, Civil
aviation, etc.
(ii)
Imports of equipment by small actual

users like hospitals, R & D organisations,
educational institutions, etc.
(iii) Imports in the form of personal baggage.

(iv) Imports by the local electronics industry
for production activities, both for local
consumption as well as for exports.
Necessary Imports: The imports under the
first three categories can be minimized only
through increasing the local production base.
This needs considerable imported items under
the following requirements.
(i)
Factoral advantages which will include

factors like low cost labour, raw materials
etc.
(a)
Import of capital goods, test equipments,

tools, etc. for production of electronic
equipment and components.
(ii)
Intense competition between the

indigenous players in the same sector.
(b)
(iii) Availability of related industries to

provide the necessary infrastructural
support, and family,
Import of electronic components,

mechanical hardware items, etc. by
equipment manufacturers.
(c)
Import of raw materials and parts by

electronic component manufacturers.
(iv) The demand of the consumers.
(d)
Therefore we should approach self reliance

in the electronics sector so far as India is
concerned making the best of the advantages that
it has and emerge as a global player.
Import of components, sub assemblies

parts, etc. by export oriented production
units.
Emphasis on Exports: Due to rapid changes

in technology and new products being
[47]
introduced in the international and domestic

market, it may not be possible to cut down the
import content in the Indian electronics products
drastically.
ELECTRONICS IN AGRICULTURE AND

AGRO BASED INDUSTRIES
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USA and UK continues to be major markets

for the IT software and services exports. Markets
across Continental Europe and the Asia Pacific
are also witnessing significant year-on-year
growth. This trend towards a broader
geographic market exposure is positive for the
industry, not only as de-risking measure but also
as a means of accelerating growth by tapping
new markets.
on target. First prototype of computer based

communication aid for the spastics has
undergone field trials with extremely
encouraging feedback from the Spastics Society
of India. A new project has been initiated on
development of thin film bio-medical
transducers. The project will result in products
which have a large demand within the country.
Indigenization: While the above analysis

may give us a macro picture about the overall
balance in foreign exchange and the degree of
indigenization the first area we are concentrating
is the indigenous R & D. It has been found that
there is a tremendous time lag between the
development of the technology in the laboratory
and its application. An attempt is being made to
reduce this time to the market by bringing up
this issue in a forum comprising the industries,
financial institutions, institutions like IITs as well
s the Department of Electronics.
ELECTRONICS IN HEALTHCARE AND

REHABILITATION
The integrated Linear Accelerator (LINAC)

development programme, which was initiated
in 1991, is now in full operation and is designed
to put our country to the forefront of technology
for cancer radiation therapy and treatment
planning. These LINACs have been fabricated
with full participation of five major public sector
undertakings who are jointly taking up the
knowhow for LINAC for commercial
production. The new LINAC prototypes are an
update on first prototype which was installed
at PGIMER, Chandigarh and several advance
features have been incorporated into the system.
Project on development of a state of the 3dimensional treatment planning system for
cancer radiotherapy has been initiated. The
project is being implemented with full
participation of a leading treatment planning
system manufacturer in the private sector and
will be based on the advanced parallel processor
technology of C-DAC.
The technology development programme for
electronics in healthcare has been progressing
[48]
Microprocessor based drip irrigation and

control system is under field trial stage and will
be evaluated over 2-3 crop-cycles. Short term
trials of soil salinity mapping system using
inductive electro-magnetic principle have been
done and efforts are underway to fabricate a
prototype for extended field trials.
The programme on application of Electronics

in the Industry is being implemented at
AMTRON, Guwahati and MAEP Centre,
Kolkata. AMTRON has developed the
VERMIAC range of instrumentation based on
distributed computer architecture and monitors
four vital processing stages viz. withering, rolling,
fermentation and drying. The system is installed
at Hunwal Tea Estate near Jorhat. MAEP
Kolkata centre has developed an application of
electronic control and instrumentation system
for Jute industry has been initiated. The objective
of the project is to develop electronic systems and
facilities for modernising jute industry to make
it competitive in national and international
markets.
Various elements of the project are as follows:
(i)
Modification of existing electronic

instruments/systems available for cotton
textile for application to jute.
(ii)
Development of on-line and off-line

instruments/systems for Jute industry.
(iii) Setting up of infrastructure for repair and

maintenance of electronic instruments and
training of mill personnel.
SOCIO-ELECTRONICS PROGRAMME
The scheme for training of medical and paramedical personnel was taken up with a view to
provide effective support in the repair and
maintenance of Electro-medical equipment.
Advanced training programme for the para

medical staff has also been worked out and such
training programmes are being conducted
through IHRDE, Trivandrum.
The policy is expected to create an indigenous

manufacturing eco-system for electronics in the
country. It will foster the manufacturing of
indigenously designed and manufactured chips
creating a more cyber secure ecosystem in the
country. It will enable India to tap the great
economic potential that this knowledge sector
offers. The increased development and manufacturing in the sector will lead to greater economic
growth through more manufacturing and
consequently greater employment in the sector.
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Vivek Darpan: Project Vivek Darpan (PVD)

is designed to demonstrate and propagate the
use of the audio visual media as a more cost
effective method for dissemination of socioeconomic information/knowledge in rural areas
as compared to traditional methods/ media.
Several pilot projects have been initiated in
carefully selected villages to show that these
mediums can strengthen and help in taking
knowledge, education and developmental
messages to rural people, particularly women.
This medium is used as an aid for
communication in programmes of rural
development, family welfare and womens
development. The Department of Electronics as
a scientific department has funded a few early
pilot projects only for establishing costeffectiveness of TV-UVP medium. The objectives
of the Project Vivek Darpan are:
industry, including nano-electronics to meet the

country`s needs and serve the international
market. The strategies include setting up of a
National Electronics Mission with industry
participation and renaming the Department of
Information Technology as Department of
Electronics and Information Technology (Deity).
(1)
Effective dissemination of developmental

motivation and knowledge/skills for rural
folk, especially women using audio-visual
media as multi-user, multi-tasking systems.
(2)
Effectively supplementing the post-literacy

development efforts for rural adults.
(3)
Achieve favourable and sustainable

impact in the areas of family planning,
health and hygiene improvement, social
awareness and productivity improvement.
(4)
The policy sets out to achieve a turnover of

about USD 400 Billion by 2020 involving
investment of about USD 100 Billion. It also aims
at ensuring employment to around 28 million in
the sector by 2020.
Major objectives of the policy are:
a)
To create an eco-system for a globally

competitive Electronic System Design and
Manufacturing (ESDM) sector in the
country to achieve a turnover of about
USD 400 billion by 2020 involving
investment of about USD 100 billion and
providing employment to around 28
million people at various levels.
b)
To build on the emerging chip design and

embedded software industry to achieve
global leadership in Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI), chip design and other
frontier technical areas and to achieve a
turnover of USD 55 billion by 2020.
c)
To build a strong supply chain of raw

materials, parts and electronic components to raise the indigenous availability
of these inputs from the present 20-25 per
cent to over 60 per cent by 2020.
d)
To increase the export in ESDM sector

from USD 5.5 billion to USD 80 billion by
2020.
e)
To significantly enhance availability of

skilled manpower in the ESDM sector.
Special focus for augmenting postgraduate
Cause extensive replication/spread in

thousands of villages by convincing other
central and state government agencies/
NGOs on the cost-effectiveness of this
media.
The NGOs now implementing Project Vivek

Darpan in 105 Villages are holding one hour
sessions for 5 different set of groups eg. children,
youth, women, general audiences and farmers
every day.
NATIONAL POLICY ON
ELECTRONICS 2012
The National Policy of Electronics envisions

creating a globally competitive Electronics
Systems and Design Manufacturing (ESDM)
[49]
education and to produce about 2500

PhDs annually by 2020.
To create an institutional mechanism for
developing and mandating standards and
certification for electronic products and
services to strengthen quality assessment
infrastructure nationwide.
g)
To develop an appropriate security

ecosystem in ESDM.
h)
To create long-term partnerships between

ESDM and strategic and core infrastructure sectors-Defence, Atomic Energy,
Space, Railways, Power, Telecommunications, etc.
To achieve this target the Union Cabinet has

approved the proposal to offer financial support
for the development of Electronics
Manufacturing Clusters (EMCs), as these EMCs
would aid the growth of the Electronics Systems
Design and Manufacturing (ESDM) sector, help
development of entrepreneurial ecosystem, drive
innovation and catalyze the economic growth
of the region by increasing employment
opportunities and tax revenues.
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f)
innovation eco-system in the ESDM sector.
i) To become a global leader in creating

Intellectual Property (IP) in the ESDM
sector by increasing fund flow for R&D,
seed capital and venture capital for startups in the ESDM and nanoelectronics
sectors.
j)
To develop core competencies in strategic

and core infrastructure sectors like
telecommunications, automotive, avionics,
industrial, medical, solar, Information and
Broadcasting, Railways, etc. through use
of ESDM in these sectors.
k)
To use technology to develop electronic

products catering to domestic needs,
including rural needs and conditions, as
well as international needs at affordable
price points.
l)
The main features of the proposed EMC

Scheme are as follows:
The assistance would be provided to a

Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) which
should be a legal entity duly registered
for this purpose. The SPV may be
promoted by private companies, industry
associations, financial institutions, R&D
institutions, State or Local governments
or their agencies and units within the
EMC. The SPV should consider including
an academic/research institution to be
part of the proposed SPV for suitable
academic-industry linkages.
The financial assistance to the SPV shall

be in the form of grant-in-aid only.
For Greenfield EMCs the assistance will

be restricted to 50% of the project cost
subject to a ceiling of Rs. 50 crore for every
100 acres of land.
For Brownfield EMCs the assistance will

be restricted to 75% of the project cost
subject to a ceiling of Rs. 50 crore.
The scheme will be open for applications

for five years from the date of notification.
The financial assistance under the policy

would be subject to approval by the
Competent Authority following due
process.
To expedite adoption of best practices in

e-waste management.
Further to boost the electronics industry

government has launched Electronics
Manufacturing Clusters Scheme
As part of the vision to make India a leading

destination for the Electronics Systems Design
and Manufacturing (ESDM) sector, the draft
National Policy on Electronics (NPE) proposes
to achieve a domestic production of about USD
400 Billion by 2020 in the ESDM sector by
creating an industry friendly policy framework
and ecosystem which provides a level playing
field for the domestic industry. The NPE also
proposes to set up two semiconductor wafer
manufacturing facilities and to create and sustain
a vibrant research and development and
[50]
The proposed EMCs scheme would support

setting up of both Greenfield and Brownfield
EMCs.
A well developed cluster can give a unit

located in it a cost advantage of 5 to 8% because
of various reasons such as increased supply chain
responsiveness, consolidation of suppliers,
decreased time-to-market, superior access to
talent and lower logistics costs. The cluster

development approach also helps in the
development of entrepreneurial ecosystems
which drive innovation and catalyze the
economic growth of a region by increasing
employment opportunities and tax revenues.
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The proposed scheme is expected to help

flow of investment for the development of worldclass infrastructure specifically targeted towards
attracting investment in the ESDM sector. Nearly
28 million persons are expected to be employed,
directly or indirectly for the ESDM turnover to
reach USD 400 billion. The policy covers all States
and districts and provides them an opportunity
to attract investments in electronics manufacturing.
While analogue computers are for specific

scientific/technological operations, such as
harmonic analysis, solution of simultaneous
algebraic and polynominal equations etc. in the
fields such as hydrodynamics, aerodynamics,
industrial control, etc., the digital computers are
universal in that they have applications not only
in the scientific field but also in the fields of
business and administration. Further due to their
superior flexibility and accuracy, the digital
computers dominate the contemporary
computer scene the latest of which are called
microcomputers.
COMPUTER REVOLUTION
The 21st century is witnessing a computer

revolution in which information processing and
retrieval are being done reliably at incredible
speeds. Microprocessors which made their
impact felt about fifteen years ago are the basis
for a new breed of computers whose ultimate
goal is to stimulate the intelligence of man.
Microcomputers are becoming faster and
cheaper and very soon they are expected to be
as powerful as the mainframe computers. Today
microprocessors can be found in pocket
calculators, industrial robots, home appliances, etc.
The first four generations of computers were

based on the technology of the age to which they
belonged. They were thus based on the vacuum
tube technology, the transistor and printed
circuit technology, the integrated circuit
technology, the transistor and printed circuit
technology, the integrated circuit technology and
the Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI)
technology respectively. The marvel of the fourth
generation VLSI technology is that a
microprocessor weighing a few grams, can store
512 K or 512 X 1024 bits of 0s and 1s.
Computers are analogue or digital machines.
Those converting numbers into physical
quantities, which can very continuously within
a range are called analogue computers while
those using numbers (which are discrete values)
are called digital computers. There is a third class
of computers called hybrid computers, which
have digital storage and switching, but in them
calculations are done in an analogue fashion.
Programming Language: Computerware

can be divided into hardware and software. The
five functional units of a computer built with
electronic circuits and electromechanical devices
constitute the hardware. The range of standard
programs or routines supplied by the
manufacturer along with the computer
hardware are referred to as software.
Computer programming is the name given
to the art of writing a programme in a
programming language, which is a higher level
language. Every machine depending upon its
internal hardware architecture has a unique low
level language called the machine language. In
a binary coded digital computer the machine
language is made of 0s and 1s. To relieve the
programmer from the tedium of writing a
programme in the difficult low-level machine
language, several hundreds of easier high level
programming language, have been developed.
Of these FORTRAN (Formula translation), and
BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code) were the most widely accepted
general purpose programming languages while
COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)
was the most successful programming language
for business purposes.
BASIC was an on-line conversational
language. It had been quickly adopted by
commercial time sharing services. With the
advent of microprocessors in the mid-70s, BASIC
was made available as a Read Only Memory
(ROM) Chip. BASIC had many dialects and
several of these included features not in the ANSI
(American National Standard Institute), which
standardized a subset of BASIC to promote
uniformity. cBASIC and BASICA are two of the
versions of BASIC.
[51]
Present day Micros: The micro-computer

industry was revolutionized by the entry of IBM,
which started marketing PCs in 1980.
SUPER COMPUTERS
A supercomputer is a computer that is at the
frontline of current processing capacity,
particularly speed of calculation. Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960s and
were designed primarily by Seymour Cray at
Control Data Corporation (CDC), which led the
market into the 1970s until Cray left to form his
own company, Cray Research.
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Essentially a micro computer consists of a

system unit. The printer is an auxiliary unit
essential to get the output from the microcomputer as a hard-copy. The standard type
writer keys viz. A to Z, 0 to 9 and certain special
characters which together constitute the alphanumeric characters are an essential part of all
the micro computer keyboards, which also have
two or three additional groups of keys. One of
these is a set of numeric keys (0 to 9) arranged
as in a calculator for ease of data entry.
BASIC the first two are used when the PC has a

cassette or disk interface while Advanced BASIC
has all the capabilities of the other two as well
as additional features necessary for the colour/
graphics mode.
The VDU (Visual Display Unit) is the video

display terminal for the micro computer system.
This can be either a monochromatic (black and
white) or colour monitor. The normal printer
interface is for the monochromatic display unit.
A Colour/Graphics monitor Adopter board
(or oriented circuit) is essential as an interface to
enable the use of a colour monitor. A colour TV
set can also be used with a radio frequency
modulator.
The system unit contains the heart of the
micro-computer-a micro processor the dynamic
Random Access Memory (RAM), an extended
microsoft BASIC as Read Only Memory (ROM),
floppy disk drive for auxiliary storage, a built in
speaker and some expansion slots for system
enlargement. Additional dynamic memory
(RAM) board can be used to enhance the memory
of the micro computer. The ROM stores
permanently, programmes essential for the
operation of the micro-computers.
Modular: The micro-computer is modular in

design and the modules (or blocks) are
interconnected through a bus. The microprocessor or (Silicon) chip combines the ALU
and the control unit, the memory (ROM and
RAM), the micro -processor, a interfaces for the
keyboard, VDU etc, expansion slots, speaker and
timing circuits are all on the system board of
mother board of a microcomputer system.
Microsoft BASIC is a version of BASIC, which

is standard with the IMN-PC. The BASIC
interpreter is contained in 40 K of ROM and the
IBM-PC uses three versions of BASICS called
cassette BASIC, disk BASIC and Advanced
[52]
The computers characterized by their very

long size and very high processing speed are
known as supercomputer. They are used in
specialized area such as defence, aircraft, design,
weather research and other scientific works. The
first super computer was the ILLIAC IV made
by Burroughs and University of Illinois in 1965.
The term supercomputer itself is rather fluid,

and todays supercomputer tends to become
tomorrows ordinary computer. CDCs early
machines were simply very fast scalar processors,
some ten times the speed of the fastest machines
offered by other companies. In the 1970s most
supercomputers were dedicated to running a
vector processor, and many of the newer players
developed their own such processors at a lower
price to enter the market. The early and mid1980s saw machines with a modest number of
vector processors working in parallel to become
the standard. Typical numbers of processors were
in the range of four to sixteen. In the later 1980s
and 1990s, attention turned from vector
processors to massive parallel processing systems
with thousands of ordinary CPUs, some being
off the shelf units and others being custom
designs. Today, parallel designs are based on off
the shelf server-class microprocessors, such as
the Power PC, Opteron, or Xeon, and most
modern supercomputers are now highly-tuned
computer clusters using commodity processors
combined with custom interconnects.
Some other areas such as molecular
biophysics, quantum chemistry and reaction
dynamics require high-speed numeral
computing too. A conventional computer cannot
perform a high-speed computing due largely to

the physical limitation known as the Von
Neumann barrier. But a super computer based
on parallel processor (that breaks a task into a
large number of subtasks and each subtask can
be carried out independently at its own pace)
architect can have a computing power as high
as 1000 mega flops.
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Supercomputers are used for highly

calculation-intensive tasks such as problems
involving quantum physics, weather forecasting,
climate research, molecular modeling
(computing the structures and properties of
chemical
compounds,
biological
macromolecules, polymers, and crystals),
physical simulations (such as simulation of
airplanes in wind tunnels, simulation of the
detonation of nuclear weapons, and research into
nuclear fusion).
in public as well as private sector. The parallel

computers developed by the C-DAC are already
available commercially. C-DAC has deployed
several Param supercomuters in India and
abroad. It has sold Param supercomputers to the
UK, Germany, Philippines and Singapore. In
particular, it has deployed a Param 10000
version in Russia for about Rs 2 crore under a
commercial contract. C-DAC earlier announced
its plans to install supercomputers at 12 premier
educational institutions such as IIS and IITs.
The parallel processor based computer

systems are being planned to be used in the
following areas:
Remote Sensing
Image Processing
Signal Processing
Launch Vehicle Dynamics
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Finite Element Modelling
Computational Physics
Computational Chemistry
Oil Reservoir Modelling
Astronomy and Astrophysics
Material Science
Computational Mathematics
Graphics and Visualisation
Aerodynamic application
C-DAC
The Centre for Development of Advanced

Computing (C-DAC), a scientific society under
the administrative control of the Department of
Electronics, Government of India, has designed
a general purpose Super computer PARAM.
The centre has transferred the know-how for the
PARAM Supercomputer to many organisations
The Supercomputer is endowed with

advanced programming environment PARAM.
The entire design and development of PARAM,
both hardware and software, have been done
indigenously. Only microprocessor, memories
glue-logic chips and winchester disks were
imported.
The Advanced Numerical Research and
Analysis Group (ANURAG) of the DRDO has
also designed and developed a high-speed userfriendly super computer known as PACE
(Processor for Aerodynamics Computation and
Evaluations). This system finds application in
several number crunching applications
including geology, remote sensing, aircraft design
and weather studies.
E-Learning framework by C-DAC: Pune
based Centre for Development of Advance
Computing (C-DAC) is developing a web-based
project envisages providing an e-learning
framework based learning management system.
The institution is designing the e-learning
framework in such a way that any kind of course
material can be made available to large number
of students via net.
Bioinformatics: The last few decades have

been huge advances in the biological sciences.
Especially in the last years, the availability of
sophisticated technology has resulted in the
increasingly rapid sequencing of the genetic
material of several species. This deluge of
information has necessitated the creation of a
means to manage the data in terms of organizing,
indexing and storing it. This has led to the
evolution of the science of bioinformatics.
Dasher: Dasher is a data entry interface
developed to replace the standard QWERTY
keyboard layout. It is nearly twice as efficient,
more accurate and easier on the eyes and above
[53]
Sequoia is also one of the most energy efficient

systems on the list, consuming a total of 7.84 MW
and delivering 2,031.6 Mflops/W.
Woz Net: Woz Net is a simple and

inexpensive wireless network that uses radio
signals and global positioning satellite data to
keep track of a cluster of inexpensive tags within
a one or two-mile radius of each base station.
Woz Net includes a home-based station that has
the ability to track the location of dozens or even
hundreds of small wireless devices that can be
attached to people, pets or property. The devices
or tags will be able to generate alerts, notifying
the owner by phone or e-mail message when a
child arrives at school, a dog leaves the yard, or
a car leaves the parking lot.
Fujitsus K computer installed at the

RIKEN Advanced Institute for Computational
Science (AICS) in Kobe, Japan, is now the No. 4
system with a performance of 10.51 Pflop/s on
the Linpack benchmark using 705,024 SPARC64
processing cores. A second BlueGene/Q system,
Mira, installed at Argonne National Laboratory
is at No. 5 with 8.59 petaflop/s on the Linpack
benchmark using 786,432 cores. The latest
number cruncher is capable of operating at so
called Petaflop speeds - the equivalent of 1,000
trillion calculations per second.The ultra
powerful machines will be used for complex
simulations to study everything from particle
physics to nanotechnology.
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all the prototype program is designed to be

particularly useful for computer users who are
unable to type using a conventional keyboard.
Supercomputerss of the World
The list of supercomputers was announced

on June 17, 2013 during the opening session of
the 2013 International Supercomputing
Conference in Leipzig, Germany. Tianhe-2, a
supercomputer developed by Chinas National
University of Defense Technology, is the worlds
new No. 1 system with a performance of 33.86
petaflop/s on the Linpack benchmark, according
to the 41st edition of the twice-yearly TOP500
list of the worlds most powerful supercomputers.
Tianhe-2, or Milky Way-2, will be deployed
at the National Supercomputer Center in
Guangzho, China, by the end of 2013. Tianhe-2
has 16,000 nodes, each with two Intel Xeon
IvyBridge processors and three Xeon Phi
processors for a combined total of 3,120,000
computing cores.
Titan, a Cray XK7 system installed at the U.S.

Department of Energys (DOE) Oak Ridge
National Laboratory and previously the No. 1
system, is now ranked No. 2. Titan achieved
17.59 petaflop/s on the Linpack benchmark
using 261,632 of its NVIDIA K20x accelerator
cores. Titan is one of the most energy efficient
systems on the list, consuming a total of 8.21 MW
and delivering 2,143 Mflops/W.
Sequoia, an IBM BlueGene/Q system
installed at DOEs Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, also dropped one position and is
now the No. 3 system. Sequoia was first delivered
in 2011 and has achieved 17.17 petaflop/s on
the Linpack benchmark using 1,572,864 cores.
[54]
Blue Gene Project: Blue Gene is an IBM

Research project dedicated to exploring the
frontiers in supercomputing: in computer
architecture, in the software required to
program and control massively parallel
systems, and in the use of computation to
advance our understanding of important
biological processes such as protein folding. IBM
and its collaborators are currently exploring a
growing list of applications, including
hydrodynamics, quantum chemistry, molecular
dynamics, climate modeling and financial
modeling.
Param Yuva II
Param Yuva II was developed by the Centre

for Development of Advanced Computing (CDAC) and inaugurated on February 8, 2013.
Param Yuva II is the first supercomputer that
has crossed 500 teraflops in computing power
in the country. Param Yuva II is the fastest
supercomputer in India and 62nd fastest in the
world. The supercomputer also promises to be
energy efficient with 35 per cent reduction in
energy consumption as compared to the earlier
facility.
The supercomputer is expected to be of great

help to the scientific community. Industries like
pharmaceuticals, bio informatics, aeronautical
engineering will also benefit. Seismic data
processing can be done much more efficiently
with this new computer. The main users of the
supercomputer would be the scientific institutes,
research laboratories and universities.
The supercomputer would also help in

reducing the time-frame in weather predictions.
If researchers currently collect satellite data to
predict the conditions for a six-km region, the
supercomputer could help cover a wider region,
may be up to 10 km.
Worlds TOP 10 Supercomputers for June
2013
Tianhe-2 (MilkyWay-2)
2.
Titan
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1.
To mark a decisive step forward in research,

the good results obtained by the use of special
sheets of perforated stainless steel which is
proving able to lead effectively terahertz
radiation (the portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum that is between microwaves and
infrared, and whose wavelength is between 1
mm and 100 micrometers). As described in the
study of Ajay Nahata, these sheets will be the
matrix on which to build the future of computer
circuits.
3.
Sequoia
4.
K computer
5.
Mira
6.
Stampede
7.
JUQUEEN
8.
Vulcan
9.
SuperMUC
10. Tianhe-1A
EKA Supercomputer
EKA is a supercomputer built by the

Computational Research Laboratories with
technical assistance and hardware provided by
Hewlett-Packard. When it was installed in
November 2007, it was the 4th fastest in the
world, and fastest in Asia.
EKA has 1,794 computing nodes and has a
theoretical peak performance of 172.2 Teraflops
(tflops or trillion floating point operations per
second) and a sustained performance of 132.8
teraflops based on the LINPACK benchmarks
which are used by the worldwide community
to rank supercomputers based on performance.
Presently, it is ranked at 291.
Infrared Supercomputer
The University of Utah is implementing a

computer that makes use of terahertz radiation
instead of electricity. It will be the first computer
powered by infrared rays rather than electricity,
a super-computer capable of operating at
terahertz radiation (far-infrared), the only still
unexplored frontier in the electromagnetic
spectrum. It is being developed by a group of
scientists at the University of Utah. It will
probably require ten years of work to be
completed. Currently, the groups of scientists are
making waveguides, the appropriate channels
that will convey radiation and transmit it from
one point to another.
The possible use of these radiations so far has

escaped both electronics and optics. According
to the researchers these will allow the
development of fast and extraordinarily devices,
with efficient performance from sensors used in
anti-terrorism controls to next generation
computers and data transfer via the Internet.
Manual mask-making facilities exist in many
organisations of the country. The current
capability in the country in mask fabrication is
based on pattern generator and photoreceptor
which have been in regular use at Bharat
Electronics Limited (BEL), Bangalore for several
years now and lately at CEERI, Pilani. Both the
organisations have CAD facilities as well, which
generate the mask drawings on magtapes. These
serve as the input to the pattern generator which
generates the pattern on a high resolution glass
plate for making working masks.
About a dozen organisations in the country
have facilities for fabricating Hybrid Micro
Circuits (HMCs) primarily for in-house use. BEL
and ITI have been regularly producing HMCs
for the last few years. While BEL has produced
hybrids for several application areas eg. Audio
frequency amplifiers, radio frequency amplifiers;
ITI has mostly concentrated on communication
circuits . Another public sector, Electronics
Corporation of India Ltd., Hyderabad has a
modest facility for simple circuits.
Earth Simulator
The Earth Simulator was developed at the

Earth Simulator Center in Yokohama, Japan.
The Earth Simulator was a highly parallel vector
supercomputer for running global climate
models to evaluate the effects of global warming
and problems in solid earth geophysics. The
system was developed for Japan Aerospace
[55]
Exploration Agency, Japan Atomic Energy

Research Institute, and Japan Marine Science and
Technology Centre (JAMSTEC) in 1997.
Construction started in October 1999, and the
site officially opened on March 11, 2002. The
project cost 60 billion yen.
In fact, the practical demonstration of a

computer based on the laws of quantum physics
has created quite a flutter in the computing
world. Playing with the complexities of nuclear
physics and juggling sub-atomic particles,
researches at IBM recently proved that a
quantum computer can actually work, and may
outperform the conventional computers by a
large margin. According to the scientists at IBMs
Research Centre in San Jose, it took just a single
step to solve a mathematical problem that would
take a conventional computer up to four distinct
steps to handle. This experiment was described
as the first experiment to confirm theoretical
predictions made earlier that building a working
machine based on quantum computing
principles was possible.
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The Earth Simulator supercomputer took the

No. 1 spot in June 2002 with a performance of
35.86 Tflop/s (trillions of calculations per
second) running the Linpack benchmark
almost five times higher than the performance
of the IBM ASCI White system that had stood at
the top of the previous three lists. Earth Simulator
was the fastest supercomputer in the world from
2002 to 2004. Its capacity was surpassed by IBM's
Blue Gene/L prototype on September 29, 2004.
faster than todays most powerful supercomputers.
For now, the Earth Simulator is being used

to track global sea temperatures, rainfall and
crustal movement to predict natural disasters.
The computer can already predict the path of a
typhoon or a volcanic corruption with
remarkable precision. It was able to run holistic
simulations of global climate in both the
atmosphere and the oceans down to a resolution
of 10 km.
QUANTUM COMPUTERS
What is quantum computing?
Quantum computing is essentially

harnessesing and exploiting the amazing laws
of quantum mechanics to process information.
A traditional computer uses long strings of bits,
which encode either a zero or a one. A quantum
computer, on the other hand, uses quantum bits,
or qubits. Well a qubit is a quantum system that
encodes the zero and the one into two
distinguishable quantum states. But, because
qubits behave quantumly, we can capitalize on
the phenomena of superposition and
entanglement.
Researchers have for the first time succeeded

in building the first working computers based
on the principles of quantum mechanics. The
discovery has touched off a wave of excitement
among physicists and computer scientists and is
leading dozens of research centres worldwide
to embark on similar experiments heralding the
advent of an era of so-called quantum
computers-specialised machines that may one
day prove thousands or even millions of times
[56]
In future, this research will help surpass

contemporary silicon-based computer and chip
architecture, taking advantage of some of the
findings of 20th century physics, particularly, the
notion that the same sub-atomic particle can exist
in two seemingly opposite quantum states. As a
matter of fact, the quantum computer used by
the IBM team works precisely on the principle
of dual states-a phenomenon not possible with
conventional silicon chips.
The IBM experiment offers a glimpse of what

could become a critical computing technology
of the future, particularly, suited to handling
elaborate security codes and solving certain types
of mathematical problems that tend to baffle
conventional computers. A quantum computer
could help computer engineers simulate the
behaviour of conventional computers based on
such tiny transistors. Unlike todays
conventional computers, which are assembled
from arrays of millions of digital switches that
can be rapidly switched on and off, quantum
computers are assembled from moleculerized
units known as qubits.
Although there are still major hurdles to be

overcome before quantum computers can be
applied to general problems, yet undoubtedly,
its emergence could have a profound impact on
modern cryptography. Despite its promise and
recent progress, the scientists acknowledged that
there is much work left to do to create
commercially or scientifically useful quantum
computers.
Photonic Quantum Computers: A brighter solution. The promise of DNA computing is

massive parallelism: with a given setup and
future than ever
enough DNA, one can potentially solve huge

problems by parallel search. This can be much
faster than a conventional computer, for which
massive parallelism would require large amounts
of hardware, not simply more DNA.
This biological nano-Computer was
created by a group of scientists headed by Mr.
Ehud Shapiro, a Professor at the Weizmann
Institute of Science, Israel. They have devised
that the computer can perform 330 trillion
operations per second, more than 100,000 times
the speed of the fastest PC.
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Quantum computers work by manipulating

quantum objects as, for example, individual
photons, electrons or atoms and by harnessing
the unique quantum features. Not only do
quantum computers promise a dramatic
increase in speed over classical computers in a
variety of computational tasks; they are designed
to complete tasks that even a supercomputer
would not be able to handle. Although, in recent
years, there has been a rapid development in
quantum technology the realization of a fullsized quantum computer is still very challenging.
While it is still an exciting open question which
architecture and quantum objects will finally
lead to the outperformance of conventional
supercomputers, current experiments show that
some quantum objects are better suited than
others for particular computational tasks.
Computational power of photons: The huge

advantage of photons -- a particular type of
bosons -- lies in their high mobility. The research
team from the University of Vienna in
collaboration with scientist from the University
of Jena (Germany) has recently realized a socalled boson sampling computer that utilizes
precisely this feature of photons. They inserted
photons into a complex optical network where
they could propagate along many different
paths. According to the laws of quantum Physics,
the photons seem to take all possible paths at
the same time. This is known as superposition.
The living cell contains incredible molecular

machines that manipulate information encoding molecules available in the form of
Codon (specific arrangement of DNA). In this
way these devices are fundamentally very similar
to computation.
1.
DNA can be used to compute a class of

problems that are difficult or impossible
to solve using traditional computing
methods.
2.
It is an example of computation at a
molecular level, potentially a size limit that
may never be reached by the
semiconductor industry.
3.
Data density of DNA is impressive.
4.
DNA has enormous power of parallel

processing. In one fiftieth of a teaspoon
of a solution, approximately 1014 DNA
flight numbers were simultaneously
concatenated in one second. Probably not
even the fastest supercomputer available
today could accomplish such a task so
quickly.
5.
Molecular computers also have the

potential for extraordinary energy
efficiency. In principle, one Joule is
sufficiently for approximately 21019
ligation operations. This remarkable
considering that the second law of
thermodynamics dictates a theoretical
maximum of 341019 (irreversible)
operations per joule (at roomtemperature). Existing supercomputers are
far less efficient, executing at most 1019
operations per Joule.
DNA COMPUTER
A group of scientists have developed a

computing device using a trillion living cells. This
device is so small that it can fit in a drop of water.
DNA computing, also known as molecular
computing, is a new approach to massively
parallel computation. This microscopic computer
uses enzymes as hardware, which in turn
manipulates DNA molecules as software. This
Computer, creating a Single mathematical
computing machine, is called a finite automation.
A DNA computer is basically a collection of

specially selected DNA strands whose
combinations will result in the solution to some
problem. Technology is currently available both
to select the initial strands and to filter the final
[57]
signals and vice versa.

(vi) This connection is important for the
further development of an interface
between DNA logic gates and electronic
devices, enabling the connection of
biological systems with electrical circuits.
PHASE-CHANGE MEMORY CHIPS

Phase-change memory chips, an emerging
storage technology, could soon dethrone flash
memory in smartphones, cameras and laptops.
The technology relies on special substances
called phase-change materials (PCMs). These are
materials, such as salt hydrates, that are capable
of storing and releasing large amounts of energy
when they move from a solid to a liquid state
and back again. Traditionally they have been
used in cooling systems and, more recently, in
solar-thermal power stations, where they store
heat during the day that can be released to
generate power at night. PCM memory chips rely
on glass-like materials called chalcogenides,
typically made of a mixture of germanium,
antimony and tellurium.
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Future: The potential of molecular computation is impressive. Researchers are now

acknowledging that it would be better if
molecular computation is aimed at information
processing on molecular scale. Its applications
in biotechnology and nano-technology have
already started. In a DNA computer, the input
tape and the output tape are the two strands of
DNA attached to the surface of a chip. They have
further proposed to use intelligent DNA chips
that can perform logical reasoning and learning
by using DNA computation. Nano-technology
is another such area.
Interestingly, a molecular machine which

can measure its environmental factors and
process information technology can be designed,
then such a computing device implanted within
a living body will be able to integrate signals from
several sources and compute a response in terms
of an organic delivery device for a drug or a
signal- a dream application of natures own
molecule in medical science.
DNA-based logic circuits

(i)
(ii)
DNA computation is an emerging field

that enables the assembly of complex
circuits based on defined DNA logic gates.
DNA-based logic gates have previously

been operated through purely chemical
means, controlling logic operations
through DNA strands or other
biomolecules. Although gates can operate
through this manner, it limits temporal
and spatial control of DNA-based logic
operations.
(iii) A photochemically controlled DNA gate

was developed through the incorporation
of caged thymidine nucleotides into a
DNA-based logic gate.
PCM memory chips have several advantages

over flash memory, which works by:
Trapping electrons in an enclosure called

a floating gate, built on top of a
modified form of transistor.
The value stored in each cell is 1 or 0.
Some prototype PCM memory devices can

store and retrieve data 100 times faster
than flash memory.
It is extremely durable, capable of being

written and rewritten at least 10m times.
Accordingly, flash memory needs special

controllers to keep track of which parts
of the chip have become unreliable, so they
can be avoided. This increases the cost
and complexity of flash, and slows it
down.
PCM offers greater potential for future

miniaturisation than flash.
As flash-memory cells get smaller and

devices become denser, the number of
electrons held in the floating gate
decreases.
(iv) By using light as the logic inputs, both

spatial control and temporal control were
achieved.
(v)
[58]
In addition, design rules for lightregulated DNA logic gates were derived.
A step-response, which can be found in a
controller, was demonstrated. Photochemical inputs close the gap between
DNA computation and silicon-based
electrical circuitry, since light waves can
be directly converted into electrical output
INTERNET
Optical or Photonic computing is intended

to use photons or light particles, produced by
lasers or diodes, in place of electrons. Compared
to electrons, photons have a higher bandwidth.
Presently, computers use the movement of
electrons in-and-out of transistors to do logic.
Most research projects focus on replacing current
computer components with optical equivalents,
resulting in an optical digital computer system
processing binary data.
Internet is an inter-networked system of

computers that allows free flow of information
from one part of the network to any other,
provided the information is packaged according
to certain conventions. The Internet, however,
was intimidating arena till now. Its gates were
open only to those who had mastered computer
commands. But, with the introduction of World
Wide Web (WWW) in 1989, there is no need to
master the computer command. On this web,
anyone can create a home page, which millions
of users can watch on their computers and
respond.
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OPTICAL COMPUTING
This approach appears to offer best shortterm prospects for commercial optical
computing, since optical components could be
integrated into traditional computers to produce
an optical or electronic hybrid. However,
optoelectronic devices lose 30 per cent of their
energy converting electrons into photons and
back. This also slows down transmission of
messages. All-optical computers eliminate the
need for optical-electrical-optical (OEO)
conversions.
SIMPUTER
The word 'Simputer' is an acronym for

'simple, inexpensive and multilingual people's
computer'. Simputer is a low cost hand held
computing device which can offer inexpensive
and efficient information and networking
environment for people who are on the wrong
side of the digital divide. The simple computer
or simputer runs on three AAA batteries or
direct power supply. With memory capabilities
of 32 MB RAM and a GNU/Linux operating
system, it is more powerful than a palmtop.
Further, it can be connected to internet and
peripherals like keyboard or mouse can also be
added. Besides, Simputer has text to speech
capabilities in several Indian languages, text and
editing functions, portable literacy instructor,
voice messages, use of smart card facility for
commercial transactions, etc. The Simputer can
be put to a range of uses like micro banking
through cooperatives and post offices, railway
ticketing, data collection, sales automation, in
education and literacy programmes. Simputers
are generally used in environments where
computing devices such as PCs cannot be used.
In fact, the web is a hyper-media information

storage system linking resources around the
world. Browsers allow highlighted words or
icons, called hyper-links, to display text, video,
graphics and sound on a local computer screen,
no matter where resource is actually located.
Application: Nowadays, the importance of

Internet is so profound that it penetrates every
walk of human life. Marketing in global village
is now a reality due to Internet. Few years back,
it was just a medium for exchange of academic
information and was used mostly by
academicians and commerce. Today, all sorts of
transactions and business deals are being
conducted on Net.
On-line banks are being set up to service
clients through the Net. A wide range of services
are now being offered through the Net deposits,
loans, transfer of funds etc. Net sites act as single
window for virtual shop and offer gateways to
the web-sites of scores of other shops.
Publishing business is thriving on the Net.
Publishers are using the Net to serve a portion
of the magazine to individual customers. On-line
travel agencies are able to provide the latest and
updated data of flight timing, hotel availability,
reservations in train etc. to the homes their
customers and, thereby, enabling the customers
to perform all the transactions in the shape of
movies, music, sports etc.
Internet in India: In India, Videsh Sanchar

Nigam Limited (VSNL) provides Internet services
since August 1995. These services which were
offered initially from the four metros of Mumbai,
New Delhi, Kolkata and Chennai, found
[59]
excellent demand and were soon expanded to

cover a network of 42 nodes being operated by
the Department of Telecommunications (DOT)
and VSNL by 1998.
FPX: Filed-programmable Port Extender

(FPX) is a hardware platform that can stop
malicious software (malware) such as viruses and
worms long before it reaches computers. John
Lockwood, a computer scientist at Washington
University, has developed it. The FPX can scan
each and every byte of every data packet
transmitted through a network at a rate of 2.4
billion bits per second. The FPX uses the Field
Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) Circuits to
scan computer viruses and worms quickly.
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6th November 1998 was a landmark day in

the history of Internet in India, when a
revolutionary new policy was unveiled. The
policy permits unlimited number of Internet
players with no licence fees for the first five
years, thus setting the stage for a completely
deregulated operating environment. VSNL offers
two types of services for Internet users:
themselves, without having to make calls to

service centres or install additional chunks of
software.
(i)
(ii)
Shell account in which one can have only

text access and cannot download
graphics; and
TCP/IP account in which one can have
access to graphics as well. It is more
efficient and, therefore, more expensive.
The Indian Internet scene is headed for a

radical change in the years ahead, with the
National Association of Software and Services
Companies (NASSCOM) predicting a massive
increase in the number of Internet users.
With the arena now clear for a deregulated
and open playing ground for ISPs, the stage is
set for the rapid growth of Internet in India.
However, the growth will be critically dependent
on how some of the factors such as requirement
of access lines and national backbone
connectivity are addressed.
In 2013, India ranked third in the number of

active users next only to China and US, the
overall Internet penetration in the country is 11
per cent. India on last count had 120 million
active Internet users, up from 81 million users in
2010. According to 2013 global Internet World
Stats report, around 2.7 billion people are using
the Internet world wide which corresponds to
39 per cent of the worlds population.
Real Time Service Management: Real Time

Service Management is software developed by
California based company SupportSoft in
December 2003. It enables computer makers to
provide automated support and remote
correction of faults to millions of users of Personal
Computers (PCs), laptops and pocket computers.
The core of the RTSM is a solution, called
Resolution Suite, which when embedded in
user devices, will help them to proactively heal
[60]
In much the same way that a human virus

spreads between people that come in contact,
computer viruses and Internet worms spread
when computers come in contact over the
Internet. Viruses spread when a computer user
downloads unsafe software, opens a malicious
attachment, or exchanges infected computer
programmes over a network. Existing technologies do little to stop the virus or worm spread.
Internet for the Blind

Computing (C-DAC) and companies like
Kolkata-based Webel Mediatronics have
developed computer software and hardware
that would enable the visually handicapped to
access Internet. Microsoft has opened two cyber
cafes in Mumbai and Delhi that provide specially
designed software and hardware to allow the
blind to use Internet. The Delhi cyber cafe is
equipped with state-of-the-art technology,
including a JAWS software that allows the
visually impaired to surf the net by voice enabling
both input and output commands. The various
tools developed by the C-DAC and Kolkatabased Webel Mediatronics are:
Vachanter: This Text-to-speech software
developed by C-DAC enables the user to browse
through websites through listening.
Text to Braille: It can convert text in any
format to Braille and store it on the computer.
Tactile Device: It is an alternative to paper

prints of Braille material.
Braille to Text: It is a software that enables
blind people to enter data in braille using a 6
key keyboard.
Braille Printer: It is a PC-based embosser.
Ipv6
Indian Internet service providers and
Government agencies have decided to adopt a
new Net protocol which will enable creation of
trillions of new Internet addresses. The new net
protocol is known as Internet Protocol version 6
(IPv6), it will offer improved address space,
quality of service and data security capabilities.
The Indian software and services industry

has emerged as one of the fastest growing sectors
in the Indian economy. IT services exports is the
fastest growing segment, growing by 19 per cent
in FY2012, to account for exports of USD 40
billion. IT services is the fastest growing segment
in the Indian domestic market, growing by 18
per cent to reach Rs 589 billion, driven by
increasing focus by service providers.
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All Government Web sites would migrate to

the new Internet protocol being adopted globally
by 2013. The Department of Telecom stated that
27 websites have already been brought on IPv6
platform in India. Globally, several companies,
including Google and Facebook have switched
to the new IP version. Indian telecom companies
will also move to the new system over the next
few months.
of growth for the Indian IT industry. This

segment is poised to grow very rapidly, worldwide, over the next few years. The ITITES
industry has two major components: IT
Services and Business Process Outsourcing
(BPO). The growth in the service sector in India
has been led by the ITITES sector, contributing
substantially to increase in GDP, employment,
and exports.
The new version of internet protocol is

necessary to prevent the Internet running out of
available addresses for new devices. India at
present has 35 million IPv4 addresses against a
user base of about 360 million data users and
Government has a target of 160 million and 600
million broadband customers by 2017 and 2020,
respectively.
The existing technology IPv4 is already
getting choked and expected to run out of space
soon as consumers increasingly use broadband
and Net services on mobile devices. The IPv6 has
an in-built security protocol called IPSec, which
authenticates and secures all IP data. The data
carrying capacity of IPv6 networks is also going
to be higher.
IT IN INDIA
Over the years, Indian IT service offerings

have evolved from application development and
maintenance, to emerge as full service players
providing testing services, infrastructure
services, consulting and system integration. The
coming of a new decade heralds a strategic shift
for IT services organisations, from a one factory,
one customer model to a one factory, all
customers model. Central to this strategy is the
growing customer acceptance of Cloud-based
solutions which offer best in class services at
reduced capital expenditure levels.
The ITES sector has emerged as a key driver
According to NASSCOM, the ITBPO sector

has increased its contribution to India's GDP from
1.2 per cent in FY1998 to 7.5 per cent in
FY2012. The ITBPO sector in India aggregated
revenues of US$100 billion in FY2012, where
export and domestic revenue stood at US$69.1
billion and US$31.7 billion respectively, growing
by over 9 per cent. Aggregate IT software and
services revenue (excluding hardware) is
estimated at USD 88 billion.
Software Technology Parks of India (STPI):
STPI centres act as single-window in providing
services to the software exporters and incubation
infrastructure to Small and Medium Enterprises
(SMEs). The STP Scheme has been extremely
successful in fostering the growth of the software
industry. The exports made by STP Units have
grown manifolds over the years.
STPI has established new centres including
High speed Data Communication facilities at
Puducherry, Nasik, Thirunelveli, Allahabad and
Kolhapur. STPI is also executing Cyber City
Project of Government of Mauritius. The STPI
Scheme is lauded as one of the most effective
schemes for the promotion of exports of IT and
ITES. The 51 STPI centres that have been set up
since inception of the programme have given a
major boost to IT and ITES exports.
National Informatics Centre (NIC): NIC

provides informatics services for decision support
to government offices/bodies at national, state,
district and block levels. It offers network services
[61]
over Ku-band Wireless Metropolitan Area

Network (MANs) and Local Area Networks
(LANs), with NICNET gateway for Internet
resources, facilitating informatics services for
decentralised planning, improvement in
government services, and wider transparency of
national and local governments
CYBER SECURITY IN INDIA
National Cyber Security Policy 2013

On July 2, 2013, the Union Government
released its ambitious National Cyber Security
Policy 2013. The development of the policy was
prompted by a variety of factors, including the
growth of Indias information technology
industry, an increasing number of cyber attacks
and the countrys ambitious plans for rapid
social transformation. The policy sets forth 14
diverse objectives that range from enhancing the
protection of Indias critical infrastructure, to
assisting the investigation and prosecution of
cyber crime, to developing 500,000 skilled
cybersecurity professionals over the next five
years.
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The impact of information communication

technology is being realised day by day in India.
There has been visible introduction of ICT across
the country of one billion plus population. One
of the hallmarks of the fledging ministry was get
Parliament to enact the Information Technology
Act (IT Act) 2000. This Act gave the legal
sanctity to electronic commerce in the country
and also provided for some basic laws and
regulations to address the usage of the internet
medium.
interaction among global communication

in more avenues of participation.
National e-Governance Plan (NEGP):

Today the number of internet users in country is
growing rapidly and it would grow much further
as connectivity charges reduce and multilingual
applications become more prevalent and user
friendly. The present efforts to implement the
robust National e-Governance Plan (NEGP) by
the central government will also see a major user
base for internet based application in the country.
(i)
(ii)
There are quite a few advantages for a

major thrust towards on online regime
that includes e-governance and ecommerce initiatives.
There would be major impact on bringing
efficiency into the system and also
reducing public corruption.
(iii) The potential of internet to reach the

masses as a medium for information
dissemination in far-flung areas is long
very strong.
(iv) Internet reduces a lot of the transaction

time and costs, as is witness in the real
world and that way it adds to national
productivity and wealth.
(v)
More and more critical systems are

depending on Internet and this helps in
realising many basic requirements of life.
(vi) There is a major social dimension to the

spread of the Internet. There is more social
[62]
To accomplish these objectives, the policy

details numerous action items for the Indian
government, including:
(i)
Designating a national agency

coordinate all cybersecurity matters;
to
(ii)
Encouraging all private and public

organizations to designate a Chief
Information Security Officer responsible
for cybersecurity;
(iii) Developing a dynamic legal framework

to address cybersecurity challenges in the
areas of cloud computing, mobile
computing and social media;
(iv) Operating a National Critical Information
Infrastructure Protection Center;
(v)
Promoting research and development in

cybersecurity;
(vi) Enhancing global cooperation

combatting cybersecurity threats;
in
(vii) Fostering education and training

programs in cybersecurity; and
(viii) Establishing public and private partnerships
to determine best practices in cybersecurity.
National Information Board
The National Information Board is the

highest policy making body for cyber security
and is was set up in the year 2002 and is chaired
by the National Security Adviser. The NIB acts
Computer Emergency Response Team

The Indian Computer Emergency Response
Team (CERT-In) is a government-mandated
information technology (IT) security
organization. The purpose of CERT-In is to
respond to computer security incidents, report
on vulnerabilities and promote effective IT
security practices throughout the country. CERTIn was created by the Indian Department of
Information Technology in 2004 and operates
under the auspices of that department.
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as the highest policy formulation body at the level

and periodically reports to the cabinet committee
on security of the Government of India, headed
by the Prime Minister. The NIB consists of 21
members most of them are secretaries of the
government of India of various ministries. Two
organizations support the NIB directly. The
National Technology Research Organisation
(NTRO) to provide technical cyber security and
intelligence and the National Security Council
Secretariat (NSCS) for coordinating cybersecurity activities across the country, covering
both the public and private sectors.
Directly below the NIB are the Information
Infrastructure Protection Centre, followed by
state cyber police stations and the Computer
Followed by state sectoral-level CERTS. Many
of the states are actively considering setting up
cyber police stations and cyber labs.
The NIB has entrusted the National Security

Council Secretariat (NSCS) with the role of
working on cyberspace security. Again the
(NISCC) within its organisation is there to
provide necessary inputs to NIB for its
functioning.
The role of the DIT under NOCIT is also

significant. It acts as the public interface of the
government with the general public and the
international community as far as IT Policies in
India is concerned. The DITs role in the internet
governance efforts of the UN is also laudatory,
as it has also stressed the need for securing the
cyberspace. Some of the relevant initiatives and
strategies of DIT over the years have been:
Promotion of the internet and provision

of IT infrastructure.
Development of the IT Act legislation and

the proposed amendments.
Promotion of standardization testing and

quality in IT.
Establishment of an Information Security

Technology Development Council
(ISTDC).
Creation of a National Information

Security Assurance Framework.
Establishment of an Inter Ministerial

working group.
According to the provisions of the

Information Technology Amendment Act 2008,
CERT-In is responsible for overseeing
administration of the Act. Basically CERT is a
normative term and it is based everywhere. For
India it is called as CERT-In. CERT organizations
throughout the world are independent entities,
although there may be coordinated activites
among groups. The first CERT group was formed
in the United States at Carnegie Mellon
University.
Computer Immunology
On a microscopic scale, biology resembles

computing: bases and genes correspond to bits
and bytes, based on certain rules. Conversely,
on a macroscopic scale, computing resembles
biology: the internet is like a vast ecosystem
where all kinds of digital organisms thrive.
The application of computing in biology, in
the genome era, is well known. There is, however,
traffic in the other direction as well. A US digital
security company, Sana Security of San Mateo,
California, has devised a way to use
immunological principles to spot computer
security breaches. Sanas idea is based on the
ability to mimic the natural immune systems to
differentiate self from non-self.
Once installed, the Sana system monitors the
behaviour of specific programs running on a
computer, such as remote - login, web, mail and
database servers. Most attacks take advantage
of the flaw in these programs to gain unauthorized access to a computer over the course of a
day a so, the Sanas Primary Response builds up
a profile of normal activity by looking at the
patterns of system cells, just as an immune system
builds up a profile of self.
Any significant deviation from this profile is
[63]
then regarded as an attack. When an attack is

detected, Primary Response can block all file
access associated with the program under attack
and prevent new programs from being launched.
In addition, it also gathers forensic data, such as
file-access details to work out what happened.
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This approach has many advantages.

Intrusion - detection system, the popular
alternative to primary response, have a
reputation of crying wolf. They generate, for
instance, thousands of alerts every month. In
that event, it is indeed difficult to distinguish a
genuine attack from a false alarm. In contrast,
Primary Response tends to generate only a
handful of false alarms a month. The other
advantage is that Primary Response is not
knowledge based. That is, it does not rely on
assumptions about the nature of an attack. It
works by distinguishing normal self from
abnormal non-self behaviour.
achieve one-micron capability of research and

development to enable the fabrication of one
million components of a chip by 1990. The major
elements of this programme include the setting
up of a centre of excellence to provide a major
thrust in research on process technology
establishing a number of decentralized design
centres both to implement the silicon foundry
concept and to develop Computer Aided Design
(CAD) facilities for VLSI.
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONICS &

COMPUTER NETWORK IN INDIA
Electronics System: The manufacture of

radio receivers in the early 1950s heralded the
beginning of electronics industry in India. Since
then considerable progress has been made and
the industrys range now extends from
manufacture of consumer and professional
grade electronic components to the design and
development of sophisticated equipment for
aerospace and defence applications.
The country is now gearing itself to meet the
challenge of the electronics revolution during the
rest of the decade. From a predominantly
consumer oriented industry electronics had
diversified to include advanced systems
governing
computers,
controls
and
instrumentation besides telecommunication
using advanced technology in integrated circuits.
The country entered the Large Scale

Integrated (LSI) circuits/ Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits era in March 1984
with the trial production of the pulse dialer chip
by the public sector Semiconductor Complex
Limited (SCL). With an outlay of Rs 500 million
the plant has contemporary facilities to fabricate
the latest types of silicon chips.
In the longer perspective the task force on
LSI/VLSI had formulated as a goal the need to
[64]
The state-owned, Bharat Electronics Limited

(BEL), which produced the integrated circuits
in 1971, has manufactured over 50 types of
bipolar ICS so far. These include 20 types of TTL
version and the remaining the linear type for
application in TV, AM/FM radio, multiplexing
applications and voltage regulators, besides, it
has fabricated a prototype watch chip with LSI
capability while BEL has a vertical integrated
facility covering design mask making wafer
fabrication assembly and testing up to the level
of MSI. SCL is building up a comprehensive
production level and R & D base up to the level
LSIs/VLSIs.
Besides there are several other organisations
in the industrial and R & D sectors having
strengths of various degrees in some or all
segments of the technology. These include
Central Electronics Engineering Research
Institute at Pilani, Tata Institute of Fundamental
research, Bombay and Indian Telephone
Industries, Bangalore. In the academic sector,
Indian Institute of Technology at Bombay, Delhi,
Kanpur, Kharagpur and Madras have got fairly
extensive facilities.
Computer Systems: As regards computer

systems, the state owned Electronics Corporation
of India Limited (ECIL) has made a significant
contribution in manufacturing computer systems
for example, 332 bit computer system. 332 has
been developed and manufactured indigenously.
ECIL has also demonstrated the system for its
remote graphic capability. The company has
developed special purpose hardware and
software for a number of applications such as
telephone directory enquiry, airlines flight data
recording, criminal report generation of police
and message switching.
Recognizing the important role of telemetric

and allied technologies which provide means for
communication with the masses the Government
has set up a Centre for Development of

Telematics (C-DOT) to develop digital electronic
switching systems.
While Artificial Intelligence enthusiasts are

grappling with the problems of making
computers more intelligent and creative, what
has been happening to computer technology in
general? In the recent past, major thrust has been
in making computers smaller, cheaper and more
robust. Advances in microelectronics technology
have made it possible to achieve all these three
objectives at the same time.
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NICNET: As a forerunner the Electronics

Department has taken up a project on teletext
in cooperation with the Ministry of information
and Broadcasting. Through this network certain
information of public relevance are to be
transmitted along with Doordarshan
transmission. The software required for data
creation updating and maintenance is being
developed by the National Information Centre
(NIC) of the Department of Electronics on an
indigenous Computer. NIC provides computer
based management information system services
and related support facilities to various ministries,
departments and other offices of the
government. It has developed a star-type
computer network (NICNET) which links up 16
micro-computers and 20 interactive terminals
located in different offices in Delhi. The CDC
Cyber 170/730 system procured with assistance
from UNDP serves as the central node of this
network. The NIC Computer system is now
operational round the clock.
LATEST WORLDS TRENDS
For the first time in the country the NIC has

developed computerized information based on
bibliographic data available from the
International Patent Documentation Centre
(INPADOC), Vienna. The system creates
information and multiplied index directory files
which facilitate faster and efficient retrieval of
patent documents according to the International
Patent classification code, date and year of
publication and title of the document. These
bibliographic information can be obtained
interactively or in a batch mode.
In a step towards data processing NIC is
setting up the INDONET, which is an integrated
information management and distribution data
processing facility spanning the entire country.
Under the project a computer network is being
set up in Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and
Hyderabad. It will provide local computing
facilities to small and medium sectors, highly
specialised software in areas of engineering
designs, structural analysis, and management
sciences. The professional organisation may share
this sophisticated diversified system for
developing software for export.
It is quite clear that even the most user

friendly computer is at present so difficult to use
for most people. Our normal mode of interacting
with people involves a lot of hand waving. We
leave many things unsaid, taking advantage of
shared context and shared presuppositions. Life
would become impossible if instructing another
person requires specifying everything to the
minute detail, explicitly taking into account all
possible contingencies but this is precisely what
computers demand and what computer
programming is all about.
Indian Scene
How has computer technology transformed

the Indian scene in the last few years? After a
confused, hesitant and uncertain start the
transformation has certainly speeded up and
become visible in the last decade. At one level,
there is the official view of what has been
achieved. At the level of ordinary person at least
a handful of computer applications have made
a visible and high impact. By far the most
important of these in undoubtedly the
computerization of railway reservation for the
more effluent, computerized air reservation and
computerization of checking formalities at the
airports have certainly made air-travel less of a
hassle. Most hotels have computerized their
operations. Sales computerization in
departmental stores and supermarkets are
rapidly becoming the norm. Postal services,
banks, hospitals, and government transaction
with the ordinary public are yet to transform
themselves significantly through the use of
information technology.
Information technology (that is the
integrated use of computers and communication) is the basic needed to support the
service sector. For the ordinary citizen
[65]
improvement of services of all kinds is an

essential pre-requisite to improving the quality
of life but it is a pity that purposeful beginning
made in the early 80s to use information
technology to upgrade the quality of life in India
have been allowed to drift and languish for want
of committed government leadership.
Applications: One familiar use of the fibre

is in ornamental displays (i.e., lighting trees), but
more important is their use in examining interior
organs of the body and as economical substitutes
for telephone cables.
Medical instruments using fibre optics are
named according to the part of the body they
are designed to examine, e.g., bronchoscope
(bronchial tubes), cystoscope (bladder),
gastroscope (stomach), and sigmoidoscope
(lower large intestine). In all of these, a bundle
of fibres transmit light from an outside lamp to
illuminate the part of the body being examined.
Another bundle of several thousand fibres has
an objective lens at one end and an eyepiece lens
at the other. The objective lens forms an image
of the body part. This image is transmitted, point
by point, through the fibres to the eyepiece lens,
which magnifies the image.
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India pioneers in innovations aimed at

making the lives of common people easier at an
affordable price and Aakash is the step in that
direction. Aakash world's cheapest internet
device was conceived under the Human
Resources and Development Ministry's National
Mission on Education through Information and
Communication Technology (NME-ICT) to
provide students a device that could be used as
an E-book reader, to access online streaming
course material and web based research. Under
NME-ICT, the government intends to deliver 10
million tablets to post-secondary students across
India. This is a bold step in popularising
computer interfaced science experiments in
India.
total internal reflections. In fact, it is a system

for transmitting light through hair flexible rods
(i.e., fibres) made of transparent glass or plastic.
TELECOMMUNICATION SECTOR
FIBRE OPTICS
In the field of fibre optics, India is now poised

to become the first developing country to make
use of fibre optics-the new technology of
transmitting information with beams of light to
solve many problems being faced in
telecommunications industry and medicine.
It is a new technology that has enormously

increased mans capacity to move words,
pictures and data from place to place. Simply,
telephone conversations, television broadcasts,
computer data or any other message can be
translated into light wave and sent through glass
wires instead of the conventional technique of
translating them into electrical impulses and
sending them through copper wires. The
information, transmitted through optical fibres,
is in digital form as pulses of light. Tiny strands
of very pure glass, as thin as a human hair, can
carry up to 8000 simultaneous telephone calls
in a core just 1/200 millimetre across.
Fibre optics is the use of very fine transparent
fibres of glass with the purpose of transmitting
light. Light passes along the fibres by a series of
[66]
For telephone cables, glass fibres are used in

place of copper wires. A pair of hair-thin glass
fibres can carry several thousand conversations
at one time, replacing several hundred wires
within a cable-an enormous saving in space and
money. The telephone message, first converted
by a laser apparatus from electrical currents to
pulses of light are transmitted through the glass
fibre, and are then converted back to electrical
form at the far end. There they are sorted out
and sent on to their receiving destinations. Glass
fibres are also used for high-density phone lines
between major cities and for cross-channel
cables. Since glass fibre is electrically a nonconductor, it is not affected by electromagnetic
interference. They can be used in high explosives
as well as high-voltage environment as they are
immune to thunderstorms, lightning or large
electrical motors.
Photonic Band Gap making a Revolution
A team of scientists in the United Kingdom

developed a revolutionary super-effective optical
fibre that guides the light through a central hole,
which can dramatically upgrade the powercarrying capacity of optical fibres into the multikilowatt region. This fibre technology is the
worlds first multi-kilowatt single mode fibre.
Till now, a solid optical fibre can carry limited
raw laser power and at very high power, the
glass simply cannot cope with the intense fields

and is torn apart. However, with the
development of new optical fibres having a large
hole in the middle that potentially permits the
transmission of huge amounts of energy, the
problem has been solved. Traditionally, optical
fibres carry light through a glass core covered
by a cladding which prevents the light from
leaking out.
In India, the first optical fibre communication

system was set up in Pune, connecting Shivaji
Nagar and Cantonment Exchanges. Buried two
metres underground, the glass fibre imported
from Japan provided 120 telephone channels and
has been functioning without any fault since
1979. The Hindustan Cables Ltd. has started
manufacture of optic fibre cables at its Naini,
factory in Allahabad.
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In recent years, two new types of optical

fibres have revolutionised this dynamic field,
bringing with them a wide range of novel optical
properties. These new fibres, known collectively
as microstructured fibres, can be made entirely
from one type of glass as they do not rely on
dopants for guidance. Instead, the cladding
region is peppered with many small air holes,
that run the entire fibre length. These fibres are
typically separated into two classes, defined by
the way in which they guide light:
evaluation of communication grade fibre are

being done at the Indian Institute of Technology,
Delhi, and Central Scientific Instrument
Organisation (CSIO), Chandigarh. Research in
the field of launching optical signals and
detection of signals with imported sources is
going on in several institutions of the country.
Holey fibres, in which the core is solid

and light is guided by a modified form of
total internal reflection as the air holes
lower the effective refractive index of the
cladding relative to that of the solid core.
Photonic band-gap fibres, in which

guidance in a hollow core can be achieved
via photonic band-gap effects.
Optical-fibres in India: In India, over 22

research institutions are engaged in various
system aspects of optical fibres, communication
fibres and associated material technology. The
Telecommunication Research Centre in Delhi
has developed terminal equipment for a 120telephone channel system. The Centre for
Development of Telematics (C-DOT) has
developed a 128-line digital switching system.
The Indian Institute of Technology, New
Delhi has a facility for testing fibres and engaged
in perfecting already existing measurement
techniques and trying to develop new methods
to characterise fibres (pulse dispersion, refractive
index, profile measurement, etc.)
National Optical Fibre Network
The Department of Telecommunications

(DoT) on July 22, 2011 cleared creation of a
National Optical Fibre Network' (NOFN) with
an investment of Rs.20,000 crore that would
provide broadband connectivity to all village
panchayats in three years. The Telecom
Commission has approved the project that will
be funded through the Universal Service
Obligation (USO) Fund. The project will be
completed by 2014-15 through a special purpose
vehicle (SPV). The funding for the broadband
network will come from the USO fund, the USO
fund has a balance of Rs 16,000 crore.
NFON will also help the government
implement its various e-governance initiatives
such as e-health, e-banking and e-education,
facilitating inclusive growth. NOFN will enable
effective and faster implementation of various
mission mode e-governance projects amounting
to Rs.50,000 crore initiated by the Department
of Information Technology as well as delivery of
a whole range of electronic services by the private
sector to citizens in rural areas.
The Defence Solid State Physics Laboratory,

Delhi has succeeded in fabricating the galliumarsenide lasers, while CSIO is developing a
machine for drawing plastic-coated silica fibres.
Once completed, the optic fibre network will

help bring various electronic and Internet-based
initiatives of the government to the people living
in the remotest corner of the country. The
broadband project will initially be executed by
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited and other PSUs
like RailTel.
Research and development, and measurement technique related to characterisation and
Bharat Broadband Network Limited

(BBNL) was established in pursuit of a high-level
[67]
used to provide triple play (voice, video and

data). The present GPON standards specify 2.5
Gbps (Gigabit per second) downstream and 1.25
Gbps upstream data capability to customer
premise. Apart from urban areas, especially
multi-dwelling units, the large data carrying
capability is important for Indian villages too
where prevailing low literacy levels will
necessitate information with greater graphic and
audio content for better dissemination. It will
give a boost to broadband connectivity across
India.
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policy declaration of broadband for all by the

central government in 2009. BBNL would
implement National Optical Fibre Network
(NOFN), which is expected to open up the
gateway to rural development, by facilitating
implementation of the e-Government projects in
the social sectors like education, health, social
security, employment guarantee, financial and
banking services, all fostering inclusive growth
for rural India. It is further expected that this
would also provide a great fillip to private sector
for providing other services in the remote places
on a viable business model which is hitherto nonexistent.
Global Market
The global optical cable market posted 10 per

cent growth in 2012 with a stronger growth
forecasted in 2013. China now accounts for half
of global cabled-fibre deployments. The massive
cable deployments in China's FTTx projects and
wireless infrastructure were key drivers in the
global cable market's double-digit growth last
year. Other markets, Europe and North
America, saw a decline in growth due to
ongoing economic uncertainty and the spending
cycles for publicly financed broadband network
projects. Nevertheless, world optical cable
demand increased to 235 million fibre-km in
2012. China's growth in 2012 was approximately
20 per cent, and the forecast is for comparable
growth this year. Australia, India, Mexico,
Russia, and South Africa are other key markets
poised for 2013 growth. Fibre-to-the-Premises
(FTTP), Fibre-to-the-Home (FTTH), and Fibre-tothe-Building (FTTB) applications are some of the
key factors driving the demand for fibre optic
cables industry worldwide.
GPON Technology
In a move that would give the much-needed

push to broadband penetration in the country,
the Centre for Development of Telematics (CDoT) recently transferred indigenouslydeveloped Gigabit Passive Optical Network
(GPON) technology to seven telecom equipment
manufacturers, including private players. The
GPON technology is a pivotal component
required for broadband connectivity over optical
fibre.
The cost-effective GPON will prove to be a
game-changer technology for India. It can be
[68]
Besides, voice telephony, high speed Internet

access and IPTV, the C-DOT GPON has
provision to carry cable TV signal too, all on a
single optical fibre. Another important
advantage of GPON is that it can carry
information from a central office to subscribers
up to 60 km away without needing any
intermediate repeaters thus doing away with the
requirement of power, shelter and upkeep
services at the intermediate locations.
WI-MAX TECHNOLOGY
A new wireless technology, Wimax, can cost

effectively bring high speed internet services to
rural areas. With backers like Intel Corporation
and Fujitsu, the technology is promising. But
Indian companies seem to be intent on
introducing the technology in only urban
markets.
Advantage: Telecommunication companies

have always said that it is too expensive to lay
high-speed internet cables in villages because the
profits are much lesser than the expenses. Both
Wimax and its processor wi-fi use radio waves
to broadcast internet signals, thus removing the
need to use cables. Whereas wi-fi could only
broadcast signals upto a hundred metres away
from the transmission towers, Wimax technology
can transmit signals upto three kilometers away
and it supports speeds five times faster than what
its counterpart (wi-fi) does.
Wimax Forum: Reliance Infocomm Limited,

Sify Limited and Tata Teleservices Limited - the
leading telecom players of India are part of the
Wimax Forum, a global consortium of
companies involved in promoting the
technology. These companies are planning to
start pilot trials of Wimax in India very soon.
walls or as large as many square miles covered

by overlapping access points. Wi-Fi technology
has served to set up mesh networks.
In addition to restricted use in homes and
offices, Wi-Fi can make access publicly available
at Wi-Fi hotspots provided either free of charge
or to subscribers to various providers.
Organizations and businesses such as airports,
hotels and restaurants often provide free
hotspots to attract or assist clients. Enthusiasts
or authorities who wish to provide services or
even to promote business in a given area
sometimes provide free Wi-Fi access.
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Utility: A few companies, such as Chennai

based n-Logue Communications Private Limited,
have endeavoured to bring in the information
revolution to rural India. N-Logue has set up
kiosks providing Internet services in several
villages of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil
Nadu; villages have used this service to get
medical consultations and establish a link with
agricultural experts. More such projects are
required to make the villagers realise the benefits
of the Internet, thereby generating demand.
Experts hope that rural India might make it to
the telecommunication industrys agenda by
2005, when Wimax will be launched in the
market.
WIFI
WiFi stands for the wireless fidelity, is a

wireless networking technology used across the
globe. WiFi became very popular because once
base station is there, any number of desktops or
laptop computers can be connected to broadband
service without the need of any cables or
installing extra phone lines. It mainly refers to
using radio frequencies and/ or infrared waves.
The main purpose of Wi-Fi is to hide
complexity by enabling wireless access to
applications and data, media and streams.
The main advantages of the Wi-Fi are :
Make access to information easier.
Ensure compatibility and co-existence of

device.
Eliminate cabling and wiring.
Eliminate switches, adapters, plugs, pins

and connectors.
It allows LANs (Local Area Networks) to be

deployed without cabling for client devices,
typically reducing the costs of network
deployment and expansion. Space where cables
cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and
historical buildings, can host wireless LANs.
A Wi-Fi enabled device such as a PC, game
console, mobile phone, MP3 player or PDA can
connect to the Internet when within range of a
wireless network connected to the Internet. The
coverage of one or more interconnected access
points called a hotspot can comprise an area as
small as a single room with wireless-opaque
Wi-Fi also allows connectivity in peer-to-peer

(wireless ad-hoc network) mode, which enables
devices to connect directly with each other. This
connectivity mode can prove useful in consumer
electronics and gaming applications.
Comparison with Wi-Fi
WiMAX provides services analogous to a

cellphone, Wi-Fi is more analogous to a cordless
phone. Wi-Fi is a shorter range system, typically
hundreds of metres, generally used by an end
user to access their own network. Wi-Fi is low
cost and is generally used to provide Internet
access within a single room or building. For
example, many coffee shops, hotels, railway
stations and bus stations contain Wi-Fi access
points providing access to the Internet for
customers.
Wireless Routers which incorporate a DSLmodem or a cable-modem and a Wi-Fi access
point, often set up in homes to provide Internetaccess and inter-networking to all devices
connected (wirelessly or by cable) to them. One
can also connect Wi-Fi devices in ad-hoc mode
for client-to-client connections without a router.
Wi-Fi allows LANs to be deployed without
cabling for client devices, typically reducing the
costs of network deployment and expansion.
Wireless network adapters are also built into
most modern laptops.
BI-FI
Recently, researchers from Stanford

University are harnessing the key attributes of a
virus 'M13' to develop the first biological Internet
or 'Bi-Fi' by creating a mechanism to send genetic
messages from cell to cell. The system greatly
[69]
increases the complexity and amount of data that

can be communicated between cells and could
lead to greater control of biological functions
within cell communities. Bio-engineering
researchers have parasitised the parasite and
harnessed M13's key attributes its nonlethality and its ability to package and broadcast
arbitrary DNA strands to create the biological
Internet or 'Bi-Fi'.
Fibre: Fiber-optic broadband is a broadband

internet delivered over fibre-optic lines--these use
light to transmit data signals at far faster speeds
than traditional copper wires or coaxial cables.
Cable: Cable broadband internet delivers
data at broadband speeds over the same cable
used to deliver television data. Basic cable
internet speeds range from 6 Mbps to 18 Mbps,
while more advanced cable internet can reach
speeds of 75 Mbps and more. Cable Internet
speeds can be affected by users within the same
vicinity using the same cable connection.
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The Stanford University revealed that

Biological Internet could lead to biosynthetic
factories in which huge masses of microbes
collaborate to make more complicated fuels,
pharmaceuticals and other useful chemicals,
including the regeneration of tissue or organs in
future.
-but must be located within 2 miles of the phone

company's central office for optimal speed.
The virus 'M13' is a package of genetic

messages. It reproduces within its host, taking
strands of DNA - strands that engineers can
control - wrapping them up one by one and
sending them out encapsulated within proteins
produced by M13 that can infect other cells. The
M13-based system is essentially a communication
channel. It acts like a wireless Internet connection
that enables cells to send or receive messages,
but it does not care what secrets the transmitted
messages contain.
BROADBAND
Broadband could be defined as an always

on connection that is able to support various
interactive services and has the capability of a
minimum download speed of 256 kbps or
kilobits per second. High-speed internet is also
commonly called broadband internet. To put that
in context, an average telephone line through
which we dial into the internet theoretically gives
a speed of 33.3 kbps, though actual speeds may
be far lesser. An affordable broadband access to
the Net would allow a PC to be used as a TV/
music system. One can watch a downloaded
movie or listen to an older-goldie track or merely
get the latest quotes for ones stock portfolio.
The major types of broadband include DSL,

cable, satellite, fibre-optic and mobile broadband.
DSL: Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is
broadband internet delivered over copper phone
wires. The lines are split into two frequencies:
one for data and one for voice. Traditional DSL
speeds range from 768 Kbps to as fast as 7 Mbps-
[70]
Satellite: Satellite broadband uses orbiting

satellites to transmit and receive broadband data.
Satellite broadband is primarily used in areas
where terrestrial broadband technologies like
DSL, fibre and cable are otherwise unavailable.
Speeds for satellite broadband are comparable
to traditional DSL, ranging from 768 kbps to 5
Mbps--but data speeds can be affected by
changes in the weather and satellite position.
Mobile Broadband: Mobile networks are a

wireless broadband technology accessible via
3G/4G/LTE enabled cellphones and smart
devices like ebook readers. Speed differs between
carriers and can be affected by user location and
carrier coverage. The fastest wireless technology,
LTE, offers maximum theoretical download
speeds of up to 150 Mbps.
WIRELESS LOCAL AREA

NETWORKS (WLANS)
A wireless LAN is a flexible data communication system implemented as an extension to,

or as an alternative for, a wired LAN within a
building or campus. Using electromagnetic
waves, WLANs transmit and receive data over
the air, minimising the need for wired
connections. Thus, WLANs combine data
connectivity with user mobility, and through
simplified configuration enable movable LANs.
Wireless LANs frequently augment rather

than replace wired LAN networks - often
providing the final few metres of connectivity
between a backbone network and the mobile
user. The power and flexibility of wireless LANs
finds applications both in the office as well as in
home environments. It can also be used in

consulting and sales, manufacturing and
warehousing, corporate office, retail
applications, education and research, trading
and banking and also healthcare.
Benefits of wireless LANs over traditional
wired network:
Mobility
Installation speed and simplicity
Installation flexibility
Reduced cost of ownership
Scalability
Wireless LAN - Technology
Spread Spectrum
Narrowband Technology
Frequency - Hopping Spread Spectrum

Technology
Direct - Sequence Spread Spectrum

Technology
Infrared Technology
There is hardly any jumping or slow

motion display.
In Europe, the US and most parts of Asia

are embracing 3G technologies but in India it is
in initial stage and some telecom operators are
providing the 3G services. After more than eight
years of wireless usage, the country still does not
have a clear-cut policy for allocating frequencies,
a vital element in the introduction of any wireless
technology. The World Bank recognised Indias
lack of progress in this regard and forked out a
huge grant to modernise the frequency allocation
systems. Progress is taking place but at a slow
pace.
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3G MOBILE TECHNOLOGY
3G or bugs free third generation cellular

technology will satisfy all bandwidth-hungry
applications such as full-motion video, video
salient conferencing and full Internet access.
The major advance in 3G systems is

moving from speech and low rate data
transmission to medium and high speed
data for video (TV) transmission and
Internet searching.
The 3G mobile systems will increase the

data rate by 200 times.
They will improve audio quality, marking

a total change in telephone usage from
exclusively voice to predominantly data
services.
A 3G user can see the other user on his

display screen.
While transmitting video images and data,

the user need simply push a button to
talk with image receiver.
Film clips can be seen clearly and

instantly.
4G TECHNOLOGY
4G is the fourth-generation cellular

communication system that operates on Internet
technology using various wired and wireless
networks. It combines applications and
technologies like Wi-Fi and WiMax, so that
highest throughput and lowest cost wireless
network is possible, providing high quality, high
security and any kind of services, anytime,
anywhere to the users. In simple language, it
provides MMS, multimedia and video
applications in mobile or wireless format. The
main features of 4G are:(i)
The 4G technology is to provide interactive

services like video conferencing, Wireless
Internet, Multimedia Messaging service,
Video chat, mobile TV, High definition TV
content and needless to say, voice and
data services, anytime and anywhere.
(ii)
There will be high network capacity, high

speed data transfer rate at any two points
in the world, seamless connectivity and
global roaming.
(iii) No new infrastructure is needed to be

installed, as 4G will be interoperable with
existing wireless standards, dynamically
sharing and utilizing the already existing
network resource.
(iv) It will have the feature of smelling the

background of the other person on the
phone. If someone is cooking something
and he/she wants you to smell it, he/she
would be able to do that.
[71]
How 4G Works?
Bluetooth Technology
Bluetooth is a short range, wire free, secure
and international standardized wireless
technology
that
provides
wireless
communication system between the Bluetooth
enabled devices in a short ranged network.
Bluetooth technology is a short range wireless
technology that was developed by the
collaboration of mobile phones and IT companies
such as Nokia, Intel, Toshiba, Ericsson and IBM.
Bluetooth develops short range wireless
connections between the laptops, handheld PCs,
wireless communication devices and mobile
phones. Bluetooth is only available to the
personal area networks in an office or a home
network. It reduces the usage of power as
compared to the Wi-Fi. Bluetooth is an
international standardized technology that is
used for the wireless communication between
the Bluetooth held devices such as mobile phones,
digital camera, laptops, desktop computers,
keyboard, mouse, MP3 players, video cameras
and other devices.
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4G wireless networks use two types of

addresses for communication between two
devices, for example a computer and a cell
phone. Each node will be assigned a 4G-IP
(Internet Protocol) address, which will be formed
by a permanent home IP address and a dynamic
care-of address that will represent the phones
actual location. When a computer using Internet
wants to communicate with a cell phone in the
wireless network, the computer will send a
packet to the 4G-IP address of the cell phone.
Then a directory server on the cell phones home
network will forward this packet to the cell
phones care-of address through a mobile IP. The
directory server will also inform the computer
of the cell phones care-of address (the real
location), so that the next packet can be sent to
the cell phone directly.
communications infrastructure is in disarray,

restoring communication quickly will be
essential. Using 4G both limited and complete
communication capabilities, including Internet
and video services, would be set up in a matter
of hours.
Benefits of 4G
The advanced applications of 4G systems will

primarily be location-based services. 4G location
applications would utilize visualized, virtual
navigation schemes that would support a remote
database containing graphical representations of
streets, buildings and other physical
characteristics of a large area. Thus, the benefits
will include:
Tele-geoprocessing: It is a combination of
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and
Global Positioning Systems (GPS), working
together in a high-capacity wireless mobile
system. Using this, public safety will be enhanced
by reading the environment of even a remote
place and understanding the problems of the
concerned area.
Virtual Navigation: The database can be

accessed by a subscriber in a moving vehicle
equipped with the appropriate wireless device,
to know about the roads and locations in
advance.
Tele-medicine: A paramedic assisting a

victim of a traffic accident in a remote location
would be able to access medical records (eg. xray sheet) and establish a video conference so
that a remotely-based surgeon could provide
on-scene assistance.
Crisis-management Applications: In case of
natural disasters, where the entire
[72]
Bluetooth is free technology and it is

provided by the mobile phone operators who are
having the capability of GSM and CDMA
technology. Bluetooth uses radio-waves
frequency as a medium and is suitable for the 1,
10 and 100 metres distance. Every Bluetooth
enabled device such as mobile phones, laptops,
digital cameras; video games consoles have builtin microchip.
Bluetooth uses radio-waves that operate at
2.4 GHz bands. The personal computers must
have built-in dongle in them to use the Bluetooth
technology. Bluetooth is also used to transfer the
files from the mobile phones or PDA devices to
the computers. Also, in a meeting if you want to
share the digital business cards among the
participants of the meeting you use Bluetooth to
transfer the files. Microsoft Windows XP with
the service pack 2 has the built-in support for
the Bluetooth technology. Bluetooth defines the
wireless standards to maintain the secure data
communication.
The master Bluetooth device can

communication with the seven other Bluetooth
enabled devices. Different devices support
different standards of the Bluetooth technology.
The research on the advanced Bluetooth is in
progress for the Bluetooth version 3.0 to provide
the high speed connections.
Wireless communication with PC input

and output devices, the most common
being the mouse, keyboard and printer.
Transfer of files, contact details, calendar

appointments, and reminders between
devices with OBEX.
Replacement of traditional wired serial

communications in test equipment, GPS
receivers, medical equipment, bar code
scanners, and traffic control devices.
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Bluetooth technology also provides support

for the VOIP technology. The Bluetooth headset
provides the wireless extension to the Bluetooth
device. A typical Bluetooth device consist of RS
transceiver, protocol stacks and base bands and
it does not require to install the additional drivers
to use the Bluetooth technology and it can
connect all the office peripheral such as
computer with printer, computer with scanner
and computer with laptop. Among the other
advantages of the Bluetooth technology is the
automatic synchronization of the desktops,
mobile phones and other Bluetooth held devices.
Another popular use of the Bluetooth is in the
cars and automotives. The most commonly
Bluetooth held devices are mobile phones,
personal computers, laptops, headsets, access
points, car kits, speaker phone, streaming video,
MP3 players, SIM cards, Push-2-talk, PDA and
digital camera.
By this technology, mobile data can be used

in the different applications. It provides the speed
of 1-2 Mbps. Bluetooths small microchip can be
built in the devices and it can also be used as the
external adapters and used for the different
network commu-nication devices. Bluetooth
enabled devices can change their frequency very
rapidly so they can be saved from the external
interference. Bluetooth enabled devices have built
in security features and they use pin code and
128 encryption. If the two wireless devices follow
the Bluetooth standards they can communicate
with each other without any external devices or
wires. More enhancements are in progress in this
technology to provide the most robust, state-ofthe-art, high speed and secure connections to the
mobile users.
Applications of Bluetooth:
n
Wireless control and communication

between a mobile phone and a handsfree headset.
Wireless networking between PCs in a

confined space and where little bandwidth
is required.
For controls where

traditionally used.
infrared
was
For low bandwidth applications where

higher [USB] bandwidth is not required
and cable-free connection desired.
Sending small advertisements from

Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings
to other, discoverable, Bluetooth devices.
Two seventh-generation game consoles,

Nintendos Wii and Sonys PlayStation 3,
use Bluetooth for their respective wireless
controllers.
Dial-up internet access on personal

computers or PDAs using a data-capable
mobile phone as a modem.
CDMA
Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a

channel access method utilized by various radio
communication technologies. It should not be
confused with the mobile phone standards called
CDMA 1 and CDMA2000 (which are often
referred to as simply CDMA), which use
CDMA as an underlying channel access method.
One of the basic concepts in data
communication is the idea of allowing several
transmitters to send information simultaneously
over a single communication channel. This
allows several users to share a bandwidth of
different frequencies. This concept is called
multiplexing. CDMA employs spread-spectrum
technology and a special coding scheme (where
each transmitter is assigned a code) to allow
multiple users to be multiplexed over the same
physical channel. By contrast, time division
multiple access (TDMA) divides access by time,
while frequency-division multiple access
(FDMA) divides it by frequency. CDMA is a form
[73]
of spread-spectrum signalling, since the

modulated coded signal has a much higher data
bandwidth than the data being communicated.
Computers
in
Telecom
Services:
Computers have been introduced to modernise
business and consumer services in the large
telephone system. The first phase of the project
in operation involved directory enquiry service.
The facility is being extended to cover commercial
billing fault analysis and fault control traffic
accounts.
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An analogy to the problem of multiple access

is a room (channel) in which people wish to
communicate with each other. To avoid
confusion, people could take turns speaking (time
division), speak at different pitches (frequency
division), or speak in different languages (code
division). CDMA is analogous to the last example
where people speaking the same language can
understand each other, but not other people.
Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users
is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the
same channel, but only users associated with a
particular code can understand each other.
trunk exchange developed by the ITI, Bangalore

in collaboration with the TRC.
TELECOM SERVICES IN INDIA
In the field of communications, from

essentially a telegraph network in late forties, the
Indian telecommunication network facility has
grown significantly over the years with the
acquisition, adaptation and indigenous
development of newer technologies.
The country has now developed the

necessary capability to manufacture her own
sophisticated materials and equipment, for
example, telephone instruments, digital
telephones, key telephones and microwave and
line systems. The major areas in the plan of
Indian Telephone Industries (ITI) relate to digital
telephone
subscriber
apparatus
and
instrumentation, telemetrics and powerline
carrier communication systems, and integrated
communication systems.
Today, the network provides for nationwide
dialing, enabling speech transmission, long
distance links through satellites and fairly
efficient switching systems like the electronic
stored programme controlled (SPC) switching
systems.
The ITI is the main national organisation

providing hardware for the network. Specialised
communication equipment needed for defence,
power administration, railways, ONGC, and
other organisations are met by ITI, BEL and ECIL.
Even remote towns can be connected to the
national telephone network with the help of the
most advanced digital integrated local-cum-
[74]
The National Centre for Software

Development and Computing Techniques
(NCSDCT) in Mumbai has provided the R &D
and human resources base for Indian software
development and exports.
Inmarsat: It stands for International

Maritime Satellite founded in 1979. INMARSAT
organisation has more than 80 countries as its
members with London as its headquarters that
provides worldwide satellite communications for
maritime, aeronautical and mobile land users.
INMARSAT operates a satellite each in the
Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean region. The
Vikram Land Earth Station, which was
commissioned on May 31, 1992 at Arvi, about
85 km from Pune and became operational on
July 11, 1992, is the 37th such station in the
INMARSAT family. Besides the satellites and the
land earth stations (LES), the INMARSAT system
also has mobile earth stations with the satellite
communications terminals located on ships,
trucks, etc. The Vikram LES is providing shoreto-ship and ship-to-shore telephone, telex, fax,
etc. Maritime INMARSAT terminals have a
special feature that automatically generates and
sends distress messages to rescue coordination
centres.
COMMUNICATION AND BROADCASTING
Under the liberalised licensing regime, the

whole area of telecom and broadcasting
equipment was delicensed and emphasis was
given to promotional activities for attracting
foreign investments, exports, private telecom
network, decentralization of telecom services,
and technology development. These measures
are expected to bring a sea change in national
telecommunication scenario and make India
internationally competitive. On July 16, 2013, the
Union Government decided to liberalise the
Recognize telecom, including broadband

connectivity, as a basic necessity like
education and health and work towards
'Right to Broadband'.
As a result of the liberalisation, a large

number of proposals were received from Indian
and foreign companies to manufacture switching
equipment, transmission equipment, and twoway radio communication equipment. Siemens,
Ericsson, and Fujitsu were selected for the
manufacture of large capacity digital exchanges.
Provide
affordable
and
reliable
broadband-on-demand by the year 2015
and to achieve 175 million broadband
connections by the year 2017 and 600
million by the year 2020 at minimum 2
Mbps download speed and make available
higher speeds of at least 100 Mbps on
demand.
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foreign direct investment (FDI) regime further.

In the telecom sector, FDI limit hiked under the
automatic route to 49 per cent and 49 to 100 per
cent under the FIPB route.
To promote faster growth of telecom

services, a decision has been taken to allow State
Governments for setting up Telecom Networks
in the industrial estates with access to DoT lines.
Accordingly, State Governments are making
proposals to develop telecom infrastructure in
the States.
A number of new thrust areas and gap areas

were identified for development in telecom and
broadcasting sector. Electronics Development
and Research Centre (ERDC), Pune of the DoE
undertook the indigenous development of lowcost Amateur Radio, Citizen Band Radio and
Data Radio suitable for rural applications. There
are about 200 companies in the country
manufacturing telecom and broadcast
equipments.
Provide high-speed and high-quality

broadband access to all village panchayats
through a combination of technologies by
the year 2014 and progressively to all
villages and habitations by 2020.
Recognize telecom as an infrastructure

sector to realize the true potential of
information communication technology
(ICT) for development.
Address right-of-way (RoW) issues in

setting up of telecom infrastructure.
Mandate an ecosystem for ensuring

setting up of a common platform for
interconnection of various networks for
providing non-exclusive and nondiscriminatory access.
Strive for enhanced and continued

adoption of green policy in telecom and
incentivize use of renewable resources for
sustainability.
Achieve substantial transition to the new

Internet Protocol (IPv 6) in the country in
a phased and time-bound manner by 2020
and encourage an ecosystem for provision
of a significantly large bouquet of services
on the IP platform.
NATIONAL TELECOM POLICY 2012
The Government approved National Telecom

Policy (NTP) 2012, which addresses the vision,
strategic direction, and the various medium- and
long-term issues related to the telecom sector, on
31 May 2012. NTP-2012 is aimed at maximizing
public good by making affordable, reliable, and
secure telecommunication and broadband
services available across the country. The
objectives of NTP-2012 include the following:
Provide secure, affordable, and highquality telecommunication services to all

citizens.
Strive to create One Nation-One Licence

across services and service areas.
Achieve One Nation-Full Mobile Number

Portability and work towards One NationFree Roaming.
Increase rural tele-density from the

current level of around 39 to 70 by the
year 2017 and 100 by the year 2020.
IPR IN INDIA
Major changes to Indian Copyright Law

were introduced in June 1994. This has made
the Indian Copyright law, one of the toughest
in the world. The amendments to the Copyright
Act in June 1994 included the definition of
Computer Program. The Copyright (Amendment) Act 1994, clearly explains the rights of
copyright holder, position on rentals of software,
[75]
operational difficulties and address newer issues

related to the digital world.
Limited Protection to Some Internet
Intermediaries: There are two new provisions,
which provide some degree of protection to
'transient or incidental' storage of a work or
performance. Section 52(1)(b) allows for the
transient or incidental storage of a work or
performance purely in the technical process of
electronic transmission or communication to the
public, hence applying primarily to Internet
Service Providers (ISPs), VPN providers, etc.
Section 52(1)(c) allows for transient or incidental
storage of a work or performance for the
purpose of providing electronic links, access or
integration, where such links, access or
integration have not been expressly prohibited
by the right holder, unless the person responsible
is aware or has reasonable grounds for believing
that such storage is of an infringing copy. This
seems to make it applicable primarily to search
engines, with other kinds of online services being
covered or not covered depending on ones
interpretation of the word 'incidental'.
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the rights of the user to make backup copies and

the heavy punishment and fines on infringement
of copyright of software. At present officers of
these government agencies, NASSCOM officials,
police and various other law enforcement officers
of Government of India are committed to enforce
copyright laws and eradicate the menace of
software piracy. Raids jointly facilitated by
NASSCOM and Business Software Alliance with
active cooperation from law enforcing
authorities over last one year at some of the major
metro cities have already had salutary effect.
To protect the intellectual property rights
(IPR) of software companies, apart from cracking
down on piracy, the government has also made
several policies to actively discourage piracy.
Authorized sellers of imported software are
allowed to reproduce software in India and sell
it without import duty. Local software
manufacturers are exempt from excise taxes.
Other incentives include:

Depreciation on IT products allowed at

60% pa, taking into cognizance the high
rate of obsolescence of such products.
Exemption of withholding tax on interest

on ECBs is proposed to be extended to
the IT sector as well. This will reduce cost
of borrowings for IT companies through
the ECB route.
100% customs duty exemption on all

software used in the IT sector.
Extension of 80HHE Tax benefit to the

supporting developers. This will enable
supporting developers to enjoy tax
concessions, similar to the supporting
manufacturers concept in manufacturing
sector.
The Copyright (Amendment) Act 2012

passed by Parliament has come into effect
declaring authors as owners of the copyright,
which cannot be assigned to the producers as
was the practice till now. It will now become
mandatory for broadcasters - both radio and
television - to pay royalty to the owners of the
copyright each time a work of art is broadcast.
It bans people from bringing out cover versions
of any literary, dramatic or musical work for five
years from the first recording of the original
creation. The law also seeks to remove
[76]
COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
Computer is an electronic device that can

count, save and solve complex problems with
high accuracy and speed.
n
Input: The source data entered into a data

processing system.
Central Processing Unit: The Arithmetic

Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU)
together are termed as the Central
Processing Unit. It is the brain of any
computer system. All calculations and
comparisons are made inside the CPU.
Control Unit: The part of Central

Processing Unit which directs the
sequence of operating, interprets and
coded instruction and sees to the execution
of program instruction.
Arithmetic Logic Unit: The part of CPU,

which performs the arithmetical and
logical operations.
Storage: The storage or primary section

of computer consists of the devices used
to store the information. Example:
Magnetic cores, RAM chips, etc.
option by just pointing at it, or drawing

figures directly on the screen and moving
the figures around.
Output: The finished result of processing

by a system.
Classification of Computer
Digital Computer: Computer that counts

and accepts letters and numbers through
various input devices. It can be used in
various applications.
Scanners: It facilitates capturing of the

information and storing them in graphic
format for displaying back on the
graphical screen.
Output Devices: Peripherals used to

output results to the user. e.g.- Printers,
VDU (Visual Display Unit)
Printers: Output devices are used to

produce hard copy of computer output
that is readable by humans.
Ink Jet Printer: A printing device that

uses a nozzle and sprays ink into paper to
form the appropriate characters. The typing
speed range from 50 cps above 300 cps.
Laser Printer: A very high speed printer

that uses a combination of laser beam and
electro-photographic techniques to create
printed outputs at a speed in excess of
13,000 lines per unit. Speed can range
from 10 pages a minute to about 200
pages per minute.
Floppy Disk: Popular magnetic device for

small computer introduced by IBM in
1972. It is flexible and has a plastic jacket
coated with iron oxide material. Data and
information stores in the disks as a
magnetic and non-magnetic spots. It is a
non erasable disc used for storing
computer data.
Programming Language: Computer

programming is the name given to the art
of writing a programme in a programming
language, which is a higher-level language.
In a binary-coded digital computer, the
machine language is made of Os and 1s to
relieve the programme in the difficult lowlevel machine language, several hundreds
of easier high level programming language
have been developed, such as, FORTRAN,
BASIC, COBOL, PASCAL, C, C++ etc.
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Analog Computer: Computers that

measure physical quantities e.g. pressure,
temperature, voltage etc. They are used
mainly for scientific and engineering
purpose.
Hybrid Computer: The features of analog

and digital machines are combined to
create a hybrid computing system.
Mainframe Computers: Computers with

high capability but less powerful and
cheaper than supercomputers. These are
suited for big organizations to manage
high volume of applications e.g. MEDHA,
Sperry DEC, IBM, HP, ICL etc.
Mini Computers: Relatively fast and small

and inexpensive computer with somewhat
limited input/output capabilities. The first
popular minicomputer was the PDP-8,
launched in 1965.
Micro Computers: Full-fledged computer

system that uses micro processor as their
CPU. These are also called personal
computer system.
Computer Devices
Input Devices: These are used for

transferring user command or data to the
computer. e.g.- Keyboard, Mouse, Light
pen etc.
Keyboard: The keyboard is one of the

most common input device for computers.
The layout of the keyboard is like that of
the traditional QWERTY typewriter,
although there are some extra command
and function keys provided for.
Mouse: Mouse is a handy device which

can be moved on a smooth surface to
simulate the movement of cursor that is
desired on the display screen.
Light pen: This is a pen shaped pointing

device which can be used to select an
Memory: The data, which are stored in a

computer, are called its memory. A
computers memory has actually two
memories-one permanent, and the other
temporary.
(i) ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM is
[77]
digital mobile technology, came into the

picture after the entry of the GSM. CDMA,
due to its technological superiority, is
presently the biggest challenger to GSM. In
CDMA, the data is digitized and spread
over the entire available bandwidth, unlike
the narrow band of TDMA. Multiple calls
are overlaid on each other on the channel,
with each assigned a unique sequence code.
The data is then reassembled at the receivers
end. The battery life of CDMA handsets is
longer than that of analogue phones, with
a talk time of three to four hours, and up
to two-and-a-half weeks of standby time.
permanent in nature. Neither you nor the

computer has any control over the
information in ROM. Here, the
manufacturer has placed special data that
can be used, but not erased or changed.
RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM
handles all input, each electronic switch
storing one bit. The more RAM a
computer has, the more information it can
store. However, it presents a special problemit works only as long as electric current
flows through it. Without a current, all
the stored information is wiped out.
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(ii)
Speed: Computer speeds are measured in

terms of million instructions per second
(MIPS), which reflects the number of
instructions the processor at the heart of
computer can perform.
Mass Storage: Information can be stored

permanently on magnetic tape on a floppy
disc, a thin flexible disc coated with
magnetic particles, or on a hard disc. These
media store bits (zeros and ones) as
magnetic strips running in either one
direction (signifying O) or the other
(signifying 1). Mass storage device can then
retrieve (read) the data, change it, and again
store (write) it onto tape or disc.
[78]
IP Telephony: Internet Protocol Telephony

encompasses many different ways of
transmitting voice, fax and related services.
IP stands for low cost or even free voice
calls. On the other voice IP (Vo IP) is much
more than Internet Telephony for the core
network operators, local exchanges and
corporate enterprises.
Global System for Mobile (GSM): The

Global System for Mobile (GSM) is a
worldwide dominant system that originally
evolved as a pan-European digital standard,
and built a base in the US and Canada at
a rapid pace. GSM uses Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA). TDMA is not a
spread spectrum technology. It uses a
narrow band that is 30 KHZ wide and 6.7
milliseconds long. This is split times-wise
into slots. Each conversation gets the radio
for part of the time.
Code-Division
Multiple
Accesses
(CDMA): The Code-Division Multiple
Access (CDMA) technology, also known as
Digital Signature: Digital Signature is extra

data appended to a message which identifies
and authenticates the sender and the data
using public key encryption. The signature
is issued by the control of certifying
authorities. Not many companies are willing
to apply for CA (certifying authority). The
government had stipulated that a CA
should have a minimum paid up capital of
Rs. 5 crore and a net worth of Rs. 50 crore.
PAGING: It provides a one-way wireless

communication to the wandering users. In
this system, the messages are sent to the
subscribers, which consist of small receiver.
Electronic Mail (E-Mail): E-mail involves

non-interactive
communication
of
information between the sender and a
receiver. The information may be in the form
of text or data image or voice message.
FAX: Fascimile transfer of messages, i..e.,

FAX is used for transmission of weather
charts, engineering drawings, and even
handwritten notes.
Voice Mail: If someone wants to enjoy the

benefits of a telephone, without actually
owning one, he should subscribe to voice
mail.
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI): It

enables usually a customer and supplier to
exchange routine documents, such as,
purchase orders and invoices using standard
electronic forms and their own computers,
linked through a service provider.
Video Conferencing: Video conferencing or

Electronic conferencing allows persons
sitting in different parts of the city, country
or world to meet face-to-face without
means that DTH providers would be in a

position to offer up to 100 channels. They
would also offer value-added services like
interactive media, tele-banking, teleshopping, satellite telephony, video-ondemand.
actually being there. This is possible with

the help of special cameras attached to
computers. The images are digitalised and
bounced to the place to a persons choice
by means of a modem attached to the
computer.
Video Tex: It is the generic name of systems
which transmit text and graphic information
stored in the computer database via the
telephone network for display on a
television screen. The user indicates the
information he would like from the database
and the computer sends it to the user.
Liquid Crystal Display: Thanks to the new

developments in Liquid Crystal Display
(LCD) technology, the curved television
screen - known as cathode ray tube - may
give to a flat screen that can be hung on a
wall like a painting. Presently, LCDs are
used in a wide range of applications,
including computer monitors, televisions,
instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays,
and signage. They are common in consumer
devices such as video players, gaming
devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and
telephones.
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Virtual Reality: It enables a person to enter

the world to three-dimensional (3-D)
computer-aided image. It is not like any
computer graphic. In fact, it accords
multiple sensory information, sight, sound
and touch in an effort to make the situation
realistic.
DTH Transmission: The Direct to Home

(DTH) services are all set to make an entry
in the Indian homes in the near future. In
DTH, the move from C-Band to Ku-Band
Multi-media:
Multi-media
means
integration of two or more media elements.
It is one of the most recent information
technologies that is becoming popular
world-wide due to its multi-dimensional
approach and uses.
[79]
CHRONICLE
ROBOTICS
TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
1990 up to the present. These machines can be

stationary or mobile, autonomous or insect type,
with sophisticated programming, speech
recognition and/or synthesis, and other
advanced features.
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The word robot originates from the Czech

word for forced labour, or serf. It was introduced
by playwright Karel Capek, whose fictional
robotic inventions were much like Dr.
Frankensteins monster creatures created by
chemical and biological, rather than mechanical,
methods. But the current mechanical robots of
popular culture are not much different from
these fictional biological creations.
IAS ACADEMY
Robotics technology is developing at a rapid

pace, opening up new possibilities for
automating tasks and enriching the lives of
humans. From the automobile assembly line to
automatic home, vacuum cleaners, robotics has
become part of our world.
Robotics is the branch of engineering science

and technology that deals with the design,
manufacture, operation, and application of
robots. Robotics is related to electronics,
mechanics, and software.
According to the Robot Institute of

America, 1979, A robot is defined as a
reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator
designed to move material, parts, tools, or
specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety
of tasks. A robot is described as a machine
designed to execute one or more tasks repeatedly,
with speed and precision. There are as many
different types of robots as there are tasks for
them to perform.
PAST & FUTURE OF ROBOTS
First-generation robots date from the 1970s

and consists of stationary, nonprogrammable,
electromechanical devices without sensors.
Second-generation robots were developed in the
1980s and could contain sensors and
programmable controllers. Third-generation
robots were developed between approximately
[80]
Fourth-generation robots are in the researchand-development phase, and include features

such as artificial intelligence, self-replication, self
assembly, and nanoscale size (physical
dimensions on the order of nanometers, or units
of 10 -9 meter).
A few advanced robots are called androids

because of their superficial resemblance to
human beings. Androids are mobile, usually
moving around on wheels or a track drive
because most robots legs are unstable and
difficult to engineer. The android is not
necessarily the end point of robot evolution.
Asimov
Asimov is generally credited with the

popularization of the term Robotics which
was first mentioned in his story Runaround
in 1942. But probably Isaac Asimovs most
important contribution to the history of the robot
is the creation of his Three Laws of Robotics:
1.
A robot may not injure a human being,

or, through inaction, allow a human being
to come to harm.
2.
A robot must obey the orders given to it

by human beings except where such
orders would conflict with the First Law.
3.
A robot must protect its own existence as

long as such protection does not conflict
with the First or Second Law.
Asimov later adds a Zeroth law to the list:
Zeroth law: A robot may not injure

humanity, or, through inaction, allow humanity
to come to harm, unless this would violate a
higher order law.
In 1959, John Minsky started the Artificial
Intelligence Laboratory at the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology (MIT).This was funded
by Rockefeller Foundation. This gave impetus to
the field of robotics.
PARTS OF ROBOT
Arm
End Effectors
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The Robotic Arm of an industrial robot with

six joints closely resembles a human arm it
has the equivalent of a shoulder, an elbow and
a wrist. Typically, the shoulder is mounted to a
stationary base structure rather than to a
movable body. This type of robot has six degrees
of freedom, meaning it can pivot in six different
ways. A human arm, by comparison, has seven
degrees of freedom. Your arms job is to move
your hand from place to place. Similarly, the
robotic arms job is to move an end effector from
place to place. You can outfit robotic arms with
all sorts of end effectors, which are suited to a
particular application.
robots ability to monitor its own motion. A

standard design uses slotted wheels attached to
the robots joints. An LED on one side of the
wheel shines a beam of light through the slots to
a light sensor on the other side of the wheel.
When the robot moves a particular joint, the
slotted wheel turns. The slots break the light
beam as the wheel spins. The light sensor reads
the pattern of the flashing light and transmits
the data to the computer.
Controller
Digital computer is major controller of a

robot. The robots computer controls everything
attached to the circuit. To move the robot, the
computer switches on all the necessary motors
and valves. Most robots are reprogrammable
to change the robots behaviour, you simply write
a new program to its computer. The actuators
are all wired to an electrical circuit. The circuit
powers electrical motors and solenoids directly,
and it activates the hydraulic system by
manipulating electrical valves. The valves
determine the pressurized fluids path through
the machine. To move a hydraulic leg, for
example, the robots controller would open the
valve leading from the fluid pump to a piston
cylinder attached to that leg. The pressurized
fluid would extend the piston, swiveling the leg
forward. Typically, in order to move their
segments in two directions, robots use pistons
that can push both ways.
Sensors
Sensors are the instruments that measure

position, force, temperature, etc. Not all robots
have sensory systems, and few have the ability
to see, hear, smell or taste. The most common
robotic sense is the sense of movement the
End Effector is like human palm and fingers.

We can outfit robotic arms with all sorts of end
effectors, which are suited to a particular
application. One common end effector is a
simplified version of the hand, which can grasp
and carry different objects. Robotic hands often
have built-in pressure sensors that tell the
computer how hard the robot is gripping a
particular object. This keeps the robot from
dropping or breaking whatever its carrying.
Other end effectors include blowtorches, drills
and spray painters.
TYPES OF ROBOTS
Broadly there are two types of robots:
Robots on Earth or Industrial Robots:

Typical industrial robots do jobs that are difficult,
dangerous or dull. They lift heavy objects, paint,
handle chemicals, and perform assembly work.
They perform the same job hour after hour, day
after day with precision. They dont get tired and
they dont make errors associated with fatigue
and so are ideally suited for performing repetitive
tasks. The major categories of industrial robots
by mechanical structure are:
1.
Cartesian Robot/Gantry Robot: Used for
pick and place work, application of
sealant, assembly operations, handling
machine tools and arc welding. It is a
robot whose arm has three prismatic
joints, whose axes are coincident with a
Cartesian coordinator.
2.
Cylindrical Robot: Used for assembly

operations, handling of machine tools, spot
welding, and handling of die casting
machines. Its a robot whose axis form a
cylindrical coordinate system.
3.
Spherical/Polar Robot: Used for handling

of machine tools, spot welding, die
casting, fettling machines, gas welding
[81]
and arc welding. Its a robot whose axis

form a polar coordinate system.
4.
approach an active volcanic vent
Articulated Robot: Used for assembly

operations, die casting, fettling machines,
gas welding, arc welding and spray
painting. Its a robot whose arm has at
least three rotary joints.
collect samples of volcanic eruption

products
collect other physical and chemical data
survey close to vent openings
Parallel Robot: One use is a mobile

platform handling cockpit flight
simulators. Its a robot whose arms have
concurrent prismatic or rotary joints.
(C) Medical Field
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5.
SCARA Robot: Used for pick and place

work, application of sealant, assembly
operations and handling machine tools.
Its a robot which has two parallel rotary
joints to provide compliance in a plane.
Exploring Volcanoes: Volcanologists have

identified that a volcano exploration robot
should be able to carry out a number of key
operations, the most important being the ability
to:
6.
APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTS
Robots are critical to the medical field where

extreme precision and delicacy is necessary, and
the margin for error is slim.
In the Field of Surgery: Because robots

are able to perform major operations while
only making small incisions, patients get
many benefits: lessened trauma, fewer
infections, decreased healing time, and a
faster discharge from the hospital. Robots
are used to perform heart surgery without
opening patients chests.
In Medical Education: Robots are

currently used to test medical students.
Pregnant humanoid robots, for instance,
prepare students for various birth
complications.
In Hospital Administration: Robots are

also affecting the way hospitals are run
and medications distributed. They make
sure hospital visits are shorter and the risk
of infection minimized.
Robots are used for the following reasons:
Repetitive tasks that robots can do 24/7.
Robots never get sick or need time off.
Robots can do tasks considered too

dangerous for humans.
Robots can operate equipment to much

higher precision than humans.
May be cheaper over the long run.
May be able to perform tasks that are

impossible for humans.
(A) Industrial Robots are used in
General materials handling
Welding industries
Inspection
Improving productivity by increasing per

capita production
Laboratory applications
(B) Exploration
Robots are used in space missions. In 2002

NASA launched the MER-A Spirit rover
destined for Mars.
Robots in the Antarctic Exploration

Researchers from the Thayer School of
Engineering at Dartmouth College have built a
robot designed to do research in Antarctica. This
robot is a general purpose mobile platform that
can carry various instruments and travel in polar
temperatures.
[82]
(D) Robots in Space
Space-based robotic technology at NASA falls

within three specific mission areas: exploration
robotics, science payload maintenance, and onorbit servicing. Related elements are terrestrial/
commercial applications which transfer
technologies generated from space telerobotics
to the commercial sector and component
technology which encompasses the development
of joint designs, muscle wire, exoskeletons and
sensor technology.
NEW DEVELOPMENT IN ROBOTICS
Modular Robots
Modular robots are a new breed of robots
never before possible. Find out how the military

is applying AI logic to its hi-tech systems, and
how in the near future Artificial Intelligence may
impact our lives.
Approaches to AI
Initially, researchers thought that creating an
AI would be simply writing programs for each
and every function an intelligent person
performs. As they went on with this task, they
realized that this approach was too shallow.
Even simple functions like face recognition,
spatial sense, pattern recognition and language
comprehension were beyond their programming
skills.
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that are designed to increase the utilization of

the robots by modularizing the robots. Modular
robots are capable of adapting their morphology
to tasks and environment, which makes them
more versatile, flexible and robust compared to
fixed-bodied ones. Most current systems lack
mechanical flexibility when increasing the
number of modules due to hard building blocks
(modules) and highly rigid connection
mechanisms. Although this design guarantees
controllability and stability, it minimizes
flexibility. In order to improve adaptation to
environmental changes, softness on the module
level might be beneficial.
Nanorobots
Nanorobotics is the emerging technology

field of creating machines or robots whose
components are at or close to the microscopic
scale of a nanometer (10 -9 meters). Also known
as "nanobots" or "nanites", they would be
constructed from molecular machines.
Nanobots have been popular staples in

science fiction for some time, and have
experienced periods of relative popularity
among futurist communities. Although they
have been created in a biological context, no
actual mechanical nanobots have yet been
created, but they remain an area of active
research and hold a great deal of promise for a
number of fields. So far, researchers have mostly
produced only parts of these complex systems,
such as bearings, sensors, and synthetic
molecular motors. Possible applications include
micro surgery (on the level of individual cells),
utility fog, manufacturing, weaponry and
cleaning.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the area of

computer science focusing on creating machines
that can engage on behaviours that humans
consider intelligent. The ability to create
intelligent machines has intrigued humans since
ancient times and today with the advent of the
computer and 50 years of research into AI
programming techniques, the dream of smart
machines is becoming a reality. Researchers are
creating systems which can mimic human
thought, understand speech, beat the best
human chess player, and countless other feats
They understood that to create an AI, they

must delve deeper into natural intelligence first.
They tried to understand how cognition,
comprehension, decision-making happen in the
human mind. They had to understand what
understanding really means. Some went into the
study of the brain and tried to understand how
the network of neurons creates the mind. Thus,
researchers branched into different approaches,
but they had the same goal of creating intelligent
machines.
Neural Networks
This is the bottom up approach. It basically

aims at mimicking the structure and functioning
of the human brain, to create intelligent
behaviour. Researchers are attempting to build
a silicon-based electronic network that is
modelled on the working and form of the human
brain. Our brain is a network of billions of
neurons, each connected with the other.
At an individual level, a neuron has very little
intelligence, in the sense that it operates by a
simple set of rules, conducting electric signals
through its network. However, the combined
network of all these neurons creates intelligent
behaviour that is unrivaled and unsurpassed. So
these researchers created network of electronic
analogues of a neuron, based on Boolean logic.
Memory was recognized to be an electronic
signal pattern in a closed neural network.
How the human brain works is, it learns to
realize patterns and remembers them. Similarly,
the neural networks developed have the ability
to learn patterns and remember. This approach
has its limitations due to the scale and complexity
[83]
of developing an exact replica of a human brain,

as the neurons number in billions. Currently,
through simulation techniques, people create
virtual neural networks. This approach has not
been able to achieve the ultimate goal but there
is a very positive progress in the field. The
progress in the development of parallel
computing will aid it in the future.
Expert Systems
Finance
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This is the top down approach. Instead of

starting at the base level of neurons, by taking
advantage of the phenomenal computational
power of the modern computers, followers of the
expert systems approach are designing
intelligent machines that solve problems by
deductive logic. It is like the dialectic approach
in philosophy.
a computer system in car manufacture, machine

tool production, computer chip production and
almost every high-tech process. They carry out
dangerous tasks like handling hazardous
radioactive materials. Robotic pilots carry out
complex manoeuvering techniques of unmanned
spacecrafts sent in space. Japan is the leading
country in the world in terms of robotics research
and use.
This is an intensive approach as opposed to

the extensive approach in neural networks. As
the name expert systems suggest, these are
machines devoted to solving problems in very
specific niche areas. They have total expertise in
a specific domain of human thought. Their tools
are like those of a detective or sleuth. They are
programmed to use statistical analysis and data
mining to solve problems. They arrive at a
decision through a logical flow developed by
answering yes-no questions.
Chess computers like Fritz and its successors

that beat chess grandmaster Kasparov are
examples of expert systems. Chess is known as
the drosophila or experimental specimen of
artificial intelligence.
Applications of AI
Artificial Intelligence in the form of expert

systems and neural networks has applications
in every field of human endeavour. They
combine precision and computational power
with pure logic, to solve problems and reduce
error in operation. Already, robot expert systems
are taking over many jobs in industries that are
dangerous for or beyond human ability. Some
of the applications divided by domains are as
follows:
Heavy Industries and Space
Robotics and Cybernetics have taken a leap

combined with artificial intelligent expert
systems. An entire manufacturing process is now
totally automated, controlled and maintained by
[84]
Banks use intelligent software applications

to screen and analyze financial data. Softwares
that can predict trends in the stock market have
been created which have been known to beat
humans in predictive power.
Computer Science
Researchers in quest of artificial intelligence

have created spin offs like dynamic
programming, object oriented programming,
symbolic programming, intelligent storage
management systems and many more such
tools. The primary goal of creating an artificial
intelligence still remains a distant dream but
people are getting an idea of the ultimate path
which could lead to it.
Aviation
Airlines use expert systems in planes to

monitor atmospheric conditions and system
status. The plane can be put on auto pilot once a
course is set for the destination.
Weather Forecast
Neural networks are used for predicting

weather conditions. Previous data is fed to a
neural network which learns the pattern and
uses that knowledge to predict weather patterns.
Swarm Intelligence
This is an approach to, as well as application

of artificial intelligence similar to a neural
network. Here, programmers study how
intelligence emerges in natural systems like
swarms of bees even though on an individual
level, a bee just follows simple rules. They study
relationships in nature like the prey-predator
relationships that give an insight into how
intelligence emerges in a swarm or collection
from simple rules at an individual level. They
develop intelligent systems by creating agent
programs that mimic the behavior of these
natural systems.
Robots and Artificial Intelligence
Some robots can interact socially. Kismet, a

robot at M.I.Ts Artificial Intelligence Lab,
recognizes human body language and voice
inflection and responds appropriately. Kismets
creators are interested in how humans and
babies interact, based only on tone of speech and
visual cue. This low-level interaction could be
the foundation of a human-like learning system.
C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y
Like the term robot itself, artificial

intelligence is hard to define. Ultimate AI would
be a recreation of the human thought process
a man-made machine with our intellectual
abilities. This would include the ability to learn
just about anything, the ability to reason, the
ability to use language and the ability to
formulate original ideas. Roboticists are nowhere
near achieving this level of artificial intelligence,
but they have had made a lot of progress with
more limited AI. Todays AI machines can
replicate some specific elements of intellectual
ability.
situation. Again, modern computers can only do

this in very limited situations. They cant absorb
any sort of information like a human can. Some
robots can learn by mimicking human actions.
In Japan, Roboticists have taught a robot to
dance by demonstrating the moves themselves.
Computers can already solve problems in

limited realms. The basic idea of AI problemsolving is very simple, though its execution is
complicated. First, the AI robot or computer
gathers facts about a situation through sensors
or human input. The computer compares this
information to stored data and decides what the
information signifies. The computer runs
through various possible actions and predicts
which action will be most successful based on
the collected information. Of course, the
computer can only solve problems, its
programmed to solve it doesnt have any
generalized analytical ability. Chess computers
are one example of this sort of machine.
Some modern robots also have the ability to
learn in a limited capacity. Learning robots
recognize if a certain action (moving its legs in a
certain way, for instance) achieved a desired
result (navigating an obstacle). The robot stores
this information and attempts the successful
action the next time it encounters the same
Kismet and other humanoid robots at the

M.I.T. AI Lab operate using an unconventional
control structure. Instead of directing every
action using a central computer, the robots
control lower-level actions with lower-level
computers. The programs director, Rodney
Brooks, believes this is a more accurate model of
human intelligence. We do most things
automatically; we dont decide to do them at the
highest level of consciousness.
The real challenge of AI is to understand how
natural intelligence works. Developing AI isnt
like building an artificial heart scientists dont
have a simple, concrete model to work from. We
do know that the brain contains billions and
billions of neurons, and that we think and learn
by establishing electrical connections between
different neurons. But we dont know exactly
how all of these connections add up to higher
reasoning, or even low-level operations. The
complex circuitry seems incomprehensible.
[85]
SCIENCE
&
TECHNOLOGY
(PART II)
Add : D/108, Sec-2, Noida (U.P.), Pin - 201 301

CONTENTS
Sl. No.
TOPICS
Pg. No.
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY
1.
Mono Technology .................................................................................... 5-11
2.
Nuclear Technology .............................................................................. 12-34
3.
Defence ................................................................................................... 35-49
4.
Energy Resources .................................................................................. 50-72
MANO
TECHNOLOGY
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
Where the 20 th Century was the era of

macro-science, characterized by gigantic
Boeings, roaring Shuttles, draconian Dams,
monstrous Refineries & Power plants, the 21st
Century will be dominated by nano-science,
featured with microscopic precision. Nanotechnology is the design, characterization,
production and application of structures, devices
and systems by controlling shape and size at the
nanoscale. Eight to ten atoms span one
nanometer (nm). The human hair is approximately 70,000 to 80,000 nm thick. Nano-science
is the world of atoms, molecules, macromolecules, quantum dots, and macromolecular
assemblies.
With the help of nanotechnology, a large set
of materials with distinct properties (optical,
electrical, or magnetic) can be fabricated. Nanoparticles take advantage of their dramatically
increased surface area to volume ratio. Their
optical properties, e.g. fluorescence, become a
function of the particle diameter. When brought
into a bulk material, nano-particles can strongly
influence the mechanical properties, such as the
stiffness or elasticity. For example, traditional
polymers can be reinforced by nano-particles
resulting in novel materials e.g. as lightweight
replacements for metals. In the coming days one
can clearly visualise the huge applications of
nano-science in different fields as follows:
NANO SCIENCE IN INDIA

Nano-tube Filter: The scientists from
Banaras Hindu University have devised a simple
method to produce carbon nanotube filters that
efficiently remove micro to nano-scale
contaminants from water and heavy
hydrocarbons from petroleum. Made entirely of
carbon nanotubes, the filters are easily
manufactured. The nanotube composition
makes the filters strong, reusable, and heat
resistant, and they can be cleaned easily for
reuse.
Typhoid Detection Kit: Using the nanosensor, developed by Prof. A.K. Sood of IISc,
Bangalore, a Typhoid Detection Kit has been
developed by DRDE, Gwalior. Typhoid fever
caused by Salmonella typhi is a major health
problem and an important challenge to health
authorities of third world countries due to
unsatisfactory water supply, poor sanitary
conditions, malnutrition, emergence of antibiotic
resistant strains, etc.
Gas Flow Induced Generation of Voltage
from Solids: Prof AK Sood, Professor of Physics
at IISc and his student Shankar Ghosh have
found that the liquid flow in carbon nano-tubes
can generate electric current. One of the most
exciting applications to emerge from the
discovery is the possibility of a heart pacemaker
- like device with nano-tubes, which will sit in
the human body and generate power from blood.
Instead of batteries, the device will generate
power by itself to regulate defective heart
rhythm.
Drug Delivery System: A research group
headed by Professor A. N. Maitra of the
University of Delhi has developed 11 patentable
technologies for improved drug delivery systems
using nanoparticles. Four of these processes have
been granted U.S. patents. One of the important
achievements at the initial stage of drug delivery
research was development of a reverse micelles
based process for the synthesis of hydrogel and
smart hydrogel nanoparticles for encapsulating
water-soluble drugs. This method enabled one
to synthesize hydrogel nanoparticles of size less
than 100 nm diameter.
PROGRAMMES FOR DEVELOPMENT

OF NANO TECHNOLOGIES IN INDIA
Support to Nanotechnology Business
Incubator (NBI) at NCL, Pune continued during
the year 2012-13. This NBI has nurtured activities
by 7 start-up companies on items likecomputational modelling of flow and chemical
[5]
processes,
therapeutic
potential
of
biotechnologically engineered antibodies, ocular
and maxillofacial implants, and 12 start-up
companies are under incubation presently as
Resident Incubates on items like maxillo-facial
surgery, organic chemical synthesis etc. Support
to other ongoing projects in this category
continued during the year. Significant progress
has been made in these projects.
Centre for Nano Science and Engineering

(CeNSE)
The Centre for Nano Science and
Engineering (CeNSE) was established in 2010 to
pursue interdisciplinary research across several
disciplines with a focus on nanoscale systems.
Current research topics include, but are not
limited to nanoelectronics, MEMS/NEMS,
nanomaterials and devices, photonics, nanobiotechnology, solar cells and computational
nano-engineering. Apart from the regular faculty
members at CeNSE, almost 40 faculty members
from different departments at IISc are associated
in the academic and research activities at the
centre. The centre offers PhD programmes in a
wide range of areas, and has close interactions
with the industry.
systems; development of nano fibrous membrane

polymer electrolytes and nano structured
electrode materials for lithium rechargeable
batteries; development of hybrid nanomaterials
for energy production from renewable sources;
development of titania aerogel photoanode for
desensitized solar cell application; computational
studies of bare and zeolite-supported metal
nanoclusters and their application in catalysis;
mechanistic studies on extra cellular biosynthesis
of metal nanoparticles; development of protein
nanoparticles delivery system for targeting antiretroviral drugs to HIV infected cells;
multifunctional materials for electrochemical
energy conversion and storage devices; synthesis
and characterization of novel nanoparticles and
study of their interactions with stem cells;
development of parenteral sustained release
dosage forms and colon targeted drug delivery
systems for low molecular weight heparin.
Folic Acid Super Paramagnetic Iron Oxide

Nanoparticles
(FA-SPIONs)
were
developed which are highly stable,
biocompatible, with prolong and better
biodistribution profile as compared to
commercially available SPIONs. It was
also found out that developed FA-SPIONs
have high selectivity and specificity to
cancer cells. Also, Folic acid conjugated
Quantum Dots were synthesized which
are stable, biocompatible with good
fluorescence properties. Preparation of
bioceramics using synthesized mullite and
colloidal silica together was done.
Au-Ni, Cu-Co, Cu-Ni multilayer

nanowires have been synthesized using
potentiostatic electrodeposition. Nanochannels of anodic alumina membrane
were used as template. Morphology of the
wires has been studied, structural
characterization
has
been
done,
Superconducting Quantum Interference
Device (SQUID) was done to measure the
magnetic
properties.
Impedance
measurements were also made.
Metal phosphide (MxPy) electrodes were

prepared by direct electro-deposition,
reporting the synthesis of high temperature
materials at low temperature using
aqueous electrolyte. The nanoarchitectured electrode assembly demonstrated
A state-of-the art nanofabrication facility

with a clean room spanning 1400 square meters
is located at the centre. In addition, there are
several characterization labs that cater to
material, electronic, mechanical, chemical and
optical characterization.
Basic Research Promotion

25 new individual scientist-centric R&D
projects were funded during the year 2012-13
which focused on fundamental scientific studies
on nano-scale systems. Some of these projects
were related to:
Study of catalytic activity of nano size metals
and metal oxides prepared by novel or
conventional routes; experimental and firstprinciples theoretical studies of metal oxide
nanostructures for photoelectrochemical splitting
of water; studies on magneto-transport in
magnetic tunnel junctions; studies on bone
targeted nano drug delivery systems for
treatment of osteo-degenerative disease in
improvement of women health; studies on
superferromagnetism in magnetic nanoparticle
[6]
high energy capacity as well as high

power density as compared to traditional
flat lithium battery electrode using any
electroactive materials.
Coiled carbon nanotubes (CCNT) have

been synthesized on the carbon fibre
substrate. The necessary conditions for
coiled nanostructure growth have been
investigated. Catalyst coated and CCNT
coated substrates have been characterized. CCNTs, carbon microcoils (CMCs)
and CNCs of varying length, diameter and
coil pitch have been synthesized. Carbon
nanocoil coated carbon fibre reinforced
composites shall be useful for structural
applications.
development of this field of research in the

country and to tap some of its applied potential
for nations development. The main objectives
of the Nano Mission are -basic research
promotion, infrastructure development for
carrying
out
front-ranking
research,
development of nano technologies and their
applications, human resource development and
international collaborations. During the year
2012-13, Nano Mission continued to record
expansion in its activities and break new
grounds in promotion of R&D and human
resource development in the field of
nanotechnology. In brief, the objectives of the
Nano-Mission are:
Basic Research Promotion: Funding of

basic research by individual scientists
and/or groups of scientists and creation
of centres of excellence for pursuing
studies
leading
to
fundamental
understanding of matter that enables
control and manipulation at the
nanoscale.
Infrastructure Development for Nano

Science & Technology Research:
Investigations on the nano scale require
expensive equipments like Optical
Tweezer, Nano Indentor, Transmission
Electron Microscope (TEM), Atomic Force
Microscope (AFM), Scanning Tunneling
Microscope (STM), Matrix Assisted Laser
Desorption Time of Flight Mass
Spectrometer (MALDI TOF MS),
Microarray Spotter & Scanner etc. For
optimal use of expensive and sophisticated
facilities, it is proposed to establish a chain
of shared facilities across the country.
Nano Applications and Technology

Development Programmes: To catalyze
Applications and Technology Development Programmes leading to products
and devices, the Mission proposes to
promote application-oriented R&D
Projects, establish Nano Applications and
Technology Development Centres, NanoTechnology Business Incubators, etc.
Special effort will be made to involve the
industrial sector into nanotechnology
R&D directly or through Public Private
Partnership (PPP) ventures.
Human Resource Development: The
NANO MISSION OF INDIA

The Government of India, in May 2007,
approved the launch of a Mission on Nano
Science and Technology (Nano Mission) with an
allocation of Rs. 1000 crore for 5 years. The
Department of Science and Technology is the
nodal agency for implementing the Nano
Mission. Capacity-building in this upcoming area
of research will be of utmost importance for the
Nano Mission so that India emerges as a global
knowledge-hub in this field. For this, research
on fundamental aspects of Nano Science and
training of large number of manpower will
receive prime attention. In addition, the Nano
Mission will strive for development of products
and processes for national development,
especially in areas of national relevance like safe
drinking water, materials development, sensors
development, drug delivery, etc. For this, it will
forge linkages between educational and research
institutions and industry and promote Public
Private Partnerships.
The Nano Mission has been structured in a
such fashion so as to achieve synergy between
the national research efforts of various agencies
in Nano Science and Technology and launch
new programmes in a concerted fashion.
International collaborative research efforts will
also be made wherever required.
Objectives
The Nano Mission is an umbrella programme
for capacity building which envisages the overall
[7]
Mission shall focus on providing effective

education and training to researchers and
professionals in diversified fields so that a
genuine interdisciplinary culture for
nanoscale science, engineering and
technology can emerge. It is planned to
launch M.Sc./M.Tech. programmes,
create national and overseas post-doctoral
fellowships, chairs in universities, etc.
International Collaborations: Apart from

exploratory visits of scientists, organization
of joint workshops and conferences and
joint research projects, it is also planned
to facilitate access to sophisticated research
facilities abroad, establish joint centres of
excellence and forge academia-industry
partnerships at the international level
wherever required and desirable.
Organizational Structure
The Nano Mission is a Mission-Mode
programme within DST. At the apex level, it is
steered by a Nano Mission Council (NMC). It is
currently being chaired by Professor CNR Rao.
The technical programmes of the Nano Mission
are also being guided by two advisory groups,
viz. the Nano Science Advisory Group (NSAG)
and the Nano Applications and Technology
Advisory Group (NATAG).
DST Activities in Nano Science and
Technology: The Nano Mission is the second
phase of DST activities in Nano Science and
Technology. DST, in October 2001, had
launched a modest programme in Nano Science
and Technology, called the Nano Science and
Technology Initiative (NSTI), and the Nano
Mission is the successor of this programme.
Under NSTI, and since May 2007 under the
Nano Mission, DST has supported a number of
activities in Nano Science and Technology. A
brief resume of those programmes is being given
below:
(i)
Support for R & D Projects to Individual

Scientists: Around 130 projects have been
supported for individual scientists mainly
working on fundamental scientific aspects
of nanoscale systems. Investigations are
aimed at looking into new and improved
understanding of the relationship between
structure of various nanoscale systems and
their properties using sophisticated
characterization facilities.
Significant results have been reported from

these projects. Extensive studies on
semiconductor nanocrystals have been
undertaken in several projects. As semiconductor
particles exhibit size-dependent properties like
scaling of the energy gap and corresponding
change in the optical properties, they are
considered as technologically important
materials. Several projects have looked into
synthesis of important nanomaterials like CdSe,
ZnO etc. Size-tunable, organic-soluble
industrially important CdS, AlN, GaN and InN
nanocrystals have been prepared by employing
novel solvothermal techniques and some soft
chemical routes. In another project, it has been
reported that flow of various liquids and gases
over a mat of single-walled carbon nanotube
(SWNT) bundles generate electrical signals. This
discovery has several important technological
implications. It may have several applications
in the fields of biotechnology, pharmaceutical
industry, drug delivery, intelligent pneumatic
systems, information technology etc.
(ii)
Strengthening of Characterization
Facilities: Research with nanoscale
systems
requires
sophisticated
characterization facilities which were not
available in our institutions. Realizing this
gap, DST has established an array of
sophisticated equipments such as Optical
Tweezer, Nano Indentor, Transmission
Electron Microscope (TEM), Atomic Force
Microscope (AFM), Scanning Tunneling
Microscope (STM), Matrix Assisted Laser
Desorption Time of Flight Mass
Spectrometer (MALDI TOF MS),
Microarray Spotter & Scanner etc. at
various locations in the country.
(iii) Establishment of Centres of Excellence:

Eleven Units/Core Groups on Nano
Science have been sanctioned across the
country. These centres of excellence house
some of the more sophisticated facilities
for sharing with other scientists in the
region and would help in promoting
scientific research on nanoscale systems
in a decentralized fashion.
Seven Centres for Nano Technology focusing
on development of specific applications have
also been established. In addition, a centre of
excellence on Computational Materials Science
has also been established at JNCASR, Bangalore.
[8]
(iv) International Collaborative Programmes:

As expected, Nano Science and
Technology has prominently figured in all
S&T cooperation agreements entered into
in recent times. Joint R&D activities are
already taking place with several
countries. For example, with the US,
several projects have been funded on
CNTs in composites, nano-encapsulating
materials, etc. under the DST-NSF
programme. Several Indo-US Workshops
have also been held. With Germany, a
programme on engineered functional
nano-composites has started which would
focus on magnetic properties, magnetic
interactions, gas-solid interactions
including catalysis, etc. Programmes are
also on with Italy, EU and developing
with Taiwan. ARCI, Hyderabad, which
is an autonomous institute of DST has
active programme in nano-material with
institutions in Russia, Ukraine, Japan,
Germany and USA.
(v)
Joint Institution-Industry Linked

Projects and Public Private Partnership
activities: In order to focus the existing
expertise in research and educational
institutions towards developing products
and processes of direct interest to
industries, DST, under the Nano
Programme, has promoted Joint
Institution-Industry Linked Projects and
some other Public Private Partnership
activities in recent times. In many of these
activities, the industrial partners have also
invested financially in the project. These
activities will help us to simultaneously
leverage the scientific knowledge-base
existing in our research and educational
institutions and the commercial vision of
our industry to generate competitive
technologies leading to products and
devices. Six such projects have received
financial support so far.
(vi) Human Resource Development in Nano

Science & Technology: In order to train
and nurture human resource in the area
of Nano Science and Technology, a
number of activities have already been
undertaken; for example, organization of
national and international conferences,
national review meetings and advanced
schools, support for post-doctoral fellowships through JNCASR, Bangalore, etc.
THE FUTURE SCOPE OF

NANOTECHNOLOGY
1.
Creating better Computing Devices:

Perhaps more than anywhere else, the
promise of nanotechnology is causing
excitement in the computer chip and
memory business for very good reasons:
it would enable computer designers to
break through the Moores law. Intel cofounder Dr Gordon Moore predicted that
technology that went into integrated
circuits would roughly double in power
every 12-18 months. That is why the latest
Pentium 4 chip clocking 2.4 gigahertz, is
about 25,000 times faster and packs
25,000 as many transistors on board as
the first ever microchip, the Intel 4004 of
1971. Physicists say: it will take at least
10 years at the most before we are able to
dream up a bigger, better, microchip on
that slab of silicon. And that is where
nano-technology comes in: the ability to
fashion
electronic
circuits-entire
computers-with atom-length nanowires or
nanotubes, made from carbon rather than
silicon, may allow computer hardware to
progress beyond physical barriers of
Moores Law.
2.
Nano Biology: The demand for

environmentally sustainable industrial,
agricultural, aquacultural, and silvicultural technologies is bringing about a
shift from chemical-based solutions to
biological based ones.
3.
Nano Medicine: Nanotechnology would

build fleets of computer- controlled
molecular tools (called nanobots or cell
machines) much smaller than a human
cell and built with the accuracy and
precision of drug molecules. If you get a
cold or have contracted AIDS, youd just
drink a teaspoon of liquid that contained
an army of molecule-sized nanobots
programmed to enter your bodys cells
and fight viruses.
4.
Nanotechnology
and
Ecology:
Nanotechnology has the potential of
[9]
making our environment cleaner. For

instance, if you make plastic with
nanotechnology, you can feed stocks of
pure elements like carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen and force individual atoms
deliberately into chemical bonds without
intermediate steps that produce all those
environmentally unfriendly waste
products.
5.
Nanotechnology in Agriculture: With

nanotechnology, growing food crops to
feed the hungry and starving would no
longer be a problem. Higher crop yields
could be achieved by intensive greenhouse
agriculture. Plants grown in controlled
environments (with optimal temperature,
CO2, water, nutrients, etc) can grow year
round and produce an order of magnitude
more food per acre than the existing
methods.
6.
Nanotechnology and Use of Natural

Resources: Rather than felling forests to
make paper, wed have assemblers
synthesizing paper. Rather than using oil
for energy, wed have molecule-sized solar
cells mixed into road pavement. With such
solar nanocells, a sunny patch of
pavement of a few hundred square miles
could generate enough energy for a
country of the size of India.
7.
8.
9.
Nano Economy: Nanotechnology will

fundamentally revolutionize most
industries. Assemblers will be able to build
copies of themselves quickly, using
inexpensive materials, little energy, and
no human labour, a single assembler can
be used to make billions.
Nanoweapons: The weapons of the
nanogeneration will not only be much
smaller than todays, but much deadlier.
Distributed surveillance systems could
quickly identify arms buildups and
offensive weapons deployments, while
lighter, stronger, and smarter materials
controlled by powerful molecular
computers would let us make radically
improved versions of existing weapons.
Nanotechnology in Space Science: Space
transportation costs could be reduced
considerably with nanotechnology.
Comparing structural components made
from titanium versus a diamondoid

composite material, it is estimated that
single stage to orbit transportation costs
would drop (in one scenario) from $16,000
/ kg to $3.54 / kg.
NEW DEVELOPMENTS
Bio-Nanotechnology
The biological and medical research scientists
have exploited the unique properties of nanomaterials for various applications e.g., contrast
agents for cell imaging and therapeutics for
treating cancer. Biological tests measuring the
presence or activity of selected substances become
quicker, more sensitive and more flexible when
certain nanoscale particles are put to work as
tags or labels. Magnetic nano-particles, bound
to a suitable antibody, are used to label specific
molecules, structures or microorganisms. For
example, gold nano-particles tagged with short
segments of DNA can be used for detection of
genetic sequence in a sample.
The overall drug consumption and sideeffects can be lowered significantly by depositing
the active agent in the morbid region only and
in no higher dose than needed. This highly
selective approach reduces costs and human
sufferings. They could hold small drug molecules
transporting them to the desired location. Some
potentially important applications include
cancer treatment with iron nano-particles or gold
shells.
Nanotechnology can help to reproduce or to
repair damaged tissue. This so called tissue
engineering makes use of artificially stimulated
cell proliferation by using suitable nanomaterialbased scaffolds and growth factors. Tissue
engineering might replace todays conventional
treatments, e.g. transplantation of organs or
artificial implants.
Chemistry & Environment

Chemical catalysis and filtration techniques
are two prominent examples where
nanotechnology already plays a role. The
synthesis provides novel materials with tailored
features and chemical properties e.g. nanoparticles with a distinct chemical surrounding
or specific optical properties. Chemical catalysis
benefits especially from nano-particles, due to
[10]
the extremely large surface of volume ratio. The

application potential of nano-particles in
catalysis ranges from fuel cell to catalytic
converters and photocatalytic devices. Catalysis
is also important for the production of chemicals.
A strong influence of nano-chemistry on wastewater treatment, air purification and energy
storage devices is to be expected. Mechanical or
chemical methods can be used for effective
filtration techniques. Nano-porous membranes
are suitable for a mechanical filtration with
extremely small pores smaller than 10 nm.
Nanofiltration is mainly used for the removal of
ions or the separation of different fluids.
Energy
Information & Communication

Current high-technology production
processes are based on traditional top down
strategies, where nanotechnology has already
been introduced silently. The critical length scale
of integrated circuits is already at the nanoscale
(50 nm and below) regarding the gate length of
transistors in CPUs or DRAM devices. In the
modern communication technology, traditional
analog electrical devices are increasingly
replaced by optical or optoelectronic devices due
to their enormous bandwidth and capacity,
respectively. Two promising examples are
photonic crystals and quantum dots.
Consumer Goods
The most advanced nanotechnology projects

related to energy are: storage, conversion,
manufacturing improvements by reducing
materials and process rates, energy saving e.g.
by better thermal insulation, and enhanced
renewable energy sources. Nanotechnology can
help to increase the efficiency of Solar light
conversion
by
specifically
designed
nanostructures. The degree of efficiency of
combustion engines is not higher than 15-20 per
cent at the moment. Nanotechnology can
improve combustion by designing specific
catalysts with maximized surface area.
The most prominent nanostructured material
in fuel cells is the catalyst consisting of carbon
supported noble metal particles with diameters
of 1- 5 nm. Suitable materials for hydrogen
storage contain a large number of small
nanosized pores. Many nanostructured
materials like nanotubes, zeolites or alanates are
under investigation. Nanotechnology can
contribute to the further reduction of combustion
engine pollutants by nanoporous filters, which
can clean the exhaust mechanically, by catalytic
converters based on nanoscale noble metal
particles or by catalytic coatings on cylinder
walls and catalytic nano-particles as additives
for fuels.
Nanotechnology is already impacting the

field of consumer goods, providing products with
novel functions ranging from easy-to-clean to
scratch-resistant. Already in use are different
nano-particle improved products. Nanotechnology can be applied in the production,
processing, safety and packaging of food. A
nanocomposite coating process could improve
food packaging by placing anti-microbial agents
directly on the surface of the coated film.
Nanocomposites could increase or decrease gas
permeability of different fillers as is needed for
different products. They can also improve the
mechanical and heat-resistance properties and
lower the oxygen transmission rate.
The first sunglasses using protective and
antireflective ultrathin polymer coatings are in
the market. For optics, nanotechnology also offers
scratch resistant coatings based on
nanocomposites. The use of nanofibres makes
clothes water and stain-repellent or wrinkle-free.
Textiles with a nanotechnological finish can be
washed less frequently and at lower
temperatures. Nanotechnology has been used to
integrate tiny carbon particles membrane &
guarantee full-surface protection from
electrostatic charges for the wearer.
[11]
be coal- or lignite-fired, and only 3.4 GWe

nuclear, including two imported 1000 MWe units
planned at one site and two indigenous 700
MWe units at another. By 2032 total installed
capacity of 700 GWe is planned to meet 7-9 per
cent GDP growth, and this was to include 63
GWe nuclear. The OECDs International Energy
Agency predicts that India will need some $1600
billion investment in power generation,
transmission and distribution to 2035.
NPCIL is a MOU signing Company with

DAE. Presently NPCIL is operating twenty
nuclear power plants with total installed
capacity of 4780 MWe. NPCIL has achieved
more than 379 reactor years of safe nuclear
power plant operating experience. NPCIL
operates plants with motto Safety first and
Production next. The reactor fleet comprises two
Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs) and eighteen
Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)
including one 100 MW PHWR at Rajasthan
which is owned by DAE, Government of India.
Currently it has six reactors under various stages
of construction totaling 4800 MW capacity out
of which one reactor of 1000 MW capacity at
Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu, has attained
criticality on July 13, 2013.
C
IA H
S RO
A N
C IC
A
D LE
EM
Y
India has a vision of becoming a world leader

in nuclear technology due to its expertise in fast
reactors and thorium fuel cycle. Per capita power
consumption in India is around 400 Kwh/yr,
which is much below the world average
consumption of 2400 Kwh/yr. Thus, massive
increase in the power generation to match the
world average consumption is needed in the
coming years to enhance the overall national
growth rate. The estimated coal deposits in India
is 206 billion tonnes (6% of the world coal
reserves) and the distribution of conventional
energy sources in India is:
Company under the Companies Act, 1956 in

September 1987 with the objective of operating
the atomic power stations and implementing the
atomic power projects for generation of
electricity in pursuance of the schemes and
programmes of the Government of India under
the Atomic Energy Act, 1962.
Coal & Lignite 68%

Natural gases - 12%
Petroleum 12 %
This is far from adequate to meet the

increasing future energy demands. Moreover the
high sulphur and ash content in Indian coal
creates environmental and ecological problems.
Hydel power generation capacity is limited and
depends on erratic monsoon.
India has consciously proceeded to explore
the possibility of tapping nuclear energy for the
purpose of power generation and the Atomic
Energy Act was framed and implemented with
the set objectives of using two naturally
occurring elements Uranium and Thorium
having good potential to be utilized as nuclear
fuel in Indian Nuclear Power Reactors. The
estimated natural deposits of these elements in
India are:
Natural Uranium deposits - 70,000 tonnes
Thorium deposits - 3,60,000 tonnes
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited

(NPCIL) is a Public Sector Enterprise under the
administrative control of the Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE), Government of India. The
Company was registered as a Public Limited
The target since about 2004 has been for

nuclear power to provide 20 GWe by 2020, but
in 2007 the Prime Minister referred to this as
"modest" and capable of being doubled with the
opening up of International cooperation.
However, it is evident that even the 20 GWe
target would require substantial uranium
imports. In June 2009, NPCIL said it aimed for
60 GWe nuclear by 2032, including 40 GWe of
PWR capacity and 7 GWe of new PHWR
capacity, all fuelled by imported uranium. This
2032 target was reiterated late in 2010 and
increased to 63 GWe in 2011. But in December
2011 Parliament was told that more realistic
targets were 14,600 MWe by 2020-21 and 27,500
MWe by 2032, relative to present 4780 MWe and
10,080 MWe when reactors under construction
were on line in 2017.
The XII Plan envisages start of work on eight
indigenous 700 MW Pressurised Heavy Water
Reactors (PHWRs), two 500 MW Fast Breeder
Reactors (FBRs), one 300 MW Advanced Heavy
Water Reactor (AHWR) and eight Light Water
Reactors of 1000 MW or higher capacity with
foreign technical cooperation. These nuclear
power reactors are expected to be completed
progressively in the XIII and XIV Plans. The
[17]
power generation increased by 23 percent

during the year 2011-12, 32455 Million KWh as
against 26472 Million KWh during the year
2010-11. The net export increased by 24 percent
during the year 2011-12, 29123 Million KWh as
against 23533 Million KWh during the year
2010-11.
Following the Fukushima accident in March

2011, four NPCIL taskforces evaluated the
situation in India and in an interim report in July
made recommendations for safety improvements
of the Tarapur BWRs and each PHWR type. The
report of a high-level committee appointed by
the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)
was submitted at the end of August 2011, saying
that the Tarapur and Madras plants needed
some supplementary provisions to cope with
major disasters. The two Tarapur BWRs have
already been upgraded to ensure continuous
cooling of the reactor during prolonged station
blackouts and to provide nitrogen injection to
containment structures, but further work is
recommended. Madras needs enhanced flood
defences in case of tsunamis higher than that in
2004. The prototype fast breeder reactor (PFR)
under construction next door at Kalpakkam has
defences which are already sufficiently high,
following some flooding of the site in 2004.
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The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd

(NPCIL) is responsible for design, construction,
commissioning and operation of thermal nuclear
power plants. Its funding model is 70% equity
and 30% debt financing. However, it is aiming
to involve other public sector and private
corporations in future nuclear power expansion,
notably National Thermal Power Corporation
(NTPC). NTPC is largely government-owned,
and the 1962 Atomic Energy Act prohibits
private control of nuclear power generation.
lifespans extended to 2033/36. Kakrapar unit 1

was repaired and upgraded in 2009, as was
Narora-2.
The two Tarapur 160 MWe Boiling Water

Reactors (BWRs) built by GE on a turnkey
contract before the advent of the Nuclear NonProliferation Treaty were originally 200 MWe.
They were down-rated due to recurrent
problems but have run well since. They have been
using imported enriched uranium and are under
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
safeguards. However, late in 2004 Russia
deferred to the Nuclear Suppliers Group and
declined to supply further uranium for them.
They underwent six months refurbishment over
2005-06, and in March 2006 Russia agreed to
resume fuel supply. In December 2008 a $700
million contract with Rosatom was announced
for continued uranium supply to them.
The two small Canadian (Candu) PHWRs

at Rajasthan nuclear power plant started up in
1972 and 1980, and are also under safeguards.
Rajasthan-1 was down-rated early in its life and
has operated very little since 2002 due to ongoing
problems and has been shut down since 2004 as
the government considers its future. Rajasthan2 was restarted in September 2009 after major
refurbishment, and running on imported
uranium at full rated power.
The 220 MWe PHWRs (202 MWe net) were
indigenously designed and constructed by
NPCIL, based on a Canadian design. The
Kalpakkam (MAPS) reactors were refurbished
in 2002-03 and 2004-05 and their capacity
restored to 220 MWe gross (from 170). Much of
the core of each reactor was replaced, and the
[18]
NUCLEAR PROGRAMME
The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research

(TIFR), which came up in 1945, provided the base
and the structure for organising the early efforts
for Indias nuclear energy programme. Hence,
it is also referred to as the cradle of Indian
nuclear power programme.
The horrors of the nuclear holocaust

unleashed in Hiroshima and Nagasaki were
followed by a new vista of atoms for peace, of
nuclear power generation, transformations in
agriculture and medical diagnostics and therapy
for using atomic Science & Technology. Its in
this context that in April 1948, the Atomic
Energy Bill was enacted with the primary
objective to develop, control and use atomic
energy for peaceful purposes, a clear departure
from the policy followed by the nuclear powers,
often forgotten or ignored by the international
community. India under the leadership of
Jawaharlal Nehru was dedicated to the peaceful
uses of atomic energy but it couldnt wish away
the lurking threat posed by nuclear weapons,
and so per force Indian option for nuclear
weapons was kept open. For both areas peaceful
applications and the weapon option, Dr. Homi
first nuclear power plant to obtain ISO14001 accreditation for its environment
management system.
Bhabha, the architect of Indias nuclear

programme, had a clear strategic vision and
priorities.
Kakrapar Atomic Power Station was the

first Indian nuclear power plant to
undergo a peer review by an international
team of experts from the World
Association of Nuclear Operators
(WANO). All other Indian nuclear power
stations are also peer reviewed by WANO.
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Subsequently, Indias Atomic Energy

Commission was set up on 10 August, 1948
under the Chairmanship of Dr. Bhabha with the
sole objective of formulation and implementation
of the governmental policy relating to the
development of nuclear power in India. In fact,
India was among the first eight countries of the
world to have an Atomic Energy Commission.
The next step was the establishment of the
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) with
Bhabha as its Secretary in August 1954, the
objectives of which, inter alia included:
(i)
Proper use of the latest technologies for

the development of nuclear power.
(ii) To ensure nuclear power generation

against global economic competition by
exploiting natural resources.
(iii) Establishment of nuclear power reactors
and safe use of radioactive substances.
(iv) Production of nuclear power for meeting

the defence requirements of India.
(v)
To understand the role of nuclear power

in economic development.
(vi) To carry out programmes on isotopes and

radiation technology.
N-POWER POLICY OF INDIA
In the beginning of the Eighth Plan, it was

aimed to produce 10,000 MW of power by 2000,
to increase the nuclear power share in total
power production. In order to achieve the above
objective, the Central Government established
Nuclear Power Corporation to coordinate
various nuclear power organisations, in 1989.
But, it was unlikely to achieve this objective,
particularly after the disintegration of USSR, and
then the target was reduced to 9000 MW.
However, still it was not possible in the near
future. Indian scientists have planned to achieve
the above target in future through the
development of three generations of nuclear
reactors:
(a)
1st Generation Nuclear Reactors: These

are the pressurized Heavy Water reactors
with the capacity of 235 HW each and
use natural uranium as fuel. Plutonium is
the by-product.
(b)
2nd Generation Nuclear Reactors: These

are planned to be the fast breeder reactors
with the capacity of 500 HW each, and
use Plutonium, a by-product of the first
generation reactors, as the fuel.
(c)
3rd Generation Nuclear Reactors: These

are also planned to be the fast breeder
reactors. This generation reactors will use
fuel derived from second generation
reactors and convert more Thorium into
Uranium-233. So, the plan is to use vast
Thorium deposits found in India.
(vii) To support basic research in nuclear

energy and other frontier areas of science.
Thus, India directed its nuclear power

programme for attaining self -reliance on a broad
front which comprised mineral exploration and
mining, extraction of uranium and zirconium,
designing and fabricating reactor control
systems, production of heavy water, making
radio isotopes and promoting their use in
agriculture, medicine, etc., safety of nuclear
power reactors and monitoring the radiation level
for ensuring a safe limit.
Key milestones of Nuclear Programme:
Tarapur units 3&4, at Tarapur in

Maharashtra, are the largest in India with
a capacity of 540 MW for each unit.
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station,

Rawatbhata in Rajasthan, is Indias first
nuclear park.
Narora Atomic Power Station is Asias
India has established 1st generation nuclear

reactors at Tarapur, Kalpakkam, Narora and
Rawatbhata. Other two reactors of this grade
are located at Kakrapar (Gujarat) and Kaiga
(Karnataka). The first generation reactors have
[19]
reached commercial stage. The generation of

power from nuclear energy began in India in
1969 with the commissioning of first atomic
power station at Tarapore (TAPS).
Why India Prefers Fast Breeders : A fast

breeder reactor (FBR) breeds more fuel than it
consumes that is it produces more plutonium than
it consumes while generating power. For a
uranium scarce country like India, it is an
attractive technology. Plutonium produced in
the thermal reactors as spent fuel is ideally
suitable as the fuel material for use in the FBR
due to its high fission neutron yield. Since the
number of neutrons produced in plutonium
fission is high, it helps to produce more
plutonium from uranium (U-238) used as a
blanket surrounding the fuel core of the FBR. FBR
also consumes less uranium and that too very
effectively. While the thermal reactors exploit
only 0.6 per cent of uranium, a FBR utilises 7075 per cent of it. Thus, it leaves less radioactive
waste to dispose of. In fact, many scientists in
India prefer FBRs for this reason.
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The second generation reactor has

commenced with the successful operation of the
Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) named
KAMINI (Kalpakkam Mini Reactor) in 1985 at
the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
(IGCAR) at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu.
to its higher density and thermal

conductivity.
The Kalpakkam reactor is the worlds first

fast-breeder reactor. The reactor has successfully
used the mixed uranium - plutonium carbide
fuel, hitherto untried elsewhere. Progress has
also been made in the third generation reactor
with the successful development of a U-233
based fuel. Work has commenced on the design
of an Advanced Heavy Water Reactor which
will make the use of thorium in power
generation.
Chief Features of FBTR

(i)
(ii)
The nuclear chain reaction in the uranium

fuel in a thermal reactor is sustained by
slowing down the neutrons by a
moderator. The chain reaction in FBTR is
sustained by fast neutrons. The number
of neutrons released per fission is more
compared to that of thermal reactor. The
extra neutrons are available for absorption
in uranium-238 to transform it to fissile
plutonium-239.
In a thermal reactor typically only about
1-2 per cent of the natural uranium is
utilized whereas in FBTRs, the utilization
is increased 60 to 70 times.
(iii) Considering the nuclear and heat transfer

properties of various possible coolants,
Sodium has been universally accepted as
the coolant for FBTRs. In Thermal reactors
water is used as a coolant.
(iv) The radioactivity released to the

atmosphere and the radiation dose
received by the operating personnel in
FBTRs has been much less compared to
the water control reactors.
(v)
FBTR is based on the design of the

Rhapsodic reactor, France.
(vi) The fuel used to FBTR is mixed carbide of

plutonium and natural uranium. The
carbide fuel has higher breeding ratio due
[20]
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
The Atomic Energy Commission, set up in

1948, is responsible for formulating the policy
for all atomic energy activities in the country.
The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) is the
executive agency for implementing the atomic
energy programme. There are three public sector
undertakings under the administrative control
of DAE:
1.
Indian Rare Earths Limited (IREL) which

has set up the Orissa Sands Complex
(OSCOM) at Chhattarpur for enhancing
Rare Earths production,
2.
Uranium Corporation of India Limited

(UCIL) with mines at Jaduguda in
Jharkhand, and
3.
Electronics Corporation of India Limited

(ECIL) which manufactures electronic
instruments and equipment for nuclear as
well as non-nuclear users.
The Nuclear Power Corporation of DAE is

responsible for design, construction and
operation of nuclear power stations. Presently,
Nuclear Power Corporation is operating 20
nuclear power reactors, including 18 PHWRs
and 2 Boiling Water Reactors (BWR), with an
installed capacity of 4,780 MW; six nuclear
power reactors with an aggregate capacity of
4,800 MW are under different stages of

construction. The Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC)
at Hyderabad fabricates nuclear fuel for the
power reactors. NPCIL indigenously scaling up
the capacity of PHWRs from 220 MW to 700 MW
and attaining and sustaining over 90%
availability factor. NPCIL Power Stations are:
Tarapur Atomic Power Station (TAPS)
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS)
Madras Atomic Power Station (MAPS)
The Fast Breeder Test Reactor with a design

capacity of 40 MW thermal and 13 MW electrical
power, attained its first criticality on October 18,
1985 at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic
Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam. The fuel used
in FBTR is a mixed carbide of plutonium and
natural uranium, the proportion of the latter
being 30 per cent. Such a composition is being
used for the first time in the world. The
technology for the fabrication of the fuel was
developed at the Radio-metallurgy Division of
BARC. The next step after FBTR is to design and
construct a Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor
(PFBR) of 500 MW capacity. The 500 MW size
of reactor has been selected to match the size of
coal fired thermal power stations and PHWRs.
The PFBR will be cooked by sodium as in the
case of FBTR, but it will use the pool-type concept
which is more favoured in recent times due to
better safety and more operating experience.
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Atomic Energy Act-1962. It lays down safety

standards, and frames rules and regulations in
regard to regulatory and safety requirements.
Kaiga Generating Station
Narora Atomic Power Station (NAPS)
Kakrapar Atomic Power Station (KAPS)
There are three research reactors in operation

at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre at
Trombay. These are: APSARA (one MW
swimming pool reactor), CIRUS (40 MW thermal
reactor) and DHRUVA (100 MW thermal
reactor). A mini pool 30 KW reactor KAMINI,
containing Uranium -233 fuel is in an advanced
stage of construction at Kalpakkam. Plutoniumfuelled fast reactor PURNIMA-I was built at
Trombay in 1972. Later in 1984, it was modified
as a homogenous reactor PURNIMA-II which
uses Uranium-233 fuel in the form of a solution.
PURNIMA-III is the modified form of
PURNIMA-II to test the KAMINI core.
PURNIMA-III is a zero-energy reactor and is the
worlds first experimental research reactor to use
Uranium-233 as fuel.
The Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic
Research (IGCAR) at Kalpakkam carries out
research and development pertaining to latest
reactor technology. The major facility at the
centre is the indigenously constructed 40 MW
and 13 MW Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR).
The FBTR is a major step in the countrys nuclear
power programme. It has paved the way for
using our vast thorium resources. The Centre for
Advanced Technology was set up in 1984 at
Indore to spearhead research in high technology
fields such as fusion, lasers and accelerators. The
countrys first heavy ion accelerator of medium
energy capacity called, Pelletron has become
fully operational at the TIFR. Pelletron is based
on a tandem Van De Graff accelerator with 14
million volts terminal voltage.
The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board

(AERB), set up in 1985, carries out regulatory
and safety functions as envisaged under the
RESEARCH CENTRES
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC),

Trombay, Mumbai, is the countrys premier
nuclear research facility. BARC is a multidisciplinary research centre with extensive
infrastructure for advanced research and
development covering the entire spectrum of
nuclear science, engineering and related areas.
BARC's core mandate is to sustain peaceful
applications of nuclear energy, primarily for
power generation.
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
(TIFR), Mumbai, is a national centre for
advanced research in nuclear physics,
mathematics and high - energy physics and
astrophysics.
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
(IGCAR) is a multi-disciplinary R & D centre
mainly concerned with FBR technology and
associated fuel cycle, material sciences, fuel
reprocessing and sodium technology. IGCAR has
developed several relatively cheap and highly
sensitive electrochemical sensors to continuously
monitor the purity of liquid sodium used as
coolant in FBR. As a next step, design of 500
MWe proto-type has been completed and the
same is undergoing review.
[21]
Purnima I, Purnima II, Purnima III and Zerlina.

Indias first research reactor, APSARA, a 1 MWe
swimming pool type, built indigenously,
became operational at Trombay in 1956,
heralding a novel nuclear age in Asia. ZERLINA,
a zero energy tank type research reactor was built
indigenously in 1961. CIRUS, a tank type reactor
of 40 MWe was commissioned at Tarapur in
1960 with the assistance of Canada, for
engineering experimental work with facilities for
materials testing and radioisotope production.
Moreover, with the commissioning of PURNIMA
I & PURNIMA II respectively in 1972 and 1984,
India achieved an important milestone in its fast
reactor programme. DHRUVA, an indigenous
tank type 100 MWe reactor went into operation
in 1985 for research in advanced nuclear physics
and for isotope production. PURNIMA III, also
a tank type reactor of 1 MWe attained criticality
on 9 November, 1990. The sole objective of this
reactor is to conduct mock up studies for Kamini
reactor.
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Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT),

established in Indore in 1984, focuses its research
on lasers, accelerators, high vacuum technology
and cryogenics. It has set up two synchrotron
Radiation Sources (INDUS - 1 & INDUS -2) and
developed versatile lasers such as 70 W and 400
W carbon dioxide lasers for industrial, medical
and research applications. The Variable Energy
Cyclotron Centre (VECC) at Kolkata is a national
facility for advanced research in nuclear physics,
nuclear chemistry, production of novel medical
isotopes and study of radiation damage in reactor
materials. The Seismic Activity Monitoring
Station at Gauribidanur near Bengaluru helps
in detection and identification of underground
nuclear explosions anywhere in the world.
Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced

Technology (RRCAT) was established in May,
1984 by the Department of Atomic Energy, India
to expand the activities carried out at Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, in
two frontline areas of science and technology
namely Lasers and Accelerators. Since then, the
centre has rapidly grown into a premier institute
for research and development in lasers,
accelerators and their applications.
Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC)
is a premier R & D unit of the Department of
Atomic Energy, Government of India and one
of the constituent institutions of Homi Bhabha
National Institute. This Centre is dedicated to
carry out frontier research and development in
the fields of Accelerator Science & Technology,
Nuclear Science (Theoretical and Experimental),
Material Science, Computer Science &
Technology and in other relevant areas.
Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Researchs prime mandate is to

identify and evaluate uranium resources
required for the successful implementation of
Atomic Energy programme of the country. For
implementing this important task investigations
are taken up across the length and breadth of
the country from Regional Exploration &
Research Centres located at New Delhi ,
Bengaluru, Jamshedpur, Shillong, Jaipur,
Nagpur and Hyderabad (Headquarter & South
Central Region).
INDIAN RESEARCH REACTORS

There are seven Research Reactors working
in the country named as: Apsara, Cirus, Kamini,
[22]
The construction of KAMINI (Kalpakkam

Mini Reactor) in 1996 marks an important land
mark in Indias endeavour at mastering uranium
-233-based nuclear fuel. Designed on the basis
of Rapsody reactor of France, it is the only
reactor in the world which uses U-233 as fuel. It
will be mainly used to study the highly
radioactive fuel elements which are discharged
from FBTR at Kalpakkam. This will help in the
development of high performance plutonium
fuel elements for the proto-type FBR to be built
in the next century. It is also called the Zero Power reactor as the amount of electricity
produced (40 MWe) is consumed by the reactor
itself for research purposes. The design for Indias
next generation of reactors, called Advanced
Heavy Water Reactors (AHWRs), which will
employ thorium-based fuel, has already been
prepared.
BARC has developed comprehensive

technology for industrial operations in fuel
reprocessing and waste management.
Reprocessing plants are operational in Trombay
and Tarapur. The first fuel reprocessing plant at
Trombay is based on hot - cell technology. A
comprehensive waste management technology
for handling and safe disposal of all types of
waste, generated in nuclear industries, has been
perfected by the centre. It has also undertaken
the recent studies of high-energy-density systems.
BARC has been able to develop a plasma - based

aerosol generator and also achieved plasma
coatings of alumina on carbon steel moulds.
Moreover, BARC has also been working on the
pulsed electron beam system and has developed
Kilo Ampere Linear Injector (KALI - 5000) which
finds applications in high power microwave
generation and pulsed intense neutron source.
BHAVINI is currently constructing a

500MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR)
at Kalpakkam. The PFBR is the forerunner of the
future Fast Breeder Reactors and is expected to
provide energy security to the country. The PFBR
is being built with the design and technology
developed at the Indira Gandhi Centre for
Atomic Research (IGCAR) located at
Kalpakkam. The four other PSUs under the
Department are Nuclear Power Corporation of
India Ltd. (NPCIL), Electronics Corporation of
India Ltd. (ECIL), Indian Rare Earths Ltd. (IREL)
and Uranium Corporation of India Ltd. (UCIL).
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BARC has undertaken an extensive

programme on laser cooling and trapping of
atoms. Very recently, it has been able to develop
the atom laser, which uses coherent beam of
massive bosons. The objectives of this programme
are two-fold: first, to study the ultra-high
resolution spectrospectry for fundamental
physics experiments and second, experiments
leading to Bose - Einstein condensation.
Following the global interest in fabricating high
temperature superconducting materials, BARC
has succeeded in synthesising a single phase
superconducting compound of bismuth-leadcalcium-strontium and copper oxide with a
temperature equivalent to 120K.
India under the provisions of the Atomic Energy

Act,1962. It is a forerunner of commercial fast
breeder power reactors in the country and in this
regard, it marks a major step in the countrys
efforts to ensuring energy security through the
use of atomic energy.
Indias tokamak, Aditya, was installed in

1989 at the Institute of Plasma Research in
Gandhinagar, Ahmedabad. It is an indigenous
effort, which can generate plasma at 5 million
degree Celsius. The discoveries made by Aditya
in plasma research and edge turbulence have
had an impact on the world fusion research
programme.
BHAVINI
The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in

its Golden Jubilee Year has set up its fifth public
sector unit -Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam
Limited (BHAVINI). BHAVINI is a wholly
owned Enterprise of Government of India under
the administrative control of the Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE) incorporated on 22nd
October 2003 as Public Limited Company. It
was incorporated under the Companies Act
1956, with an authorized share capital of Rs.
5000 crore, BHAVINI is responsible for the
construction and commissioning of the countrys
first 500 MWe Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) project
at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu and to pursue
construction, commissioning, operation and
maintenance of subsequent Fast Breeder Reactors
for generation of electricity in pursuance of the
schemes and programmes of Government of
The engineering design and technical

expertise for BHAVINI will be drawn from the
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
(IGCAR), which has accumulated over two
decades of experience in fast breeder reactor
technology. NPCIL, which will take 5% of the
equity in the new company, will provide the
expertise for project management to enable
timely construction and commissioning of the
project. NPCIL is at present operating 20 nuclear
power reactors and setting up 3 more at different
locations in the country.
When completed, PFBR would produce
electricity through recycle of plutonium and
depleted uranium recovered from the spent fuel
of Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors being
operated by NPCIL.
URANIUM FUEL CYCLE
DAEs Nuclear Fuel Complex at Hyderabad

undertakes refining and conversion of uranium,
which is received as magnesium diuranate
(yellow cake) and refined. The main 400 t/yr
plant fabricates PHWR fuel (which is
unenriched). A small (25 t/yr) fabrication plant
makes fuel for the Tarapur BWRs from imported
enriched (2.66% U-235) uranium. Depleted
uranium oxide fuel pellets (from reprocessed
uranium) and thorium oxide pellets are also
made for PHWR fuel bundles. Mixed carbide fuel
for FBTR was first fabricated by Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre (BARC) in 1979.
[23]
Heavy water is supplied by DAEs Heavy

Water Board, and the seven plants are working
at capacity due to the current building
programme.
A very small enrichment plant - insufficient
even for the Tarapur reactors - is operated by
DAEs Rare Materials Plant at Ratnahalli near
Mysore. Some centrifuge R&D is undertaken by
BARC.
Mining and processing of uranium is carried

out by Uranium Corporation of India Ltd
(UCIL), a subsidiary of the Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE). The Company is having
its mining operations at Bagjata, Jaduguda,
Bhatin, Narwapahar, Turamdih underground
mines and Banduhurang opencast mines and
upcoming mining projects at Mohuldih in East
Singhbhum district of Jharkhand and at
Tummalapalle mining project in Andhra
Pradesh and Gogi mining project at Karnataka.
It has two processing plants at Jaduguda and
Turamdih and an upcoming milling project at
Tummalepalle in Andra Pradesh. KPM opencast
mining and milling project at Meghalaya is in
the pipeline.
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Fuel fabrication is by the Nuclear Fuel

Complex in Hyderabad, which is setting up a
new 500 t/yr PHWR fuel plant at Rawatbhata
in Rajasthan, to serve the larger new reactors.
Each 700 MWe reactor is said to need 125 t/yr
of fuel. The company is proposing joint ventures
with US, French and Russian companies to
produce fuel for these reactors.
In February 2012, 152,000 tU was claimed by

DAE. Accordingly, India expects to import an
increasing proportion of its uranium fuel needs.
In 2013 it was importing about 40% of uranium
requirements.
Reprocessing: Used fuel from the civil

PHWRs is reprocessed by Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre (BARC) at Trombay, Tarapur
and Kalpakkam to extract reactor-grade
plutonium for use in the fast breeder reactors.
Small plants at each site were supplemented by
a new Kalpakkam plant of some 100 t/yr
commissioned in 1998, and this is being extended
to reprocess FBTR carbide fuel. Apart from this
all reprocessing uses the Purex process. Further
capacity is being built at Tarapur and
Kalpakkam, to come on line by 2010. India will
reprocess the used fuel from the Kudankulam
reactors and will keep the plutonium.
In 2003, a facility was commissioned at
Kalpakkam to reprocess mixed carbide fuel using
an advanced Purex process. Future FBRs will also
have these facilities co-located.
The PFBR and the next four FBRs to be

commissioned by 2020 will use oxide fuel. After
that it is expected that metal fuel with higher
breeding capability will be introduced and burnup is intended to increase from 100 to 200 GWd/t.
Under plans for the India-specific safeguards
to be administered by the IAEA in relation to
the civil-military separation plan several fuel
fabrication facilities will come under safeguards.
Uranium Resources in India

India's uranium resources are modest, with
102,600 tonnes U as reasonably assured
resources (RAR) and 37,200 tonnes as inferred
resources in situ (to $260/kgU) at January 2011.
[24]
Plans were announced to invest almost US$

700 million to open further mines in Jharkhand
at Banduhurang, Bagjata and Mohuldih; in
Meghalaya at Domiasiat-Mawthabah (with a
mill) and in Andhra Pradesh at LambapurPeddagattu (with mill 50km away at Seripally),
both in Nalgonda district.
In Jharkhand, Banduhurang is Indias first

open cut mine and was commissioned in 2007.
Bagjata is underground and was opened in
December 2008, though there had been earlier
small operations 1986-91. A new mill at
Turamdih in Jharkhand, with 3000 t/day
capacity, was commissioned in 2008. The
Mohuldih underground mine of Jharkhand has
been developed as a modern underground mine
and was commissioned by Chairman &
Managing Director, UCIL on 17th April 2012.
UCIL now operates six underground mines and
one openpit mine in the state of Jharkhand in
addition to an underground mine in Andhra
Pradesh.
In Andhra Pradesh there are three kinds of
uranium mineralisation in the Cuddapah Basin,
including unconformity-related deposits in the
north of it. The northern Lambapur-Peddagattu
project in Nalgonda district 110 km southeast of
Hyderabad has environmental clearance for one
open cut and three small underground mines
(based on some 6000 tU resources at about
0.1%U) but faces local opposition. In August

2007 the government approved a new US$ 270
million underground mine and mill at
Tummalapalle near Pulivendula in Kadapa
district, at the south end of the Basin and 300
km south of Hyderabad, for commissioning has
been initiated. A further northern deposit near
Lambapur-Peddagattu is Koppunuru, in Guntur
district.
Uranium Imports
By December 2008, Russia's Rosatom and
Areva from France had contracted to supply
uranium for power generation, while
Kazakhstan, Brazil and South Africa were
preparing to do so. The Russian agreement was
to provide fuel for PHWRs as well as the two
small Tarapur reactors, the Areva agreement was
to supply 300 tU.
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In Meghalaya, close to the Bangladesh

border in the West Khasi Hills, the DomiasiatMawthabah mine project (near Nongbah-Jynrin)
is in a high rainfall area and has also faced
longstanding local opposition partly related to
land acquisition issues but also fanned by a
campaign of fear mongering. For this reason, and
despite clear state government support in
principle, UCIL does not yet have approval from
the state government for the open cut mine at
Kylleng-Pyndeng-Shahiong (also known as
Kylleng-Pyndengshohiong-Mawthabah and
formerly as Domiasiat) though pre-project
development has been authorised on 422 ha.
UCIL to explore for uranium in Assam.
India's Forest and Environment Ministry has

given clearance to the UCIL to start uranium
mining in Meghalaya. UCIL has earmarked an
investment of $229-million to develop the
uranium reserves in Meghalaya. However, the
environmental approval in December 2007 for
a proposed uranium mine and processing plant
here and for the Nongstin mine has been
reported. There is sometimes violent opposition
by NGOs to uranium mine development in the
West Khasi Hills, including at Domiasiat and
Wakhyn, which have estimated resources of 9500
tU and 4000 tU respectively. Tyrnai is a smaller
deposit in the area. The status and geography of
all these is not known. The clearance comes
despite decades of opposition to uranium
exploration and mining in the province by locals
claiming to be victims of radiation and toxic
waste resulting from exploratory drillings by
UCIL. However, plans for an opencast mine to
extract the mineral from the West Khasi Hills
have been hanging fire since 1992 on fears of
radiation and environmental hazards.
However, India has reserves of 290,000
tonnes of thorium - about one quarter of the
world total, and these are intended to fuel its
nuclear power programme for a longer-term.
In September 2009 state-owned oil company
ONGC proposed to form a joint venture with
In February 2009 the actual Russian contract

was signed with TVEL to supply 2000 tonnes of
natural uranium fuel pellets for PHWRs over ten
years, costing $780 million, and 58 tonnes of lowenriched fuel pellets for the Tarapur reactors.
The Areva shipment arrived in June 2009. RAPS2 became the first PHWR to be fuelled with
imported uranium, followed by units 5 & 6 there.
In January 2009 NPCIL signed a
memorandum of understanding with
Kazatomprom for supply of 2100 tonnes of
uranium concentrate over six years and a
feasibility study on building Indian PHWR
reactors in Kazakhstan. Under this agreement,
300 tonnes of natural uranium was to come from
Kazakhstan in the 2010-11 year. Another 210 t
would come from Russia. A further agreement
in April 2011 covered 2100 tonnes by 2014. In
March 2013 both countries agreed to extend the
civil nuclear cooperation agreement past 2014.
In September 2009 India signed uranium
supply and nuclear cooperation agreements with
Namibia and Mongolia. In March 2010 Russia
offered India a stake in the Elkon uranium
mining development in its Sakha Republic, and
agreed on a joint venture with ARMZ Uranium
Holding Co. In 2013 negotiations for a bilateral
supply treaty with Australia were to commence.
In July 2010 the Minister for S&T reported
that India had received 868 tU from France,
Russia & Kazakhstan in the year to date: 300 tU
natural uranium concentrate from Areva, 58 tU
as enriched UO2 pellets from Areva, 210 tU as
natural uranium oxide pellets from TVEL and
300 tU as natural uranium from Kazatomprom.
As of August 2010 the DAE said that seven
reactors (1400 MWe) were using imported fuel
and working at full power, nine reactors (2630
MWe) used domestic uranium.
[25]
THORIUM FUEL CYCLE

DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
The long-term goal of Indias nuclear
programme has been to develop an advanced
heavy-water thorium cycle. The first stage of this
employs the PHWRs fuelled by natural uranium,
and light water reactors, to produce plutonium.
In 2009 the AEC announced some features

of the 300 MWe AHWR It is mainly a thoriumfuelled reactor with several advanced passive
safety features to enable meeting next generation
safety requirements such as three days grace
period for operator response, elimination of the
need for exclusion zone beyond the plant
boundary, 100-year design life, and high level
of fault tolerance. The advanced safety
characteristics have been verified in a series of
experiments carried out in full-scale test facilities.
Also, per unit of energy produced, the amount
of long-lived minor actinides generated is nearly
half of that produced in current generation Light
Water Reactors. Importantly, a high level of
radioactivity in the fissile and fertile materials
recovered from the used fuel of AHWR, and their
isotopic composition, preclude the use of these
materials for nuclear weapons.
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Stage 2 uses fast neutron reactors burning

the plutonium to breed U-233 from thorium. The
blanket around the core will have uranium as
well as thorium, so that further plutonium
(ideally high-fissile Pu) is produced as well as
the U-233.
range of experiments, to help validate the reactor

physics of the AHWR through computer codes
and in generating nuclear data about materials,
such as thorium-uranium 233 based fuel, which
have not been extensively used in the past. It
has all the components of the AHWRs core
including fuel and moderator, and can be
operated in different modes with various kinds
of fuel in different configurations.
Then in Stage 3, Advanced Heavy Water

Reactors (AHWRs) burn the U-233 from stage 2
and this plutonium with thorium, getting about
two thirds of their power from thorium.
In 2002 the regulatory authority issued

approval to start construction of a 500 MWe
prototype fast breeder reactor at Kalpakkam and
is in an advanced stage of completion,
construction by BHAVINI. The unit is expected
to be operational in 2013, fuelled with uraniumplutonium oxide (the reactor-grade Pu being
from its existing PHWRs). It will have a blanket
with thorium and uranium to breed fissile U233 and plutonium respectively. This will take
Indias ambitious thorium programme to stage
2, and set the scene for eventual full utilisation
of the countrys abundant thorium to fuel
reactors. Six more such 500 MWe fast reactors
have been announced for construction, four of
them by 2020.
So far about one tonne of thorium oxide fuel
has been irradiated experimentally in PHWR
reactors and has reprocessed and some of this
has been reprocessed, according to BARC. A
reprocessing centre for thorium fuels is being set
up at Kalpakkam.
Design is largely complete for the first 300

MWe AHWR, though no site has yet been
announced. It will have vertical pressure tubes
in which the light water coolant under high
pressure will boil, circulation being by
convection. A large heat sink - Gravity-driven
water pool - with 7000 cubic metres of water is
near the top of the reactor building. In April
2008 an AHWR critical facility was
commissioned at BARC to conduct a wide
[26]
At the same time the AEC announced an

LEU version of the AHWR. This will use lowenriched uranium plus thorium as a fuel,
dispensing with the plutonium input. About
39% of the power will come from thorium (via
in situ conversion to U-233, of two thirds in
AHWR), and burn-up will be 64 GWd/t.
Uranium enrichment level will be 19.75%, giving
4.21% average fissile content of the U-Th fuel.
Plutonium production will be less than in light
water reactors, and the fissile proportion will be
less and the Pu-238 portion three times as high,
giving inherent proliferation resistance. The
design is intended for overseas sales, and the
AEC says that the reactor is manageable with
modest industrial infrastructure within the reach
of developing countries.
NUCLEAR ENERGY PARKS IN INDIA
In line with past practice such as at the eightunit Rajasthan nuclear plant, NPCIL intends to
set up five more "Nuclear Energy Parks", each
with a capacity for up to eight new-generation
preliminary environmental assessment for the

whole project was completed in January 2013.
Westinghouse signed an agreement with NPCIL
in June 2012 to launch negotiations for an early
works agreement which was expected in a few
months. The first stage of two units is due on
line in 2019-20, the others to 2024.
Kudankulam in Tamil Nadu: Three more

pairs of Russian VVER units, making 9200 MWe.
Environmental approval has been given for the
first four. A general framework agreement for
construction of units 3 & 4 was planned to be
signed in mid 2010, with equipment supply and
service contracts soon after, but these were
delayed on account of supplier liability questions,
with India wanting the units to come under its
2010 vendor liability law. In July 2012 Russia
agreed to $3.5 billion in export financing for
units 3 & 4, to cover 85% of their cost. A further
credit line of $800 million is available to cover
fuel supplies. The credit lines carry interest at
4% pa and would be repayable over 14 years
and 4 years respectively, from one year after the
start of power generation. The Indian
government said it expected to take up the credit
offers to the value of $3.06 billion, about 53% of
the $5.78 billion estimated total project cost. In
March 2013 cabinet approved construction of
units 3 & 4, and site work began.
Kovvada in Andhra Pradesh will host six

GE Hitachi ESBWR units. GE Hitachi said in June
2012 that it expected soon to complete an early
works agreement with NPCIL to set terms for
obtaining approval from the Government for the
project. Site preparation is under way, and a
preliminary environmental assessment is being
prepared.
Jaitapur in Maharashtra: An EUR 7 billion

framework agreement with Areva was signed
in December 2010 for the first two EPR reactors,
along with 25 years supply of fuel. Environmental approval has been given for these, and
site work was planned to start in 2011 with a
view to 2013 for construction. In July 2009 Areva
submitted a bid to NPCIL to build the first two
EPR units, which will have Alstom turbinegenerators, accounting for about 30% of the total
EUR 7 billion plant cost. The site will host six
units, providing 9600 MWe. Areva now hopes
to obtain export credit financing and sign a
contract which would put the first two units on
line in 2020 and 2021. In 2013 negotiations
continued and the government said it expected
the cost of the first two units to be 1,20,000 crore
($21 billion).
Bargi or Chuttka in Madhya Pradesh is

also designated for two indigenous 700 MWe
PHWR units.
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reactors of 1,000 MWe, six reactors of 1600 MWe

or simply 10,000 MWe at a single location. By
2032, 40-45 GWe would be provided from these
five. NPCIL says it is confident of being able to
start work by 2012 on at least four new reactors
at all four sites designated for imported plants.
The new energy parks are to be:
Mithi Virdi in Gujarat will host up to six

Westinghouse AP1000 units built in three
satages. NPCIL says it has initiated pre-project
activities here, with groundbreaking in 2012. A
Haripur in West Bengal to host four or six

further Russian VVER-1200 units, making 4800
MWe. NPCIL says it has initiated pre-project
activities here, with groundbreaking planned for
2012. However, strong local opposition led the
West Bengal government to reject the proposal
in August 2011, and change of site to Orissa state
has been suggested
Kumharia and Gorakhpur in the
Fatehabad district in Haryana is earmarked for
four indigenous 700 MWe PHWR units and the
AEC had approved the state's proposal for a 2800
MWe nuclear power plant.
At Markandi (Pati Sonapur) in Orissa there

are plans for up to 6000 MWe of PWR capacity.
NUKE COMMAND
Formalizing the countrys nuclear command

and control structure, Indias cabinet on January
4, 2003 decided to place ultimate control of the
countrys nuclear forces in the hands of a
political council chaired by then Prime Minister
Atal Behari Vajpayee. It took more than four and
a half years after declaring itself a nuclear
weapon power, to make public a set of political
principles and administrative arrangement to
manage its arsenal of atomic weapons. The
Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) met to
review progress in implementing Indias nuclear
doctrine, the state of readiness of its strategic
forces and the procedures for their command
and control.
[27]
Through the CCS statement the government

has tried to share information on some key
aspects of its nuclear weapons management
with the Indian public and the world. Although
the broad outline of Indias nuclear doctrine was
known for a while, the nature of its command
and control over the atomic arsenal had
remained unclear.
The security committee expressed

satisfaction with the overall preparedness of its
arsenal and reiterated the decision to limit Indias
capability to a credible minimum deterrent and
the commitment to use nuclear weapons only in
retaliation. India also reaffirmed that it would
not use the weapons against non-nuclear
weapon powers. Against nuclear weapon
powers, its strategy would remain on the policy
of No-first use. India is committed not to use
nuclear arms first in any conflict, but only in
retaliation for a nuclear attack against it or its
forces. But in the event of a major attack
involving chemical or biological weapons, India
reserves the right to use nuclear weapons.
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N-Command Structure: The government

accounted the formation of Nuclear Command
Authority (NCA) which will be solely
responsible for ordering a nuclear strike. The
NCA will have two bodies: Political council and
Executive council.
individual capacity based on military advice,

especially when one is going to act only in
retaliation.
Political Council: Political council is the sole

body, which can authorize the use of nuclear
weapon. It represents the civilian leadership. As
the first among equal, the Prime Minister will
symbolically have his finger on the nuclear
button. An alternative chain of command has
also been approved to take charge in case the
command chain is disturbed in any way. It has
not been made public besides the Prime Minister,
as the chairperson, the political council will also
be represented by the Home Minister, the
Defence Minister, the Foreign Minister and the
Finance Minister.
Executive Council: The executive council

chaired by the National Security Advisor to the
Prime Minister, will provide inputs for decision
making by the National command Authority and
execute the directives given to it by the Political
council. The real strength of the council has not
been announced by the Cabinet Committee on
Security.
The cabinet committee also approved the

appointment of a Commander-in-chief,
strategic forces command who would be
responsible for the administration of the nuclear
force. It will be the custodian of all nuclear
weapons and delivery systems. It will also
formulate the strategy for retaliation and advise
the chiefs of staff committee and actually fire the
nukes. A senior officer of the Indian Air Force is
expected to be nominated to the post. Once the
chief of staff committee receives inputs from
the strategic forces command, it will provide
military advice to the political council of the
nuclear command authority through the
executive council. The final decision has to be
made by the leader (Prime Minister) in his
[28]
The nuclear draft doctrine was released by

the National Security Advisory Board set up after
May 1998 tests, in August 1999. The
announcement has confirmed the essence of that
draft as official policy. The only new element in
the doctrine is the interesting caveat it has
introduced to its No-first use posture. The United
States has retained a similar option to prevent
nations with chemical and biological weapons
from assuming that the use of these weapons of
mass destruction will not invite a nuclear
response. While India has consciously chosen not
to use nuclear weapons first, it warned potential
adversaries that the nuclear retaliation to a first
strike will be massive and designed to inflict
unacceptable damage.
Alternative N-Command: India has more
than one alternative nuclear command structure
in place. In the event of a surprise attack, these
alternative command authorities will be in
position to take retaliatory action. An alternative
command puts the final touch to Indias nuclear
deterrent. If an enemy knows that such a
command exists, but does not know where they
are; this will deter a surprise attack.
India may have two or three alternative

command structures. Both the location and
nature of the command will remain a secret. This
will never be disclosed. The succession ladder of
various officials had also been worked out.
During the Kargil war and mobilization crisis,
India had made adequate preparation on the
nuclear front and could have retaliated if there
had been any need.
The civil chain of command has also not been

made public. In a setting in which the Prime
Minister who has been vested with the sole
authority over the nuclear button, is unable to
function, conventional nuclear command and
control hierarchy demands that the next in the
line of succession be identified. In the US, for
instance, where the President has authority over
the nuclear button, the structure identifies 16
others in the line of succession.
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India has also full-fledged delivery system.

There are multiple agencies tasked with
responsibility on nuclear issues. Some of these,
like the Department of Atomic Energy are Civil
and some, like the Armys 333 Missiles Group,
are military. Indias Prithvi and Agni missiles and
its Mi ranges and Sukoi-30 fighter bombers are
nuclear capable. A sea based nuclear deterrent
will be ready once India has submarine-launched
cruise missile.
effective intelligence; (d) comprehensive

planning and training for operations; (e) the will
to employ nuclear forces and weapons. Special
focus is to be given to ensure nuclear safety and
improvement in R&D programmes to sustain
technological advancements. India will focus on
developing a strong disaster control system and
continue to strive for making a nuclear-free
world. In a nutshell, Indias nuclear doctrine
firmly adheres to a tolerant defensive policy as
well as explicitly reflects its nuclear prowess. The
doctrine is indicative of the endurance, tolerance,
strength and greatness of a nuclear India.
INDIAN NUCLEAR DRAFT
The acquisition of an advanced nuclear

weapon capability also necessitated the
formulation of a nuclear draft. It was in this
context that the Indian Nuclear Draft was
released by National Security Advisory Board of
India on 17 Aug. 1999. This document prepared
on Indias nuclear doctrine was designed for
informal public debate, details regarding the
configuration of nuclear forces and targeting
schemes flowing from the broad framework.
The prime objective of India is to achieve
economic, political, social, scientific and
technological developments within a peaceful
and democratic framework. It considers Indias
security as an integral component of its
development process. The notion adheres firmly
to its continued commitment to certain principles
- (a) to restrict the purpose of nuclear weapons
to credible minimum deterrence against nuclear
weapons only and not visualizing use of these
weapons in nuclear scenario and (b) to have
commitment to a policy of no first use.
The draft earnestly seeks to enhance the
credibility of Indias nuclear deterrence and
acquire adequate retaliatory capability.
Deterrence requires that India maintains: (a)
sufficient survivable and prepared nuclear force;
(b) robust communication & control system; (c)
NUCLEAR POWER VISION
The vision 2020 document of 2000 and the

Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-2007) say nuclear
power is Indias insurance for energy security.
Aggressively build capabilities and capacity in
nuclear power to progressively raise its share in
Indias fuel mix, according to the Tenth Five
Year Plan that advocated for more nuclear
energy. To achieve this, it suggested partial
privatisation of nuclear power generation and
market financing for projects.
India would need 500,000 MW of power by
2050. It has a vast coal reserve, but there are
doubts whether all of it can be mined. The
countrys hydrocarbon resources wont last long
and it will become even more dependent on
imports. India would have harnessed all its
hydroelectricity resources by 2050, and nonconventional energy is unlikely to be costeffective. A mix of all these resources could help
but DAE feels that nuclear energy is the only
solution, which can fill the gap between
demands and supply. The government agrees
and has decided to cut the estimated 70 per cent
contribution of coal-based power to 62 per cent
by 2020 and compensate the shortfall through
nuclear stations. The government wants that by
2050 nuclear reactors supply 25 per cent of
Indias total power production. The DAE is sure
that it can generate 10,000 MW of nuclear power
by 2010 and 20,000 MW by 2020. Its confidence
is based on an indigenous technology, which
recycles spent fuel of thermal nuclear reactors
to get plutonium for FBRs. The Nuclear Power
Corporation says it will generate 1,300 MW
during the Tenth Five Year Plan and 4,660 MW
during Eleventh Plan to make up for the first
10,000 MW target within the next six years.
[29]
Three-stage nuclear energy programme aims

at generating 20,000 MW of electricity by 2020.
The programme will begin by using scarce
uranium in the first stage to thorium in the third
stage by 2020.
Stage-I: Twenty-one pressurized heavy
water reactors using natural uranium to generate
10,000 MW of power by 2010.
2.
A design of the nuclear facilities under

control.
3.
Provision of records.
4.
Reports to the agency based upon the

records.
5.
Onsite inspection by the agency.
Structural weaknesses of the NPT

(a)
The imbalance in the distribution of

obligations and benefits between the
nuclear weapon powers and the non nuclear
weapon states.
Stage III: Advanced heavy water reactors

to use plutonium and new fuel of thorium.
Indias 3,00,000 tonnes of thorium supposed to
produce electricity for 400 years.
(b)
The omission of any reference to the

vertical proliferation in the treaty.
(c)
The technological denials embodied in the

discriminatory provisions regarding
safeguards (Art. III), right to peaceful uses
of nuclear energy (Art. IV) and right to
peaceful nuclear explosives PNEs (Art. V).
(d)
The omission of nuclear security

guarantees to non-nuclear weapon states
in the Treaty.
(e)
The fragile UN resolution 225 on nuclear

security guarantee in 1968.
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Stage-II: Fast breeder reactors (FBRs) will use

plutonium extracted from spent uranium fuel of
Stage-I to generate 10,000 MW by 2020, which
means 12.5 per cent of Indias electricity need.
NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION
As per the current definition, Nuclear

proliferation includes, apart from acquisition of
nuclear weapons, the acquisition of fissionable
materials like plutonium and enriched uranium
and also the ability to produce them.
Nuclear proliferation can be accomplished
in two ways, horizontal and vertical. If nonnuclear regions or states become nuclear powers,
it is the case of horizontal proliferation. A nuclear
power state when goes on adding to its nuclear
arsenal, the case is of vertical proliferation. The
emphasis on horizontal proliferation totally
ignoring vertical proliferation has been the real
cause of confrontation between the nuclear
haves and have-nots.
In order to check the horizontal proliferation

nuclear haves devised various inspection and
control mechanisms based on bilateral accord.
But this was not enough as the fear that nations
may strop around and buy their materials from
states that imposed the least control and even
no controls prompted them to establish
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to
preserve the long term and safe foreign
markets for its nuclear materials and technology
and international system of safeguards.
This control system consists of five basic
elements:
1.
[30]
An agreement between the agency and

the recipient country regarding control
provisions.
Political Instrument Devised by the Super

Powers
(a)
To perpetuate the status quo and the

hierarchical character of the international
system.
(b)
To restrict the nuclear club membership

only to five nuclear weapon powers.
(c)
To establish a clientele relationship

between the nuclear powers and the nonnuclear powers.
(d)
To sharply divide nations into the nuclear

haves and nuclear have nots.
(e)
To establish technological hegemony over

the developing nations.
N-safety & Regulation
The nuclear safety in India is regulated by

an autonomous body, the Atomic Energy
Regulatory Board (AERB) established under
section 27 of the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 on 15
Nov. 1983. Moreover, in recent times, environmental issues have assumed significance mainly
for ensuring sustainable development in all
spheres. The AERB has issued the guidelines
fixing the upper limit for radiation annually

which is 30 mSv. Besides, the BARC has set up a
Health Safety and Environmental Group in the
premises of every nuclear power plant to monitor
radiation.
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In fact, the AERB together with the Safety

Review Committee for Operating Plants
(SARCOP) is responsible for regulating the safety
standards. In order to deal with nuclear
emergencies, a Crisis Management Group
(CMG) was constituted in 1987, which comprises
members from organisations like NPCIL, BARC,
AERB, HWB (Heavy Water Board) etc. With a
view to managing the crises situation, the DAE
has identified an Exclusion Zone of 1.6 km
surrounding the power station where habitation
has been prohibited. Besides, an area of 16 km
radius around the plant has been identified as
the EPZ.
under the treaty. It tantamounts to nuclear

hegemony creating an inequality in the world
order. India says that it can become a part of
treaty, but first there should be complete
disarmament. Despite several resolutions and
treaties, no substantial development has been
done by NWS (Nuclear Weapon States). It is a
matter of great concern to Indias security, as
we have China and Pakistan as nuclear states.
The government of India is in favour of
expansion of exclusive club of nuclear power by
induction of it. So, NPT has to be genuine to its
goal, either we have a range of states having
nuclear war heads to balance global power or
all the countries of the world adopt a totally
nuclear weapons free world. However, in the
light of recent tests of China and France and
proposed NMD of US and its withdrawal from
ABM 1972, there is not much light of hope.
INDIA AND CTBT
INDIA AND NPT
After the end of the Second World War, the

world which had experienced the catastrophic
effect of atom bomb embarked on the path not
to have a repetition of nuclear history. After
eighteen years of futile discussions a series of
substantial developments got its origin and its
manifestation came in the form of Partial Test
Ban Treaty, 1963. The process yielded a very
important and relevant treaty in 1968 known as
Non proliferation Treaty or NTP. This treaty
prohibits further spread of nuclear weapons. The
decade of 1970, which was declared as
Disarmament Decade by U.N. had an auspicious
starting by having 43 countries ratifying the
treaty. Thus the treaty came into force on 5
March, 1970. A total of 190 parties joined the
Treaty, with five states being recognized as
nuclear-weapon states: the United States, Russia,
the United Kingdom, France, and China.
The Indian stand is that it has refused to sign

the treaty on the ground that it is discriminatory
and unequal. The official stand of India over the
treaty was in crystal clear manner aircasted by
Mr. K. P. Unnikrishnan in U. N. General
Assembly that India would not subscribe to a
treaty of an attitude that divides the world into
haves and have-nots.
The NPT professes for a world where five
countries would have nuclear weapons and rest
of the countries would be devoid of it as the
proliferations of nuclear weapon is prohibited
The another very substantial step, to get a

world in which there would be supremacy of
five countries rather than a world free from
nuclear weapon, was taken in June 1995 in
Geneva to adopt the Comprehensive Test Ban
Treaty (CTBT). The treaty contains a
comprehensive plan to prohibit nuclear tests. The
treaty comprised 154 countries and verified by
51 countries before a review conference was held
in Vienna in October 1999. The ratification of
America and China is required to get the treaty
into force. But these countries have not yet
ratified it and one of the bizarre points is that
America, that preaches other countries to sign
it, didnt get it approved by its Senate as they
treated it as against the interest of US security.
Russia signed the treaty on Sep 24, 1996 and
ratified it on Jun 30, 2000.
The 44 countries, including five nuclear
powers are considered as having nuclear
capability. Out of 44, 41 countries have signed
it, while 26 countries have ratified it. As of June
2013, 159 states had ratified the CTBT and
another 24 states signed it but not ratified it.
There are 183 signatories of CTBT.
India opposes the treaty on the ground that
it doesnt speak about destruction of existing
nuclear stockpiles. The treaty doesnt contain any
time bound destruction programme. So
according to the treaty, disarmament of the
weapons would solely depend on the attitude
of NWS. The recent tests of China, France and
[31]
US, underground subcritical tests of Nevada put

a huge question mark on their intention. The
recent development in US Congress and
withdrawal from ABM clearly shows that future
is by no way going to be nuclear free world.
The Joint Statement acknowledged that

Indias nuclear programme has both a military
and a civilian component. Both sides agreed that
the purpose was not to constrain Indias strategic
programme but to enable resumption of full civil
nuclear energy cooperation in order to enhance
global energy and environmental security. Such
cooperation was predicated on the assumption
that any international civil nuclear energy
cooperation (including by the US) offered to
India in the civilian sector should, firstly, not be
diverted away from civilian purposes, and
secondly, should not be transferred from India
to third countries without safeguards. These
concepts will be reflected in the Safeguards
Agreement to be negotiated by India with
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
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In such a condition India says that her

security concerns demand nuclear power, as we
have in our surrounding nuclear China and
Pakistan. India is willing to have a consensus
over CTBT in country only if some of her
demands are conceded. It demands that India
should be included in the club of NWS and
countries having nuclear arms should go for a
comprehensive programme for disarmament
with specific time bound resolution.
Minister Manmohan Singh issued a Joint

Statement resolving to establish a global
partnership between their two countries through
increased cooperation on numerous economic,
security, and global issues. In this Joint Statement,
the Bush Administration dubbed India a
responsible state with advanced nuclear
technology and vowed to achieve full civilian
nuclear energy cooperation with India.
But no proper attention is given to our

demands and India has refused to become a
party of the treaty. The self moratorium imposed
by India is an example of our stand that, our
nuclear programme is only for alternate purpose.
The commitment becomes more authentic with
our proposal of no first use which was rejected
by Pakistan.
India has been voicing since 1960 in favour
of disarmament and has actively participated in
it. But it is against a global order where some
countries have weapons of mass destruction and
the rest are at their mercy. We aspire for a world
based on equality and respect for each other.
India believes in peace based on cooperation, and
not under the cover of fear.
Principles which Guided India
Credible, feasible, and implementable in

a transparent manner;
Consistent with Indias national security

and R&D requirements as well as not
prejudicial to the three-stage nuclear
programme in India;
Must be cost effective

implementation; and
Must be acceptable to Parliament and

public opinion.
Indias Objections
No time frame to denuclearize the five

(US, UK, France, Russia, China) nuclear
weapon States.
Treaty allows withdrawal

sanction of signatories.
The entry into

unacceptable.
The Treaty is not comprehensive; it bans

nuclear tests but allows computer
simulations.
force
without
clause
is
INDO-US NUCLEAR DEAL
In the current scenario, the then President

George W. Bush called India a natural partner
of the United States and his Administration
sought to assist Indias rise as a major power. In
July 2005, President Bush and Indian Prime
[32]
in
its
Based on these principles, India will:
Include in the civilian list only those facilities

offered for safeguards that, after separation, will
no longer be engaged in activities of strategic
significance.
The overarching criterion would be a
judgement whether subjecting a facility to IAEA
safeguards would impact adversely on Indias
national security.
However, a facility will be excluded from the

civilian list if it is located in a larger hub of
strategic significance, notwithstanding the fact
that it may not be normally engaged in activities

of strategic significance.
offered for safeguards.
A civilian facility would therefore, be one that

India has determined not to be relevant to its
strategic programme.
Taking the above into account, India, on the
basis of reciprocal action by the US, would like
to adopt the following approach:
Downstream facilities:
The following downstream facilities would
be identified and separated as civilian.
India is willing to accept safeguards in

the campaign mode in respect of the
Tarapur power reactor fuel reprocessing
plant.
The Tarapur and Rajasthan away from

reactors spent fuel storage pools would
be made available for safeguards with
appropriate phasing.
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Thermal Power Reactors: India will identify

and offer for safeguards 14 thermal power
reactors between 2006 and 2014. This will
include the 4 presently safeguarded reactors
(TAPS 1&2, RAPS 1&2) and in addition KK 1&2
that are under construction and other PHWRs,
each of a capacity of 220MW, will also be offered.
The heavy water production plants at

Thal, Tuticorin and Hazira are proposed
to be designated for civilian use. We do
not consider these plants as relevant for
safeguards purposes.
Phasing of specific thermal power reactors,

being offered for safeguards would be indicated
separately by India. Such an offer would, in
effect, cover 14 out of the 22 thermal power
reactors in operation or currently under
construction to be placed under safeguards, and
would raise the total installed Thermal Power
capacity by MWs under safeguards from the
present 19% to 65% by 2014.
Fast Breeder Reactors: India is not in a

position to accept safeguards on the Prototype
Fast Breeder Reactors (PFBR) and the Fast
Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR), both located at
Kalpakkam. The Fast Breeder Programme is at
the R&D stage and its technology will take time
to mature and reach an advanced stage of
development.
Future Reactors: India has decided to place

under safeguards all future civilian thermal
power reactors and civilian breeder reactors, and
the Government of India retains the sole right to
determine such reactors as civilian.
Research Reactors: India will permanently

shut down the CIRUS reactor. It will also be
prepared to shift the fuel core of the APSARA
reactor that was purchased from France outside
BARC and make the fuel core available to be
placed under safeguards.
Upstream facilities:
The following upstream facilities would be

identified and separated as civilian:
List of those specific facilities in the

nuclear fuel complex, which will be
Research Facilities: India will declare the

following facilities as civilian:
(a)
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
(b)
Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre
(c)
Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics
(d)
Institute for Plasma Research
(e)
Institute of Mathematics Science
(f)
Institute of Physics
(g)
Tata Memorial Centre
(h)
Board of
Technology
(i)
Harish Chandra Research Institute
Radiation
and
Isotope
These facilities are safeguards-irrelevant. It

is our expectation that they will play a prominent
role in international cooperation.
Safeguards
The United States has conveyed its

commitment to the reliable supply of fuel to
India. Consistent with the July 18, 2005, Joint
Statement, the United States has also reaffirmed
its assurance to create the necessary conditions
for India to have assured and full access to fuel
for its reactors.
To further guard against any disruption of
fuel supplies, the United States is prepared to
take the following additional steps:
(i)
The United States is willing to incorporate

assurances regarding fuel supply in the
bilateral U.S.-India agreement on peaceful
[33]
(ii)
uses of nuclear energy under Section 123

of the U.S. Atomic Energy Act, which
would be submitted to the U.S. Congress.
nuclear radiations can damage and cause

irreparable damage to cells and in some cases
even lead to death.
The United States will join India in

seeking to negotiate with the IAEA an
India-specific fuel supply agreement.
The waste material produced during the

various steps of the nuclear energy production
is collectively known as nuclear wastes. These
are harmful nuclear radiations. If these
radioactive wastes are dumped in garbage bins,
they will emit nuclear radiations, and pose a
threat to the life of humans and animals. Also if
they are dumped in rivers or sea, they will
contaminate water and damage aquatic life. So,
there is a great problem of disposal of nuclear
waste.
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(iii) The United States will support an Indian

effort to develop a strategic reserve of
nuclear fuel to guard against any
disruption of supply over the lifetime of
Indias reactors.
(iv) If despite these arrangements, a disruption

of fuel supplies to India occurs, the United
States and India would jointly convene a
group of friendly supplier countries like
Russia, France and the United Kingdom
to pursue such measures as would restore
fuel supply to India.
In the light of the above understanding with

the United States, an India-specific safeguards
agreement will be negotiated between India and
the IAEA providing for safeguards to guard
against withdrawal of safeguarded nuclear
material from civilian use at any time as well as
providing for corrective measures that India may
take to ensure uninterrupted operation of its
civilian nuclear reactors in the event of disruption
of foreign fuel supplies. Taking this into account,
India will place its civilian nuclear facilities under
India-specific safeguards in perpetuity and
negotiate an appropriate safeguards agreement
to this end with the IAEA. This plan is in
conformity with the commitments made to
Parliament.
NUCLEAR POLLUTION
It is not only the use of fossil fuels that

pollutes our surroundings; even the use of
nuclear energy gives rise to pollutants and,
hence, pollutes our environment. In fact, the
pollution caused by the use of nuclear energy
from fission process is much more damaging
than the pollution caused by burning fossil fuels.
The fuels like U-235 are radio-active substances,
which keep on emitting some nuclear radiations
all the time.
The dangerous nuclear radiations can enter
into the environment by leakage from nuclear
reactors where fission of U-235 is going on. These
NUCLEAR WASTE MANAGEMENT
No discussion on nuclear power is complete

without consideration of safety and
environmental factors. These are issues of
legitimate concern to the public in the aftermath
of the Chernobyl accident and because of the
alarming scenarios of nuclear power appearing
in the media. More than 99 per cent of the total
radioactivity in the entire nuclear fuel cycle is
generated from the fuel processing plants. To
ensure that this highly radioactive waste stream
does not pose any hazards to the environment,
a three-stage approach has been adopted. First,
the waste will be incorporated in stable and inert
solid matrices. The conditioned waste will then
be placed in canisters and kept in a retrievable
store under cooling and constant surveillance.
Ultimately, the canisters will be stored in suitable
geological media.
A waste immobilization plant for

incorporating the high level radioactive wastes
generated from the fuel processing plants is set
up along with the solid storage surveillance
facility of Tarapur. Immobilization involves
verification of radioactive waste, which is coded
at underground disposal. The canisters in storage
will be air-cooked by natural convection and
when the heat and the radioactivity in canisters
decay to desired level, they will be transported
to a suitable geological formation for ultimate
storage. The work on identifying suitable
geological formations for ultimate disposal has
been completed and a graveyard for storage of
nuclear wastes has been established in Trombay.
[34]
CHRONICLE
DEFENCE
IAS ACADEMY
stores, equipment and spares, planning

and control of departmental production
units of the Ordnance Factory Board and
for Defence Public Sector Undertakings
(DPSUs).
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The Supreme Command of the Armed

Forces vests with the President of India. The
responsibility for national defence rests with the
Cabinet. This is discharged through the Ministry
of Defence, which provides the policy
framework and wherewithal to the Armed
Forces to discharge their responsibilities in the
context of the defence of the country. The
Defence Minister is the head of the Ministry of
Defence. The principal task of the Defence
Ministry is to obtain policy directions of the
Government on all defence and security related
matters and communicate them for
implementation to the Services Headquarters,
Inter-Services Organizations, Production
Establishments and Research and Development
Organisations. It is also required to ensure
effective implementation of the Governmentfs
policy directions and the execution of approved
programmes within the allocated resources.
Ministry of Defence comprises four Departments
viz.
Department of Defence (DOD)
Department of Defence Production (DDP)
Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare

(DESW)
Department of Defence Research &

Development (DDR&D)
Principal functions of all the Departments are

as follows:
The Department of Defence (DOD) deals

with the Integrated Defence Staff (IDS)
and three Services and various InterService Organisations. It is also responsible
for the defence budget, establishment
matters, defence policy, matters relating
to Parliament, defence co-operation with
foreign countries and co-ordination of all
activities.
The Department of Defence Production

(DDP) is headed by a Secretary and deals
with matters pertaining to defence
production, indigenisation of imported
The Department of Defence Research and

Development (DDR&D) is headed by a
Secretary, who is also the Scientific
Adviser to the Raksha Mantri. Its function
is to advise the Government on scientific
aspects of military equipment and logistics
and the formulation of research, design
and development plans for equipment
used by the Services.
The Department of Ex-Servicemen

Welfare (DESW) is headed by an
Additional Secretary and deals with all
re-settlement, welfare and pensionary
matters of Ex-Servicemen.
DEPARTMENT OF DEFENCE
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
The Indian Security is based on armed forces.

The arms and ammunitions for these forces are
provided by the Department of Defence
Research and Development. The department is
dedicatedly working towards enhancing selfreliance in Defence Systems. The Department
undertakes design & development leading to
production of world class weapon systems and
equipment in accordance with the expressed
needs and the qualitative requirements laid down
by the three services. The Department is working
in various areas of military technology which
include aeronautics, armaments, combat
vehicles,
electronics,
instrumentation
engineering systems, missiles, materials, naval
systems, advanced computing, simulation and
life sciences.
Defence Research & Development
Organisation (DRDO) works under Department
of Defence Research and Development of
[35]
Goa Shipyard Limited (GSL)
Hindustan Shipyard Limited (HSL)
Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers

Limited (GRSE)
Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL)
Ordinance Factory Board (OFB)
Mishra Dhatu Nigam Limited (MIDHANI)
In addition, the following organisations are
also associated with the Department of Defence
Production for the technical support:-
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Ministry of Defence. DRDO is dedicatedly

working towards enhancing self-reliance in
Defence Systems and undertakes design &
development leading to production of world
class weapon systems and equipment in
accordance with the expressed needs and the
qualitative requirements laid down by the three
services. DRDO is working in various areas of
military technology which include aeronautics,
armaments, combat vehicles, electronics,
instrumentation engineering systems, missiles,
materials, naval systems, advanced computing,
simulation and life sciences.
Directorate General of Quality Assurance

(DGQA)
Directorate of Standardisation (DOS)
Directorate General of Aeronautical

Quality Assurance (DGAQA)
Directorate of Planning & Coordination

(Dte. of P&C)
Defence Exhibition Organisation (DEO)
?National Institute for Research &

Development in Defence Shipbuilding
(NIRDESH)
Department of Defence Production
The Department of Defence Production was

set up in 1962, in the aftermath of the Chinese
aggression to create a self-reliant and selfsufficient indigenous defence production base.
In November, 1965, Department of Defence
Supplies was created to forge linkages between
the civil industries and defence production units.
The two departments were merged in December,
1984 into the Department of Defence Production
and Supplies. The Department of Defence
Production and Supplies has been renamed as
Department of Defence Production w.e.f.
January, 2004.
Since 1962, 39 Ordnance factories have been
set up and two projects, coming up at Nalanda
in Bihar and Korwa in U.P. Their capacities
have been augmented and modernised
selectively keeping in mind the emerging
requirements of the Armed Forces. All the
Ordnance Factories and Defence Public Sector
Undertaking (DPSUs) are engaged in the task
of manufacture of equipment and stores for
Defence Services. The products manufactured
include arms and ammunition, tanks, armoured
vehicles, heavy vehicles, fighter aircraft and
helicopters, warships, submarines, missiles,
ammunition, electronic equipment, earth moving
equipment, special alloys and special purpose
steels. In addition, capacities of civil sectors are
also utilised for the purpose. The following
DPSUs are functioning under the administrative
control of the Department:
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)
Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)
Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML)
Mazagon Dock Ltd (MDL)
[36]
These Defence Production Units have

become self reliant, progressively. Additional
capacities have been built up and new items have
been productionised. These include the main
battle tank Arjun, the Advanced Light
Helicopter (ALH) and a range of 155 mm
ammunition.
Defence Research and
Organisation (DRDO)
Development
Providing a solid base to the national security

system, Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO) was formed in 1958 by
amalgamating Defence Science Organisation
and some of the technical development
establishments. A separate department of
Defence Research and Development was formed
in 1980 which now administers DRDO and its
48 laboratories and establishments. The
Department of Defence Research and
Development formulates and executes
programmes of scientific research, design and
development in the fields of relevance to national
security, leading to the induction of new
weapons, platforms and other equipments
required by the Armed Forces. It also functions
as the nodal agency for the execution of major

development programmes of relevance to
defence through integration of research,
development, testing and production facilities
with the national scientific institutions, public
sector undertakings and other agencies. It
functions under the control of scientific advisor
to Defence Minister who is also Secretary,
Defence Research and Development.
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Contribution of DRDO: DRDO has made

great strides since 1980 towards making our
armed forces self reliant. On the one hand this
has enabled our Armed Forces to face the arms
export control regimes of advanced countries,
whereas on the other hand, DRDO has
progressively enhanced their combat
effectiveness through development of state-ofthe-art indigenous defence systems. During last
few years, a number of defence systems and
equipments have been productionised. These
include:
16. Safari [MK1]: Muting systems for

deactivating remotely- controlled
explosive device.
17. Pinaka: Multibarrel rocket system.
18. INSAS: 5.56 mm. Indian small arms
system.
19. Tranquil: Radar warning receiver for
MIG 23 aircraft
20. Tempest: Radar warning receiver and
self protection jammer for MIG aircraft.
21. Catch: Airborne signal intelligence
systems.
22. Sansar: Bulk secrecy equipment with
high grade digital secrecy.
23. Samvahak: Artillery combat command
and control system.
24. Bhima: Aircraft weapon trolley
25. Humsa: Hull mounted sonar system
26. Kaveri Engine: Technologically complex
and vital system for the LCA as well as
its future variants.
27. Rajendra: Passive phased array radar
1. Lakshya: Pilotless target aircraft (aerial

target practice system)
2. Nishant: Remotely piloted vehicle (for
aerial surveillance)
3. Prithvi: Surface -to-surface tactical
battlefield missile.
4. Agni-I, Agni-II, Agni-III, Agni-IV,
Agni-V & Agni-VI: Surface to surface
missile.
5. BrahMos: Supersonic cruise missile
6. Trishul: Short range surface-to-air
missile
7. Akash: Medium-range mobile surfaceto-air missile
8. Arjun: Main Battle Tank
9. Sangraha: Integrated Electronic warfare
(EW) System for Navy
10. Samyukta: Integrated Electronic
warfare (EW) System for Army
11. Mihir: Helicopter based dunking sonar
12. Nag: Third generation Fire-and-forget
anti-tank missile
13. AERV:
Armoured
Engineer
Reconnaissance Vehicle for crossing
water obstacles.
14. Ajeya: Combat improved T-72 tank.
15. Sarvatra: Assault Bridge mechanically
launched.
INDIA'S DEFENCE POLICY
The main objectives of India fs defence

policy are to (a) promote and sustain durable
peace in the subcontinent and (b) equip the
defence forces adequately to safeguard the
territorial integrity of the country against foreign
aggression. In the field of defence research, India
has achieved great success and owing to defence
scientists, India, today is in the short list of some
developed nations of the world who have
capabilities to produce modern defence arsenals.
India is the third largest importer of arms and
equipment in the world.
Integrated Guided Missile Programme
The Integrated Guided Missile Development

Program (IGMDP) was formed in 1983 with the
aim of achieving self-sufficiency in missile
development & production and today comprises
of five core missile programs \the strategic
Agni ballistic missile, the tactical Prithvi ballistic
missile, the Akash and Trishul surface-to-air
missiles and the Nag anti-tank guided missile.
The program has given India the capability to
produce indigenous missiles in other key areas.
By enforcing the Missile Technology Control
Regime (MTCR) to stop supplies of all kinds of
missile material, Western nations are trying to
[37]
prevent India from developing these strategic

and tactical missiles. Undaunted by this highlevel conspiracy, hats off to all the brilliant
Indian scientists who have toiled so hard, in their
dedicated efforts, that they managed to develop
these missiles.
In India IGMDP comprises of following
missiles developed by DRDO:
battlefield tactical missile.

Range: 150 km with 1000 kg warhead and
250 km with 500 kg warhead (minimum 40 km)
Payload: 500-1000 kg
Warhead: Both conventional and nuclear,
pre-fragmented and bomblets
Propulsion: Single stage, liquid propellant
(i) Surface to surface missile: Prithvi
Description: The use of Prithvi is visualized

as phases of preparatory and subsequent phases
of the battle to destroy enemy concentration of
tanks and troops, logistic installations, airfields
and communication facilities. It is difficult to spot
the Prithvi or trace its trajectory and target
because of its supersonic speed and limited flight
time. The missile is extremely accurate (its
circular error probability- CEP- is lower than
most missile of its class) - with a circular accuracy
of 10m. The short-range version is for the Indian
Army and long-range for IAF.
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(ii) Surface to air medium range missile:

Akash
(iii) Anti-tank missile: Nag
(iv) Surface-to-air short range missile:

Trishul
(v) Intermediate range ballistic missile
(IRBM): Agni
Difference between Cruise Missile and InterBallistic Missile
Cruise missile is an unmanned self-propelled

guided vehicle that sustains flight through
aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path and
whose primary mission is to place a payload on
a target. They fly within the earthfs atmosphere
and use jet engine technology. These vehicles
vary greatly in their speed and ability to
penetrate defences. These can be classified as:
a)
Subsonic cruise missile
b)
Supersonic cruise missile
c)
Hypersonic cruise missiles
Ballistic missiles follow ballistic trajectory i.e.

first moves to outer space and then enters earth
atmosphere and strike the target. Ballistic missiles
are categorized according to their range, the
maximum distance measured along the surface
of the earthfs ellipsoid from the point of launch
of a ballistic missile to the point of impact of the
last element of its payload. These can be classified
as:
a)
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile
b)
Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile
c)
Medium-Range Ballistic Missile
d)
Short-Range Ballistic missile
Brief introduction of important missiles
Prithvi
Type: Short range, surface-to-surface
[38]
The Air Force version, designated as the SS250 had a range of 250 km and could carry up
to a maximum of a 500 kg as its payload. By
using boosted liquid propellant to generate more
thrust-to-weight ratio, DRDO has increased the
payload of the SS-250 to 1000 kg. The Prithvi
reportedly has the highest warhead-weight to
overall-weight of any missile in its class.
Agni
Type: Surface-to-surface, Intermediate

Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM)
Range: 700 km - 5000 km
Payload: 500 kg - 1000 kg; Multipurpose.
Propulsion: Two stage, first stage uses solid

propellant while second stage uses twin liquid
propellant engines.
Description: Agni is a re-entry technology

demonstrator. It is capable of carrying a
multipurpose payload. One of its unique features
is the heat shield of the re-entry vehicle.
Tested: First successful test of Agni took
place on 22nd May, 1989. After this test, India
became sixth nation-along with USA, Russia,
France, China and Israel who have tested IRBM.
In April 1999 India tested its Agni-II missile at
Balasore (Odisha) successfully. Range of Agni-
deep inside nuclear rival Chinas territory. It is

17.5m-tall, solid-fuelled, has three stages and a
launch weight of 50 tons.
Agni-III Missile:
Agni VI Missile:
On September 21, 2012 India test-fired the

3000 km range surface-to-surface nuclear
capable Agni-III missile from the Wheelersf
Island off Odisha coast. Agni-3 is the countryfs
first solid fuel missile that is compact and small
enough for easy mobility and can be easily
packaged for deployment on a variety of surface
and sub-surface platform. Agni-III is an
intermediate-range ballistic missile with a range
of 3,500 km- 5,000 km. The missilefs Circular
Error Probable (CEP) is within 40 meters range,
which makes it the most sophisticated and
accurate ballistic missile of its range class in the
world. In June 2011, Agni-III has been inducted
into the armed forces and is under-production.
DRDO announced the next version of Agni

missile, Agni VI. The new version will be capable
of carrying multiple warheads besides having a
longer range. Agni VI is likely to propel India
into the club of countries having inter-continental
ballistic missiles (ICBMs). The missile, having a
strike range of 8,000-10,000 km, will also have
the facility of a road launcher. While Agni-V can
carry up to three nuclear warheads, the number
could be double or more than that in case of Agni
VI. It is likely to be a three-stage missile. The trial
may come in mid-2014.
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II is more than 2500 km. A shorter variant of

Agni- Agni-1 was successfully test-fired in
January 2002. Its range is about 700 km.
Though the first development trial of AgniIII carried out on July 9, 2006 could not achieve
the desired result, subsequent tests conducted on
April 12, 2007, May 7, 2008 and February 7, 2010
from the same base were all successful.
Agni-IV Missile:
India test-fired nuclear-capable strategic

missile Agni-IV with a strike range of about 4000
km from a test range off Odisha coast. Agni-IV
missile is one of its kind and represents a
quantum leap in terms of missile technology. The
missile is lighter in weight and has two stages of
solid propulsion and a payload with re-entry
heat shield. The missile, is undergoing
developmental trials by country fs premier
Defence
Research
and
Development
Organisation.
Agni-V Missile:
India successfully test-fired Agni-V missile,

a nuclear-capable missile, with a range of more
than 5,000 km. Agni-V is an intercontinental
ballistic missile developed by the DRDO. AgniV missile will be tested twice before end of year
2013 to ensure it is ready for full-scale induction
in the armed forces towards end-2015.
With the launch of Agni-V, India has joined

a small group of countries - up to now only the
nuclear-armed superpowers - with intercontinental range ballistic missiles. The Agni-V
is capable of delivering a single 1.5-ton warhead
Akash
Type: Medium range, surface-to-air missile.

Range: 25 km
Warhead:
Pre-fragmented
activated by proximity fuse.
warhead
Tested: First time on 14th August, 1990 at

Chandipur (Odisha)
Description: It is totally indigenous missile.
The nodal agency which designed the Akash is
Defence Research and Development Laboratory,
Hyderabad. The weight of Akash is about 700
kg and its length is 5.6 meters. This missile had
better features than its U.S. counterpart Patriot.
It is totally mobile and it can be launched from a
battle tank. The Patriot has thrust only for 12
seconds and then the coasting begins. But Akash
has thrust for 35 seconds.
It is a multi-target missile - can target four to
five enemy aircrafts and missiles at a time.
Integrated with the indigenously produced
phased array radar called Rajendra. It is capable
of tracking many targets simultaneously. The
Akash system is comparable to the Patriot system
of the USA. India on May 24, 2012 successfully
test fired its two indigenously-developed surfaceto-air eAkashf missiles of Air Force version
with a strike range of 25 km from the Integrated
Test Range at Chandipur, Odisha.
Nag
Type: Third generation, fire and forget, antitank guided missile.
[39]
Range: 4 km
Warhead: Tandem shaped charges
Propulsion: Solid propellant motor
Tested: First time on Nov. 24, 1990
Single,
solid
composite
Tested: The short-range missile, Trishul, was

first tested on 5th June, 1989. The supersonic
surface-to-air missile could hit targets both in the
air and on land within a distance of 300 meters
to 9 km. The solid fuel propelled Trishul has a
capacity to carry 15 kg of warhead and has been
developed to cater to the needs of all the three
defence services. The three meter long missile,
having a diameter of 200 cm, is part of the
countrys
Integrated
Guided
Missile
Development Programme.
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Description: The missile is being developed

to counter contemporary advances in tank
armour especially the very hard or the reactive
types of armour. The missile is mounted on a
tracked vehicle equipped with Line of Sight
(LOS) radar. The radar detects the target, passes
the information (image coordinates) to the
missile. The missile then aligns its sight with that
of the LOS radar and blasts off.
Propulsion:
propellant
Aerial Version of Nag: DRDO, in

collaboration with HAL has developed an aerial
version of land based anti-tank Nag missile. Nag,
an all weather, fire-and-forget anti-tank missile
is one of the five developed by the DRDO under
the Integrated Guided Missile Development
Programme (IGMDP). The others are Akash,
Trishul, Prithvi, and Agni, Nag which has been
successfully test-fired is the only of its kind
having the range in line of sight-up to four km.
It can cover the 4 km. distance in 20 seconds,
travelling at a speed of 900 km an hour.
Avatar:
Indian scientists have designed a reusable

space plane called Avatar. This space plane can
launch satellites at extremely low cost. Besides,
it can also take tourists on a ride to space. The
man behind this low profile project is air
commander Raghavan Gopalswami; former
Chairman of Hyderabad based Bharat Dynamics
Limited and a pioneer in liquid propulsion
technology. The project team which designed
this plane included Defence Research
Development Organisation (DRDO) and Cim
Technologies. The unique design of Avatar
enables it to be launched again and again upto
100 times. Besides, it produces its own fuel
during the flight. Judging its popularity,
applications have been filed in patent offices in
the United States, Germany, China and Russia.
Trishul
Type: Short range, surface-to-air missile

Range: 300 m to 9 km
Warhead: A pre-fragmented warhead with
a strike radius of 20m.
[40]
Description: It is being developed for all the

three services. The IAF will use it against low
flying aircraft while the Navy will use a modified
version against sea-skimming missiles like the
American Harpoon. The moment the enemy
aircraft is within range, the missile will be
launched, maneuvered into the line of the
tracking beam and guided all the way to the
target. The Air Force version will be simple
except that the version designed for the Navy
will contain an accurate altimeter in its sensor
unit which will enable the missile to skim above
the waves and intercept enemy missiles. The
Trishul has high manoeuvrability and is
powered by a two-stage solid propellant system,
with a highly powered HTBP-type propellant
similar to the ones used in the Patriot.
Astra missile
Type: Air-to-air missile, beyond visual range

(BVR) missile
Length: 3570 m
Body Diameter: 178 mm

Launch Weight: 154 kg.
Warhead: 15 kg pre-fragmented directional

Range: 80 km head on, 15 km tail chase
India on December 21, 2012 successfully test

fired its indigenously developed Astra air-to-air
interceptor missile from a defence base in
Odisha. The beyond-visual-range missile was
tested from the Integrated Test Range (ITR) at
Chandipur, Odisha.
The Astra missile uses a terminal active

radar-seeker to find targets and a mid-course
internal guidance system with updates, to track
Production programme.
Planned Product Variants
Tejas Trainer : Two-seat operational
conversion trainer for the Indian Air Force.
Tejas Navy : Twin- and single-seat carriercapable variants for the Indian Navy. The LCAs
naval variant is to be ready for carrier trials by
2013 and is slated for deployment on the INS
Vikramaditya as well as the Vikrant class aircraft
carrier.
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targets. The on-board ECCM capability allows

it to jam radar signals from an enemy surfaceto-air battery, ensuring that the missile is not
tracked or shot down. This indigenous missile is
intended to have performance characteristics
similar to the R-77RVV-AE (AA-12), which
currently forms part of the IAF fs missile
armoury. The missile is 3.8 metres long and is
said to be configured like a longer version of the
Super 530D, narrower in front of the wings.
Astra uses a HTPB solid-fuel propellant and a
15 kg HE (high-explosive) warhead, activated
by a proximity fuse. The missile has a maximum
speed of Mach 4+ and a maximum altitude of
20 km.
OTHER MISSILE PROJECTS
Surya: Inter- Continental missile with range

of 5000 km is in process of development.
Sagarika: Cruise missile to be launched from

sea. Its range will be some 100 km.
Light Combat Aircraft
The Government of India in 1984 decided to

establish the Aeronautical Development Agency
(ADA) to manage the Light Combat Aircraft
(LCA) programme. Hindustan Aeronautics
Limited (HAL) was the principal partner with
participation of various DRDO & CSIR
Laboratories.
On 22nd January 2009 Light Combat

Aircraft Tejas completed 1000 flights. On 29th
April, 2012, the Naval version of the Light
Combat Aircraft Tejas, made its maiden flight
from the HAL airport in Bangalore. This was a
significant milestone in the history of Indian
Aviation in designing a naval variant of a fighter
aircraft. On 22nd February, 2013, the LCA took
part in the Iron Fist Exercise in Pokhran,
Jaisalmer and on 31st March, 2013, the Tejas
Light Combat Aircraft, LSP-8 accomplished its
maiden flight from HAL airport.
LSP 8: After having received the Flight

Readiness Review Boards (FRRB) clearance for
the flight, the most advanced edition of Indias
Light Combat Aircrafts (LCA)Tejaslimited
series production-8 (LSP-8) completed its maiden
flight on 31st March 2013. The LSP-8, along with
LSP-7 are the configurations marked for the
Initial Operational Clearance-2 (IOC-2). LSP-8
is the last aircraft in the Limited Series
Future Development
Tejas Mark 2 - Featuring more powerful

General Electric F414-GE-INS6 engine with
98Kn thrust and refined aerodynamics. The
Mark 2 is being developed to meet the Indian
Air Staff requirements.
Other Achievements in Defence Production
MBT-Arjun:
India's Main Battle Tank (MBT), Arjun,

indigenously designed and developed by DRDO
and Combat Vehicle Research Development
Establishment (CVRDE), Avadi was dedicated
to the nation in January 1996.
Arjun weighs 58 tonnes and hence falls in
the main battle tank category (above 50 tonnes).
Medium battle tanks are in the weight range of
35 to 40 tonnes. The Russian T-72 M-1 (42 tonnes)
and Vijayanta (38 tonnes) come under this
category. The 58.5 tonnes Arjun with state-ofthe art technology, superior fire power, mobility
and high speed (72 kmph on roads and 40 kmph
on rocky terrain), and weapon system has been
designed to meet Indian Armyfs most stringent
specifications. It is rated among top MBTs in the
world. The satellite based Global Positioning
System (GPS) can facilitate the Arjun to find its
geographical grid in barren areas and in the
dark.
Bhishma:
The T-90S, named Bhishma is highly

versatile and state-of-the-art tank and assembled
from important semi-knocked down units at the
Heavy Vehicles Factory, Avadi. The features of
this tank are the following:
1. Its mobility, lethal fire power, surprise hitat-first sight and self-protection.
[41]
2. Its enhanced mobility, ballistic computers

for sight and accuracy and capability to
fire all types of ammunition in addition to
firing guided missiles.
Lakshya:
Dhanush:
Lakshya the Pilotless Target Aircraft (PTA),

is a sophisticated unmanned aircraft. It has been
designed and developed to simulate realistic air
threats and to mimic the radars and infra-red
signals. It will be used to impart training for
surface-to-air, air-to-air missiles and gun firing.
This aircraft can be launched either from ground
or a ship using a rocket and is powered during
flight by a turbo jet engine.
On October 5, 2012 India successfully testfired nuclear capable Dhanush, the naval version
of Prithvi short-range ballistic missile, from a
warship off Odisha coast. The indigenously
developed Prithvi missile has a strike range of
up to 350 km and can carry 500kg of
conventional or nuclear warhead. Developed by
the DRDO, the missile is about 8.53 metre in
length and 0.9 metre in diameter. This single stage
missile uses liquid propellant. The Dhanush
missile can be used as an anti-ship weapon as
well as for destroying land targets depending on
the range. The naval variant was first tested on
11 April 2000 from one of the Indian Navys
Sukanya Class vessels. Inter-Continental missile
was designed and formulated by Indian Scientist
under the guidance of Dr. Abdul Kalam.
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3. The tank has superior armour protection

with its explosive reactor armour panel and
also has protection against nuclear,
biological and chemical weapons.
a variety of warheads. The system has a quick

reaction time, high accuracy and excellent mobile
characteristics. It consists of a launcher rocket,
replenishment-cum loader vehicle and a
command post vehicle. Pinaka is said to be
contemporary with other systems of its class that
have been developed or are being developed
anywhere in the world.
Lakshya, with a sub-sonic speed of 0.7 Mach

in clean configuration and 0.54 mach in one
stow one tow configuration could climb upto 9
km. in clean configuration and 6 km with two
bodies at a rate of 35 m/s at sea level. It has a
fuel capacity of 190 kg and can tolerate a weight
upto 630 kg. It can float above sea for 3 to 4 hours
on a parachute until it is retrieved by a helicopter
and minimum altitude possible is 300 m.
Nishant:
Indias indigenous Remotely Piloted Vehicle

(RPV) Nishant, is intended for battlefield
surveillance and reconnaissance roles and
incorporates advanced designed feature
comparable or superior to those developed
elsewhere in the world. It can carry a 45 kg
payload, travel at a speed of 150 kmph and fly
more than five hours. It can be controlled from
the ground for distances upto 160 km and can
also be programmed for an autonomous flight.
Its detection on radar is difficult as it is made
entirely of fibre reinforced glass.
Pinaka:
To build up ground support for Indian army,

DRDO has developed lethal ground based
multibarrel rocket launcher weapon system,
Pinaka. Pinaka is a mobile weapon system
characterized by capability to deliver saturation
fire over targets not engageable by artillery guns.
It has a range of 39 km and has a capability of
fire upto 12 rockets within seconds. It can launch
[42]
Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH):
ALH is a twin engined cost effective, multipurpose and multi-role helicopter with rugged
design to meet the stringent requirements of the
armed forces. It has been designed and developed
by the HAL, Bangalore. It incorporates state of
the art technology to meet the diverse operational
requirements of the Air Force, Navy and the
Army. It has a maximum continuous speed of
290 kmph and a cruise speed of 245 kmph. It
has a range of 800 km and an endurance of four
hours with a 20 minute reserve.
Hans-3:
Training aircraft is developed by scientists of

National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore on
11 May, 1998. This aircraft is made of light and
strong Fibre Glass with a total weight of 750 kg.
Sukhoi-30:
It is a fighter aircraft produced by Russia.

Recently India and Russia signed a pact, in which
Russia will give 30 Sukhoi-30 MKI aircraft and
its technology to India. Its minimum flying range
is 3000 km. It is one of the worlds most modern

fighter aircraft.
Saina:
This is a modern Torpedo developed by
Naval Science and Technology laboratory,
Vishakhapatnam. This Torpedo has capability
to be launched from both Helicopter and Ship.
With 35 kmph and 200 kg weight, can attack on
a 2.7 m long and on 6 km away target.
Propulsion: BrahMos is powered by a twostage propulsion system. Initial acceleration is

provided by a solid-propellant booster and
supersonic cruise speed is provided by a liquidfuelled ramjet system. The air-breathing ramjet
propulsion is more fuel-efficient in comparison
with conventional rocket propulsion. It provides
the BrahMos with a longer range over similar
missiles powered by rocket propulsion.
Two advantages of missile:
1.
Surface to air missile is in process of

development. This missile technology is imported
from Russia.
It is highly accurate and can be guided

to the target with the help of on-board
computers.
2.
It travels at supersonic speed in a seaskimming profile.
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Pichora:
Sarath:
Sarath is the Infantry Combat Vehicle (ICV)

which has been developed by the Indian
scientists to carry and launch Trishul, Akash and
Nag missiles.
Brahmos Missile
It is a cruise missile, jointly developed by

India and Russia under an agreement signed in
1998. It has a range of 290 km and can deliver
payload of 300 kg over 3 times the speed of
sound. It can effectively engage targets from an
altitude as low as 10 metres and has a top speed
of Mach 2.8, which is about three times faster
than the US-made subsonic Tomahawk cruise
missile.
The name Brahmos has been derived from

Brahmaputra and Moskva river of Russia. The
company has established with an authorized
capital of $250 million with 50.5 per cent from
Indian side and 49.5 per cent from Russian side.
BrahMos Aerospace was formed as a joint
venture between DRDO and Military Industrial
Consortium NPO Mashinostroeyenia of Russia.
The missile can be installed on ships, submarines,
aircraft and ground vehicles. BrahMos missiles
are inducted in to the armed forces of India and
Russia and can also be exported to friendly
nations.
Sea and ground-launched versions have
been successfully tested and put into service with
the Indian Army and Navy. The flight tests of
the airborne version will be completed by the end
of 2012.
Supersonic BrahMos
India on May 21, 2013 successfully test-fired

the 290-km range BrahMos supersonic cruise
missile from the Navys latest guided missile
frigate INS Tarkash off the Goa coast. The missile
performed the high-level C manoeuvre in the
pre-determined flight path and successfully hit
the target. The launch was carried out by the
Navy as part of Acceptance Test Firing (ATF) of
the ship. The vertical launch configuration of the
supersonic missile enhances the stealth
capabilities of the ship as the missiles are under
the deck and not exposed.
Brahmos-II
A hypersonic version of the missile namely

BrahMos-II is also presently under development
with speed of Mach 5 to Mach 7 to boost aerial
fast strike capability. It is expected to be ready
for testing by 2017. During the cruise stage of
flight the missile will be propelled by a scramjet
airbreathing jet engine.
Stealth Technology: It is a technology that

makes an aircraft invisible or less visible to the
radars. It involves superior design of aircraft and
use of advanced materials that makes the surface
of aircraft less reflective and absorbs the
electromagnetic waves produced by Radar.
Indigenous Air Defence System: An

indigenous DRDO-developed air defence system
with a centralized command, control and
communication structure and linked to several
mission (control) units throughout the country
to detect all incoming missile and enemy aircraft.
[43]
Silent Radar
India has developed low-probability
intercept radar that cannot be detected by an
incoming aircraft and can escape from an antiradiation missile attack. The radar for naval
applications has been developed by Bharat
Electronics Limited (BEL).
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This is different in the sense that a normal

radar sends out a warning to incoming air craft
that is being tracked. The low probability
intercept radar developed by BEL does the
radiation in a special way at a very low level of
power. Dubbed as Silent radar, it can be
saved from anti-radiation missile attack by the
aircraft since it cannot be detected by the aircraft.
The main features of the new radar are: nil
personal hazard, high resolution, fully solid state
and low power consumption.
The system is in fact slightly better than

Patriot Advanced Capability - (PAC-3) of the US
in terms of interception, altitude and range
against incoming ballistic missiles. The aim and
objective of the exercise was to test the missiles
ability to provide an air-shield (cover) to
important Indian metros against hostile attacks.
Besides, the missile would be moved closer to the
Indio-Pak and Sino-Indian borders during crisis
or wartime.
SUPERSONIC INTERCEPTOR
MISSILE OF INDIA
India rides new high with successfully

conducting a test of new supersonic interceptor
missile off the Orissa coast, on 22nd November,
2012.
India successfully test-fired an
indigenously developed supersonic interceptor
missile, capable of destroying a hostile ballistic
missile, from a test range off the Odisha coast.
India is working towards development of a multilayer Ballistic Missile Defence system. The 'hostile'
ballistic missile, a modified surface- to-surface
'Prithvi', mimicking an incoming enemy weapon,
first lifted off from a mobile launcher from the
launch complex-3 of integrated test range (ITR)
at Chandipur-on-Sea, about 15 km from
Balasore.
Within about four minutes, the interceptor,
Advanced Air Defence (AAD) missile positioned
at Wheeler Island, about 70 km from Chandipur,
after getting signals from tracking radars, roared
through its trajectory to destroy the incoming
missile mid-air, in an "endo-atmospheric"
altitude. The interceptor is a 7.5-metre-long
single-stage solid rocket propelled guided missile
equipped with a navigation system, a hi-tech
computer and an electro-mechanical activator.
The interceptor missile had its own mobile
launcher, secure data link for interception,
independent tracking and homing capabilities,
besides sophisticated radars.
[44]
Missile Technology Control Regime
The MTCR (Missile Technology Control

Regime) grew out of arrangements entered into
in the East-West conventional arms talks of the
1970s. It became a formal but non-treaty
arrangement in 1987 and currently has about
34 members/adherents. Its purpose is to control
the technology and export of items that could
be used to produce a missile capable of carrying
a nuclear warhead. MTCR guidelines apply to
missiles with ranges longer than 300 km. and
payloads greater than 500 kg. The guidelines
incorporate a list of items to be controlled.
However, national export decisions are not
subject to group review or sanctions. Export of
munitions items are denied to non-members with
appropriate assurances from the government of
the importing country. The MTCR originally
formulated by the G-7 nations for restricting
transfer of critical technology classified as
category I (greatest sensitivity) and category II
(least sensitivity). The cryogenic engine
technology falls under category I of the MTCR
list of controlled technologies and the transfer
therefore goes against what the guidelines seek
to prevent and curb, in the language of MTCR
guidelines, the dangerous proliferation of
missile technology by non-members. India is
neither member nor adherent of the MTCR.
SUBMARINES & SHIPS
INS Chakra:
With the induction of Nerpa, rechristened

INS Chakra, into the Indian Navy in April 2012,
India is back in the elite club of nations having
nuclear-powered submarines. INS Chakra is a
Russia-made, nuclear-propelled, hunter-killer
submarine. The Akula Class submarine will
carry conventional weapons. The vessel is armed
with four 533 mm torpedo tubes and four
650mm torpedo tubes. It will be used to hunt

and kill enemy ships. The INS Chakra displaces
about 10,000 tons. It can do over 30 knots - more
than twice the speed of conventional submarines.
It can go upto a depth of 600 metres. It is one of
the quietest nuclear submarines around, with
noise levels next to zero.
INS Trikand:
INS Trikand, the last of the three Follow On
Talwar Class frigates built in the Russian
Federation, was commissioned into the Indian
Navy on 29 June 2013 at Kaliningrad, Russia.
The commissioning of INS Trikand marks the
culmination of a three ship contract for Follow
On Talwar Class ships built in Russia, and is
therefore a milestone in the Indo-Russian
military-technological cooperation. The other
ships of the class viz, INS Teg and INS Tarkash
were commissioned in 2012 and are now
undertaking operations as part of the Western
Fleet. The keel of INS Trikand was laid on 11
June 2008 and the ship was launched on 25 May
2011. Extensive Acceptance trials were
conducted in the Baltic Sea in April and May
2013.
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INS Chakra has been taken on lease from

Russia for 10 years and would provide the Navy
the opportunity to train personnel and operate
such nuclear-powered vessels. In 2004, India had
signed a deal with Russia worth over $900 million
for leasing the submarine. The only other nations
possessing nuclear-powered submarines are US, Russia, UK, France and China. India is back
in this elite club after over a decade.
on Sagarika project for a 700-km missile,

capable of carrying nuclear weapons.
INS Arihant:
India reached a milestone with the launch

of the countrys first nuclear submarine, INS
Arihant at Visakhapatnam. Code-named
Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV), the
submarine was launched for sea trials at the
Matsya naval dockyard in Vishakhapatnam.
With the launch, India joined the exclusive club
of US, Russia, China, France and the UK with
similar capabilities. Symbolically the Arihant was
launched on 26th July 2009, the anniversary of
Vijay Diwas (Kargil War Victory Day).
As India has declared no first use of
nuclear weapons, the countrys weapons system
must survive a first strike for retaliation.
Therefore, Arihants primary weapon is stealth
as it can lurk in ocean depths of half a kilometre
or more and fire its missiles from under the sea.
The induction of ATV will help India to complete
the nuclear weapons triad, as envisaged under
its nuclear doctrine to deliver nuke-tipped
missiles from land, air and sea.
INS Trikand carries a state-of-the-art combat

suite which includes the supersonic BRAHMOS
missile system, advanced Surface to Air missiles
Shtil, upgraded A190 medium range gun.
INS Vikrant (2013):
It is the first vikrant-class aircraft carrier built

by Cochin Shipyard Limited for the Indian Navy
and the first Aircraft Carrier built in India.
Construction is expected to be completed by 2016
and the ship is due to be commissioned in 2018.
INS Viraat:
Key facts
After retirement of Vikrant, Virat is

performing as the main guard of Indian coastline.
This ship has more capacity than Vikrant.
Produced by the name of Harmiz, Virat was
commissioned in Indian Navy on 12th May,
1987. After the upgrades, INS Viraat would be
available for use till 2018.
INS Delhi:
The Rs. 30,000-crore secret nuclear

submarine project was started in the
1980s though it was conceived by then
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in the 1970s.
It can acquire surface speeds of 22 to 28
kmph and would carry a crew of 95 men
and will be armed with torpedoes and
missiles including 12 ballistic missiles.
INS Arihant can also be armed with cruise
missiles. The DRDO is already working
Indigenously made ballistic warship,

commissioned in Navy on 15 November 1997. It
has weight of 6700 tonnes. It is 163m long, 70 m
wide and 6.4m high warship.
INS Prahar:
Worlds fastest missile ship, commissioned in
Indian Navy on 1 March, 1997.
[45]
Warship Ghariyal:
Water surface attacker warship.
DEFENCE RESEARCH IN INDIA

Food:
INS Mysore:
Indian Navys most modernized indigenously
built warship.
INS Vikramaditya:
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It is a modified Kiev class aircraft carrier set

to enter service with the Indian Navy and
commissioned by November, 2013. It was
purchased from Russia after retro-fitment for
$2.35 billion.
The Defence Food Laboratory and the

Central Food Technological Research Institute
(CFTRI), Mysore of CSIR, have developed various
products, processes preservatives and flexible
packaging materials. The products include
preserved chapattis, compressed ready to eat
bars, preserved bread, canned Indian dishes,
quick cooking foods, survival ration, and frozen
dried products. They had also modified existing
test methods and developed new analytical
techniques to monitor the quality of food
products. Chapattis packaged in paper foil
laminate pouches could be preserved for six
months.
INS Sagardhwani:
INS Sagardhwani (A 74) is a marine acoustic

research ship (MARS) based at Southern Naval
Command, Kochi. The ship was launched in
May 1991, and commissioned in 1994. The ship
was built by Garden Reach Shipbuilders,
Kolkata.
Sindhughosh-class submarine:
Sindhughosh class submarines are Kilo class

diesel-electric submarines in active service with
the Indian Navy.
Sagar Nidhi
Indias deep sea exploration received a major

boost with the induction of Sagar Nidhi, a
multi-purpose scientific vessel, acquired by the
National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT),
on 3rd March, 2008. The Rs 232-crore ship was
built by Italian company Fincantieri, was a
virtual floating laboratory and would be used
for deep sea exploration and oceanographic
studies. The Ice-class vessel was capable of
undertaking deep sea explorations upto 45 days.
The vessel, which had taken part in a search

and rescue operation in Red Sea during its
maiden voyage from Italy to India, was also
capable of cruising to Arctic and Antarctic
regions. The multi-purpose vessel would be used
by the scientists and engineers of NIOT, Indian
National Centre for Ocean Information Services
(INCOIS) at Hyderabad and National Centre for
Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR), Goa.
Sagar Nidhi would fill the void experienced by
Indian scientists till now for deep sea
explorations.
[46]
Aeronautics
In the area of aeronautics, the impetus has

come from the defence project of Light Combat
Aircraft (LCA) being executed by the
autonomous Aeronautics Development Agency
in Bangalore. The first military strike aircraft
developed in the country was HF 24 (Marut).
The
Aeronautical
Development
Establishment (ADE), and Gas Turbine Research
Establishment (GTRE) in the Ministry of Defence
and National Aeronautical Laboratory (NAL) in
the CSIR were set up and their area of research
were defined. While the NAL was asked to
conduct R & D mainly related to the aircraft of
the flight vehicle, GTRE was asked to concentrate
on the development of prototypes of advanced
technology gas turbines and ADE was directed
to concentrate on the aircraft systems and such
other tasks as may be given to it from time such
as simulators, pilotless target aircraft, remotely
piloted vehicles etc. The country is also involved
in developing an Airborne Warning and Control
Systems (AWACS) aircraft and several missile
programmes.
Major products manufactured at the HAL
are: Jaguar, Kiran, MIG, BIS, MIG 27 M and HBT
32 aircraft, Chetak and Cheetah helicopters, aero
engines for various aircraft avionics, accessories
and instruments, forgings and castings and parts
required for space programme of the Indian
Space Research Organisation. HAL is a major
participant in the LCA development program.
Electronics Warfare
Electronic Warfare (EW) is the focal theme
of the Defence Electronics Research Laboratory,
Hyderabad. The laboratory is engaged in several
technique-oriented investigations in the EW area
while developing hardware systems to meet the
requirements of the services.
The Defence Research and Development

Establishment (DRDE), Gwalior is concerned
mainly with toxicology and environmental
pollution of importance to the defence services.
It has devised procedures for identifying
bacteriolysis principle, capable of producing
1,250 litres of potable water per hour from
brackish water.
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The Defence Science Centre (DSC) and Solid

state Physics Laboratory (SPL), both at Delhi, are
the two upstream laboratories engaged in an
anticipatory research as well as engineering
development in the field of solid state materials
and devices. Several state of the art technologies
such as gallium-arsenide devices, infra red
detector arrays, charge coupled devices, acoustooptic devices, YAG laser crystals and gas laser
sources are being developed. SPL has developed
silicon solar cells which are likely to be used by
the Indian Space Research Organisation. Several
ferrite and garnet materials have been developed
for microwave applications.
radiopharmaceutical, radioimmunoassay,
radiobiology, health physics bioengineering and
experimental medicine. It renders medical advice
to the members of the armed forces as well as to
others. The concept of radio iodine split dose
therapy in the management of hyperthyroidism
introduced by the institutes prestigious Thyroid
Research Centre has been well accepted in India
and abroad.
Ocean Science
The Naval Physical and Oceanography

Laboratory (NPOL), Kochi, has made significant
contributions in understanding the ocean
environment knowledge that is essential to the
development of underwater sensors and weapon
systems. Oceanographic instruments developed
by the laboratory are being used extensively to
collect data in respect of speed and direction of
ocean currents, attention of visible light in the
sea, sea wave and tidal records, and the sound
velocity profile. The expendable bathy
thermograph, developed by the laboratory, is
being used by naval ships to determine the
variation of temperature with depth, a factor
critical to the underwater fire control problem.
The Naval Chemical and Metallurgical
Laboratory (NCML), Mumbai, provides the navy
with technology inputs that help protect the
hulls of ships and submarines from corrosion and
the hostile sea water environment. The laboratory
has successfully developed underwater
anticorrosive and antifouling paints in addition
to the cathodic protection technology.
Life Sciences
In the field of health, the Institute of Nuclear
Medicine and Allied Sciences (INMAS), Delhi,
has developed expertise in the areas of
The Defence Bio-Engineering and Electro

Medical laboratory at Bangalore studies
problems related to bio engineering aspects of
aviation, and also develops medical electronic
instrumentation. Anti-G suits, oxygen masks and
protective helmets have been developed by this
unit. An automatic inflatable life jacket is being
designed. In the field of electro medical
instrumentation, a variety of equipment for
patient monitoring cardiac care, cardiac
pacemaker etc., have been developed. Presently,
a medical data processing and automatic
diagnosis system is under development.
Weapon System
The Defence Research and Development

Laboratory (DRDL) at Hyderabad has built up
the technological base and facilities required for
designing, developing and testing the diverse
subsystems of guided missiles.
The Combat Vehicle Research and
Development Establishment (VRDE) at Avadi
near Chennai has been entrusted with the task
of developing the Main Battle Tanks (MBT) to
serve the Army in the late 1980s and 1990s.
CVRDE is the system co-ordinator of this major
project involving the cooperative efforts of
several defence laboratories. In addition CVRDE
has direct development responsibility covering
vehicle design, its propulsion unit and auxiliary
systems. The establishment is also engaged in the
development of other armoured vehicle variants
to fulfill different operational roles.
[47]
pursue research into the defense or protection

against BW, which is not prohibited by the BWC.
In 1972, the United States signed the
Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention,
which banned the development, production
and stockpiling of microbes or their poisonous
products except in amounts necessary for
protective and peaceful research.
A chemical weapon is any weapon that uses
a manufactured chemical to kill people. The first
chemical weapon used effectively in battle was
chlorine gas, which burns and destroys lung
tissue.
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The Armament Research and Development

Establishment (ARDE) at Pune has a long record
of over twenty-five years of successful
development of armaments required by the three
services. Some of the important armament
designed by ARDE which have been inducted
into service are the well known Ishapore Rifle
with its ammunition, 75/24 pack Howitzer and
its ammunition for use in the mountainous
regions, 105 mm Indian field Gun, unguided
rockets for air to ground use. Currently ARDE
is actively engaged in the development of a Fin
Stabilized Armour piercing Discarding Sabot, a
family of small arms with matching ammunition,
a powerful gun for the Main Battle Tank, rapid
fire multi barrel rocket system and several more
weapons. A special explosive bore-hole charge
developed by ARDE has been utilized by the Oil
and Natural Gas Commission in petroleum
exploration. Armament design is a
multidisciplinary effort and for this purposes
ARDE maintains a continuous interaction with
other defence establishments.
BIOLOGICAL AND
CHEMICAL WEAPONS
Like a nuclear bomb, a chemical or biological

weapon is a weapon of mass destruction. An
effective attack using a chemical or biological
agent can easily kill thousands of people.
Biological warfare (BW) also known as

germ warfare is the deliberate use of diseasecausing biological agents such as bacteria,
viruses, fungi, or biological toxins, to kill or
incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act
of war. Biological weapons are living organisms
or replicating entities (viruses) that reproduce or
replicate within their host victims.
Offensive biological warfare, including mass
production, stockpiling and use of biological
weapons, was outlawed by the 1972 Biological
Weapons Convention (BWC). The rationale
behind this treaty, which has been ratified or
acceded to by 170 countries as of April 2013, is
to prevent a biological attack which could
conceivably result in large numbers of civilian
fatalities and cause severe disruption to economic
and societal infrastructure. Many countries,
including signatories of the BWC, currently
[48]
Modern chemical weapons tend to focus on

agents with much greater killing power,
meaning that it takes a lot less of the chemical to
kill the same number of people. Many of them
use the sorts of chemicals found in insecticides.
The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)

is an arms control agreement which outlaws the
production, stockpiling and use of chemical
weapons. Its full name is the Convention on the
Prohibition of the Development, Production,
Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and
on their Destruction. The main obligation under
the convention is the prohibition of use and
production of chemical weapons, as well as the
destruction of all chemical weapons.
IAFS VISION 2020
The Indian Air Force (IAF) in its recently held

presentation entitled Vision 2020 made several
suggestions of strategic importance to the
Government. Primarily it suggested the
formation of a nuclear air command even as it
seeks two front capability and enhanced force
levels in the years to come. The presentation was
path-breaking since it advocated that the
countrys strategic resources be placed under the
nuclear air command because only the IAF had
the required delivery platforms-meaning the
strategic reach aircraft. According to the IAF,
the Army did not need and in fact might not
need a nuclear role because of the incongruity
of tactical nuclear weapons in Indias draft
nuclear doctrine. The third leg of the triad;
nuclear submarine was still beyond the Indian
Navys reach. The vision document
recommended that as soon as the Agni
intermediate range ballistic missile became

operational, it should be given the nuclear air
command as the range of the Prithvi missile
was too short to qualify as a nuclear weapon
delivery platform. This future defence strategy

is a step ahead from the present stance
of deterrence for Pakistan and dissuasion for
China.
Public Sector Undertakings Under the Ministry of Defence

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)
Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)
Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML)
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Mazagaon Dock Limited (MDL)

Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers Limited (GRSE)
Goa Shipyard Limited (GSL)
Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL)
Mishra Dhatu Nigam Limited (MIDHANI)
Other Organizations in Department of Defence Production are:

Directorate General of Quality Assurance (DGQA)
Directorate General of Aeronautical Quality Assurance (DGAQA)

Directorate of Standardisation (DOS)
Directorate of Planning and Coordination (Dte. of P&C)

Defence Exhibition Organisation (DEO)
National Institute for Research & Development in Defence Shipbuilding (NIRDESH)

[49]
CHRONICLE
ENERGY RESOURCES
IAS ACADEMY
ENERGY SOURCES IN INDIA

Energy resources are classified into
conventional and non conventional forms on the
basis of their use. Conventional or nonrenewable sources are those especially coming
from the fossils and which cannot be re-used once
exhausted like coal, petroleum, wood, etc.
However non-conventional or renewable
sources, as the name suggests are inexhaustible
pool of energy, ready at every moment to be used
or re-used like tidal energy, wind energy,
biomass energy, etc.
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Energy is one of the most important building

block in human development, and, as such, acts
as a key factor in determining the economic
development of all countries. In an effort to meet
the demands of a developing nation, the Indian
energy sector has witnessed a rapid growth.
Areas like the resource exploration and
exploitation, capacity additions, and energy
sector reforms have been revolutionized.
However, resource augmentation and growth
in energy supply have failed to meet the ever
increasing demands exerted by the multiplying
population, rapid urbanization and progressing
economy. Hence, serious energy shortages
continue to plague India, forcing it to rely heavily
on imports.
India is the fourth largest consumer of
energy in the world after USA, China and Russia
but it is not endowed with abundant energy
resources. It must, therefore, meet its
development needs by using all available
domestic resources of coal, uranium, oil, hydro
and other renewable resources, and
supplementing domestic production by imports.
High reliance on imported energy is costly

given the prevailing energy prices which are not
likely to soften; it also impinges adversely on
energy security. Meeting the energy needs of
achieving 8 per cent 9 per cent economic growth
while also meeting energy requirements of the
population at affordable prices therefore
presents a major challenge.
Social, economic and scientific developments
are directly linked to the development of energy
resources. However, the present stock of energy
resources of the world is limited and can last
only for a few decades. Moreover most
conventional energy sources are non-renewable.
Hence, mankind is searching new source of
energy and the development of renewable
sources of energy along with the rational use of
existing non-renewable energy and their
conservation.
[50]
Establishment of new generation capacity

and reducing cost of power will require action
on many fronts:
Availability of fuel such as coal or natural

gas for new power plants must be assured;
A national consensus on royalty rates for

fuels and compensation for host states also
needs to be worked;
Long term finance should be made

available to lower capital charge;
The presently provided guaranteed rate of

post tax returns for CPSUs should be
lowered to reduce cost of power and
augment resources of state power utilities;
An efficient inter-state and intra-state

transmission system of adequate capacity
that is capable of transferring power from
one region to another;
An efficient distribution system which alone

can ensure financially viable expansion;
Rehabilitation of thermal stations through

R&M to augment generating capacity and
improve PLF;
Rehabilitation of hydro stations to yield

additional peaking capacity;
Ensuring use of washed coal for power

generation; and
Harnessing captive capacity to support the

grid.
1. Coal & Lignite
Domestic production of coal and lignite

account for two-third of total production of
commercial energy in 200001 and is projected
to be about the same in 202122. As a percentage
of total consumption of commercial energy, the
share of coal and lignite was projected to increase
to 57 per cent, from a level of 50 per cent in
200001.
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Coal is the mainstay of Indias energy sector

accounting for over 50 per cent of primary
commercial energy supply in 201011. This
share will actually increase to 57 per cent over
the next 10 years. The gap between the demand
and the domestic supply of coal has made it
imperative to augment domestic production both
from the public sector and the private sector and
to expedite the reform process for realising
efficiency gains through increased competition
in the sector during the 12th Plan.
The estimated reserve of lignite was 41.96

billion tonnes against 40.91 billion tonnes in
2011. The increase in the estimated reserve of
lignite during the year 2011-12 was 1.22 per cent,
Tamil Nadu accounting for the maximum
increase of 2.99 per cent.
An important feature of the 11th Plan was

the attempt to augment domestic coal
production from captive mines. However, the
programme slipped and expected production
from captive blocks fell well short of the
projected target of 104 million tonnes in the
terminal year of the Plan.
The target for coal production at the end of
the 11th Plan was initially set at 680 million
tonnes and revised downwards to 630 million
tones at the time of the MTA. The actual
achievement was only 540 million tonnes. Since
demand in the terminal year (201112) of the
11th Plan was around 640 million tonnes there
was a large demandsupply gap of 100 million
tonnes which was only partially met by imports.
This adversely affected the coal supplies to end
consumers, particularly the power sector.
It is estimated that out of capacity addition
of 41,894 MW, around 25,000 MW of coal-based
capacity commissioned is being sub-optimally
utilized because of inadequate availability of
domestic coal. The widening gap between
demand and supply has to be met by imports
because of which the share of imports in the total
coal demand is likely to increase.
As on March 31, 2012 the estimated reserves

of coal was around 293.5 billion tones, an
addition of 7.64 billion over the last year. There
has been an increase of 2.67 per cent in the
estimated coal reserves during the year 2011-12
with Madhya Pradesh accounting for the
maximum increase of 5.41 per cent.
Coal deposits are mainly confined to eastern

and south central parts of the country. The states
of Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West
Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and
Madhya Pradesh account for more than 99% of
the total coal reserves in the country.
2. Oil and Gas
Petroleum is derived from dead animals that

lived in remote past. Natural gas has also been
produced in the Earths crust by similar processes
and this is also a combustible fuel. The
exploitation of oil on a large scale really started
after 1860, the year when the first commercial
well is reported to have come into existence. With
the discovery of oil and its refined products such
as gasoline and diesel, new engines and
machines came into existence and productivity
increased. Indeed, this was a period of the
industrial revolution. Oil and its derived
products are very convenient and versatile as
fuels and can be easily transported.
In India, efforts made by the Oil and Natural
Gas Corporation (ONGC) and Oil India since the
late 1950s have led to the identification of a
number of oil and gas deposits both offshore and
onshore. The onshore fields were mainly
discovered in the Mumbai, Gujarat, Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh; and the offshore fields in
the sea were notably the Mumbai High fields
such as North and South Basin and South Tapti.
Oil and gas has also been discovered in the
Godavari Basin and on the East Coast.
The new exploration strategy places
emphasis on intensive exploration survey and
drilling in order to add to petroleum reserves and
to augment production as early as possible. In
order to meet burgeoning demand for petroleum
products in the country, the Ministry of
Petroleum & Natural Gas has taken several
measures to enhance exploration and
exploitation of petroleum resources including
natural gas and Coal Bed Methane (CBM), apart
from improved distribution, marketing and
pricing of petroleum products.
[51]
During the financial year 2011-12, crude oil

production was about 38.09 million metric tonne
(MMT), with share of national oil companies at
72.4 per cent. The projected crude oil production
in 2012-13 was about 41.12 MMT which is about
8 per cent higher than the previous year crude
oil production. The increase in crude oil
production is mainly due to higher crude oil
production from Barmer Fields, Rajasthan.
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The average natural gas production in the

year 2011-12 was about 130 million metric
standard cubic metre per day (MMSCMD) which
was about 9 per cent lower than the previous
year mainly due to lower production from KG
D6 deepwater block. The projected natural gas
production in 2012-13 is about 118.3 MMSCMD,
which was about 9 per cent lower than the
previous year.
163.60 MTs to 171.73 MTs. Although more than

70% of its crude oil requirements and part of the
petroleum products is met from imports, India
has developed sufficient processing capacity over
the years to produce different petroleum
products so as to become a net exporter of
petroleum products. The import of petroleum
products increased from only 1.08 MT in 197071 to 15.00 MT during 2011-12. However, there
was a decline of 10.82% in import of petroleum
products over the previous year.
The Indian refinery capacity as on August

1, 2012 was 215.08 MMT which was expected
to reach to 218.40 MMT by the end of 2012-13.
Refinery production (crude throughput) during
2011-12 was 211.42 MMT (including crude
throughput by RIL SEZ Refinery). At present,
there are 22 refineries (17 under Public Sector, 3
under private sector and 2 in joint venture) in
India.
Natural gas is emerging as an important
source in Indias commercial energy scene in
view of large reserves of gas that have been
established in the country, particularly, in South
Basin off West Coast of India. Natural gas is also
making significant contribution to the household
sector by way of LPG extracted from associated
gas. About 30 per cent of the countrys output
of LPG comes from this source.
The Dabhol-Bengaluru gas pipeline was

commissioned by GAIL on February 18, 2013.
The 1,000 kms pipeline, built at a cost of Rs. 4,500
crore, will carry gas from Dabhol LNG terminal
into Bengaluru and feed industries in Belgaum,
Dharwad, Gadag, Bellary, Davangere,
Chitradurg, Tumkur, Ramanagram and
Bengaluru.
India is highly dependent on import of crude
oil. Both gross and net imports of crude oil have
increased from 11.68 MTs during 1970-71 to
171.73 MTs during 2011-12. There has been an
annual increase of 4.97 per cent during 2011-12
over 2010-11, as the net import increased from
[52]
Share of oil in total commercial energy

consumption is expected to decline from 37.5 per
cent in 200001 to 23.3 per cent in 202122, the
share of natural gas and liquefied natural gas
(LNG) is projected to rise from 8.5 per cent to 13
per cent in the same period. The combined share
of oil and natural gas in energy consumption
was 24.7 per cent in 201112 and is expected to
be about the same in 202122.
The estimated reserves of crude oil in India
as on March 31, 2012 stood at 759.59 million
tonnes (MT). Geographical distribution of Crude
oil indicates that the maximum reserves are in
the Western Offshore (44.46%) followed by
Assam (22.71%), whereas the maximum reserves
of Natural Gas are in the Eastern Offshore
(34.73%) followed by Western offshore (31.62%).
There was an increase of 0.29 per cent in the
estimated reserve of crude oil for the country as
a whole during 2011-12. There was an increase
of estimated Crude Oil reserves by 7.09 per cent
in Andhra Pradesh followed by Tamil Nadu
(4.48%).
The estimated reserves of natural gas in India
as on March 31, 2012 stood at 1330.26 billion
cubic meters (BCM). In case of Natural Gas, the
increase in the estimated reserves over the last
year was 4.08 per cent. The maximum
contribution to this increase has been from Cold
Bed Methane (11.32%), followed by Tripura
(8.95%).
3. Crude Oil and Natural Gas Production
During the year 2011-12, production for

crude oil was 38.09 MMT, which is about 1.08%
higher than the actual crude oil production of
37.684 MMT during 2010-11. Natural gas
production during 2011-12 was 47.559 BCM
against production of 52.219 BCM during 201011 which is lower by 8.92 per cent due to lower
production from KG D-6 basin.
preservation can both be largely met by recourse

to these renewable forms of energy.
1. Solar Energy
The Sun provides us enormous amounts of
energy in the form of solar radiation-energy that
travels in small wave packets called photons,
reaching the surface of the Earth from a distance
of 93 million miles. Radiation energy is released
due to thermo-nuclear fusion going on
continuously in the Sun. The solar energy
reaching per square metre of the Earths
atmosphere is called the Solar Constant and is
equal to 1.36 KW in 12 hours. The total energy
being received by the atmosphere is about
1.5x1018 KWh per day. It is believed that with
just 0.1% of the 75000 trillion KWh of solar
energy that reaches the Earth, the energy
required by plants can be satisfied. Application
of solar energy can broadly be sub-divided as
follows:
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The Government of India launched the ninth

bid round of New Exploration Licensing Policy
(NELPIX) and fourth round of Coal Bed Methane
Policy (CBM-IV) during October 2010 to enhance
the Countrys energy security. In addition, in
order to supplement domestic reserves the oil and
gas PSUs have acquired assets abroad, the
production of oil and natural gas of ONGCVIDESH Ltd during 2011-12 was 8.75 MMT of
oil and equivalent gas (MMTOE) from its assets
abroad.
4. Hydrogen-CNG Fuel Centre
The Renewable Energy Ministry on 7th

June,2007 unveiled a Rs 25,000 crore roadmap
to promote use of hydrogen, with an estimated
one million vehicles using it as fuel by 2020 and
the gas being used to fire electricity generation
units for an aggregate 1,000 mw of electricity.
As part of the new initiative, a demonstration
project for setting up a hydrogen dispensing setup at a petrol pump in Delhi has been
sanctioned as a joint venture with Indian Oil
Corporation. The project would enable
dispensing of neat hydrogen and CNG blended
with hydrogen as fuel for vehicles. The station
will have a hydrogen generation capacity using
an electrolyser system and facilities for storing
and dispensing neat hydrogen as well as blended
with CNG in varying ratios. The H-CNG blends
will be used in the modified CNG vehicles and
are expected to further reduce emissions from
such vehicles as compared to when burning only
CNG. The project would also generate
operational experience in handling hydrogen as
an automotive fuel.
NON-CONVENTIONAL
SOURCES OF ENERGY
In the long run, new and renewable sources

of energy will be necessary since the reserves of
conventional fuels, such as, oil and coal are
limited in the world and the pressure on their
availability and prices will steadily mount as
demands increase. Even in India, at the current
level of production, coal is expected to last for
only 245 years, oil for 21 years and natural gas
for another 38 years. Such alternate sources of
energy are renewable by nature and have also
the advantage of generally producing energy in
a non-polluting form. Thus, the twin objectives
of energy production and environmental
1. Conversion of solar energy into heat.
2. Conversion of solar energy directly into

electricity.
3. Conversion of solar energy to plants,
vegetable or other biological forms and
application of solar energy to convert these
forms into usable forms of fuel. This may
broadly be termed as bio-energy.
4. Indirect application of solar energy, such
as, harnessing of winds, waves,
temperature gradients from the ocean, etc.
All of which are the consequences of
incident solar energy.
Applications
Solar Cooker: Depending upon the type of

cooker, the temperature in the range of 120 to
300C can be attained. This can save 30-50% of
commonly used cooking fuels like wood, coal,
LPG, Kerosene, etc. The drawback with such
cooker is that the cooker has to be directed
towards the Sun after every 10-15 minutes and
if the automatic devices for such tracking are
provided, the cost increases. In 1982, India
became the first country in the world to start
regular large scale commercial production and
marketing of solar cookers.
Solar Pond: Solar pond is one of the most

promising technologies in solar energy utilization
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for varied purposes. Its a large-scale solar energy

collector with integral heat energy storage by
various ways, such as, process heating, water
desalination, refrigeration and drying.
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Fluids such as water and air become lighter

and rise above when heated. Similarly, when
water is heated by the Suns rays, hot water from
the bottom of the pond rises and it reaches the
surface, and loses whatever heat it has gained
to the atmosphere. The result is that the pond
water remains at nearly atmospheric
temperature. To prevent this heat loss by
convection in a solar pond, salt is dissolved in
the bottom layer of the pond. This makes the
water too heavy (i.e. dense) to rise even when
hot, to the surface, and cool. Thus, the solar
energy remains entrapped in the pond.
Solar Water Heaters: This system consists

of Flat-plate solar collector and storage tank. This
system has many applications in the domestic
and industrial sectors. It can provide hot water
for different applications such as in textile
engineering, directly or as boiler feed and in the
hotels and canteens, apart from domestic sector.
Today, such water heaters are being
manufactured
by
many
industrial
manufacturers in India and abroad.
A solar pond consists of three zones The

top zone or the surface zone is at atmospheric
temperature and has little salt content. The
bottom zone is very hot (100C) and very salty
with specific gravity of about 1.20. It is this zone
which collects and stores the solar energy in the
form of heat and is, hence, known as storage
zone. Separating these two zones is the gradient
zone that acts as a transparent insulator,
permitting sunlight to reach the bottom zone and
its thermal energy to remain entrapped there.
The useful energy is then withdrawn from the
solar pond in the form of hot brine from the
storage zone.
Solar ponds have three major advantages over
the other solar technologies:
(i) they have a low cost per unit area.
(ii) they can be constructed over large areas

enabling the diffused solar radiation to
be concentrated on large scale; and
(iii) they can supply energy even during the

monsoon season.
India is the first Asian country to have a solar

pond (6000 sq. metres) in Bhuj, Gujarat. The
project was sanctioned under the National Solar
Pond Programme by the Ministry of Nonconventional Energy Sources in 1987 and
completed in 1993. The Bhuj solar pond has been
designed to supply about 220 lakh KWH of
thermal energy per annum; about 1,25,000 KWH
of electricity per annum; and about 80,000 litres
of potable water per day.
[54]
Solar Desalination: It works on the water

heating principle. It can be used to provide water
for drinking in areas where only salty or brackish
water is available. It can also be used to provide
distilled water needed for batteries and other
applications. About 3 to 4 litres of pure water
can be obtained from one square metre area of
the system per day.
Solar Air Heaters: It can be used for various

applications like drying of Foodgrains,
vegetables, fruits, wood, etc. Products dried in a
solar dryer are as good, if not better, in quality
and food value as compared to those dried in
conventional dryers. Temperature as high as
130C can very easily be attained with this simple
system. This hot air can be utilised to dry any
material, such as, wood or agricultural crops,
increasing the speed and efficiency of such drying
several times more than the traditional method
of direct exposure to the Sun. The heated air can
also be used to operate engines.
Solar Space Conditioning: A number of

solar houses have been built in different
countries of the world with heating systems
comprising of flat-plate collectors and storage
units, proper heat distribution and control
system. Such systems are normally based on
absorption refrigeration cycle. However, the
cooling of residential and office buildings can
also be done by following the solar cooling
process.
Solar Refrigeration: Utilization of solar
energy for production of low temperature has
been found to be an attractive proposition
because the cooling effect is most needed when
the Sun is shining. Solar cooling is a most required
application for developing countries where
considerable quantity of food produce are
spoiled due to inadequate and improper
processing and lack of storage facilities.
Solar Stem Generators: This is done by

concentrating the solar radiation using
concentrating collectors like parabolic line
focusing systems, parabolic point focusing
systems or plane reflector central tower systems.
Temperature as high as 3000C can be achieved.
The steam can be utilised in industry to operate
engines, or to generate power.
2. Wind Energy
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Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated

with movement of large masses of air resulting
from the differential heating of the atmosphere
by the Sun. Hence, wind energy is nothing but
the converted form of solar energy. It is estimated
that about 106 to 107 MW of usable power is
continuously available in the Earths winds.
Though the total quantity of this resource is
extremely large, it is concentrated in certain
regions, and can vary a great deal with time at
given location. For the utilization of wind energy,
the speed of wind must be between 8 to 22 m
per second. Wind energy is renewable and
possess no major environmental threats.
Wind Electric Conversion Systems: Wind

energy is a high-quality form of mechanical
energy that can be converted into electrical
energy with minimal energy losses. Since the
rotor of a windmill moves periodically, the output
may be obtained in the form of alternating
current either by using a gearbox or fixing the
rotational speed or by allowing speed variations
and transforming the generated electrical power
to the desired frequency, electronically.
Application ranges from small scale use in rural
and remote communities interconnected with
other power plants to large scale generation of
electricity, which is fed into electric utility
network. It can also be used for battery charging
by driving brushless DC generators, to supply
electric power to isolated communities, weather
stations, navigation and communication aids,
etc. A number of countries like Denmark,
Sweden and USA have launched major wind
energy testing programmes in an effort to
integrate large scale wind-generated electric
power into grid power supply. The combination
of wind power system and hydroelectric system
is considered to have high potential. Stored
water can be used in low wind periods.
Favourable wind regimes on islands, coastal
areas and mountain regions could be taken
advantage of in setting up large numbers of wind
turbines.
A total capacity of 18,420 MW has been

established up to December 2012 in the country.
India is now the fifth largest wind power
producer in the world, after China, USA,
Germany and Spain. As per Indian Wind Atlas,
the on-shore wind power potential has been
estimated as 49,130 MW at 50 m height.
Tapping wind power
Wind Energy Conversion: The shaft power

from the wind turbine can be utilized for a wide
variety of purposes, including electricity (AC &
DC generation), direct pumping, direct
mechanical work, etc. The most common wind
turbine system involves a tower mounted multibladed rotor facing into the wind, rotating
around a horizontal axis and turning an electrical
generator or a mechanical gearbox connected to
its axis. The maximum power that can be
extracted from a wind turbine is 59.3 per cent.
The Union Ministry of Non-conventional

Energy Sources (MNES) has recently assessed
that the potential of the wind power sector in
India is 45,000 MW, which is more than twice
the earlier estimates (i.e., 20,000 MW). Thus,
Indias potential for using wind power is much
more than was previously thought. Presently,
India occupies the fifth position in the world with
a wind power installed capacity of 18.4 GW.
During the year 2012-13 1,067 MW wind power
projects were commissioned.
Water Pumping Windmills: Small windmills

with direct mechanical drive matched to a pump
and tank storage are in extensive use in many
parts of the world. These hold significant
potential for pumping water irrigation, drinking
needs, etc. Improved types of soil water pumping
windmills have also been developed in several
countries, including India.
In order to generate greater wind power, the

domestic wind power-generating sector has to
be more professional. It must not be bogged
down by constraints like weak grids, inadequate
data on winds and incompatibility with
imported infrastructure. 14 States, based on the
guidelines of MNES, have introduced policies,
which entail banking facility, third party sales
of power, etc. MNES is in the process of
[55]
preparing a master plan for wind power in 10

States, for 80 potential sites. There is no denying
the fact that without imaginative use of wind
power, the energy crunch could not be tackled.
3. Ocean Energy
Wave Energy
Movement of large quantities of water up
and down can, in principle, be harnessed to
convert it into usable form of energy, such as,
electricity or mechanical power. Several types
based on flats, flaps, ramps and oscillating air
water columns have been worked upon to
harness wave energy. It is more reliable than the
wind energy because here the fluctuation is less
than the wind. However at present, due to infant
stage of its technology, the cost per unit of energy
converted is high because of the need for special
structures at sea, corrosion problem associated
with the use of sea water and the problem of
transmitting the power onshore.
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The sea, which is constantly receiving solar

radiations and acts as the worlds largest natural
solar collector, has potential to provide a means
of utilizing renewable energy. It acts not only as
collector, but also has an enormous storage
capacity. Energy from the ocean is available in
several forms such as ocean thermal energy,
wave energy, tidal energy, salinity gradients,
ocean currents, ocean winds and bio-mass.
promising site identified so far is on the

Lakshadweep Islands where the necessary
geographical conditions for a shore-based OTEC
plant exist. In these islands, the alternative cost
of producing electricity by transporting diesel
from the main land as is being done at present,
is very high. India has also tied up with a USfirm to set up an OTEC Plant in Tamil Nadu.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
There exists a temperature difference of the

order of 20C between the warm surface water
of the sea and the cold deep water, and this
natural temperature difference can be used to
generate energy. In one OTEC plant, the warm
water from the surface with the temperature of
24 to 30C is brought into one pipe and the cold
water at the temperature of about 4 to 8C is
brought in another pipe in the depth of about
1000 metres. These two pipes are used in
conjunction with fluid such as ammonia,
propane or neon. The warm water evaporates
liquid ammonia into vapour at high pressure and
is made to pass through a turbine which rotates
it and generates electricity. The ammonia vapour
coming out of the turbine is condensed back into
liquid ammonia by cooling it with the cold sea
water brought up from the deep part. The
liquified ammonia is then pumped back to the
evaporator, thus, completing the cycle, which
can then run continuously.
Energy from OTEC can be converted into
either electrical, chemical or protein form. These
plants could be combined with energy intensive
industries like ammonia, hydrogen or aluminium
production. Furthermore, OTEC plants can be
combined with aquaculture or desalination for
obtaining fresh water. The cold water from the
deeper sea which is rich in nutrients can be
placed in a lagoon or lake where these nutrients
can help to raise fish, oysters or other types of
biological life.
Being a tropical country, India has the OTEC

potential of about 50,000 MW. The most
[56]
Tidal Energy
Tides are created by the combined

gravitational effect of the Earth, the Moon and
the Sun. Though the tide is the universal
phenomenon of the Earths sea-water body,
some regions are more favourable for the
establishment of such power plant for the
commercial production of tidal energy. Primary
requirements for the construction of an
installation having a capacity over 200 MW are
(i) an average tide of 5-12 metres; (ii) the
possibility of linkage to a grid in order to
accommodate the variable power output of the
tidal plant; (iii) favourable geographical location
and favourable socio-economic and ecological
conditions. Bulb type turbines as used in
conventional hydro-electric stations have proved
to be reliable for generating power from the tides.
In India, three potential sites have so far been
identified, namely, the Gulfs of Kutch and
Cambay on the west coast in Gujarat and the
Sunderbans along the east coast in West Bengal.
According to the estimates of the Indian
government, the country has a potential of 8,000
MW of tidal energy. This includes about 7,000
MW in the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat, 1,200
MW in the Gulf of Kutch and 100 MW in the
Gangetic delta in the Sunderbans region of West

Bengal. Central Electricity Authority in India
has the overall responsibility for developing it.
A power plant of 600 MW capacity is proposed
to be set up in the Gulf of Kutch.
The Gujarat government is all set to develop
Indias first tidal energy plant. In 2012, the state
government had approved Rs. 25 crore for
setting up the 50 MW plant at the Gulf of Kutch.
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4. HYDRO ENERGY
The National Hydro-Electric Power

Corporation (NHPC) was incorporated in 1975
with the objectives to plan, promote and organise
the integrated development of hydro-electric
power. NHPC Limited presently has an
installation base of 5295 MW from 14
hydropower stations on ownership basis,
including projects taken up in Joint Venture.
Some important hydro-electric power projects
constructed by NHPC are at Salal and Dulhasti
(both in J&K), Tanakpur (Uttarakhand),
Chamera (HP), Baira Siul (HP), Chutak (J&K),
Teesta Low Dam III (W.Bengal), Sewa - II
(J&K), Teesta - V (Sikkim), Omkareshwar (MP),
Dhauliganga - I (Uttarakhand), Indira Sagar
(MP), Rangit (Sikkim), Uri - I (J&K), and Loktak
(Manipur).
India is blessed with immense amount of

hydro-electric potential and ranks 5th in terms
of exploitable hydro-potential on global scenario.
As per assessment made by CEA, India is
endowed with economically exploitable hydropower potential to the tune of 1,48,700 MW of
installed capacity. Today, about 23 per cent of
the total electric power in the world comes from
hydropower.
India is endowed with economically
exploitable and viable hydro potential assessed
to be about 84,000 MW at 60 per cent load factor
(1,48,701 MW installed capacity). In addition,
6780 MW in terms of installed capacity from
Small, Mini, and Micro Hydel schemes have been
assessed. Also, 56 sites for pumped storage
schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of
94,000 MW have been identified. However, only
19.9 per cent of the potential has been harnessed
so far.
The total hydro-electric potential in India has
been estimated at about 472x109 kilowatt hours
or 472 terawatt hours normally. But, we have
exploited only a little more than 19 per cent of
the total potential. In addition, it is also estimated
that an annual energy generation of about 25
terawatt could be obtained economically
through mini and micro-hydels, coal drops and
other possible low- head developments. A centre
for the development and demonstration of
alternate small hydro technologies has been set
up at Roorkee University by the Department of
Non-Conventional Energy Sources for
development of newer and more economic
designs of micro-hydel units, water mills and
hydrams. Several field projects in Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Jammu
and Kashmir are being initiated to utilise the
potential availability of canal drops, falls, runoff-river systems, etc.
NHPC Limited is presently engaged in the

construction of 10 projects aggregating to a total
installed capacity of 4502 MW. Given the
renewed thrust on development of hydro power
in the country, NHPC Limited has drawn up a
massive plan to add over 10,000 MW of
hydropower capacity by the end of XIIth Plan
(year 2017).
The National Projects Construction
Corporation (NPCC) was set up in 1957 as a
joint venture of central and state governments
as a construction-contracting agency for the
execution of multipurpose river valley projects,
power projects and other heavy engineering
projects. As a part of diversification plan, the
Corporation proposes to take up the work of
transmission lines also.
5.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal energy is the exploitation of heat

energy of Earth within 10 km of the Earths
upper crust. Geothermal energy can be
processed for generation of power, where the
geothermal fluid has a temperature of 130C.
Geothermal manifestations are widespread in
India in the form of 340 Hot Springs localities.
Only a few direct utilization schemes have been
launched by various agencies. They are in Puga,
Chhumuthang, Manikaran and Bakreshwar. Of
these, Indias most promising geothermal field
is in Puga valley in Ladakh. There are number
of geothermal wells drilled in the valley.
Tattapani in Madhya Pradesh is another
promising geothermal area in India.
[57]
Magneto Hydro-dynamics Power
gas, oil (methanol) and charcoal.

(b) Biogasification: Anaerobic digestion of
biomass to produce combustible gas
(biogas) comprising of methane,
hydrogen, etc.
(c) Fermentation: Conversion of sugar and
starch into alcohol to produce ethanol
and solid residual fuel.
The potential of biomass in India is estimated
at 1250 MMTPA which is about one-eightieth
of the global total. Energy available from such a
massive biomass is equivalent to about 300 MMT
of oil.
Bio-Engery
6. ALTERNATIVE FUELS
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MHD power generation is a method,

whereby thermal energy is directly converted
into electrical energy instead of thermal energy
being converted to mechanical energy and then
to the electrical energy as is done in the power
plants. In this process, coal is burnt to produce
hot and high speed gas which is allowed to pass
over a strong magnetic field and this result in
the direct conversion of thermal energy into
electrical energy. It is capable of achieving net
efficiency of around 60 per cent, while in the
conventional power plants it is only 35 per cent.
Bio-energy includes those processes where

biological forms of matter, such as, plants,
vegetables, enzymes, etc. provide the basis for
energy or its conversion from one form to another
form of energy. The widest use of bio-energy is
in the traditional way, where wood plants and
agricultural matter are directly burnt to provide
heat. Vegetable biomass is a new name for plant
organic matter, wherein solar energy is trapped
and stored through the process of photosynthesis
in which carbon dioxide and water are
transformed and form energy-rich organic
compounds.
Biomass covers a wide range of materials,
encompassing all kinds of animal, organic and
synthetic wastes and a special variety of
vegetation-wild grass, shrubs and some plants
and trees, especially cultivated to derive energy
and useful by products and this biotechnology
is one of the oldest manufacturing activities,
having started ever since man learnt to produce
bread, wine, beer and cheese. However, only
recently the process is well understood and
mankind has started to move in the right
direction to make better use of this revolutionary
technology. The major components of biomass
are mainly carbohydrates - sugars, starches and
cellulose - with variable nitrogen and
phosphorous contents. Animals, organic and
synthetic wastes cover the balance components.
There are three basic systems for conversion of
biomass into energy resources.
(a) Combustion Pyrolysis: Chemical
decomposition
through
high
temperature. (upto 5000C) in partial
or total absence of air to produce fuel
[58]
Compressed Natural Gas or CNG is a

cleaner alternative to the liquid petroleum. CNG
is already in use in countries such as the USA,
Japan, Italy, Brazil and New Zealand. In Delhi,
the Supreme Court has directed the operation
of city buses exclusively on CNG fuel mode.The
government on its part launched CNG pilot
project in Delhi as early as 1993. Thanks to this
project, CNG is now available in the NCR and
most cities of the country.
CNG is cleaner fuel than the conventional
fuel (petrol and diesel) as far as PM is concerned.
Further, CO, HC and NOX emission for CNG
based car are lower because of the catalytic
converter fitted with them.
Gasohol: It is a mixture of absolute alcohol

and petrol and is being tried as a fuel to run a
car. A programme of 5 per cent blending of
ethanol with petrol is already underway with
effect from November 2006 targeting 20 States
and 4 UTs. Subject to availability, the percentage
of blend can be enhanced to 10 per cent as
specification for petrol with 10 per cent ethanol
blend is already given by the BIS. At present,
the EBP Programme is successfully running in
14 States and three UTs; OMCs have been able
to contract 55.87 crore litres of ethanol against
the requirement of 105 crore litres of ethanol
for 5 per cent blending in the entire notified area.
The Mysore Sugar Company of Madya tried
out a 25:75 proportion mix of absolute alcohol
and patrol for maximum efficiency. A fuel
economy of 3 to 5 per cent has been reported
when gasohol is used as a fuel.
was estimated to have renewable energy

potential of about 85 GW from commercially
exploitable sources, viz. (i) Wind: 50 GW (at 50
m mast height) (ii) Small Hydro: 15 GW (iii) Bioenergy: 20 GW and (iv) solar radiation sufficient
to generate 50 MW/sq. km using solar
photovoltaic and solar thermal energy. These
estimates have since been revised to reflect
technological advancements. Initial estimates
from Centre for Wind Energy Technology
(C-WET) suggest that wind energy potential at
80 metres height (with 2 per cent land
availability) would be over 100 GW. Some studies
have estimated even higher potential ranges up
to 300 GW. The MNRE has initiated an exercise
for realistic reassessment of the wind power
potential, whose results are expected by the end
of 2013.
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Hydrogen: Hydrogen appears to be a

favoured alternative due to its high specific
energy per unit weight, its almost universal
availability as a component of water, good
combustion characteristics and the fact that it is
environment-friendly. The primary combustion
product is water vapour and apart from low
nitric oxide fractions, there are virtually no
harmful exhaust gases, in particular no carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons and particulates which
are the bane of petrofuel combustion.
From the safety angle, there is however one
major problem with hydrogen, its low density
and high diffusion capacity, which leads to a
high permeation capability through systems
which are normally considered to be gas-tight.
The low density of hydrogen means that it rises
quickly into the atmosphere if proper venting is
done. Today, the technology to make hydrogen
leak-proof components is available. Also any
leakages can be monitored and displayed with
hydrogen sensitive sensors.
Hydrogen is being aggressively explored as
a fuel for passenger vehicles. It can be used in
fuel cells to power electric motors or burned in
internal combustion engines (ICEs). It is an
environmentally friendly fuel that has the
potential to dramatically reduce our dependence
on imported oil, but several significant challenges
must be overcome before it can be widely used.
NON-CONVENTIONAL
ENERGY PROGRAMME
The need to increase total domestic energy

production in order to reduce import
dependence, combined with the need to move
away from fossil fuels in the longer run in view
of climate change considerations, points to the
need for stronger efforts to increase the supply
of energy from renewables. Union Minister of
New and Renewable Energy, Dr. Farooq
Abdullah has said that India is committed to
increasing the share of renewable power in the
electricity mix to 15 per cent by the year 2020.
He said an action plan has already been
developed that aims at accelerating the
deployment of renewable energy with a target
of around 30 GW of renewable power by 2017.
The potential for renewable power has been
revised upward over time. In the early 80s, India
Indias renewable energy installed capacity

has grown from 3.9 GW in 2002-2003 to about
27.3 GW in January 2013. Wind energy has been
the predominant contributor to this growth. It
also accounts for 68% of the installed capacity,
followed by small hydro power (3.55 GW),
biomass power (3.56 GW) and solar power (1.4
GW).
The Indian renewable energy programme
has been in place for a little over two decades
during which period the renewable energy
industry has taken a number of initiatives that
have given a major thrust to the programme.
Way back in 1980, the Government created the
Commission on Additional Sources of Energy
(CASE) under the department of Science and
Technology. In September 1982, the Department
of Non-conventional Energy Sources (DNES)
was set up, and then in July 1992, it grew into a
full fledged Ministry of Non-conventional Energy
Sources (MNES). In 2006, this ministry was
renamed as Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE). Interestingly, India is the only
country in the world to have a dedicated ministry
responsible for implementing a non-conventional
energy trajectory in India.
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
is the nodal Ministry of the Government of India
for all matters relating to new and renewable
energy. The broad aim of the Ministry is to
develop and deploy new and renewable energy
for supplementing the energy requirements of
the country.
[59]
The Mission of the Ministry is to ensure:

Energy Security: Lesser dependence on oil
imports through development and
deployment of alternate fuels (hydrogen,
bio-fuels and synthetic fuels) and their
applications to contribute towards bridging
the gap between domestic oil supply and
demand;
Increase in the share of clean power:

Renewable (bio, wind, hydro, solar,
geothermal & tidal) electricity to
supplement fossil fuel based electricity
generation;
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The government started off with

programmes in research and development (R &
D) in all renewable energy technologies with a
view to standardising and ensuring that the
technologies were in a position to deliver reliable
and safe energy. In order to offset partially the
high first cost, the MNES offered incentives by
way of upfront capital subsidy and also interest
subsidy in order to reduce the cost of financing
for renewable technologies by individuals and
the private sector. In addition, 100 per cent
accelerated depreciation was allowed for firms
that invested in RETS.
Energy
Availability
and
Access:
Supplement energy needs of cooking,
heating, motive power and captive
generation in rural, urban, industrial and
commercial sectors;
Energy Affordability: Cost-competitive,

convenient, safe, and reliable new and
renewable energy supply options; and
Energy Equity: Per-capita energy

consumption at par with the global average
level by 2050, through a sustainable and
diverse fuel- mix.
POLICY ON NON-CONVENTIONAL
ENERGY
The MNES implements one of the worlds

largest programme on renewable energy. The
programme objectives are:
(a) Increase the share of renewables in the

overall installed capacity of power
generation.
(b) Meet the energy needs of rural and
remote areas for variety of applications.
(c) Minimise the drudgery and health
hazards faced by rural women in
following the age old practice of cooking
with fuel wood collected from long
distances, and
(d) Extract energy from urban and
industrial wastes, besides ocean,
chemical and geothermal sources.
According to the Annual Report of the

MNES, the underlying idea of the programme is
not to substitute but supplement the
conventional energy generation in meeting the
basic energy needs of the community at large.
[60]
Technical back-up units (TBUS) were set up

in different parts of the country to provide
support to various institutions wanting
additional support on RETs. The TBUs also
undertook promotional programmes and
training for the local agencies working on RETs.
The Indian Renewable Development Agency
(IREDA) was set up to finance exclusively
renewable energy programmes.
The MNES has taken up special programmes

for renewable energy in the north-eastern region
including Sikkim and has earmarked 10 per cent
of the Plan funds for this region towards
enhanced and special subsidies. A special
programme to electrify the Kargil and Ladakh
areas districts with 90% as grant from the centre
is also under implementation.
INITIATIVES TAKEN BY THE

GOVERNMENT
1. Urja Grams
The Department of Non-Conventional

Energy Sources has taken up a programme on
Rural Renewable Energy System (RRES)
designed to make villages self-sufficient in
energy. This system is called Urja Grams, and
are based on local renewable energy sources and
being environmentally benign, could ensure
availability of electric power as well as cooking
energy at the village level and spearhead all
round rural development.
In an Urja Gram, the renewable energy

devices can find their applications to meet the
just energy requirement. For example, a biogas
plant working on locally available animal and
agricultural waste would supply the cooking fuel
and also fuel for lighting or for irrigation

wherever required. Requirement of drying,
cooking, hot water, etc. can be met by Solar
Thermal Systems.
from municipal solid waste is under

installation in Lucknow City.
A project, first of its kind, for generation of

2500 cubic meter biogas from 60 Tonnes
per day of slaughter house solid waste
installed at M/s. Al-Kabeer, Medak in
Andhra Pradesh.
A Project for treatment of 5 Tonnes of

tannery waste and generation of biogas and
62 kW power plant installed at
Melvisharam in Tamil Nadu, which is also
first of its kind in the country.
Measures to promote non-conventional

energy:
18,000 remote villages to be electrified by

2012.
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10% share of new capacity addition or

10,000 MW, to come from renewables by
2012.
Over 3,500 MW of power generating

capacity from renewables has been set up,
which is contributing about 3.3 per cent of
the total installed generating capacity in the
country.
8.8 billion Units of electricity generated

from wind power projects.
Masons, fabricators, potters, women, etc.

trained as self-employed workers for
construction of biogas plants and improved
chulhas.
125 renewable energy sales and servicing

outlets and 150 women self help groups
promoted.
Centre for Wind Energy Technology (CWET) and Wind Turbine Test Station are
fully operational.
750 KW and 1000 KW unit size wind

turbines introduced for the first time in the
country.
Sardar Swaran Singh National Institute for

Renewable Energy established in
Kapurthala in Punjab.
A 40 KW solar power plant inaugurated at

Nyoma, Ladakh.
Four IREP centres are operational at Bakoli

(Delhi); Chinhat (Lucknow) U.P., Jakkur
(Bangalore) Karnataka; and Village Amrol,
Kheda District, Gujarat.
30 MW capacity SPV products exported to

various developed and developing
countries.
More than 40 different applications of solar

photovoltaic systems for rural, remote areas
and other applications developed.
Zero emission vehicles including two, three

& four wheelers and large capacity
passenger vehicles are being promoted
through support for research and
development,
demonstration
and
operations.
More than 4500 solar photovoltaic pumps

are in use for agriculture and related uses.
2 MW grid connected SPV power projects

are in operation in the country.
Over 4,000 potential sites for small hydro

power projects have been identified with
10,000 MW capacity.
A 5.25 MW small hydro project

commissioned at Kalpong in Andaman &
Nicobar Islands.
440 MW power projects including 156 MW

biomass power and 284 MW bagasse-based
cogeneration projects under installation.
A project for generation of 5 MW power
2. Tidal Energy in Sunderbans
The Union Ministry of Non-conventional

Energy Sources (MNES) has sanctioned a 90 per
cent grant for the Rs.48-crore project in
Sunderbans. The West Bengal government will
meet the remaining cost of this project. The
National Hydroelectric Power Corporation
(NHPC) has been chosen the contractor for the
project, which is being executed by the West
Bengal Green Energy Development Corporation,
the corporate entity which has been formed by
the West Bengal government to commercialize
its renewable energy forays.
The Sunderbans project will be a
demonstrative project which may be replicated,
although the Kutch and the Gulf of Cambay in
[61]
with oxygen from the air and electrons from the

cathode to produce water. It is this transfer of
electrons at the electrodes that sets up the
voltage between them, enabling the cell to power
an external circuit.
NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION

The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar
Mission, also known as National Solar Mission,
is one of the eight key National Missions which
comprise Indias National Action Plan on
Climate Change (NAPCC). NAPCC was
launched on 30th June 2008 which identified
development of solar energy technologies in the
country as a National Mission. Finally on
January 11, 2010 Government of India approved
National Solar Mission.
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Gujarat are the only two regions in the country

where there is known potential of this form of
green energy. For the people living in the villages
around the Durgaduani Creek, solar home
lighting systems is the only form of electricity
known, with the slightly better-off burning
gallons of diesel to run polluting generator sets
to draw power. An eight MW capacity has been
created so far for 4.4 million people, who may
never have had any access to electric power since
they stay in remote areas where conventional
power may never reach. Efforts are now on to
bring an additional five million people under this
coverage by 2012.
3. Electricity Generation from Human Waste
An electricity generation fuelled by sewage

has been developed. The waste we flush down
the toilet could one day power the lights at home.
A generator does the job of a sewage-treatment
plant at the same time as it breaks down the
harmful organic matter as it generates the
electricity. Harnessing chemical techniques
similar to those the body uses to break down
food, Pennsylvania States microbial fuel cell
(MFC) diverts the electrons liberated in the
reaction to produce electrical energy.
The MFC comprises of a sealed 15 cm long
can with a central cathode rod surrounded by a
proton exchange membrane (PEM) which is
permeable only to protons. Sewage processing
plants are needed in developing countries but
they are expensive, as they use too much power.
Producing electricity at the same time will offset
this cost. A slurry of bacteria and undigested
food consisting of organic matter such as
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are contained
in sewage. In a process that releases electrons,
the bacteria found in sewage treatment works
use enzymes to oxidise organic matter. Normally
the electrons power respiratory reaction in the
bacteria cells, and are combined with oxygen
molecules. The organic waste is broken down
by bacteria that cluster around the anodes as
organic waste is pumped in releasing electrons
and protons with no oxygen to help mop up the
electrons, bacterias enzymes transfer them to the
anodes, while the protons migrate through
protons are encouraged to pass through to the
cathode by polarised molecules on the P&M
(Proton exchange membrane) which is
permeable only to protons. There they combine
[62]
The Solar Mission recommends the

implementation in 3 stages leading up to an
installed capacity of 20,000 MW by the end of
the 13th Five Year Plan in 2022. It serves twin
purpose:
(i) Long term energy Security
(ii) Ecological Security
Objective:
Objective of National Solar Mission is to

establish India as a global leader in solar
energy, by creating the policy conditions for
its diffusion across the country as quickly as
possible. The Mission adopts a 3-phase
approach:
Phase 1: spanning the first year of the 12th Plan
Phase 2: the remaining 4 years of the 12th Plan

Phase 3: the 13th Plan
The immediate aim of the Mission is to

focus on setting up an enabling environment
for solar technology penetration in the country
both at a centralized and decentralized level.
Also the Mission anticipates achieving grid parity
by 2022 and parity with coal-based thermal
power by 2030.
The mission targets are:
To create an enabling policy framework for

the deployment of 20,000 MW of solar
power by 2022.
To ramp up capacity of grid-connected
solar power generation to 1000 MW within

three years by 2013; an additional 3000
MW by 2017 through the mandatory use
of the renewable purchase obligation by
utilities backed with a preferential tariff.
This capacity can be more than doubled
reaching 10,000MW installed power by
2017 or more, based on the enhanced and
enabled international finance and
technology transfer.
To have a free market and promote healthy

competition among players and improve
the customer service.
To insure oil security for the country

keeping in view strategic and defence
considerations.
The ambitious target for 2022 of 20,000 MW

or more, will be dependent on the learning
of the first two phases, which if successful,
could lead to conditions of grid-competitive
solar power.
The transition could be appropriately

upscaled, based on availability of
international finance and technology.
To create favourable conditions for solar

manufacturing capability, particularly solar
thermal power for indigenous production
and market leadership.
Hydrogen holds the promise to provide clean,

reliable and sustainable energy supply for
meeting the growing energy needs for
transportation and power generation in the
coming years. Hydrogen can be used directly as
a fuel for producing mechanical/electrical
energy through internal combustion engines. It
can also be used in fuel cells to generate electricity
for stationary, portable and transport
applications. Hydrogen is environmentally
benign and has the potential to replace liquid
fossil fuels in the future and thereby provide
energy security to India.
To promote programmes for off grid

applications, reaching 1000 MW by 2017
and 2000 MW by 2022.
To achieve 15 million sq. meters solar

thermal collector area by 2017 and 20
million sq.mts. by 2022.
To deploy 20 million solar lighting systems

for rural areas by 2022.
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NATIONAL HYDROGEN
ENERGY ROAD MAP
HYDROCARBON VISION 2025
It is provided for the first time a

comprehensive long term framework for
development of the oil and gas sector in India
under globally competitive scenarios. This was
governed mainly by the following consideration:
To assure energy security by achieving selfreliance through increased indigenous

production and investment in equity oil
abroad.
To enhance quality of life by progressively

improving product standards to ensure a
cleaner and greener India.
To develop hydrocarbon sector as a globally

competitive industry which could be
benchmarked as the best in the world
through technology upgradation and
capacity building.
Recognizing the importance of hydrogen as

an energy carrier for the future, the Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy, as the nodal
Ministry for this sector, has been implementing
a broad based Research, Development and
Demonstration Programme on Hydrogen Energy
and Fuel Cell Technologies for more than two
decades. In recent years, significant progress has
been reported by several countries, including
India in the development of hydrogen as an
alternative fuel both for automotive and
stationary applications.
A National Hydrogen Energy Road Map
(NHERM) was prepared by a Steering Group set
up by the National Hydrogen Energy Board,
under the Chairmanship of Shri Ratan Tata. The
National Hydrogen Energy Road Map was
approved by the National Hydrogen Energy
Board in January, 2006.
The NHERM has identified research,
development and demonstration efforts to be
undertaken in the country for bridging the
technological gaps in different areas of hydrogen
energy, including its production, storage,
transportation and delivery, applications, safety,
codes and standards and capacity building for
the period up to 2020. The Road Map has
emphasised on development of the total
[63]
production, storage and use as a fuel for

generation of mechanical/thermal/electrical
energy. The application of hydrogen in fuel cells
for power generation has been demonstrated as
a result of initiatives taken by this Ministry.
Hydrogen fuelled small power generating sets,
two wheelers (motor cycles), three wheelers and
catalytic combustion systems for residential and
industrial sectors have also been developed and
demonstrated.
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hydrogen energy system, which includes all the

above components of hydrogen energy sector.
Keeping in view the present status of
development of hydrogen energy, the NHERM
has recommended two major initiatives for
promoting the use of hydrogen as a fuel for Green
Transportation (Green Initiative for Future
Transportation-GIFT) and Green Power
Generation (Green Initiative for Power
Generation-GIP).
The National Hydrogen Energy Road Map
has visualized that by 2020, one million
hydrogen fuelled vehicles, mostly two and three
wheelers and 1,000 MW aggregate hydrogen
based power generation capacity would be
established in the country. A total investment
requirement of Rs. 25,000 crores has been
projected in the Road Map for creating the
required hydrogen supply infrastructure to
realize the goals of one million vehicles and 1,000
MW power generation capacities by 2020,
including Rs. 1,000 crores for research,
development and demonstration activities. The
Road Map is a public-private partnership driven
process.
Hydrogen is high in energy content as it

contains 120.7 MJ/kg, which is the highest for
any known fuel. However, its energy content
compared to volume is rather low. This poses
challenges with regard to its storage for civilian
applications, when compared to storage of liquid
fossil fuels. When burnt, hydrogen produces
water as a by-product and is, therefore,
environmentally benign. Although no CO2, etc.
are produced if hydrogen is burnt in air, yet NOx
will be formed at high temperatures. One of the
advantages of hydrogen as a fuel is that it can
be used directly in the existing internal
combustion engines and turbines. It can also be
used as a fuel in fuel cells for electricity
generation. Hydrogen applications, besides
industrial application, cover power generation,
transport applications and heat. However, when
compared to other alternatives, use of hydrogen
in transport sector appears to be more beneficial
as it is possible to store hydrogen on-board.
Initiatives Taken So Far
The Ministry has supported research,
development and demonstration projects on
various aspects of hydrogen energy including its
[64]
A Demonstration Project for setting up of a

Hydrogen Dispensing Station at a petrol pump
in New Delhi has been sanctioned as a joint
project of Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy and Indian Oil Corporation Limited. The
project would enable dispensing of neat
hydrogen and H-CNG blends as fuel for
automotive vehicles. The project was
commissioned in March, 2010. The H-CNG
blends used in the modified CNG vehicles and
are expected to reduce emissions from H-CNG
vehicles, as compared to CNG vehicles. The
project is also generating operational experience
in handling hydrogen as an automotive fuel. HCNG is a vehicle fuel which is a blend of
compressed natural gas and hydrogen, typically
8-50% hydrogen by volume.
The research was initiated by the Ministry

of Petroleum and Natural gas in 2003. A
Hydrogen Corpus Fund (HCF) of Rs 100 crore
was created with contribution from all PSU oil
and gas companies and Oil Industry
Development Board (OIDB). Out of the total
allocated amount of Rs 100 crore to the oil
industry, IOC R&D has utilised Rs 14 crore for
various demonstration projects. This is in
addition to other projects funded by MNRE and
also IOC R&D's own budget. IOCL is all praise
for H-CNG's efficiency.
Another project for the introduction of HCNG blends on a trial basis in existing CNG
Vehicles has been undertaken by the Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy jointly with the
Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers
(SIAM). The project is the first public-private
partnership project in this new technology area.
The project aims for the introduction of H-CNG
blend as a fuel on trial basis in buses, cars and
three wheelers. The Indian Oil Corporation is
also participating in this project and the existing
hydrogen dispensing facility set up at its R&D
Centre at Faridabad used for fuelling the

vehicles. Under this project, the engines of the
existing CNG vehicles and fuel injection systems
would be modified. The project aims at
optimizing the H-CNG blend ratio for optimal
vehicle performance and minimal emissions.
The objective of the mission is to attain the

goal of 20% blending of biofuels with diesel
and gasoline nationwide.
Under a first demonstration phase Jatropha

and Karanj plantations would be
established on 400,000 hectares of
government-owned land.
In
the
second
phase
of
the
mission, Jatropha will be cultivated on not
less than 11.2 million hectares of
government-owned as well as private land
for increasing biodiesel production.
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Several new R&D Projects in the area of

Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cell technology have
been sanctioned to Universities, IITs and R&D
organizations and further proposals are in the
pipeline. A National Centre for Hydrogen
Energy and Fuel Cell Technology is being set up
at the Solar Energy Centre Campus of the
Ministry at Gurgaon, Haryana.
The national mission launched in two phases

with one goal:
The National Hydrogen Energy Road Map

had recommended 8 Technology Missions to be
taken up in this area. Work has been initiated
in two of these areas i.e. on the Development of
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells, for which the CGCRI and
BHEL have submitted a joint - R&D project
proposal to the Ministry. A proposal for
accelerated commercialization of PEM Fuel cells
in mission mode is being developed.
In June 2012, to make India a fuel efficient
country by switching to a hydrogen-based fuel
cell economy, the Indian Oil Corporation (IOC)
has developed hydrogen mixed CNG. It is 15-20
per cent more efficient than normal CNG. The
use of Hydrogen-CNG fuel is expected to reduce
carbon monoxide emissions up to 25 per cent,
THC (total hydrocarbon) emissions by 5 per cent
and carbon dioxide emissions by 5 per cent as
compared to CNG, revealed the IOC (R&D),
Faridabad.
BIOFUEL MISSION
Karanj (Pongamia pinnata) and Jatropha

(Jatropha curcas) are the two plants India is
emphasizing on for promoting alternative energy
sources, as the country launches a nationwide
biofuel mission.
A committee of experts was set up by the

Federal Planning Commission, which will study
and suggest measures for the promotion of
biofuels development. In a report submitted by
the committee before the commission, the
committee has recommended the government to
launch a countrywide biofuels mission focusing
on encouraging the cultivation of Karanj and
Jatropha. Karanj and Jatropha are two seedbearing, drought-tolerant perennial tree-crops.
Theres a requirement of 2.6 million tons

biodiesel in India in order to achieve its goal of
5% blending with fossil fuels.
The Government of India approved the
National Policy on Biofuels in December 2009.
The biofuel policy encouraged the use of
renewable energy resources as alternate fuels to
supplement transport fuels (petrol and diesel for
vehicles) and proposed a target of 20 percent
biofuel blending (both bio-diesel and bio-ethanol)
by 2017. The government launched the National
Bio-diesel Mission (NBM) identifying Jatropha as
the most suitable tree-borne oilseed for bio-diesel
production. The Planning Commission of India
had set an ambitious target covering 11.2 to 13.4
million hectares of land under Jatropha
cultivation by the end of the 11th Five-Year Plan.
The central government and several state
governments are providing fiscal incentives for
supporting plantations of Jatropha and other
non-edible oilseeds. Several public institutions,
state biofuel boards, state agricultural universities
and cooperative sectors are also supporting the
biofuel mission in different capacities.
Biofuels market in India is largely based on
Ethanol - derived from the molasses of sugarcane
- and biodiesel thats obtained through non edible
oil seeds for example Pongamia and Jatropha.
The primary objectives of the govt. for
encouraging biofuels industry include
environmental factors, plus security and
diversity of energy supply. This is also working
as the key driver for the growth of biofuel
industry in India.
Biogas: Biogas is a clean, unpolluted and
cheap source of energy in rural areas. It contains
[65]
(land, air and water) and global pollution. Biogas

obtained by anaerobic digestion of cattle dung
and other loose and leafy organic matters/
wastes can be used as energy source for cooking,
lighting and other applications like refrigeration,
electricity generation and transport applications.
Bio-Alternative to Diesel: After introducing
ethanol-blended petrol in selected states, the
centre has now drawn up a Rs. 1,430 crore plan
to make use of oil from the seeds of the Jatropha
plant as a bio-alternative to diesel. The plan,
which is to be implemented with a mission mode
approach, is expected to generate six lakh tonnes
of diesel-quality oil valued at Rs. 1,020 crore per
annum at the end of a gestation period of four
years.
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55 to 70 per cent methane, which is inflammable.

Biogas is produced from cattle dung in a Biogas
Plant commonly known as Gobargas Plant,
through a process called digestion. The
manurial value of the dung is enhanced in the
process. A biogas plant helps in obtaining both
cooking fuel and enriched manure from the
same quantity of cattle dung. Village sanitation
is also improved. Environmental conditions are
upgraded as the forest cover is protected by
saving fuelwood. Biogas is also used for lighting
purpose. It could also be used for running
engines of small horsepower. Large scale
promotion of biogas plants helps to generate
employment for masons, village technicians and
unskilled workers in rural areas.
The National Project for Biogas Development
(NPBD) is being implemented by the Department
of Non-conventional Energy Sources in
co-operation with State Departments, State
Nodal Agencies and Non-Governmental
Agencies. NPBD caters to the promotion of family
type biogas plants. It was started in 1981-82. The
broad objectives of the project are:
(a) To provide energy in a clean and
unpolluted form;
(b) To produce enriched manure to

supplement the use of chemical
fertilizers;
(c) To bring improvement in the life of rural
womenfolk and children by relieving
them from drudgery; and
(d) To improve sanitation and hygiene.
Setting up of community and institutional

biogas plants was initiated in 1982-83 to provide
benefits of biogas technology to weaker sections
of society also, who otherwise cannot afford
family type biogas plants. This programme
provides financial assistance upto 90% of the
capital cost of village-based community biogas
plants. Plants set up by Central and State
Government institutions, Co-operatives or Trusts
tied to such bodies are eligible to receive financial
assistance upto 70% of the capital cost.
Biogas production is a clean low carbon
technology for efficient management and
conversion of organic wastes into clean
renewable biogas and organic fertilizer source.
It has the potential for leveraging sustainable
livelihood development as well as tackling local
[66]
For the purpose of the project, Jatropha

plantations would be raised in an area of four
lakh hectares spread over eight states- Andhra
Pradesh,
Karnataka,
Uttar
Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
National Bio-Diesel Policy
As per the announcement of Ministry of

Petroleum & Natural Gas, beginning from
January 1, 2006, the public sector oil marketing
companies (OMCs) will be purchasing bio-diesel
(B100) at Rs. 25 a litre for blending with diesel
(HSD) to the extent of 20 per cent in phases. To
start with, five per cent of bio-diesel, a non-edible
oil extracted from Jatropha and Pongamia,
would be mixed with diesel during trial runs.
At a later stage, in phases, the B100 blending
with diesel is to be increased to 20 per cent.
Automobile engines would not require any
modification for using diesel doped with 20 per
cent bio-diesel as fuel.
Only those bio-diesel manufacturers who get

their samples approved and certified by the oil
companies and registered as authorised suppliers
will be eligible for assured purchase of product.
Accordingly, starting January 1, 2006, the OMCs
- Indian Oil Corporation (IOC), Bharat Petroleum
Corporation Limited (BPCL) and Hindustan
Petroleum Corporation Limited are purchasing,
through select purchase centres, bio-diesel that
meets the fuel quality standards prescribed by
the Bureau of Industrial Standards (BIS).
Biodiesel: Jatropha plantation is a subject for
state governments. Public-sector petroleum
(b) Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy is

collected from a vast reservoir of heat in
the interior of the earth. About 340
geothermal hot springs have been identified
throughout the country. Use of geothermal
energy has been demonstrated for small
scale power generations and thermal
applications.
There are about 20 large-capacity biodiesel

plants (10,000 to 200,000 metric tons per year)
in India that produce biodiesel from alternative
feed stocks such as edible oil waste (unusable oil
fractions), animal fat and inedible oils.
(c) Ocean Energy: The Ocean acts as a natural

collector of solar energy. The temperature
gradients, waves and tides contained by
ocean can be used to generate electricity in
an eco-friendly manner. Likewise, flowing
tidal water contain large amounts of
potential energy.
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companies and private sector firms have entered

into a MoU with state governments to establish
and promote Jatropha plantation on government
wastelands or to contract with small and
medium farmers. However, only a few states
have been able to promote actively Jatropha
plantation despite the governments incentives
and encouraging policies.
Presently, commercial production and

marketing of Jatropha-based biodiesel in India
is small, with estimates varying from 140 to 300
million litres per year. The biodiesel produced is
sold to the unorganized sector (irrigation pumps,
mobile towers, kilns, agricultural usage, owners
of diesel generators, etc.) and to experimental
projects carried out by automobile manufacturers
and transport companies. However, as per
industry sources, there has been no commercial
sale of biodiesel to state owned transport
companies except for trials.
Additionally, there has been no commercial
sale of biodiesel across the biodiesel purchase
centres (set up by the GOI) as the government
biodiesel purchase price of Rs. 26.5 per litre is
still below the estimated biodiesel finished
production cost (Rs 35 to Rs 40 per litre).
Unavailability of feedstock supply (Jatropha
seeds), rising wage rates and inefficient
marketing channels are a few of the major factors
that have contributed to higher production costs.
NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND PROJECTS
Various programmes are being implemented

under the MNES to promote new and emerging
renewable energy technologies such as fuel cells,
hydrogen energy, electric vehicles, geothermal
energy and tidal energy.
(a) Fuel Cells: Through this device the chemical

energy of a fuel can be converted into usable
electricity and heat without combustion as
an intermediate step. Hydrogen is the
primary fuel in this device, which can be
produced from renewable sources of energy.
Because of modular nature, fuel cells are
ideally suited for distributed power
generation.
INDIAS ENERGY SECURITY
Energy security involves ensuring

uninterrupted supply of energy to support the
economic and commercial activities necessary for
sustained economic growth. Energy security is
obviously more difficult to ensure if there is large
dependence on imported energy. This calls for
action in several areas.
1) The domestic production of coal, oil and
gas and other energy sources has to be
stepped up. Some of the recent issues in
this regard have been availability of land,
clearances for environment and forest and
implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and
Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.
Uncertainty about production sharing
contracts has also posed problems.
Management strategies and procedures will
have to be devised for ensuring effective
implementation of fuel development
projects while meeting the requirements of
above policies and legislations.
2) A stable and attractive policy regime has
to be provided to ensure substantial private
investment, including foreign investment in
oil and natural gas blocks and new
capacities for renewable energy. Producers
must have clarity in the price they will
receive and an assurance of a stable tax
regime. Since oil exploration is a global
industry the terms India offers must be
comparable with those offered elsewhere.
In this context the entire structure of New
Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP)
contracts for oil and gas need to be
reviewed.
[67]
3) Investments in renewable energies need to

be strongly emphasised. By present
projections, the share of renewable energy
in total energy consumption will only reach
2 per cent by 2021.
4) Investments in energy assets in foreign
countries, especially for coal, oil and gas
and uranium should be stepped up.
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5) To meet any possible disruption in oil

supplies, on which we are importdependent to the extent of more than 80
per cent, storage capacities need to be
created. The Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD)
countries have generally created these
capacities to the extent of 90 days of their
domestic demand. We have created the
capacity for 5 million tonnes. It has,
however, not been fully utilised so far.
There will be a need to increase this
gradually and utilise it fully. Innovative
ways will have to be found to fill up these
tankages.
of the project cost was to be provided by the

Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) as loan.
Initially, Phase I of the RGGVY scheme was
approved for implementation with a capital
subsidy of `5,000 crore during the remainder of
the 10th Plan period. Subsequently, the scheme
was approved to be continued in the 11th Plan
with a capital subsidy of 28,000 crore. Overall,
by the end of 11th Plan, out of the total 5,93,732
villages in India (Census 2001), 5,56,633 villages
(93.8 per cent) ought to have been electrified as
per CEA report.
RAJIV GANDHI GRAMEEN

VIDYUTIKARAN YOJNA
A scheme Rajiv Gandhi Grameen

Vidyutikaran Yojana for a Rural Electricity
Infrastructure and Household Electrification was
launched in April, 2005 for the attainment of
the National Common Minimum Programme of
providing access to electricity to all Rural
Household in five years. The scheme involved
electrification of all unelectrified villages plus a
free connection for BPL households.
The Ministry of Power has been entrusted

with the responsibility of providing electricity to
the uncovered villages through the programme
instrument of Rajiv Gandhi Grameen
Vidyutikaran Yojana. Rural Electrification
Corporation (REC) would be the implementation
agency of the scheme which covers the entire
country. To achieve this objective, Rural
Electricity Distribution Backbone will be set up
as village electrification - infrastructure. The
scheme deployment of franchisee system has also
been made mandatory so as to bring about
revenue sustainability in the rural distribution
system.
The scheme provided a subsidy of 90 per cent

of the total project cost and balance 10 per cent
[68]
The States of Delhi, Goa and Union Territories

of Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh,
Dadar & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu and
Puducherry have not participated in RGGVY
Programme as they had achieved 100 per cent
electrification of villages. In remaining 27 states,
RGGVY Projects for 579 districts have been
sanctioned.
Salient Features
(A) The Scheme: (i) The Scheme had aimed

at electrification of about One lakh villages and
providing access to electricity to 7.8 crore rural
households, including 2.34 crore BPL households
by 2009.
(ii) The Government estimated an outlay of
Rs. 16,000 crore under RGGVY for attainment
of stipulated objectives of the programme, of
which, Rs. 5000 crore was approved as capital
subsidy during 10th plan period for
implementation of Phase-I of the programme.
(B) Scope: Under the scheme, projects could
be financed with capital subsidy for provision
of -
1. Rural Electricity Distribution Backbone

(REDB)
(a) Provision of 33/11 KV substations of

adequate capacity and lines in blocks
where these do not exist.
2. Creation of Village Electrification
Infrastructure
(a) Electrification of unelectrified villages.
(b) Electrification
of
unelectrified
habitations.
(c) Provision of distribution transformers
of appropriate capacity in electrified
villages/habitation.
(d) 25,000 remote villages covered for
financing under MNES not included.

(e) Decentralised generation-cum-distribution from conventional sources or
villages where grid connectivity is either
not feasible or not cost effective.
3. Rural Household Electrification of Below
Poverty Line Households
Substitute Domestic Alternatives

Energy security can be increased by reducing
the need for imported energy by substituting it
with other forms of energy. Though this does
not reduce the need for total energy, it reduces
import dependence. Some important options
include:
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(a) Electrification of unelectrified Below

Poverty Line (BPL) households would
be financed with 100 per cent capital
subsidy as per norms of Kutir Jyoti
Programme in all rural habitations.
(b) Households above poverty line would
be paying for their connections at
prescribed connection charges and no
subsidy would be available for this
purpose.
In the long-term, promotion of public

transport in urban areas can significantly reduce
energy consumption, particularly the need for
imported oil and gas. Develop effective and
attractive mass transport such as underground,
elevated trains, light rail, monorail or dedicated
bus lanes in existing metros.
THREAT TO ENERGY SECURITY
The threat to energy security arises not just

from the uncertainty of availability and price of
imported energy, but also from the possible
disruption or shortfalls in domestic production.
The second concern is not disruption of supply
but the market risk of a sudden increase in oil
price. While we may be able to pay for imports,
a high oil price can cause inflation, slow down
the economy and impose hardship on the people.
Any disruption in access to energy can be very
expensive in welfare terms as energy is critical
not only for economic growth but also for human
survival and well-being.
Reduce Energy Requirements
Improvement in energy efficiency or

conservation is akin to creating a new domestic
energy resource base. Such efficiency
improvements can be made in energy extraction,
conversion, transmission, distribution and enduse of energy. All of these efficiency
improvements can come using currently
available commercial technologies.
Energy efficiency and demand side

management also have a large scope to reduce
energy requirement. These include the use of
energy efficient appliances and automobiles,
hybrid cars, energy efficient buildings, efficient
lighting, cogeneration, distributed generation
with Combined Heat and Power (CHP) use,
energy efficient and well-maintained irrigation
pumps, smokeless improved woodstoves, etc.
1. Wood plantations with a potential of

yielding up to 20 tonnes of wood per
hectare per year in a sustainable way could
significantly expand the domestic energy
resource base. Wood can be burned directly
or gasified for power generation. This would
reduce the need for future gas/coal imports.
2. Bio-diesel and Ethanol can substitute diesel
and petrol. Ethanol can be obtained from
molasses, which may have other
economically more paying uses. Ethanol
can also be obtained from other starchy
crops and from cellulosic plant matter.
3. If hydrogen can be produced as a
byproduct of industry or with locally
available energy sources, hydrogen based
vehicles could provide an option to reduce
dependence on oil imports.
4. Coal can be converted into oil as is done in
South Africa. The technology is welldeveloped and in use for years.
Develop Alternative Sources
Enhanced Recovery: Enhanced oil, gas and

coal recovery from existing fields is an obvious
option. Indias recovery of in-place reserves can
improve easily by 5-10 percentage points. Better
mine design and the use of technologically
advanced mining techniques are valid options.
Coal Bed Methane: Methane is absorbed in

coal seams. This Coal Bed Methane (CBM)
usually escapes into the atmosphere when coal
is mined. Tapping and utilizing the CBM as a
source of commercial energy has been in vogue
in the US and Australia for several years. The
estimated potential of CBM in India is in the
range of 1400-2600 billion cu. metres (BCM).
[69]
exploit these economically in ecologically

safe ways is yet to be developed.
3) Wind: The potential for onshore wind
power has been assessed to be 45,000 MW.
The Wind Energy Society of India claims it
to be as high as 65,000 MW. However, given
that the average capacity factor realized
by Indias wind farms is only about 17
percent, the total contribution to energy
from these plants would be relatively small.
Thus while wind power may be pursued
for environmental and economic reasons,
its contribution to energy security will
remain very limited.
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The potential of Coal Bed Methane/Coal

Mine Methane was recognised in a new policy
of Government of India in 1997. The Ministry of
Coal and the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural
Gas are working together for the development
of Coal Bed Methane and the Government has
offered 33 blocks in four rounds of bidding for
CBM covering 17,416 sq. km of area. One block
in Raniganj coalfield has commenced
commercial production in 2007 and two blocks
are in advanced stage of commencing
production.
The Director General of Hydrocarbons is the

regulator for CBM activities in the country. The
CBM/CMM clearance house has been
established in CMPDIL, Ranchi, in collaboration
with United States Environment Protection
Agency (USEPA) which will provide information
for development of CBM/CMM in India. The
current level of production, being only 0.2
mmscmd, is confined mostly to the private sector.
There is no separate pricing regime for CBM and
the gas prices are determined by the developer,
subject to Government approval.
Coal to Oil: Rising oil prices in the world

market makes conversion of coal to oil
economically attractive. India should establish
the viability of Sasol technology with domestic
coal and establish the breakeven price at which
coal to liquids would make sense for Indian coal.
New Domestic Sources: The domestic

resource base can also be expanded through
developing hitherto poorly developed or new
sources of energy. Some of these resources may
require R & D to make them economical. Among
these are:
1) Nuclear Power: With meagre availability
of Uranium in the country and vast
resources of Thorium, any long-term
nuclear strategy has to be based on
Thorium. The three stage strategy of
development of nuclear power from
pressurized heavy water based reactors to
fast breeder reactors to Thorium based
reactors require a sustained R & D effort.
Success in these efforts could deliver some
2, 50,000 MW of nuclear power by 2050
and much more thereafter.
2) Gas Hydrates: Very large reserves exist in
Indian waters and have the potential to
provide vast amount of gas. Technology to
[70]
4) Solar: Solar energy, if it can be

economically exploited constitutes a major
energy resource for the country. Solar
electricity generated through either the
thermal route or using photovoltaic cells
provides comparable amounts of electricity
per unit of collector area. Both methods
currently provide about 15 percent
conversion efficiency.
5) Energy Plantations: Growing fuel wood for

running power plants either directly or after
gasification can save the coal or gas used
for generating power. Since the countrys
energy needs are growing, imports of coal
and LNG are also likely to grow. Fuel wood
plantations can help improve energy
security. The scope for such plantations is
substantial.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
With the development of civilization and

commercialization coupled with urbanisation
the needs of the people have grown significantly.
Human beings have exploited the resources
endlessly. These activities based upon resource
consumption have led to the problems of
degradation and depletion of energy resources.
A grim scenario of the energy resource has been
created in the form of energy crisis. A detailed
study of the background of the situation compels
us to think about the major cause of such a
situation. One can pronounce on an unequivocal
term that it is the cost of industrial development
coupled with over dependence on conventional
sources. Past generations in coping the pace of
development have harnessed the conventional
sources at an exorbitant rate with deaf ears to
future problems. A want of rationale is enshrined
in the behavioural approach of society vis-a-vis

energy consumption.
Rural Electrification Corporation
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Rural Electrification Corporation Limited

(REC), a Navratna Central Public Sector
Enterprise under Ministry of Power, was
incorporated on July 25, 1969 under the
Companies Act 1956. Its main objective is to
finance and promote rural electrification projects
all over the country. It provides financial
assistance to State Electricity Boards, State
Government Departments and Rural Electric
Cooperatives for rural electrification projects as
are sponsored by them.
Pradesh), Mundra (Gujarat), Krishnapatnam

(Andhra Pradesh) and Tilaiya (Jharkhand). Out
of these, one unit of 800 MW of Mundra by Tata
Power has been commissioned in March 2012.
12 more supercritical UMPPs are being planned
covering Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra and
Karnataka. An important element of this
programme is the induction of supercritical
technology, which is an important shift towards
energy efficiency. Unfortunately, some of these
projects are plagued with uncertainties
regarding fuel supply because they were based
on imported coal and changes in government
policies in the countries where the coal mines
were located have raised the cost of coal
whereas the power tariff is based on a
competitive bid which does not contain a
provision for passing on such increases.
REC provides loan assistance to SEBs/State

Power Utilities for investments in rural
electrification schemes through its Corporate
Office located at New Delhi and 17 field units
(Project Offices), which are located in most of
the States.
The Project Offices in the States coordinate

the programmes of RECs financing with the
concerned SEBs/State Power Utilities and
facilitate in formulation of schemes, loan
sanction and disbursement and implementation
of schemes by the concerned SEBs/State Power
Utilities.
Ultra Mega Power Projects
Ministry of Power launched a unique

initiative in 2005-06 to facilitate the development
of Ultra Mega Power Projects (UMPPs) each
having a capacity of about 4000 MW each, at
both the coal pitheads and coastal locations
aimed at delivering power at competitive cost to
consumers by achieving economies of the scale.
The Central Government has accordingly taken
the initiative for facilitating the development of
UMPPs under tariff based competitive bidding
route using super critical technology on build,
own and operate (BOO) basis. Central Electricity
Authority (CEA) is the Technical partner and
Power Finance Corporation (PFC) is the Nodal
Agency.
The Ultra Mega Power Projects (UMPPs)
Programme, which brings in private investment
into power generation, was a major initiative of
the Eleventh Plan. So far power purchase
agreements have been signed for four UMPPs of
4,000 MW each on the basis of competitive tariffbased bidding. They are based in Sasan (Madhya
MAJOR NEW INITIATIVES
The following are some of the new initiatives

in the area of renewable energy:
1. National Institute of Solar Energy: The
existing Solar Energy Centre would be
converted into an autonomous institution
for undertaking applied research,
demonstration and development in solar
energy, including solar hybrid areas.
2. National Bioenergy Corporation of India:
National Bio Energy Corporation of India
(NBECI) will be set up to implement
bioenergy mission, including cook stove
programme.
3. Renewable Energy Development Fund: In
order to address the financing constraints
for the grid connected as well as the offgrid applications of renewables, it is
proposed to create a Renewable Energy
Development fund. The fund will plug the
gap between the sector financing needs and
the amount that falls short of the banks
obligations to their lending to this priority
sector.
4. National Bioenergy Mission: Biomass
energy for electricity generation has turned
out to be one of the most attractive sources
of power which is scalable, has the largest
potential for improving energy access and
which can be linked to generating
additional rural income. In view of the
success of such biomass-based off-grid
[71]
renewable models in rural areas of Bihar, it

is proposed to launch the Biomass Mission
with an objective to create a policy
framework for attracting investment and
to facilitate rapid development of
commercial biomass energy market based
on utilisation of surplus agro-residues and
development of energy plantations.
Various activities under different schemes

of Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) and
Ministry of Power (MoP) have resulted in
saving in avoided power capacity of 11,000
MW.
Works relating to 18 units for life extension

aggregating to 1,931 MW and 69 units for
repair and maintenance (R&M) aggregating
to 17,435 MW have been completed during
the 11th Plan.
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5. Renewable Power Evacuation Infrastructure: Special emphasis will be placed

on creating evacuation infrastructure and
transmission facilities for renewable power
in a time-bound manner to support the
large expansion in consumption and
production of renewable power. Judicious
planning of transmission system, that is,
creating pooling substation for cluster of
renewable
power
generators
and
connecting them with receiving station of
STU/CTU at appropriate voltage level, will
lead to optimal utilisation of transmission
system.
electrification has been achieved. However,

a large number of small habitations still
remain unconnected.
6. National Biomass Cook Stove Programme:

The proposed initiative plans to universalise
access of improved biomass cook stoves by
providing assistance in exploring a range
of technology deployments, biomass
processing and delivery models leveraging
public-private partnerships.
ACHIEVEMENTS IN POWER SECTOR

DURING THE PERIOD OF 11TH PLAN
Capacity addition during the 11th Plan

period has been at 54,964 MW which is
69.8 per cent of the original target and 88.1
per cent of the reduced target of 62,374
MW set in the Mid-term Appraisal (MTA).
It is more than 2.5 times that of any of the
earlier Plans.
Total installed capacity as on 31 March

2012, including renewable energy sources
of the country was 1,99,877 MW. The share
of renewable energy capacity being about
12.2 per cent.
Total number of villages electrified till

March 2012 was about 5.6 lakhs, indicating
that more than 93 per cent village
12TH PLAN PROGRAMME
The Working Group on Power has estimated

a capacity addition requirement of 75,785 MW
corresponding to 9 per cent GDP growth during
the Twelfth Plan period. However, in order to
bridge the gap between peak demand and peak
deficit, and provide for faster retirement of the
old energy-inefficient plants, the target for the
Twelfth Plan has been fixed at 88,537 MW. The
share of the private sector in the additional
capacity will be 53 per cent, compared to a target
of 19 per cent in the Eleventh Plan. Since the
growth rate of GDP for the Twelfth Plan is likely
to be 8.2 per cent and not 9 per cent, the target
for capacity addition contain an element of slack
of about 10 per cent.
The share of power based on non-fossil fuel

plants is very low at present and should be
increased over time to promote low carbon
growth strategy. The share of coal and lignite in
the additional capacity being created during the
Twelfth Plan is 79 per cent, up from 76 per cent
in the target from the Eleventh Plan which
actually ended up at 79 per cent. The projected
capacity addition in non-fossil fuel plants covers
addition of hydro capacity of 1,0897 MW and
nuclear capacity of 5,300 MW. Besides this, 1,200
MW import of hydro power from Bhutan has
also been considered. In addition, it is planned
to add a grid interactive renewable capacity
addition of about 30,000 MW comprising of
15,000 MW wind, 10,000 MW solar, 2,100 small
hydro, and the balance primarily from bio mass.
[72]
Science & Technology

(Part-III)
Add : D-108, Sec-2, Noida (U.P.), Pin - 201 301

Call : 09582948810, 09953007628, 0120-2440265
CONTENTS
Sl. No.
TOPICS
Pg. No.
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY
1.
Ocean Development ................................................................................ 5-15
2.
India In Space......................................................................................... 16-38
3.
New Technology .................................................................................... 39-50
4.
Great Indian Scientists .......................................................................... 51-73
5.
New Develpments ................................................................................. 74-80
OCEAN DEVELOPMENT
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
The oceans and their inter-connecting seas

form a continuous territory that covers about
three-fourths of the earths surface. Within these
liquid expanses, there are seemingly
inexhaustible sources of food, minerals and
energy. The development of marine resources
such as fish, petroleum, sand and gravel,
desalinated water aquaculture, phosphorus and
manganese nodules, placer minerals, extracted
chemicals, fish protein concentrates, etc. is
already possible with the available technology
and major countries of the world, recognizing
the potential economic importance of marine
resources have already organized their efforts
in this area, and India, too, is making a
beginning.
A proper consideration of marine resources
should begin with an understanding of the
features characteristics of the deep ocean. The
physiographic features consist mainly of a
continental shelf extending from the beach to a
distance of up to 1300 km with outer depths of
50 to 500 metres, a continental slope slanting
gently downwards from the shelf to the ocean
depths of 3 to 5 kilometres at a slope of about 5.
The chemical features of the ocean consist of
a complex solution of dissolved chemicals with
surprisingly uniform content of approximately
40 chemicals. A vastly more dilute and less
understood solution of trace elements and
organic constituents supports and permits life
to exist within the sea.
The biological features of the sea consist
mainly of over 10,000 known species of singlecelled plants called Phytoplanktons that support
all marine life through photosynthesis, an almost
equally large variety of tiny animals called
Zooplanktons, an enormous variety of
invertebrates, fishes, mammals (e.g. whales,
seals, etc.) that depend on the atmosphere for
oxygen and include some of the most intelligent
animals in the whole animal kingdom.
The major focus of marine activity today,
tends to lie in mankinds search for food and
energy. The sea is an excellent source for a most

critical element of the human diet - animal
protein. Some 15 per cent of the worlds supply
of animal protein comes from fisheries and it has
been calculated that the potential yield, given
the proper technology is between 8 to 34 times
the worlds requirements.
The Indian Ocean produces only 2.4 million
tonnes of fish, which amount to only four per
cent of the total world production. However, the
potential fish catch from this area is estimated
to be at least four to five times more. Water which
can sustain prawn and tuna have not been fully
exploited while only minimal attention has been
paid to coastal aquaculture i.e. the culture and
raising of oysters, clams and mussels.
The success of oceanic fishing depends on
how well we determine the location of the fish
shoals and on the level of sophistication of
available marine technology in the country.
Locating, tracking and identifying fish shoals
involve two major steps
1.
Searching for the general area in which

commercial concentrations are expected.
2.
Localising and detecting the precise

position of the fish. Of even more
significance in the exploitation of marine
resources is the possibility of finding oil
and gas offshore in large quantities. It has
been established that approximately 20 per
cent of the worlds reserves of oil lie
offshore. In India the major potential
offshore areas for oil and gas are the Gulf
of Cambay, Bombay High, the Indo-Sri
Lanka trough, the Bay of Bengal, the
Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Krishna
Godavari (KG) Basin.
In India among other physical resources,

heavy mineral rich beach sands containing
Monazite and Ilmenite have been found on the
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh and Orissa coasts. The offshore
[5]
occurrence of calcareous deposits suitable for the

chemical and cement industries have been
reported from bottom samples off the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, Saurashtra, Kerala and
Lakshadweep. These deposits, which represent
the remains of calcareous organism such as coal
are also expected to occur in many more areas
all around the Indian peninsula. Phosphate
nodules and Barium concentrations have been
recorded off the west coast of India and
Lakshadweep while chromite has been found in
the sea floor rifts of Indian Ocean. Efforts to
survey the extent of these resources have
however been few and far between and in the
absence of technical capabilities there have been
no systematic efforts to exploit them.
A large number of organizations have been
working in the field of ocean science and
engineering for marine resource exploitation in
India. The Geological Survey of India is
responsible for all investigations pertaining to
geological sciences excluding the exploration and
exploitation of oil and natural gas, which is
under the domain of the Oil and Natural Gas
Commission. The Atomic Energy Commission
conducts studies on the deposition and
replenishment of minerals in the coastal regions
as well as on the presence and behaviour of
radioactive elements. The Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research, Mumbai, has carried out
research in chemical oceanography. While the
Meteorological Department has done some work
in marine meteorological studies. The National
Institute of Oceanography created in 1966, is
responsible for research on the basic aspects of
physical, chemical, geological and biological
oceanography and also for handling
oceanographic data. The Naval Hydrographic
office conducts hydrographic studies.
Some state governments have their own
geological departments to carry out geological
surveys and some universities like those of
Andhra and Kerala are also involved in various
coastal studies pertaining to marine geology and
biology.
All these organizations and their research
efforts were coordinated by the Indian National
Committee of Oceanic Research (INCOR)
established by the Government of India in 1960
to draw up a programme for Indias
participation in the International Indian Ocean
Expedition during 1962-65. The task has since

been taken over by the Department of Science
and Technology, which visualizes the creation
of a separate Ocean Science and Technology
Commission to coordinate the Indian efforts.
BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES
Phytoplanktons are the principal plants in
the ocean and are the base of the food chain.
The distribution of zooplankton which feed on
the phytoplankton is worlds major fishing areas.
Oceans have become major source of food and
are more likely to become so in future. Because
of its sheer size, oceans will have a larger food
potential. Again due to increased population,
little option is left for agricultural extension on
land and henceforth the human population will
be under compulsion to move towards the ocean
to satisfy its demands. Ocean food resources are
nutritionally advantageous or better source of
amino acids in correct proportion, better source
of vitamin-B12, low in cholesterol and fat, high
in polyunsaturated fats and essential fatty acids.
India is a littoral state with a vast coastline
of about 6000 km and the Exclusive Economic
Zone (EEZ) of about 2.02 million sq km. About
50 per cent of sustainable fishing zone of Indias
EEZ lies in inshore zone of less than 50 metres
depth. India ranks 8th in the annual fish catch
in the world. In India, the marine fish accounts
for about 56 per cent of the total national fish
catch. However, the annual potential in India is
about 10 million tonnes. Intensive prawn farming
has been developed at Nellore in Andhra Pradesh
and improved shrimps farming in Andaman and
Nicobar.
FRESH-WATER RESOURCES
Oceans, ice-caps and glaciers constitute
about 97.2% and 2.15% of worlds water supply
respectively. Fresh water extracted from the sea
is one of the most valuable resources, especially
for the countries where land water availability
is very difficult and costly. Icebergs, another
source of fresh water, would be found by some
mechanism to the areas where water is needed
like Saudi Arabia, California, Australia, etc.
Ocean water is neither fit for human
consumption nor for agricultural purposes. But,
it can be converted into fresh water through
[6]
dissolved salts are found in the seas.

Magnesium and Bromine are other
chemical elements.
desalination. The important methods of

desalination are:
(i) Solar Still: In this process, the sea water
is boiled by concentrating solar heat
and then condensing the steam as fresh
water. In India, in Avnea village of
Gujarat, such a plant has been
established with the capacity of 5000
litres per day.
(ii) Electrodialysis: In this method, ironreflective membrane is used for the
desalination of brackish water.
(iii) Flash Distillation: Here, the heated
saline water is passed through a series
of chambers. In each section, vapour is
released and collected, and then
condensed.
(iv)Reverse Osmosis: In this process,
suitable osmotic membranes are used
which rejects salt and allow water to
pass through it when the sea water is
put under high pressure.
However, there are some problems regarding
the desalination processes. It is very costly and
needs huge amount of energy. The desalination
plants release significant amount of heat and
pollutants. There would be problem of the
disposal of vast amount of salt.
In India, Central Salt and Marine Chemical
Research Institute (CSMCRI) at Bhavnagar
(Gujarat) has done much in this sector. BHEL is
manufacturing desalination plants of different
sizes.
MINERAL RESOURCES
Oceans are the storehouse of valuable
minerals in the world. Mineral resources,
available in ocean, are of different kinds like
energy resources (oil, gas, and coal), metallic
minerals (manganese, iron, tin, etc.), chemicals
(salt of sodium and chlorine and bromine, etc.),
manganese nodules and polymetallic nodules
and others (coral, limestone etc).
a)
Chemicals: About 64 out of total 92

naturally occurring chemicals are
dissolved in sea-water, although, only a
few of them are commercially viable for
extraction. Sodium and chlorine are
most abundant, about 85% of the total
b)
Metals/Minerals: They include gold,

silver, zinc, uranium, thorium, etc. It is
claimed that metals can be hauled from
the sea at 50-70% of the cost of
launching as the sea ores are often
highly concentrated. However, not all
of them are so available and with the
present status of technology they are
costly to extract. On the basis of areas
of availability, the mineral resources can
be again divided in the following way:
On Continental Shelf and Slopes: This

zone is rich in zircon, monazite, magnetite,
gold, diamond, platinum, phosphorite,
sulphur, etc. Mud and sands found on the
continental shelf are rich in copper, zinc,
lead and calcium. Sand is a source of
calcium carbonate. Phosphorite is found in
the form of nodules containing about 30%
phosphate. On the western coast of India,
especially the Kerala coast, the sand of the
sea coast possess about 90% of worlds
monazite reserve, which is the chief nuclear
energy resource for the future. Along with
magnetite, zircon and rutile are also found
on the west coast of India and is viable for
extraction.
Sub-surface Deposits: The most important
sub-surface deposits are mineral oil and
gases and coal. At present, about 90% of
the mineral value is taken from the sea.
The mineral oil deposits are mostly found
in the continental shelves. There are many
structures, which work as a trap for
petroleum and natural gas, such as, salt
dome. Thick sediment deposit and relatively
high concentration of organic matter suggest
to the occurrence of petroleum. Submerged
coal deposits are found in Japan, U.K and
South Africa.
Deep Sea Deposits: There are two main
types of mineral deposits found on the deep
sea bed which are economically viable. They
are manganese nodules and metalliferous
sediments of polymetallic sulphides.
c) Manganese Nodules: These nodules are
most abundant in the deepest part of the
ocean, very often in trenches. They are
[7]
hydrogenous pelagic deposits and found in

large concentration in red clay. They mainly
contain manganese, iron, nickel, copper,
cobalt, lead and zinc. They are mainly
spherical in shape from one to twenty cm
in diameter. About 25% of the sea floor is
expected to be covered by these deposits. In
Indian Ocean, over 10 million sq. km. area,
east of central Indian ridge has such
potential. They are less expensive source of
these metals. Again, they will be less
polluting than mining on land. They are
also good absorber of sulphur dioxide so
will further reduce pollution. But, the main
obstacle in their exploration is that they
need proper mining technology and huge
energy.
d) Polymetallic Sulphides: Polymetallic
nodules are potato shaped, porous and
black earthy deposits, with size ranging
from 2 to 10 cm in diameter. These nodules
occur at nearly 4 to 5 km depth in the
deep oceans lying on the seabed. They
comprise, besides manganese and iron,
nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, molybdenum,
cadmium, vanadium, titanium.
They are less well known than manganese
nodules because their potential economic
importance has only recently been recognized.
They are rich in sulphur, iron, copper and smaller
amount of zinc, tin, molybdenum, lead and
silver. India has located such nodules in central
Indian Ocean and initiated the exploration of
polymetallic nodules in 1977 with the help of
Research ship-Gaveshani. India has tied up with
USA, UK, Russia, Japan and Germany in this
field. India presently has 75000 sq km area in
the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) for
developmental activities targeted at harnessing
of metals, viz. Copper, Nickel, and Cobalt.
e)
Hydrothermal Sulphides: Recently, a

major multi-disciplinary project aimed at
exploration for potential sites of
hydrothermal multimetal sulphide
mineralization in the Indian Ocean Ridge
areas has been initiated. The major
objectives are as under:
Exploration for potential sites of
hydrothermal multimetal sulphide
mineralization in the Indian Ocean Ridge
areas.
Identification of locales of hydrothermal

sulphide
deposition,
including
determination of the resource potential.
Initiation of associated scientific research

in the frontier areas of hydrothermal
mineralization.
Geotraces in India
A network of research projects being
executed by a number of research and academic
institutions. The objective is to map the
distribution of trace elements and isotopes in the
Indian Ocean and to identify the factors
influencing these distributions. The activities are
various stages of implementation and currently
involved in acquisition and analysis of samples.
One Oceangraphic cruise onboard Sagar
Sampada was conducted in the Arabian Sea.
Samples from several water profiles were
collected along 680 E transect for analysis of trace
elements and their isotopes in sediments and
corals of the northern Indian Ocean.
Trace elements and isotopes (TEIs) play
important role in the ocean as nutrients and as
tracers of the contemporary and the past
processes. Trace elements regulate ocean
processes, such as marine ecosystem dynamics
and carbon cycling. Several other trace elements
also play vital roles in cell physiology and in
biochemical reactions.
ENERGY RESOURCES
Almost all concepts and laws of science are
the subjects related to development to improve
the quality of life of our people. Science has made
it possible for man to alter his living and working
conditions and by doing so it is the society, which
derives its benefit. Science provides new tools to
society to enlarge and intensify its scope for the
exploitation of resources and to use them to
improve the socio-economic conditions of the
people.
Evidently there are several scientific
discoveries, which give us clues for their use in
serving the needs of society. Since ancient times,
oceans have served mankind in countless ways.
The seas around India constitute a natural
frontier of our country. Since times immemorial
the inhabitants of India have used the seas for
transport and communication for trade and
[8]
food. Recent developments in the field of

oceanography have convinced that some of the
biggest treasures of the world lie hidden in the
sea. Oceans are, therefore, known as our last
frontier.
Energy from Oceans: There are at least eight
sources of energy to be obtained from the sea.
The various methods of extracting energy are
from:
1.
Ocean waves
2.
Ocean tides
3.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

(OTEC)
4.
Ocean currents
5.
Ocean winds
6.
Salinity gradient
7.
Ocean geothermal
8.
Bioconversion of seaweeds
Ocean Waves: Ocean water is kept under

constant motion by the waves, which are seen
at the surface. This continual motion can be
harnessed to produce energy. The vertical rise
and fall of successive waves is used to activate
either a water operated or air-operated turbine.
In many designs the air-operated turbine is being
preferred. An Oscillating Water Column (OWC)
is built or fabricated in steel with an inlet at the
bottom for the entry and exit of the waves. With
the incoming wave the water-column rises
pushing the air at the top which is forced
upwards to rotate a turbine and with the
outgoing waves the water column goes down
allowing the air to be sucked in rotating the
turbine in the same direction to generate power.
The stronger wave action, and the wave height,
the greater would be the power generated.
Our country, using the above method (OWC)
has designed a wave energy plant, which is being
built in Kerala. The ocean engineering centre of
the IIT, Chennai after several years of
painstaking efforts has been able to develop an
indigenous design. After the wave energy plant
is commissioned it would be the first of its kind
in the world.
Ocean Tides: It is the most popular and
feasible method of producing power. The regular
flow and ebb tides (high and low water) are
produced by astronomical gravitational forces
of the sun and the moon. If the differences
between the high and the low tide is large and if

either a natural or an artificial water storage
facility (reservoir) is available, power can be
produced. The incoming tide is allowed to flow
into the reservoir through a dam provided with
turbines to generate power. Similarly, the
outgoing tide is again made to flow through the
same dam to turn the turbine for generating
power. Such tidal power stations are built in
areas where the tidal range is large. In France, a
tidal power plant has been operating in the La
Rance estuary for a long time. The plant was
commissioned in 1980 and produces 230 mw of
power. Another tidal power plant is in operation
at Kislaya Guba in the Barents Sea. Tidal power
plants are being designed in the Bay of Fundy,
Canada, Severn estuary in U.K. and in the Bay
of Cambay and Kutch in India where tides have
been found to be of the right range.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
Plant: In tropical waters we find warm water at
the surface and cold water in deeper layers. The
difference between the two within 100 m depth
could be about 20C or more. If such a situation
exists it is possible to conceive Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion (OTEC) plant. The sun heats
the ocean and its energy gets stored in the
topmost layers leaving the water of deeper layers
cold. The principle of an OTEC plant is simple.
A working fluid like ammonia or propane
with a low boiling point is pumped into a closed
tube exposed to warm water. The heat of the
warm water vaporizes the working fluid; this
vapour is then taken to the cold water zone
where it condenses to give back the fluid in liquid
form. If this vapour is allowed to pass through a
turbine it can turn to generate power. The
vapour is allowed to pass through a condenser
in the cold water zone to get the liquid
condensed. Thus we need heat exchangers
(evaporator and condenser) with a turbine and
electrical generator in the middle. The working
fluid is pumped up and made to circulate.
The entire system can be built on the shore
with two tubes, one small to pump warm water
from the surface and the other long to pump cold
water from deeper parts to get the cycle
established.
Ocean Currents: Sweeping all along the
coastline are the ocean currents. There are a
number of designs available to convert the
[9]
energy of the fast moving current into electrical

power by allowing the water to pass through a
series of turbines installed under water. The main
problem of harnessing the energy from the
currents is their low energy density with
considerable risk in maintaining these structures
in position.
Ocean Winds: Coastal areas normally have
stronger winds and therefore, much more energy
is available from wind. Also in contrast to gusty
nature of wind found on land the variation in
wind speed is far smoother along the coast.
Suitable designs are available for windmills with
Battery bank systems for storing power. In
several countries, such systems have been
installed along the coast and on offshore
structures operating away from the coast.
Meteorological data show that the average speed
of wind in the world in the lower atmosphere is
about 10 m/s. The density of air being 1.1 kgm3
the available wind power is of the order of
approximately 500 W/m3 of the collected flow.
Steadiest winds are found in the trade wind zone.
Icing and hurricanes are some of the problems
associated with the trade wind zone to be solved
before power generation on a large scale, could
begin.
Salinity Gradient: The principle for tapping
energy, from salinity differences is simple. If
there are two water bodies with different
salinities available these are kept under
controlled conditions and if a semi-permeable
membrane is placed between them the water
with a lower salinity begins to flow through the
barrier until both attain equal concentrations.
This is based on the principle of osmosis and the
movement of ions can cause the electrical
current. Salinity power uses the concentration
gradients of salts in the sea to generate power.
In Sweden a pilot study is being conducted to
generate power of 200 MW.
Ocean Geothermal: This source has a very
limited value at present. There are many regions
of the earth where the temperature is higher as
we go deeper into the earths crust. Certain areas
of the ocean contain hot spring with temperature
as high as 50C and from such a temperature
difference it is possible to extract energy. The
geothermal situation is the reverse of the ocean
thermal energy conversion (OTEC). In the former
case, the temperature is low at the surface of the
sea bottom but high as we go deeper into the

earth crust and in latter case it is high at the
surface of the sea and low at deeper layers.
OCEAN DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

India has more than 7500 km long coastline
including the islands and about 2 million sq.km
of Exclusive Economic Zone. Since it has been
visualized that ocean has the vast potential of
endless economic resources, various steps have
been taken to develop and exploit its resources.
First of all, multidimensional ocean research ship
Gaveshani was employed in this field in 1975.
After that in 1979 Ocean Science and Technology
Authority was set up in order to probe Indias
potential in the field of ocean research and
development. However, the landmark step was
taken in 1981 when the Department of Ocean
Development was set up. Two research vessels,
Sagar Kanya from Germany and Sagar Sampada
from Denmark, were engaged in the field of
ocean research and development in the year
1983 and 1984, respectively. A fleet of six
scientific research vessels are under operation in
2012-13 for undertaking oceanographic research
activities. These are: ORV Sagar Kanya, FORV
Sagar Sampada, TDV Sagar Nidhi, BTV Sagar
Manjusha, CRV Sagar Paschimi and CRV Sagar
Purvi.
The main objectives of Ocean Development
in India are:
(i) Exploration and assessment of marine
living and non-living resources. Sagar
Kanya and Sagar Sampada have done
a lot in this area.
(ii) Deep sea-bed exploration, especially of
polymetallic nodules. The commercial
exploitation of 6 elements-sodium,
calcium, chlorine, bromine, magnesium
and sulphur is possible from the seabed. The prominent institutions engaged
in the exploration of deep sea-bed are
National Institute of Oceanography,
Goa; Central Mechanical Engineering
Institute,
Durgapur;
National
Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur;
RRL, Bhuvaneshwar; and HZL,
Udaipur.
(iii) Antarctica Expedition is another aspect
of ocean development which was
[10]
started in 1981. Antarctic Study Centre,

Goa is the nodal agency to regulate the
different expedition. Indian scientists
have already established three
permanent stations-Maitri, Dakshin
Gangotri and Bharati in Antarctica.
(iv) Development of coastal zone and
islands. It is an integrated approach
which covers the overall development
of the coastal area. Five centres of
marine satellite information services
have been set up to gather the
information. For pollution control
Coastal Ocean Monitoring and
Prediction System has been established.
Some other steps taken for the
development of the coast are the Wave
Energy Development Programme, Sea
Level Monitoring and Modeling,
International Geosphere-Biosphere
Programme.
(v) Oceanic-Meteorological survey is the
prime goal of ocean development, which
is of significant use in weather
forecasting.
(vi) Useful role in marine science and
technology in the international arena is
also an important objective as declared
in the Ocean Policy Statement-1982.
The Ocean Policy Statement is primarily
aimed at utilisation of marine living and
nonliving resources for societal benefits
in a sustainable manner.
In India, the Department of Ocean
Development carries out a periodic monitoring
of the marine habitat. Started in 1991, the coastal
ocean monitoring and prediction system
(COMAPS) collects information on 25
parameters from 77 locations in the country, with
the assistance of 11 Research and Development
Organizations.
The UNESCO had declared 1998 as the
International Year of the Ocean and chalked out
a host of ambitious plans and programmes. The
International Oceanographic Commission (IOC),
an independent body in the UNESCO family,
was the nodal agency for the co-ordination of
world-wide activities planned for the
International Year of the Ocean. The main aims
of the International Year were to raise awareness
of the oceans and coastal areas as economical

assets, to obtain commitments from governments
to take actions, etc. As part of the International
Year of the Ocean, DOD proposed to display its
research ship Sagar Kanya for a study of the
characteristics of the aerosol over the oceanic
regions and their optical effects. The Indian
satellite Oceansat and INSAT-3D are totally
dedicated to ocean related services.
Considering the need for capacity building
and specialised skilled human resources as
emphasised in the Ocean Policy Statement,
Department of Ocean Development has
established national institutes, viz. National
Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) at
Chennai, National Centre for Antarctic and
Ocean Research (NCAOR) at Goa, Indian
National Centre for Ocean and Information
Services (INCOIS) at Hyderabad, Project
Directorate, Integrated Coastal and Marine Area
Management (PD-ICMAM) at Chennai and
Centre for Marine Living Resources and Ecology
(CMLRE) at Kochi.
ANTARCTIC RESEARCH
In March 2012, India successfully
commenced operations at Bharati, the third
permanent station in the Antarctica. The
summer complement of the 31st Indian Scientific
Expedition to Antarctica returned from
Antarctica after completion of targeted activities.
During the 6th expedition to the Southern
Ocean 2011-12, continuous observations were
carried out for ocean currents, atmospheric
parameters and biogeochemistry by operating
various instruments.
India entered in the field of Antarctic
research with its first expedition Operation
Gangotri in December 1981. The third
expedition constructed the permanent scientific
research station Dakshin Gangotri in 1983-84.
The second research station Maitri was set up
in 1988-89. The various scientific programmes
of Antarctic Research included studies in the
field of meteorology, radio-wave-propagation,
geology, Geophysics, Oceanography, Marine
biology, Microbiology, upper atmosphere
chemistry, Glaciology, etc. India was admitted
as a consultative member of Antarctic treaty in
1959. In September 1983, India became a
member of the scientific committee on Antarctic
[11]
Research. India acceded to the convention on

the conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Resources from July 17, 1985 and became full
time member of the Commission from September
1986.
Antarctica is the seventh continent of the
world. It covers about 14 million sq. km area with
about 5, 12,000 sq. km ice-free area. Up to
seventh decade of 20th century, this was
considered as an abandoned area for mankind,
but after the discovery of ozone hole in
Antarctica, this abandoned region was
visualized with great importance and at the same
time other useful areas were discovered.
Antarctica is rich in biological resources. Seals,
more than 40 species of birds, fungi, algae,
grasses, penguins, etc., are found here. Krill of
Antarctica is one of the most famous and
abundant resource of the world with the
estimated stock of 1000 million metric tonnes of
which at least 40-50 million metric tonnes could
be harvested annually without endangering the
stock. Antarctica ice cap contains 70% of worlds
fresh water store and more than 90% of ice. The
ice-free region of Antarctica has been visualized
as having large scale mineral deposits. And this
region is probably the worlds biggest coal-field.
The Indian Antarctic Research Programme
has been designed to take advantage of the
unique site and environment of Antarctica
towards understanding the key global processes
that govern our future well being. The scientific
programmes are essentially part of it and rooted
in the following long-term programmes:
(i) Ice-Ocean-atmosphere system in
Antarctica and global environment.
(ii) Antarctic lithosphere and Gondwanaland reconstruction framework for
delineating plate tectonic processes and
assessment of mineral resources and
hydrocarbons.
(iii) Antarctic ecosystem and environmental
physiology.
(iv) Solar terrestrial processes.
(v) Innovative technologies for support
systems.
(vi) Environmental impact assessment.
(vii) Generation and structuring of data
bases-geological, topographic, thematic
mapping and ecosystem changes,

environmental parameter, health care,
etc.
The purpose of the Indian Antarctic research
is to identify and initiate studies and
programmes, which are of significance in
scientific and economic terms and to establish
infrastructure facility and expertise which
would enable India to sustain and expand its
activities. Furthermore, it would add to our
knowledge of the various features related to the
Indian Ocean and also to the weather related to
monsoon. Antarctica is also crucial to global
weather phenomena, such as, air circulation
pattern, the cold phases and the sea currents.
India hosted and chaired the meeting Asian
Forum for Polar Sciences in New Delhi on 6-7
August 2012. China, Japan, Korea, Malaysia
and host India participated in the meeting and
exchanged information on the activities carried
out in the Antarctic, Arctic and Southern Ocean.
India won the bid for hosting the Scientific
Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) XII
International Symposium on Antarctic Earth
Sciences, in 2015 at Goa.
31st INDIAN SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION

The 31st Indian Scientific Expedition to
Antarctica was launched in October 2011 and
culminated in March 2012 with the
commissioning of Indias Third Antarctic Station
Bharati on 18th March 2012.
Some of the major projects implemented by
the Indian Scientists at Maitri and Bharati during
the summer and winter months of 2011-12
comprise: ionospheric studies by the National
Physical laboratory, Temporal and Spatial
Variations of meteorological parameters, by
Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment
(SASE), Meteorological parameter observations
by ESSO IMD, Geophysical Studies by the
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism and National
Geophysical Research Institute, Hydrographic
Surveys by the National Hydrographic Office,
Glaciological Studies by the Geological Survey
of India and Geochemical and petrological
studies of lamprophyres of Central Dronning
Maud Land (CDML), by Nagpur University.
[12]
32nd INDIAN SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION

The 32nd Indian Scientific Expedition to
Antarctica (2012-13), was launched in
November 2012 from Cape Town. The major
activity includes construction of seawater intake
facility and an earth station to receive remote
sensing data at Bharati. In view of the mammoth
tasks ahead, a logistic team of 40 members
comprising doctors, engineers, mechanics and
technicians has been working at Bharati
presently.
ARCTIC MISSION OF INDIA

Taking advantage of the unique International
Svalbard Treaty signed in 1920, to which it was
a signatory, India will be able to set up a
permanent research station at Ny Alesund, on
the Svalbard archipelago which comes under
Norwegian sovereignty, boosting its knowledge
of climate change, other critical natural
phenomena and the disturbance of humans
cause to natures processes. India has already
sent 26 missions to the Antarctic and has two
permanent bases there, the research base at 79
degree north will be set up under a five-year
contract with the Norwegian government and
Kings Bay, the Norwegian government-held
company that runs the logistics at the research
station.
The Svalbard Treaty allows every signatory
country that includes Afghanistan, to set up any
business and activity on the archipelago - which
was earlier better known for its coal mining
industry - as long as it falls within Norwegian
regulations. Formal negotiations between the
two countries are close to completion for India
to take position close to the North Pole. The move
to set up a permanent station at Ny Alesund
matured with India sending its first Arctic
mission. Three of the five researchers sent as part
of the first of the two teams comprising the
mission have already made themselves at home
at the international research station.
The second Arctic expedition of the country
was launched in two batches viz. First Summer
batch (June-July 2008) and Second Summer
batch (July-August 2008). During the second
Arctic expedition, India established a research
station at Arctic named 'Himadri' at Ny-Alesund
in Svalbard region of Norway. The 3rd Indian
Arctic Expedition has been launched in three

phases (June-July 2009, August 2009 and MarchApril 2010).
The summer phase I of the Indian Arctic
Programme was completed between June July
2012. The studies on (i) Long term monitoring
of the Kongsfjorden system of the Arctic region
for climate change studies and (ii) Quantifying
variability in freshwater influx to the
Kongsfjorden system using oxygen isotopes of
seawater and the implications to the ice melting
have been undertaken.
GEO-STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF
INDIAN OCEAN
Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean of the
world. It covers 20.7 per cent ocean area which
is 7.5 crore sq. km. It is the only ocean named
after a country, indicating Indias association
with this vast water-body since the dawn of
human civilization. India lies at the apex of the
triangular water-body and has rightly been
called the crown of the ocean. India covers
about 1/8th coastline of the ocean. The ocean is
bordered by 46 littoral and island sovereign
States. India is not only the largest in area just
after Australia, but alone has more than 50 per
cent population of the region. Circled on the
north by India and Arab countries, in the west
by Africa, east by Malaysia, Indonesia, etc. and
south by Antarctica, it is an embayed ocean or
landlocked sea.
It was not until 1500 AD that the real
importance of this centrally-located ocean was
recognized. The Portuguese were the first to
understand the military importance of this ocean
and within 17 years of the arrival of Vasco-deGama, they were in the commanding position.
They took command of Malabar region for reexport of East Indian spices, and Goa became
their capital. Besides Goa, Daman and Diu,
Portuguese base were made at Madras, Hooghly,
Chittagong and Ceylon. But, the fall of the Strait
of Malacca to the Dutch in 1595 led to the
collapse of the Portuguese defence system. By
that time, British and French presence was also
felt.
The Britishers dominated Indian Ocean
during their rule over India. But after World
War-II, British Government started gradually
[13]
reducing its presence in the ocean zone due to

declining interest. British Government decided
to withdraw all the bases by 1971. The most
important decision was the selling of Diego
Garcia to U.K. by Mauritius and then to U.S.A.
on a contract by U.K. for communication
purpose. But, Diego-Garcia has now been
converted into a military base in the Indian
Ocean.
MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL
DEGRADATION
I. Induced changes of Sea Level
There is a likelihood of an accelerated rate of
sea level rise in the present century as a result of
culturally induced global climatic change,
specially the global warming. Many scientists
expect a rise of up to 60 cm by the year 2050, up
to 1m. by 2100 and up to several metres by 2200.
Environmental change on such a scale would
be without precedent and the impacts would be
serious.
The projected sea level change in the near
future caused by global warming will have an
effect on shrinkage of the land area and the
wiping out of some islands because of drowning.
There are many possible impacts of such rise.
These include:
1.
Damage to many important coastal

ecosystems, including deltas, coral atolls
and reefs;
2.
Flooding of many densely populated

areas;
3.
Damage to port facilities and coastal

structures;
4.
Severe coastal erosion in many countries,

including loss of beaches and dunes;
5.
Salinization of many important ground

water resources through salt water
intrusion;
6.
Decline of loss of production in up to onethird of the worlds croplands.
Scientists accept that some global increase in

sea level is now inevitable, but they stress that
rate and extent of change depends on what
action is taken by society today. Important
decisions will have to be protected with dykes
and embankments, like the Thames Barrier.

Already rising sea level is causing serious
ecological problems in some parts of the Pacific
Ocean. The Cartel Islands, one of the most
densely populated coral atolls in the Pacific, lie
to the north-east of Papua New Guinea and they
are experiencing problems that prevent the
inhabitants from supporting themselves from
their own resources.
II. Marine Pollution
Pollution of environment especially marine
pollution is a worldwide phenomenon. Oil spills
and conspicuous acts of dumping hazardous
wastes e.g. radioactive material at sea have
attracted greater attention in recent years to the
dangers of oceanic pollution. Some of the major
marine pollutants are mercury, lead, pesticides,
petroleum, radioactive elements, etc.
Most of the marine pollutants originate on
the continent and reach the oceans via the
atmosphere and rivers. Oceanic pollution cannot
be controlled unless the releases of the materials
that pollute the oceans are controlled. Shipping
accounts for only 10 per cent while pollution
from land-based sources account for 70-75 per
cent of all marine pollution. As per the
observations of United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), some 70 per cent of the
waste discharged into the Pacific Ocean receives
no treatment. About half of the countries in West
Asia have an oil-based economy which has given
some countries the resources to develop an
extremely intensive agriculture which has led to
the pollution of the food chain and of rivers and
marine seas.
A serious form of marine pollution is the
introduction of non-indigenous species through
ballast water. This is sea water that is taken on
board, for example at the outset of voyage, in
order to stabilize a ship and its cargo. Once at
destination, this water-and all the bacteria,
viruses and organisms it contains-is released.
This is a big problem for Australia. Apparently,
organisms used to cold water cannot survive in
the tropics and vice versa. Similarly every year
million tonnes of fish are thrown back, dead,
because they are inedible, unwanted or too small
to be marketed.
However, the problem of regular oil spill has
been a subject of debate worldwide in
[14]
the recent past. The importance of

controlling oil pollution at sea lies not
only in its short-term effects but also
the long-terms effects on marine life and
environment. There are many shortterm effects of the oil-spill. Shore
properties and beaches can be
extensively contaminated. Slow moving
crustaceans and inter-tidal marine life
can be physically damaged by heavy
spills of oil. The oil-film forms a barrier
to the transfer of oxygen into the water
to support marine life. The long-term
effects of oil pollution are two-fold. Once
incorporated into a particular marine
organism, hydrocarbons are stable and
pass through many members of the
marine food chain without alteration
eventually reaching organisms that are
harvested for human consumption.
Another effect results from the low level
interference of oil pollution with marine
ecology. Oil pollution interferes with
natural processes by plugging taste
receptors and distorting natural stimuli
which may threaten some marine
species.
III. Corals in Danger

Global climate change, or the enhanced
greenhouse effect, may cause increase in sea
temperature and sea level, as well as changes in
ocean current patterns, that could damage coral
reefs. For example, corals are very sensitive to
changes in temperature. Sea-water that becomes
too warm causes corals to turn white, or bleach,
a reaction that occurs if coral polyps are stressed.
Often they recover, but they are also known to
die. If the oceans warm up as a result of global
climate change, corals may have increasing
difficulty recovering from bleaching episodes.
Coral reefs are being over-exploited on a global
basis. It is increasingly difficult to make a living
from fishing, as first the big, commercially
valuable species such as groupers disappear, and
then the smaller ones. Often damaging
harvesting methods such as poisons and
dynamite are used. Overfishing tends to be
followed by a change in the ecological balance
of the reef. For example, it becomes overgrown
with algae if grazing species are removed. Corals
and shells are collected all over the world to sell
as souvenirs or to make into jewellery and other
handicrafts.
[15]
INDIA IN SPACE
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
manned spacecraft, Vostok - I, was injected in

space and a Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin
became the first person to travel in space. On
June 16, 1963 Valentina Tereshkova, a Russian
cosmonaut was registered as the first woman in
the world to travel in the space and to stay in
orbit for up to five days through the Vostok-VI
spacecraft.
C
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Mans evolution and progress are closely

linked with how efficiently he stores and
disseminates information. The Vedas were
handed down by word of mouth. The invention
of writing extended communication beyond the
reach of the spoken word. Thereafter, the
invention of the printing press by Johann
Gutenburg in 1455 brought about a major
change in the life style of the human race. The
discovery of radio waves in 1888 by Hertz
resulted in radio broadcasting, which cut across
the limits of time and space. The next
breakthrough in information dissemination
came in 1945 with the prediction by Arthur C
Clarke, a British scientist and science fiction
writer about the feasibility of global
communications (including TV) by using man
made artificial satellites.
BRIEF HISTORY
Space research has always been a challenge

for both man and science. The initial emphasis
was on exploration of the unknown celestial
bodies and development of space probes and
related systems. But, gradually space
applications became very important in a wide
range of areas. The region beyond the Earths
tangible atmosphere-160 km from the surfacefirst became accessible to man when Sputnik-I
was put into orbit by the erstwhile USSR in
October 1957. In Sputnik- II, launched by
Russia, a dog Laika was sent in the space. The
physiological examination of Laika revealed that
human beings might also survive prolonged
period in space. In January 1958, the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
of USA launched Explorer-I satellite in space.
The major contribution of Explorer-I mission was
the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts
around the Earth where electrons and protons
from the sun are trapped by the Earths magnetic
field. Far side of the Moons glimpse in the history
of mankind was observed from the Russian
satellite Luna- III in October 1959. April 2, 1961
was a landmark in history when the first ever
[16]
In 1960s, the space science widened its

nature and scope. Now the space scientists
concentrated their studies around the
exploration of other celestial bodies like the
Moon, Venus and Mars. The US Mariner-II in
1962 flew past the planet Venus and calculated
its temperature and its reverse direction of
rotation. In 1965 Mariner-IV sent back clear
photographs indicating craters on Mars.
American astronauts made more modest flights
in their smaller Mercury spacecraft. In 1965,
USA launched the Gemini-series programme for
the preparation of Apollo mission to the Moon.
On December 21, 1968 a landmark in history
was created when the first manned voyage to
the Moon took place by an American spacecraft
Apollo-8, which orbited the Moon 10 times and
returned safely to the Earth. July 21, 1969 was a
memorable day in space history when four
legged Lunar Module of Apollo-11 landed on
the surface of the Moon along with US astronauts
Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin.
In 1970s, space scientists developed the
capability to establish permanent space
exploration centre and established the Skylab &
Salyut space stations.
In 1977, the first shuttle Enterprises, which

was a modified form of 747 jumbo jet along with
a rocket launcher, was injected into space by
NASA. The shuttle carried the orbiter into the
air and back on several flights and released it in
mid-air. The shuttles first orbital mission began
on April 12, 1981 when Columbia was
launched. In June 18, 1983 the shuttle
Challenger was sent into space which took Sally
started in 1964-65 with the formation of

INTELSAT, a global consortium of over 125
countries each becoming a shareholder in the
space segment, consisting of satellites in the geosynchronous orbit over the Indian, Atlantic and
Pacific oceans to cover the entire globe. The
ground segment consisting of ground stations
to operate with the INTELSAT satellites was the
responsibility of each member country. In India
and the Commonwealth nations, this agency is
a government department or a corporation. India
became a founder member of INTELSAT in 1965
and got ready to set up its own ground station
at Arvi near Pune.
C
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Ride, the first US-women to space. In April, 1984

the major achievement in space technology was
created when the satellite Solar Max was
successfully repaired and the astronauts walked
in space for as long as 6 hours and 44 minutes.
In March 1989, the space shuttle Atlantis
launched a spacecraft on the voyage to Venus.
In October 1990, the US shuttle Discovery again
launched the scientific spacecraft Ulysses into
space in order to probe the polar region of the
Sun.
In February 1986, a major landmark in space
history was achieved when the third generation
space laboratory Mir was launched into space.
The Soviet Union joined the era of space shuttles
in November 1988, when its first reusable shuttle
Buran was launched on the worlds most
powerful booster rocket Energia.
The Ulysses space mission, undertaken

jointly by the European Space Agency and
NASA was launched in October 1990 to explore
regions of space above the poles of the Sun.
Observations made by the spacecraft have led
to several major discoveries concerning the
physical properties of the region and, thus, have
contributed to a better understanding of the solar
atmosphere. Of particular importance are the
discoveries on the structure of the space medium
in the helioshpere and its properties; nature and
region of solar wind and the access of cosmic
rays into the solar system. Sudden changes in
the solar winds cause large disturbances in
Earths magnetic field. Ulysses was also expected
to resolve doubts over origin of solar activity
cycle. The cycle initiates changes in solar winds,
solar atmosphere, etc.
Another monumental contribution by

Arthur Clark which has had far reaching
implication was the idea of a Geo-synchronous
Earth Orbit (GEO) a belt approximately 36800
km over the equator. A satellite placed exactly
in the Clark orbit appears stationary to any
observer on the earth.
Theoretically three satellites placed 120

degrees apart are sufficient to provide global
coverage for all types of information, including
T.V. Such a system which requires minimum
infrastructure on the ground became a reality in
1963 with the launching of SYNOCOM III
(synchronous communication satellite).
Commercial exploitation of satellite broadcasting
Theoretically 32 satellites can be

accommodated with a 50 degree separation in
the GEO. However all these 32 slots or parking
lots are not suitable since they lie over oceans or
uninhabited landmasses. Satellite communications are very much more energy efficient than
short wave radio and when first introduced it
was expected to be a panacea for all the ills
affecting long distance communications.
Satellite based communication is now being
used for long range mobile stations like ships,
boats, aircrafts, railways and road transports
where the cellular radios cannot meet the
demand. In fact, in many instances, satellite
technology is the only means to provide a chance
to get reliable and effective communication
between fixed site and remote mobile vehicles.
The
International
Maritime
Satellite
Organisation (IMNARSAT) has been providing
real time communication services, including TV
broadcasting and emergency and rescue services
to ships at sea since 1982. Management of mobile
fleets whether at sea or in the air or on the
ground, by real time positioning from one central
location, is a very exciting prospect in the not
too distant future. GEOSTAR of USA is one such
system.
Satellite communication involves three main
systems the satellite, the rocket and the launch
facility to place it in orbit, and the ground
segment to transmit and receive data. Only a few
countries own all the three because their
development involves enormous resources and
the manpower of thousands of scientists and
engineers.
Satellites offer a solution to the overcrowding
of the entirely earth based channels of
[17]
communication. A satellite at a distance of

hundreds or thousands of miles above the earth
has a considerable area of the earths surface in
its line of sight and therefore, they can relay
signals from one earth based station to another.
requirements for attaining self-sufficiency in the

field of space technology may be summed up
as:
(i) To develop expertise in planning,
designing and fabricating the satellites
or spacecrafts for various purposes;
There are two methods by which this relaying

may be effected. Some satellites merely reflect
the signals and are therefore known as passive
satellites. Others receive and retransmit them and
are known as active satellites. Also
communication satellites may be classified
according to their orbits as sun-synchronous and
geo-synchronous.
(ii) To develop suitable launch vehicles (i.e.,

rockets) which could place satellites in
Earths orbit;
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(iii) To establish Earth Stations for

launching, tracking, controlling and
guiding the satellites; and
The area of the earth within the line of sight

of satellites that orbit close to earth obviously is
not as wide as that of satellites at greater heights.
So satellites are placed at a lower height. Spacing
of satellites, signals would still need to be
transformed frequently between satellites.
(iv) To develop ground facilities for using

space
technology
for
mass
communication.
The Indian space programme has three thrust

areas:
(a) Development of communication through

satellite;
(b) Development of remote sensing for
resource survey and management,
environmental
monitoring
and
meteorological services; and
(c) Development of indigenous satellites, as
also their launching.
SPACE PROGRAMMES IN INDIA
The foundation of space research in India

was laid in 1961 when the Government of India
entrusted the task of developing a programme
on space research to its Department of Atomic
Energy. The Department of Atomic Energy set
up a National Committee which identified two
major objectives for Indias space research
programme. These objectives were:
(i) To utilise space technology for the rapid
development of Mass communication
and education, especially in the far-flung
rural areas, and
(ii) To utilise space technology for the

timely survey and management of the
countrys natural resources.
After laying the foundation of space

research in India, it was realised that the vast
potential of space technology can be used for
the socio-economic development of the country
only by developing indigenous techniques for
placing a satellite in the Earths orbit. In order
to boost the technological efforts to make India
self-reliant in the field of space technology, a
Space Commission was set up in 1972 and a
separate Department of Space (DoS) was
established thereafter. The DoS executes its
space programmes through the Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO). The basic
[18]
SPACE VISION INDIA 2025
A Space Vision 2025 was unveiled at the

Indian Science Congress-2003, in Bangalore. The
emphasis was on achieving self-reliance in
launching capabilities and end dependence on
foreign agencies for the same. Self-sufficiency
has been achieved in the fabrication of satellites.
Mission to moon also forms part of the Vision.
Satellite based communication and

navigation systems for rural connectivity,
security needs and mobile services.
Enhanced imaging capability for natural

resource management, weather and
climate change studies.
Space science missions for better

understanding of solar system and
universe Planetary exploration.
Development of Heavy lift launcher.
Reusable Launch Vehicles - Technology

demonstrator missions leading to Two
Stage To Orbit (TSTO).
Human Space Flight.
INFRASTRUCTURE
The Space Commissions tasks include
framing of policy, approval of space
programme budget and implementation of
national policy in all matters concerning outer
space.
In the field of launch vehicle technology,

India has evolved a four-stage development
programme, i.e., SLV, ASLV, PSLV and GSLV.
Launch Vehicles are used to transport and
put satellites or spacecrafts into space. In India,
the launch vehicles development programme
began in the early 1970s. The first experimental
Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-3) was developed
in 1980. An Augmented version of this, ASLV,
was launched successfully in 1992. India has
made tremendous strides in launch vehicle
technology to achieve self-reliance in satellite
launch vehicle programme with the
operationalisation of Polar Satellite Launch
Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite
Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
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Many organisations and research centres

have been established to carry out research and
developmental activities related to the various
segments of the space research programmes.
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
is one such organisation. The various tasks
which have been assigned to ISRO are:
scientific observations. Initially, foreign rockets

were used and later on the Rohini Sounding
Rockets (RSR) were developed indigenously.
Currently being used is RH-200 which can lift a
payload of upto 50 kg for altitudes of 140-150
km, and RH-560 with payloads of 100 kg for
altitudes upto 350 km.
(i) to develop the know-how to fabricate

the rockets, its propellants, its control
and guidance systems; and
(ii) to design and fabricate the satellites.
Thus, ISRO is responsible for planning,

programming and management of research and
development activities in the country in space
science, technology and applications. The ISRO
council and ISRO headquarters provide overall
direction to the scientific, technological and
management tasks of the ISRO centres and units.
Research in space sciences is also supported in
several institutions by the multi-agency Indian
Middle Atmosphere Programme (IMAP) and the
Advisory Committee for Space Sciences
(ADCOS).
ISRO also disseminates know-how to

industries to market the spin offs of the national
space efforts. It also provides consultancy
services to the industrial and technology sectors
of the country, utilises the manpower and
infrastructure available with these sectors for its
space programmes. The know-how transferred
to industry includes chemicals, polymers, special
materials, instruments, telecommunications, TV
equipment, electronic sub-systems, electro-optic
hardware, computer software and special
purpose machines.
LAUNCH VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY
The rocket programme in India began with

the establishment of the Thumba Equatorial
Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in 1963 for
launching sounding rockets equipped with
instruments to conduct meteorological or
PSLV represents ISRO's first attempt to

design and develop an operational vehicle that
can be used to orbit application satellites. With
PSLV, a new world-class vehicle has arrived.
PSLV has repeatedly proved its reliability and
versatility by launching 63 satellites / spacecrafts
(28 Indian and 35 Foreign Satellites) into a
variety of orbits so far.
ISRO also makes the Rohini series of
sounding rockets used by the Indian and
international scientific community to launch
payloads to various altitudes for atmospheric
research and other scientific investigations. These
rockets are also used to qualify some of the
critical systems used for advanced launch
vehicles.
Satellite Launch Vehicle-3: Indias first
satellite launch vehicle was the SLV-3. The first
successful launch placed a 35 kg RS-1 satellite
into a low Earth orbit in July 1980. This was the
culmination of about seven years of
developmental effort. The next two launches of
SLV-3 took place in 1981 and 1983. The 22.7
metre long SLV-3 was a four stage solid
propellant vehicle with a launch weight of 17
tonnes.
In the first stage, the development of SLV-3
[19]
was a major achievement in Indias space

capability by placing the 40 kg Rohini satellite
into near Earth orbit of 300 Km. With the three
successful launching of SLV-3, India became the
sixth country in the world to have the capability
to orbit its own satellite.
The first stage of PSLV uses Hydroxyl

Terminated Poly Butadine (H.T.P.B.) as fuel and
Ammonium Perchlorate as oxidiser. The stage
uses worlds third largest booster motor made
of meraging steel. The second stage of PSLV uses
VIKAS engine, powered by liquid fuel
Unsymmetrical Dimethyl Hydrazine (UDMH)
and Nitrogen Tetroxide (N2O3) as oxidiser. The
third stage of PSLV uses HTPB-based solid
propellant. The motor of this stage is made of
Kevlar (i.e., polyaramide fibre). The fourth stage,
which finally injects the polar satellite into the
orbit, has twin-engine configuration. This stage
uses Monomethyl Hydrazine (MMH) as fuel and
the oxides of nitrogen as oxidiser.
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ASLV: In the second stage of the launch

vehicle development programme, ASLV was
developed, which was basically a derived form
of SLV-3. It also used solid propellant in its all
four stages.
motors derived from SLV-3 strapped around it

in the first stage. The second stage based on
liquid engine technology uses liquid propellant,
while the third and fourth stages have solid and
liquid propellants, respectively.
The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle

(ASLV) was designed to place a 150 kg satellite
(SROSS) into a 100-km orbit. This constitutes an
addition of two first stage rocket motors as strapons to the sides of the SLV-3 first stage. The heat
shield, which protects the satellite from the heat
generated as the vehicle speeds through the
dense atmosphere, has been made
to
accommodate the large spacecraft. In addition,
a closed loop guidance system incorporating a
Stabilised Platform Inertial Navigation System
(SPINS) and a micro-processor based navigation
and guidance computer has replaced the open
loop guidance system used in the SLV-3 in order
to achieve a more accurate control of the
trajectory. Some of the other changes include a
change over to S-band frequencies from VHF to
comply with international regulations for radio
transmissions, use of KEVLAR fibre for the fourth
stage body in order to increase the payload
capability, etc. The lift-off weight of ASLV is 39
tonnes and its height being 23.5 metres.
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle: The fourstage, 275 tonnes, 15 storey tall (44 m) PSLV has
heralded a 4 new era in the countrys space
programme as the first rocket to use liquid
propellants in its two stages. Liquid propellants,
developed here itself, are the latest in space
technology.
In the third stage of launch vehicle

development programme, the concept of the use
of liquid propellant was taken in the form of
PSLV programme, which was approved in 1993.
PSLV series of launch vehicles have the capability
to inject the pay-load of 1000 kg polar satellites
in the orbit of 900 km. This was the first launch
vehicle in India, which used liquid propellant
along with solid propellants. PSLV is a four-stage
rocket, with a solid propellant motor and six
[20]
The reliability rate of PSLV has been superb

There had been 23 continuously successful
flights of PSLV, till July 2013. With its variant
configurations, PSLV has proved its multipayload, multi-mission capability in a single
launch and its geosynchronous launch
capability. In the Chandrayaan-mission, another
variant of PSLV with an extended version of
strap-on motors, PSOM-XL, the payload haul
was enhanced to 1750 kg in 620 km SSPO. PSLV
has rightfully earned the status of workhorse
launch vehicle of ISRO.
PSLV-C22 Launched: On July 01, 2013 Polar
Satellite Launch Vehicle, in its twenty fourth
flight (PSLV-C22) launched Indias first
dedicated navigational satellite IRNSS-1A. The
launch took place from the First Launch Pad
(FLP) of Satish Dhawan Space Centre, (SDSC)
SHAR, Sriharikota. PSLV-C22 used XL version
of PSLV. This is the fourth time such a
configuration has flown, earlier three being
PSLV-C11/ Chandrayaan-1, PSLV-C17/ GSAT12 and PSLV-C 19/ RISAT-1 missions.
GSLV: The fourth stage of the Indian Vehicle
Development Programme is the use of geostationary launch vehicles (GSLV). The use of
cryogenic engines is in the last stage of
experiment. Cryogenic engines use liquid
hydrogen as fuel at-2530C and liquid oxygen at830C as oxidiser.
However, it needs to graduate to the 4 tonne class

to play a more lucrative role.
GSLV gives India the Inter Continental
Ballistic Missile (ICBM) status which can direct
an explosive to a distance of 5000 km. The flight
has certified Indias expertise in putting together
powerful solid fuel propelled rocket motors.
Besides, the immaculate guidance system of
GSLV is an added advantage. India can move
ahead confidently in this direction.
GSLV-III
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The finally chosen GSLV design is a threestage vehicle, the core being a 125 tonne solid
booster as in PSLV with four liquid strap-ons of
Vikas engine, each with a propellant loading of
40 tonnes. The second stage of GSLV is the Vikas
liquid propulsion system as in PSLV and the last
upper stage, a 12 tonne restartable cryogenic
engine which uses liquid oxygen and liquid
hydrogen. The most interesting aspect of GSLV
is its modularity, which without strap-ons has
the same capability as PSLV, with two strap-ons
can launch over 1600 kg into a polar orbit and
with all the four strap-ons can launch 2.5 tonnes
into Geo-synchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO).
Excepting for the addition of a new cryo-stage,
the first two stages fully exploit PSLV pedigree.
With just three stages, GSLV should prove to be
a world class launch vehicle in terms of reliability,
cost competitiveness and payload fraction.
GSLV Launch: GSLV was test fired

successfully from SHAR on April 18, 2001. This
49 metre long and 401 tonne heavy launch
vehicle along with the 1540 kg payload GSAT-1
obeyed instructions to inject the satellite into the
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) east of
Indonesia. The GTO has a perigee of 185 km and
an apogee of about 36,000 km. The launch speed
of the rocket was 36,720 km per hour which is 8
times the speed of any fighter plane in India.
It was followed by six more launches , GSLVD2 on May 8, 2003 (GSAT-2 1825 kg), GSLVF01 on September 20, 2004 (EDUSAT 1950 kg),
GSLV-F02 on July 10, 2006, GSLV-F04 on
September 2, 2007 (INSAT-4CR 2130 kg),
GSLV-D3 on April 15, 2010 and GSLV-F06 on
December 25, 2010.
The launch has put India in the selected

league of nations with the capability to place
multipurpose satellites in orbit and send space
mission. The major gains from the launch are as
follows:
India pays $70 million to Ariane space for
launch of INSAT satellites. This amount can be
saved. Besides, India can enter the multi billiondollar market for launching communications
satellite. At present U.S., Russia, France, Japan,
China and European Space Consortium
dominate this market. India can benefit through
its lower launch price of Rs. 125 crore and target
the lighter satellites of developing countries.
The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

Mark III (GSLV-III) is a launch vehicle currently
under development by the ISRO. GSLV Mk III is
conceived and designed to make ISRO fully self
reliant in launching heavier communication
satellites of INSAT-4 class, which weigh 4500 to
5000 kg.
GSLV-Mk III is designed to be a three stage
vehicle, 42.4 m tall with a lift off weight of 630
tonnes. First stage comprises two identical S200
Large Solid Booster (LSB) with 200 tonne solid
propellant, that are strapped on to the second
stage, the L110 re-startable liquid stage. The third
stage is the C25 LOX/LH2 cryo stage.
It would also enhance the capability of the
country to be a competitive player in the
multimillion dollar commercial launch market.
The vehicle envisages multi-mission launch
capability for GTO, LEO, Polar and intermediate
circular orbits. Realisation of GSLV Mk-III will
help ISRO to put heavier satellites into orbit.
Cryogenic Engine
Cryogenics is the science pertaining to very

low temperatures and includes super-low
temperatures of - 150 degree Celsius to - 273
degree Celsius, the latter being called the
absolute zero temperature. These are
temperatures where gases such as Oxygen,
Nitrogen and Helium are liquified. Such liquified
gases, at their super-cool temperatures find
application in areas like super-conductivity, in
cryo-medicine and cryo-surgery (surgery carried
out at very low temperatures) and rocket
propulsions (where they are used as super-cooled
propellants).
The difference between an ordinary liquid
rocket and cryogenic rocket is in the fact that
[21]
the oxidiser and fuel used in the cryogenic engine

is only liquid at below freezing temperatures,
whereas in the ordinary liquid rocket the fuel
and oxidiser are liquid at ambient temperatures.
On March 28, 2013, successful ignition of an

indigenous cryogenic engine at Mahendragiri in
Tamil Nadu, in conditions simulating the high
altitude atmosphere, has boosted the confidence
of the ISRO to go ahead with the launch of a
Geo-synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
(GSLV-D5) in 2013. The hot-test took place in
the newly-built high altitude test facility (HAT)
at ISROs Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre
(LPSC) at Mahendragiri. GSLV-D5, with the
indigenous cryogenic engine, will put into orbit
a communication satellite called GSAT-14.
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Cryogenic engines, thus, are rocket engines

which use super-cooled liquids as propellants.
These engines use liquid Oxygen and liquid
Hydrogen as fuels and the use of such engines
provides greater thrust and higher degree of
control.
technology when it conducted a successful testfiring of an indigenous cryogenic engine.
Experiments have been tried out with

kerosene and liquid oxygen. This was a quasicryogenic engine experiment. It would not be
difficult to convert this into a cryogenic engine.
Liquid Oxygen (LOX) was the earliest,

cheapest, safest and, eventually, the most
preferred oxidiser for large launch vehicles. In
later years, among the semi-cryogenics, LOXKerosene combination was found to be the best
and is currently preferred worldwide for its price,
safety, least toxicity and specific impulse.
All the leading rocket visionaries identified

liquid hydrogen (LH2) as the theoretically ideal
rocket fuel. Its combination with LOX gives the
highest specific impulse with the least toxicitythe LOX-LH2 rocket exhausts essentially steam.
Cryogenic
propellants,
semi-cryogenic
propellants and storable liquid propellants, in the
decreasing order- are of higher specific impulse
than solid propellants. Mostly, LOX-Kerosene
and LOX-LH2 are being adopted in the
construction of new launch vehicles for large
satellites (i.e., 2000kg and above).
In February 1998, ISRO successfully tested
an indigenously designed cryogenic engine for
about a minute at its Mahendragiri centre (Tamil
Nadu). The thrust chamber of the engine, in
which liquid Hydrogen (LH2) and liquid Oxygen
(LOX) burns, is cooled by passing liquid
hydrogen through channels milled into the wall
of the thrust chamber. The technique for making
this channel was developed at the Central
Electrochemical Research Institute at Karaikudi
(Tamil Nadu). The test shows that the ISRO has
mastered the process for firing a cryogenic
engine. Before a cryogenic engine is fired, an
elaborate process has to be followed to fill the
propellant tanks and to condition the fuel lines
as well as the injectors. Further in Feb. 2002,
India moved a step closer to the cryogenic
[22]
INDIAN SATELLITES
Aryabhatta:
It was launched on April 19, 1975 from

Baikonur Cosmodrome in the then USSR. It was
put in a near earth orbit at 594 km. altitude. It
orbited the earth once every 96.41 minutes.
Many commands were successfully sent to the
satellite. The original intention to develop satellite
technology was achieved even though some
scientific experiments could not be carried out.
Bhaskara I:
The First Experimental Remote Sensing

Satellite built in India. Bhaskara I was launched
on June 7, 1979 again by the Soviets which was
named after Bhaskaracharya, a sixth century
astronomer and another twelfth century
mathematician. Its purpose was to use satellites
for development. It took about four years to
develop and carried remote sensors to detect and
assess natural resources from space. It also had
two TV cameras and three microwave
radiometers for remote sensing. SAMIR sent rich
scientific data which were used for
oceanographic studies.
Bhaskara II:
It was launched on November 20,1981 by the

Soviet Union. It was deployed in a near earth
orbit of 525 km and was tracked by ground
stations at Sriharikota and Ahmedabad.
Indigenously developed thermal coatings, solar
cells and panels were its special features.
Rohini:
A progressive space programme could not
scanning Radiometer (VHRR), for three-band

images and a Data Relay Transponder (DRT)
payload. The radiometer scans the earths
surface line by line; each line consists of a series
of individual image elements or pixels. For each
pixel the radiometer measures the radioactive
energy of the different spectral bands. This
measurement is digitally coded and transmitted
to the ground station for pre-processing before
being disseminated to the user community.
IRNSS-1A:
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rely on launches from foreign soil. We had to

develop our own launch facility. For this, the
Satellite Launch Vehicles (SLVs) were developed
and to test their effectiveness, the Rohini satellites
were developed. After a couple of failures in 1979
and 1980, Rohini satellite (RS-I) became the first
Indian satellite to lie launched from Indian soil
by an Indian rocket. It was put in orbit by SLV3 weighing 35 kgs, it had an elliptical orbit 325
km by 950 km with a period of 97 minutes. It
sent good signals to the ground stations in
Trivandrum, Sriharikota, Car Nicobar and Fiji.
SROSS:
Another series of satellites called the

Stretched Rohini Satellite Series (SROSS) was
developed for the use of scientific payloads. This
was meant to be launched by the Augmented
Satellite. SROSS was launched on March 24,
1987. The satellite was launched onboard the
first developmental a flight of ASLV. It did not
reach the orbit.
The launch of SROSS-I and SROSS-II both

for technical purposes on 24th March, 1987 and
13th July 1988 proved unsuccessful. However
SROSS-III was successfully put in orbit on 19th
May 1992 by an ASLV. This satellite, launched
for scientific purposes to detect gamma ray bursts
coming from space and studying the ionosphere,
also gave a boost to the ASLV effort.
Apple:
On 19th June, 1981 Indias first experimental

communication satellite APPLE (Ariane
Passenger Pay Load Experiment) was launched
by Ariane Space Agency. It was used to conduct
experiments on domestic communication, radio
networking, data relay, and remote area
communication, etc.
It is the first satellite in the Indian Regional

Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) launched
on July 1, 2013. It is one of the seven satellites
constituting the IRNSS space segment.
Payloads - IRNSS-1A carries two types of

payloads navigation payload and ranging
payload. The navigation payload of IRNSS-1A
will transmit navigation service signals to the
users. This payload will be operating in L5 band
(1176.45 MHz) and S band (2492.028 MHz). A
highly accurate Rubidium atomic clock is part
of the navigation payload of the satellite. The
ranging payload of IRNSS-1A consists of a Cband transponder which facilitates accurate
determination of the range of the satellite. IRNSS1A also carries Corner Cube Retro Reflectors for
laser ranging.
Applications of IRNSS
Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation
Disaster Management
Vehicle tracking and fleet management
Integration with mobile phones
Precise Timing
Mapping and Geodetic data capture
Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and

travellers
Visual and voice navigation for drivers
Kalpana-1:
Kalpana-1 is the first dedicated

meteorological satellite launched by Indian Space
Research Organization using Polar Satellite
Launch Vehicle. This was the first satellite
launched by the PSLV into the Geostationary
orbit. The satellite was originally known as
MetSat-1 but renamed as Kalpana-1 in memory
of Kalpana Chawla - a NASA astronaut who
perished in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.
The satellite features a Very High Resolution
INSAT Satellite applications
Satellite
Communication
(Satcom)
technology offers the unique capability of
simultaneously reaching out to very large
numbers spread over large distances even in the
most remote corners of the country. The
hallmark of Indian Space Programme has been
the application oriented efforts and the benefits
that have accrued to the country. In the past
[23]
two and a half decades Indian National Satellite

(INSAT) system have revolutionized the
countrys telecommunications, TV broadcasting,
DTH services, business communications, rural
area connectivity, Tele-education, Tele-medicine,
Village Resource Centres, Search and Rescue
operations and Emergency Communications.
EDUSAT is already providing a wide range

of educational delivery modes like one-way TV
broadcast, interactive TV, video conferencing,
computer conferencing, web-based instructions,
etc.
Sixty four networks have been setup so far,
out of which 10 networks use national Ku-band
beam and 36 networks are operational on
regional Ku-band and Extended-C band national
beams. There are more than 3386 interactive
classrooms and 31313 receive only classrooms
totaling close to 34699 classrooms. Networks
have already been setup in 24 states covering
almost entire country including all islands
(Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshdweep), NorthEastern states and Jammu & Kashmir.
Implementation in remaining states is under
progress.
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INSAT system is a joint venture of the

Department of Space, Department of
Telecommunications, India Meteorological
Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan.
Established in 1983, INSAT system is one of the
largest domestic communication satellite systems
in the Asia Pacific Region with eleven satellites
in operation. These satellites carry more than 200
transponders in the C, Extended C and Kubands, besides meteorological instruments.
in three phases, pilot, semi-operational and

operational phases. While pilot phase has
continued, semi-operational and operational
phase have been put into implementation also.
INSAT is used for a variety of societal

applications in the area of Tele-education, Telemedicine and support to the Disaster
Management System (DMS). Village Resource
Centre (VRC), a single window agency
providing the services offered by INSAT and IRS
satellites to provide information on natural
resources, land and water resources
management, Tele-medicine, Tele-education,
adult education, vocational training, health-care
and family welfare programmes, has been
established. Meteorological data from INSAT is
used for weather forecasting and specially
designed disaster warning receivers have been
installed in vulnerable coastal areas for direct
transmission of warnings against impending
disaster like cyclones.
a)
EDUSAT Programme
EDUSAT, launched by Geosynchronous

Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV-F01) in
September 2004, is India's first thematic satellite
dedicated exclusively for educational services.
The satellite is specially configured to relay
through audio-visual medium, employing multimedia multi-centric system, to create interactive
classrooms. EDUSAT has multiple regional
beams covering different parts of India - five Kuband transponders with spot beams covering
northern, north-eastern, eastern, southern and
western regions of the country, a Ku-band
transponder with its footprint covering the
Indian mainland region and six C-band
transponders with their footprints covering the
entire country. EDUSAT is being implemented
[24]
Special Networks
One of the innovative networks on EDUSAT

is the network for "Blind schools". Blind People's
Association, Ahmedabad is a leading
organisation promoting education, training,
employment and rehabilitation for blind persons.
Considering the specific needs of the blind
people, an altogether different kind of broadcast
network configuration delivering live audio and
data which is read by blind person through its
printed impression (Braille) was set up.
Another special network in Ext C-band
connecting 50 engineering institutes across the
country has been established to impart teaching
by distinguished Professors/Faculty from top 21
Universities in USA who would visit India to
conduct eight-week courses in various subjects
in engineering. This network is now shared by
IIT-Bombay network with additional 30 end
users.
Apart from this, network for IIM, Bangalore
connecting with its other centre in Chennai; an
extended C-band network connecting all the five
centres of National Council of Science Museums
for promoting scientific temperament among
students and general public; network for
Mahabharata Sansthan for online transmission
benefits of Satellite communication technology

and information technology with Biomedical
Engineering and Medical Sciences to deliver the
healthcare services to the remote, distant and
underserved regions of the country.
Providing healthcare to India's over one
billion population of which about 75 per cent
live in villages, is a formidable task. About 75
per cent of the doctors practice in urban areas
and 23 percent in semi-urban areas. This leaves
just 2 per cent of the qualified doctors, who are
attached to about 23,000 primary health and
3000 community health centres, to attend to 70
per cent of the population living in villages.
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of digitised manuscripts from remote areas

through mobile terminal to centralised centre for
archival so as to preserve them; two networks
in Kerala for imparting education and awareness
to parents and teachers of mentally challenged
children schools; network in Tamilnadu and
Puducherry connecting centres of Aravind
Virtual Academy for providing eye-care; etc. are
a few special networks, which have been set up/
under implementation under EDUSAT
Utilisation Programme.
Educational TV Services
INSAT is being used to provide Educational

TV (ETV) service for primary school children in
Tamil, Marathi, Oriya, Telugu and Hindi. A
general enrichment programme on higher
education (college sector) is telecast on the
national network. These programmes, provided
by the University Grants Commission (UGC),
are a part of its countrywide classroom
programme. The Indira Gandhi National Open
University (IGNOU) broadcasts half an hour
curriculum based lectures daily via the national
network for the students.
ISROs telemedicine pilot project was started

in the year 2001 with the aim of introducing the
telemedicine facility to the grass root level
population as a part of proof of concept
technology demonstration. The telemedicine
facility connects the remote District Hospitals/
Health Centres with Super Speciality Hospitals
in cities, through the INSAT Satellites for
providing expert consultation to the needy and
underserved population.
Training and Developmental Communications

Channel (TDCC)
Telemedicine initiatives at ISRO have been

broadly divided into the following areas:
A total of 8 Ext. C-band channels - 6 on

INSAT-3B and 2 on Edusat - are being used for
Training, Development and Communication
Channel (TDCC), a service that has been
operational since 1995. It provides 1-way video
& 2-way audio system of interactive education.
The teaching-end includes a studio and an uplink
facility for transmitting live or pre-recorded
lectures. The participants at the classrooms
located nationwide receive lectures through
simple dish antennas (DRS) and have facility to
interact with lecturers using telephone lines.
Providing Telemedicine Technology &

connectivity between remote/rural
hospital and Super Speciality Hospital for
Teleconsultation, Treatment & Training of
doctors & paramedics.
Providing the Technology & connectivity

for Continuing Medical Education (CME)
between Medical Colleges & Post
Graduate Medical Institutions/Hospitals.
Providing Technology & connectivity for

Mobile Telemedicine units for rural health
camps especially in the areas of
ophthalmology and community health.
Providing technology and connectivity for

Disaster Management Support and Relief.
Several state governments and universities

are using the TDCC system extensively for
Distance Education, Rural Development, Women
& Child Development, Panchayati Raj, Health,
Agriculture, Forestry, etc. The teaching-ends are
now available at Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa, Karnataka and Goa. The DRS network
consists of more than 5000 classrooms spread
over the country.
b)
Telemedicine Programme
It is an innovative process of synergising
Presently, ISROs Telemedicine Network has

enabled 382 Hospitals with the Telemedicine
facility. 306 Remote/Rural/District Hospital/
Health Centres and 16 Mobile Telemedicine units
are connected to 60 Super Speciality Hospitals
located in the major cities. The mobile vans are
extensively used for tele-ophthalmology, diabetic
screening, mammography, childcare and
[25]
community
health.
The
Mobile
Teleopthalmology facilities provide services to
the rural population in ophthalmology care,
including village level eye camps, vision
screening for Cataract /Glaucoma / Diabetic
Retinopathy.
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The telemedicine facilities are established at

many remote rural district hospitals in many
states and union territories of the country,
including Jammu & Kashmir, Andaman &
Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, North
Eastern States etc. State level telemedicine
networks are established in Karnataka, Kerala,
Rajasthan,
Maharashtra,
Orissa
and
Chhattisgarh. Many interior districts in Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab,
West Bengal and Gujarat have the telemedicine
facility. About 1.5 Lakh patients are getting the
benefits of Telemedicine every year.
Transmitters (LPT), 257 Very Low Power

Transmitters (VLPT) and 18 Transposers) are
working in the DD-1 network and 167 TV
Transmitters (73 HPTs, 78 LPTs and 16 VLPTs)
are working in the DD-News network. 108
Regional service transmitters (6 HPTs, 8 LPTS
and 94 VLPTs), 4 HPTs with digital transmissions
are also operational in the Doordarshan
Network. Out of these 4 transmitters, one is
located at Delhi and is carrying 16 mobile TV
services for experimental purpose. 45 DD and
Private TV channels are operational through
DTH service ("DD Direct+"). 10 channel DTH
planned in C-Band for Andaman & Nicobar
islands is under installation.
c)
Television
INSAT has been a major catalyst for the

expansion of television coverage in India.
Satellite television now covers 100% area as well
as population. The terrestrial coverage is over
65 percent of the Indian land mass and over 90
percent of the population. At present 40
Doordarshan TV channels including news
uplinks are operating through C-band
transponders of INSAT-3A, INSAT-4B, INSAT3C and INSAT-2E (Additionally IS-10 & IS-906
INTELSAT leased). All of the Satellite TV
channels are digitalized.
The following satellite television services are
being operated by Doordarshan:
National networking service (DD-1), DD

News (DD-2), DD-Sports, DD-Urdu, DDIndia DD-Bharati.
Regional services in Sates of Kerala,

Karnataka, Jammu & Kashmir, Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat, UP, Assam, Maharashtra,
Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Tripura, Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
Uttarakhand (Uttaranchal), Haryana,
Mizoram, Jharkhand and Chhatisgarh.
As on Dec. 2008, 1412 transmitters of

Doordarshan are working in INSAT system out
of which 1133 transmitters (130 High Power
Transmitters (HPT), 728 Low Power
[26]
INSAT provides bandwidth for DTH

broadcasting service over Indian region. At
present DTH service is operational through
INSAT- 4 series. INSAT-4 series has high power
transponders with 52 dBW EIRP (EOC) to
support DTH service with 60/90 cm dish of
TVRO at receiving side, all over India.
TATA-SKY operates DTH service through

INSAT-4A at 83 deg. East with total number of
150 video channels. Doordarshan (DD-DIRECT)
operates DTH service through INSAT-4B at 93.5
deg East with total number of 48 channels which
are free to air. Other private DTH service
providers like Sun Direct and Bharati Airtel have
also started DTH service through INSAT-4B and
INSAT-4CR which is at 74 deg. East location.
In all, around 16.2 millions of TVROs are
distributed and operational all over India by
various service providers, including DD DIRECT
TVRO's number in excess of 10 millions.
d)
Satellite Aided Search and Rescue
India is a member of the international

COSPAS-SARSAT programme for providing
distress alert and position location service
through LEOSAR (Low Earth Orbit Search And
Rescue) satellite system. Under this programme,
India has established two Local User Terminals
(LUTs), one at Lucknow and the other at
Bangalore. The Indian Mission Control Centre
(INMCC), of ISRO is located at ISTRAC,
Bangalore.
INSAT-3A located at 93.5 deg. East is
equipped with 406 MHz Search and Rescue
payload that picks up and relays alert signals
originating from the distress beacons of

maritime, aviation and land users. INSAT and
GOES systems have become an integral part of
the COSPAS-SARSAT system and they
complement the LEOSAR system.
To support the total cycle of disaster/

emergency management for the country, in near
real time, the database creation is addressed
through National Database for Emergency
Management (NDEM), a GIS based repository
of data. NDEM is envisaged to have core data,
hazard-specific data, and dynamic data in spatial
as well as aspatial form.
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Indian LUTs provide coverage to a large part

of Indian Ocean region rendering distress alert
services to Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal,
Seychelles, Sri Lanka and Tanzania. The
operations of INMCC/LUT are funded by the
participating agencies, namely, Coast Guard,
Airports Authority of India (AAI) and Director
General of Shipping and Services.
data base for facilitating hazard zonation,

damage assessment, etc., monitoring of major
natural disasters using satellite and aerial data;
development of appropriate techniques and tools
for decision support, establishing satellite based
reliable communication network, deployment of
emergency communication equipments and
R&D towards early warning of disasters.
INSAT GEOSAR Local User Terminal (GEO

LUT) is established at ISTRAC, Bangalore and
integrated with INMCC. The distress alert
messages concerning the Indian service area,
detected at INMCC are passed on to Indian
Coast Guard and Rescue Coordination Centres
at Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai. The
search and rescue activities are carried out by
Coast Guard, Navy and Air Force. INMCC is
linked to the RCCs and other International
MCCs
through
Aeronautical
Fixed
Telecommunication Network (AFTN). The
Indian LUTs and MCC provide service round
the clock and maintain the database of all 406
MHz registered beacons equipped on Indian
ships and aircraft.
Development of indigenous search and
rescue beacons has been completed, and is now
in qualification phase. Shortly it will be released
to the Indian fishermen community.
Till date, there are about 400 registered user
agencies (Maritime & Aviation) in India with
more than 5200 radio beacons in use.
Migration from LEOSAR & GEOSAR to

MEOSAR system has been under taken. Design
of upcoming MEOSAR system is ready and will
be implemented in 2 years.
e)
Disaster Management
The Disaster Management Support (DMS)

Programme of ISRO, provides timely support
and services from aero-space systems, both
imaging and communications, towards efficient
management of disasters in the country. The
DMS programme addresses disasters such as
flood, cyclone, drought, forest fire, landslide and
Earthquake. These include creation of digital
Airborne ALTM-DC data acquisition is being

carried out for the flood prone basins in the
country. The development of flight model of C
band DMSAR is nearing completion. SAR data
was acquired over selected basins using
Development model of DMSAR. Towards
providing emergency communication for
disaster management activities, and at the behest
of Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), ISRO has
set up a satellite based Virtual Private Network
(VPN) linking the National Control Room at
MHA with DMS-DSC at NRSC, important
national agencies, key Government Offices in
Delhi and the Control Rooms of 22 multi-hazardprone States. Further ISRO has developed and
deployed INSAT Type-D terminals (portable
satellite phones), INSAT based Distress Alert
Transmitter (DAT) for fishermen, Cyclone
Warning Dissemination System (CWCS) and
DTH based Digital Disaster Warning System
(DDWS) in disaster prone areas.
As part of R&D support to DMS for remote
sensing applications, work on Tropical Cyclone
Track intensity and landfall prediction,
Earthquake Precursor studies, Coastal
Vulnerability mapping and Early Warning of
Landslides are being carried out.
The DMS programme is also supporting the
many international initiatives by sharing data
and information. Through International Charter
Space and Major Disasters and Sentinel Asia
(SA) initiative for supporting disaster
management activities in the Asia-Pacific region,
ISRO is providing IRS datasets and other
information for use during major calamities.
[27]
RECENT SATELLITES
INSAT-3D:
GSAT-12
GSAT-12, the latest communication satellite

built by ISRO, weighs about 1410 kg at lift-off.
GSAT-12 is configured to carry 12 Extended
C-band transponders to meet the country's
growing demand for transponders in a short
turn-around-time. It was launched on July 15,
2011. The 12 Extended C-band transponders
of GSAT-12 will augment the capacity in the
INSAT system for various communication
services like Tele-education, Telemedicine and
for Village Resource Centres (VRC).
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It was launched on July 26, 2013, is an

advanced weather satellite of India configured
with improved Imaging System and
Atmospheric Sounder. INSAT-3D is designed for
enhanced meteorological observations,
monitoring of land and ocean surfaces,
generating vertical profile of the atmosphere in
terms of temperature and humidity for weather
forecasting and disaster warning.
It carries four payloads
6 channel multi-spectral Imager
19 channel Sounder
Data Relay Transponder (DRT)
Search and Rescue Transponder
The payloads of INSAT-3D will provide

continuity and further augment the capability
to provide various meteorological as well as
search and rescue services.
GSAT-10:
Indias advanced communication satellite,

GSAT-10, is a high power satellite being inducted
into the INSAT system. It was launched on
September 29, 2012. Weighing 3400 kg at liftoff, GSAT-10 is configured to carry 30
communication transponders in normal C-band,
lower extended C-band and Ku-band as well as
a GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation
(GAGAN) payload operating in L1 and L5
bands. GSAT-10 is the second satellite to carry
GAGAN payload after GSAT-8, which is already
providing navigation services from orbit. GSAT10 also carries a Ku-band beacon to help in
accurately pointing ground antennas towards
the satellite.
The 30 communication transponders

onboard GSAT-10 will further augment the
capacity in the INSAT system. The GAGAN
payload provides the Satellite Based
Augmentation System (SBAS), through which
the accuracy of the positioning information
obtained from the GPS satellites is improved by
a network of ground based receivers and made
available to the users in the country through geostationary satellites.
[28]
GSAT-8
It is a high power communication satellite

inducted in the INSAT system. Weighing about
3100 Kg at lift-off, GSAT-8 is configured to
carry 24 high power transponders in Ku-band
and a two-channel GPS Aided Geo Augmented
Navigation (GAGAN) payload operating in L1
and L5 bands. It was launched on May 21,
2011. The 24 Ku band transponders will
augment the capacity in the INSAT system. The
GAGAN payload provides the Satellite Based
Augmentation System (SBAS), through which
the accuracy of the positioning information
obtained from the GPS Satellite is improved by
a network of ground based receivers and made
available to the users in the country through
the geostationary satellites.
GSAT-5P
GSAT-5P was the fifth satellite launched in

the GSAT series and launched on December
25, 2010. It is an exclusive communication
satellite to further augment the communication
services currently provided by the Indian
National Satellite (INSAT) System. Weighing
2310 kg at lift-off, GSAT-5P carried 24 Normal
C-band and 12 Extended C-band transponders.
GSAT-4
GSAT-4 was the nineteenth geo-stationary

satellite of India built by ISRO and fourth in
the GSAT series, launched on April 15, 2010.
GSAT-4 was basically an experimental satellite.
However, GSAT-4 was not placed in orbit as
GSLV-D3 could not complete the mission.
INSAT4CR
This spacecraft is configured with exclusive

Ku band employing the I-2K Bus with a mass of
2130 Kg. It was injected on September 2, 2007

into the orbit by GSLV-F04 rocket with enhanced
Russian Cryogenic engine and co-located at 74
East longitude along with INSAT3C / Kalpana
1 / GSAT3 (EDUSAT). INSAT-4CR carries 12
high-power Ku-band transponders designed to
provide Direct-to-home (DTH) television
services, Video Picture Transmission (VPT) and
Digital Satellite News Gathering (DSNG).
INSAT4B
Remote sensing applications

Remote sensing has enabled mapping,
studying, monitoring and management of
various resources like agriculture, forestry,
geology, water, ocean, etc. It has further enabled
monitoring of environment and thereby helping
in conservation. In the last four decades it has
grown as a major tool for collecting information
on almost every aspect on the earth. With the
availability of very high spatial resolution
satellites in the recent years, the applications have
multiplied. In India remote sensing has been used
for various applications during the last four
decades and has contributed significantly
towards development.
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This spacecraft is the second in the INSAT 4

series of spacecrafts and is configured with
exclusive communication payloads to provide
services in Ku and C frequency bands. This is
co-located with INSAT3A at 93.5E longitude
and was launched on March 12, 2007.
INSAT-3D during 2013, the Indian Earth

Observation System has setup its own niche to
provide high quality data products and services
for national development.
INDIAN REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM
Over a span of three decades, the space borne

remote sensing capabilities have grown to such
an extent that space-based observation has
become the prime source of information on
earths resources and its environment. The
Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites are the
mainstay of National Natural Resources
Management System (NMRMS), for which
department of space is the nodal agency,
providing operational remote sensing data
services. It essentially involves measuring the
electromagnetic radiation of the sun that is
reflected, scattered or re-emitted by the objects
on the surface of the earth.
Starting with IRS-1A in 1988, ISRO has

launched many operational remote sensing
satellites into orbit. Today, India has one of the
largest constellations of remote sensing satellites
in operation. Currently, ten operational satellites
are in orbit RESOURCESAT-1 and 2,
CARTOSAT-1, 2, 2A, 2B, RISAT-1 and 2,
OCEANSAT-2 and Megha-Tropiques. While
RESOURCESAT-1, CARTOSAT-1 and 2 have
successfully completed their designed mission
life in orbit, they continue to provide limited
services to the users. Varieties of instruments
have been flown onboard these satellites to
provide necessary data in a diversified spatial,
spectral and temporal resolutions to cater to
different user requirements in the country and
for global usage. With such satellites in orbit and
considering the plans of the near future, such as
India has its own satellites like Indian Remote

Sensing Satellite (IRS) series - Resourcesat,
Cartosat, Oceansat, etc. which provide required
data for carrying out various projects. Some of
the important projects carried out in the country
include Groundwater Prospects Mapping under
Drinking Water Mission, Forecasting
Agricultural
output
using
Space,
Agrometeorology and Land based observations
(FASAL), Forest Cover/Type Mapping,
Grassland
Mapping,
Biodiversity
Characterisation, Snow & Glacier Studies, Land
Use/Cover mapping, Coastal Studies, Coral and
Mangroves Studies, Wasteland Mapping etc. The
information generated by large number of
projects have been used by various departments,
industries and others for different purposes like
development
planning,
monitoring,
conservation, etc.
a) Groundwater Prospects and Recharge
Zone Mapping
The occurrence and movement of

groundwater is mainly controlled by many
factors such as rock types, landforms, geological
structures, soil, land use, rainfall, etc. Remote
sensing based groundwater prospect zone map
serves as a base for further exploration using
hydro geological and geophysical methods to
locate well sites. Studies have shown that if
remote sensing data are used at first level to
delineate prospective zones and further followed
[29]
among others, the preparation of spatial plans

for economic development and social justice for
all urban areas. Considering the same, National
Urban Information System (NUIS) is approved
as National Mission Programme of Ministry of
Urban Development (MUD, GOI). NUIS
comprises of broadly two major components (a) Urban Spatial Information System (USIS) to
meet the Spatial (maps / images) data /
information requirements of urban planning and
management functions, (b) National Urban Data
Bank & Indicators (NUDB&I) to develop townlevel urban database to support development of
indices through a network of Local Urban
Observatories (LUOs) under the National Urban
Observatory (NUO) Programme.
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up by hydro geological and geophysical surveys,

higher success could be achieved besides savings
in terms of cost, time and work. Further remote
sensing data helps in identifying suitable areas
for recharging ground water. Under Rajiv
Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission,
funded by the Department of Drinking Water
Supply of the Ministry of Rural Development,
ground water prospects and recharge zone
maps on 1:50,000 scale was taken up by ISRO
in phases using IRS data. So far, 14 states
(Andhra Pradesh (Part), Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Karnataka, Kerala, Chattisgarh,
Gujarat, Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand,
Assam, Punjab, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh
(Part) have been completed and the maps have
been provided to State Ground Water
Departments and other concerned departments.
The maps have been used for locating well sites
and recharge structures. The feedback shows
that about 275,800 wells have been drilled with
more than 90% success rate and about 9000
recharge structures have been constructed. The
work is under progress for the states of Jammu
& Kashmir, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh-Part,
West Bengal-Part, Haryana and Arunachal
Pradesh.
Under USIS of NUIS a comprehensive 3-tier

GIS database for each town/city to support the
urban planning and management is envisaged:
Generate 1:10,000 scale GIS-compatible

spatial information from IRS images and
integrate attribute information to enhance
Master Plan / Development Plan of urban
settlements
Generate 1:2,000 scale GIS-compatible

spatial
information
from
aerial
photographs and integrate attribute
information to enhance Municipal Plan /
Zonal Plan and detailed Town Planning
schemes.
Establish a 1:1000 scale utilities GIS using

Ground Penetrating Radar data on a pilot
basis to include water-supply, sewerage,
power and communication for Utilities
Planning and Management.
b) Wetlands
The primary objective of this project is to map

the wetlands of India (natural, manmade, coastal
and inland) at 1:50,000 scale and create a
database with a query shell. This project has been
taken up at the specific request of Ministry of
Environment and Forests (MoEF). Digital
analysis of two date (pre and post monsoon)
satellite data is used for the purpose. This is the
first time that country will have country specific
classification system, updated database and map
of wetlands at 1:50,000 scale which will help in
conservation/preservation plan, water resources
plan, methane emission study etc. Atlas of 7
states (Goa, Meghalaya, Manipur, Delhi,
Arunachal Pradesh, A&N islands, Lakshadweep
islands) had been completed and released by
Honble Minster for Environment and Forests on
Feb 2, 2010.
c)
National Urban Information System

(NUIS)
The 74th Constitution Amendment Act 1992 and more specifically under the 12th
Schedule of Municipal Functions envisages
[30]
DOS is participating in the endeavor of NUIS

taken up under NNRMS Standing Committee
on Urban development. Apart from providing
IRS satellite data and aerial photography, DOS
shares the responsibility of the preparation of
thematic maps at 1:10,000 scale. In Phase-I, 158
towns covering geographical area of around
55,755 sq km has been taken up. As a pilot
project, thematic mapping for the Korba town
located in Chattisgarh State covering 276 sq km.
has been completed. About 75 towns had been
completed during 2009 and planned to complete
the remaining towns soon thereafter.
d) National Natural Resource Management
System
The Indian remote sensing programme is
intended to be a key element of Indias ambitious

National Natural Resource Management System
(NNRMS). NNRMS was established in 1983 and
is supported by Planning Commission,
Government of India. Department of Space
(DOS) is the nodal agency for implementing
NNRMS in the.
INTRODUCTION OF SOME
LATEST SATELLITES
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The NNRMS with its headquarters in

Bengaluru is functioning with the main objective
of liaising with different users of the State/
Central Government departments/organisations
in different tasks related to the use of remote
sensing data, such as, the establishment of
infrastructure for remote sensing centre/unit/
cell, supply of equipment for data processing and
analysis, organising the information system for
the remote sensing data in management of
natural resources in the country. In doing so,
NNRMS adopts various advanced technologies
of satellite and aerial remote sensing;
Geographical Information Systems (GIS); precise
Positioning Systems; database and networking
infrastructure and advanced ground-based
survey techniques.
Nagpur, Kharagpur, and Jodhpur are

underway. Another centre for the north-eastern
region is planned. DOS will manage these
regional centres initially. The backbone of the
RRSSCs as well as the associate centres is a
digital image analysis system primarily for
handling satellite acquired terrain multispectral
data.
The three major components of NNRMS

are:
(a) application projects,
(b) infrastructure
and
manpower
development, and
(c) establishing a National Natural
Resources Information System (NNRIS).
The applications project will be in major

resource sectors such as agriculture, land use,
water resources, forestry, geology, marine
resources and environment.
DOS/ISRO is the lead agency for a significant

number of application projects. These projects
are being executed in collaboration with a large
number of State and Central Government
agencies. Major contributions in the disciplines
of soil, vegetation mapping and mineral
targeting will be made from the National Bureau
of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning/ICAR,
Forest Survey of India (Ministry of Environment
and Forests) and Geological Survey of India
(GSI), respectively.
Five Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres

(RRSSCs) are being set up for processing remote
sensed data. The Dehradun and Bengaluru
centres are already operational. The centres at
(a) BHUVAN
Bhuvan is an initiative to showcase this

distinctiveness of India's imaging capabilities,
including the thematic information derived from
such imagery which could be of vital importance
to a common man with a focus on Indian region.
Bhuvan, an ambitious project of ISRO to take
Indian images and thematic information in
multiple spatial resolutions to people through a
web portal through easy access to information
on basic natural resources in the geospatial
domain. Bhuvan showcases Indian images by the
superimposition of these IRS satellite imageries
on 3D globe. It displays satellite images of
varying resolution of Indias surface, allowing
users to visually see things like cities and
important places of interest looking
perpendicularly down or at an oblique angle,
with different perspectives and can navigate
through 3D viewing environment. The degree
of resolution showcased is based on the points
of interest and popularity, but most of the Indian
terrain is covered upto at least 5.8 metres of
resolution with the least spatial resolution being
55 metres from AWiFs Sensor. With such rich
content, Bhuvan opens the door to graphic
visualisation of digital geospatial India allowing
individuals to experience the fully interactive
terrain viewing capabilities.
Multi-resolution images from multi-sensor
IRS satellites of India is seamlessly depicted
through the Bhuvan web portal by enabling a
common man to zoom into specific area of
interest at high resolution. Bhuvan brings a
whole lot of uniqueness in understanding our
own natural resources whilst presenting
beautiful images and thematic vectors generated
from varieties of geospatial information. Bhuvan
will also attempt to bring out the importance of
multi-temporal data and to highlight the changes
taking place to our natural resources, which will
[31]
serve as a general awareness on our changing

planet. There are lot more special value added
services which will be enabled onto the web
portal in due course of time and each one of those
services are going to be unique in preserving and
conserving our precious natural resources
through public participation. We are sure the
common man will get rich benefits from these
Indian geospatial data services in days to come.
Drawing 2D objects
Drawing 3D Objects
Snapshot creation (copies the 3D view to

a floating window and allows to save to
an external file)
Measurement tools (Horizontal distance,

aerial distance, vertical distance, measure
area)
Shadow Analysis (it sets the sun position

based on the given time creating shadows
and effects the lighting on the terrain)
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Bhuvan Geoportal entered its fourth year of

operations in August 2012. During this period,
Bhuvan has evolved both in terms of the content
and features besides speed and access. The portal
had an average of 19,000 visitors per month
during the last one year. In addition to
visualisation, Bhuvan has been providing satellite
data and products with 23 m and coarser spatial
resolution and older than 2 years. Besides, several
information products like CartoDEM, OCM
based Normalised Difference Vegetation Index
(NDVI) and Vegetation, Fraction products,
Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential, etc., are being
provided as free downloads through NRSC Open
Earth Observation Data Archive (NOEDA) since
September 2011.
Basic Features of Bhuvan
Access, explore and visualise 2D and 3D

image data along with rich thematic
information on Soil, wasteland, water
resources, etc.
Visualise multi-resolution, multi-sensor,

multi-temporal image data.
Superpose administrative boundaries of

choice on images as required
Visualisation of AWS (Automatic Weather

Stations) data/information in a graphic
view and use tabular weather data of user
choice.
Fly to locations (Fly from the current

location directly to the selected location)
Heads-Up Display (HUD) navigation

controls (Tilt slider, north indicator,
opacity, compass ring, zoom slider)
Navigation using the 3D view Pop-up

menu (Fly-in, Fly out, jump in, jump
around, view point)
[32]
3D Fly through (3D view to fly to

locations, objects in the terrain, and
navigate freely using the mouse or
keyboard)
Urban Design Tools (to build roads,

junctions and traffic lights in an urban
setting)
Contour map ( Displays a colourized

terrain map and contour lines)
Draw tools (Creates simple markers, free

hand lines, urban designs)
(b) YOUTHSAT
It is a joint Indo-Russian stellar and

atmospheric satellite mission with the
participation of students from Universities at
graduate, post graduate and research scholar
level. With a lift-off mass of 92 kg, Youthsat is a
mini satellite and the second in the Indian Mini
Satellite (IMS) series. Youthsat mission intends
to investigate the relationship between solar
variability and thermosphere-Ionosphere
changes. The satellite carries three payloads, of
which two are Indian and one Russian. Together,
they form a unique and comprehensive package
of experiments for the investigation of the
composition, energetics and dynamics of earth's
upper atmosphere.
The Indian payloads are:
1.
RaBIT (Radio Beacon for Ionospheric

Tomography) - For mapping Total
Electron Content (TEC) of the Ionosphere.
2.
LiVHySI (Limb Viewing Hyper Spectral

Imager) - To perform airglow
measurements of the Earth's upper
atmosphere (80- 600 km) in 450-950 nm.
The Russian payload is:
SOLRAD - To study temporal and spectral

parameters of solar flare X and gamma ray
fluxes as well as charge particles in the earth
polar cap regions.
(c) RESOURCESAT-2
(f) Megha-Tropiques
It is a follow on mission to RESOURCESAT1 and the eighteenth Remote Sensing satellite

built by ISRO. RESOURCESAT-2 is intended to
continue the remote sensing data services to
global users provided by RESOURCESAT-1, and
to provide data with enhanced multispectral and
spatial coverage as well. Important changes
in
RESOURCESAT-2
compared
to
RESOURCESAT-1 are: Enhancement of LISS-4
multispectral swath from 23 km to 70 km and
improved Radiometric accuracy from 7 bits to
10 bits for LISS-3 and LISS-4 and 10 bits to 12
bits for AWIFS. Besides, suitable changes,
including miniaturisation in payload electronics,
have been made in RESOURCESAT-2.
Megha-Tropiques is an Indo-French Joint

Satellite Mission for studying the water cycle and
energy exchanges in the tropics. The main
objective of this mission is to understand the life
cycle of convective systems that influence the
tropical weather and climate and their role in
associated energy and moisture budget of the
atmosphere in tropical regions.
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Megha-Tropiques will provide scientific data

on the contribution of the water cycle to the
tropical atmosphere, with information on
condensed water in clouds, water vapour in the
atmosphere, precipitation, and evaporation.
With its circular orbit inclined 20 deg to the
equator, the Megha-Tropiques is a unique satellite
for climate research that should also aid scientists
seeking to refine prediction models.
RESOURCESAT-2 also carries an additional

payload known as AIS (Automatic Identification
System) from COMDEV, Canada as an
experimental payload for ship surveillance in
VHF band to derive position, speed and other
information about ships.
RESOURCESAT-2 carries two Solid State
Recorders with a capacity of 200 Giga Bytes each
to store the images taken by its cameras which
can be read out later to ground stations.
(d) JUGNU
The nanosatellite Jugnu weighing 3 kg is

designed and developed by Indian Institute of
Technology, Kanpur under the guidance of
ISRO. The satellite is intended:
To prove the indigenously developed

camera system for imaging the Earth in
the near infrared region and test image
processing algorithms.
Evaluate GPS receiver for its use in satellite

navigation.
Test indigenously developed MEMS based

Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) in space.
(e) SRMSat
The nanosatellite SRMSat weighing 10.9 kg

is developed by the students and faculty of SRM
University attempts to address the problem of
Global warming and pollution levels in the
atmosphere by monitoring Carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water vapour (H2O). The satellite uses a
grating Spectrometer, which will observe
absorption spectrum over a range of 900nm 1700nm infrared range.
Megha-Tropiques carries the following four

payloads:
Microwave Analysis and Detection of

Rain and Atmospheric Structures
(MADRAS), an Imaging Radiometer
developed jointly by CNES and ISRO
Sounder for Probing Vertical Profiles of

Humidity (SAPHIR), from CNES
Scanner for Radiation Budget (ScaRaB),

from CNES
Radio Occultation Sensor for Vertical

Profiling of Temperature and Humidity
(ROSA), procured from Italy.
(g) Chandrayaan I
Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was launched

from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, SHAR,
Sriharikota by PSLV-XL (PSLV-C11) on 22
October 2008 in an highly elliptical initial orbit
(IO) with perigee (nearest point to the Earth) of
255 km and an apogee (farthest point from the
Earth) of 22,860 km, inclined at an angle of 17.9
deg to the equator. Chandrayaan-I mission was
abandoned in August 2009 when the spacecraft
lost radio contact.
Chandrayaan-1 is Indias first and the
worlds 68th mission to the moon. The worlds
first moon mission was by the then Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) on Jan 2, 1959,
followed two months later by the US on March
3. Between them, the two countries have sent
62 missions to probe the moon with the US
[33]
stealing a march over the then cold war rival

USSR by landing a man on the moon on July 20,
1969.
The third SSR with 10 GB SSR is for storing

M3 (Moon Mineralogy Mapper) payload
data.
Japan broke the monopoly of the two

superpowers on Jan 24, 1990 by sending its
spacecraft Hiten to orbit the moon. The European
Space Agency launched its probe in September
2003. China sent its spacecraft Chang'e II in
2012.
On the ground, Chandrayaan-1 was

tracked by the Deep Space Station (DSN),
Spacecraft Control Centre (SCC) and
Indian Space Science Data Centre
(ISSDC).
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The first hard landing on the moon was on

Sep 12, 1959 by Soviet Unions Luna 2. The first
photos from the moon were taken by Oct 4, 1959
from the Soviet spacecraft Luna 3.
India had hosted six foreign instruments in

its maiden moon odyssey Chandrayaan-I
three from ESA, two from NASA and one from
Bulgaria. Chandrayaan-I carried Indias five
instruments.
On Jan 26, 1962, the US Ranger 3 missed the

Moon by 36,793 km. The Soviet Unions Luna 6
did worse on June 8, 1965 missing the moon by
160,000 km. Luna 9 made up for it on Jan 31,
1966 by becoming the first spacecraft to soft land
on the moon.
Scientific Objectives
The Chandrayaan-1 mission was aimed at

high-resolution remote sensing of the moon in
visible, near infrared (NIR), low energy X-rays
and high-energy X-ray regions. Specifically the
objectives are:
The Indian mission to the moon was

proposed at a meeting of the Indian Academy
of Sciences in 1999.
To prepare a three-dimensional atlas

(with high spatial and altitude resolution
of 5-10 m) of both near and far side of
the moon.
Space Craft
To conduct chemical and mineralogical

mapping of the entire lunar surface for
distribution of mineral and chemical
elements such as Magnesium, Aluminum,
Silicon, Calcium, Iron and Titanium as
well as high atomic number elements such
as Radon, Uranium & Thorium with high
spatial resolution.
The Simultaneous photo geological,

mineralogical and chemical mapping
through Chandrayaan-1 mission will
enable identification of different geological
units to infer the early evolutionary history
of the Moon. The chemical mapping will
enable to determine the stratigraphy and
nature of the Moons crust and thereby
test certain aspects of magma ocean
hypothesis. This may allow to determine
the composition of impactors that
bombarded the Moon during its early
evolution which is also relevant to the
formation of the Earth.
The Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was

cuboid in shape, weighed 1,304 kg at
launch and 590 kg at lunar orbit. It carried
11 payloads, including six from abroad.
A canted single-sided solar array generates

required power for the spacecraft during
its two-year mission. The solar array
generates 700 watts of peak power.
During eclipse the spacecraft powered by
Lithium ion (Li-Ion) batteries.
The spacecraft employs an X-band, 0.7metre diameter parabolic antenna for

payload data transmission.
The Telemetry, Tracking & Command

(TTC) communication is in S-band
frequency and scientific payload data
transmission in X-band frequency.
The spacecraft has three Solid State

Recorders (SSRs) to record data from
various payloads.
SSR-1 helps store science payload data

and has capacity of storing 32 GB data.
The 8 GB SSR-2 will store science payload

data along with spacecraft altitude
information, satellite housekeeping and
other auxiliary data.
[34]
(h) RISAT-1
RISAT 1 (Radar Imaging Satellite 1) is the

first satellite imaging mission of ISRO using an
active C-band SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar)
imager. The objective of the RISAT mission is to
use the all-weather as well as the day-and-night

SAR observation capability in applications such
as agriculture, forestry, soil moisture, geology,
sea ice, coastal monitoring, object identification,
and flood monitoring.
ISRO is also working on technology to

manufacture carbon-carbon composite heat
shields, which, along with the silica tiles tested
with the SRE, could find use in future reusable
spacecraft such as ISROs planned Reusable
Launch Vehicle. During its stay in orbit, the
following two experiments on board SRE 1 were
successfully conducted under microgravity
conditions.
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RISAT 1 is developed, manufactured and

integrated by ISRO. The Polar Satellite Launch
Vehicle (PSLV-C19) successfully launched
RISAT-1 on the desired orbit, thus reducing
Indias dependence on countries like Israel that
uses microwave signals to capture images of the
earth.
and the technology of an orbiting platform for

performing experiments in microgravity
conditions. It was also intended to test reusable
Thermal Protection System, navigation, guidance
and control, hypersonic aero-thermodynamics,
management of communication blackout,
deceleration and floatation system and recovery
operations.
RISAT-1 is a variant of microwave remote

sensing satellite (MRSS) and is equipped with
synthetic aperture radar payload in the C-band
(5.35 GH) frequency. It is better than the
previously used optical remote sensing satellites
which could capture images during the day only
as Optical satellites are relying on sunlight to
illuminate the ground below, working much like
an ordinary camera does. Radar satellites, on the
other hand, send out pulses of radio waves and
then pick up signals that bounce back.
During its mission life of five years, the

RISAT-1 will use its active microwave remote
sensing capability for cloud penetration and daynight imaging of the earth surface and provide
critical data inputs for a range of agricultural
and soil moisture studies and forestry
applications. Among the many tasks the RISAT1 can perform are paddy monitoring in kharif
season, crop estimation and mapping of forestry
biomass, besides providing the big picture on
natural disasters such as flood and cyclone.
RECENT MISSIONS
a) Space Capsule Recovery Experiment
The Space Capsule Recovery Experiment

(SCRE/SRE/SRE-1) was an Indian experimental
spacecraft, launched on January 10, 2007 from
Sriharikota using the PSLV C7 rocket, along with
three other satellites. It remained in orbit for 12
days before re-entering the Earths atmosphere
and splashing down into the Bay of Bengal on
January 22. During its reentry, the 555 kg
capsule was protected from the intense heat by
carbon phenolic ablative material and silica tiles
on its outer surface.
The SRE 1 was designed to demonstrate the
capability to recover an orbiting space capsule,
One of the experiments was related to the

study of metal melting and crystallization under
microgravity conditions. The second experiment
was intended to study the synthesis of nanocrystals under microgravity conditions. This was
an experiment in designing biomaterials that
better replicate natural biological products.
b) SRE-2 Project was formed with the main

objective of realising a fully recoverable capsule
and to provide a platform to conduct microgravity experiments. SRE capsule has four
major hardware, namely, Aero Thermostructure (ATS), Spacecraft platform,
deceleration and floatation system and
payloads.
The main objective of SRE II is to realize a
fully recoverable capsule and provide a platform
to conduct microgravity experiments on Microbiology, Agriculture, Powder Metallurgy, etc.
SRE-2 is proposed to be launched onboard PSLV.
c) Mars Orbiter Mission
Mars Orbiter Mission is ISROs first

interplanetary mission to planet Mars with a
spacecraft designed to orbit Mars in an elliptical
orbit of 372 km by 80,000 km. Mars Orbiter
mission is Indias next challenging technological
mission out of the Earths gravitational field. The
major demands will be critical mission operations
and stringent requirements on propulsion,
communications and other bus systems of the
spacecraft. The primary driving technological
objective of the mission is to design and realize a
[35]
spacecraft with a capability to reach Mars

(Martian transfer Trajectory), then to orbit
around Mars (Mars Orbit Insertion) which will
take about nine months time.
GPS works in six logical steps:

a)
The basis of GPS is triangulation from

satellites.
b)
To triangulate, a GPS receiver measures

distance using the travel time of radio
signals.
c)
To measure travel time, GPS needs very

accurate timing which it achieves with
some tricks.
d)
Along with distance, you need to know

exactly where the satellites are in space.
High orbits and careful monitoring are the
secret.
e)
You must correct for any delays the signal

experiences as it travels through the
atmosphere.
f)
Finally (for us), you can now obtain the

precise time from the GPS satellites.
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Yet another technological challenge is to

realize related deep space mission planning and
communication management at a distance of
nearly 400 million km. The polar Satellite Launch
Vehicle PSLV will be used to inject the spacecraft
from SDSC, SHAR in the 250 X 23000 km orbit
with an inclination of 17.864 degree. As the
minimum energy transfer opportunity from
Earth to Mars occurs once in 26 months, the
opportunity in 2013 demands a cumulative
incremental velocity of 2.592 km/sec.
United States government and is freely accessible

by anyone with a GPS receiver. GPS was created
and realized by the U.S. Department of Defense
(USDOD) and was originally run with 24
satellites. It was established in 1973 to overcome
the limitations of previous navigation systems.
Mission to Mars (during November 2013

launch opportunity):
Mars with its many similarities to earth is an

important planet to understand the origin and
evolution of the solar system. India certainly
cannot afford to be behind in its independent
exploration of the red planet. Indias first Mission
to Mars during 2013 would be important more
from the technological perspective, namely,
entire mission design, planning, management
and operations, and communication from a
distance of nearly 400 million km. This mission
will demonstrate ISROs capability to undertake
deep-space planetary mission where the travel
time from earth to Mars is nearly 300 days. The
Indian Mission to Mars would also provide an
opportunity to the scientific community, to
further understand the Martian Science.
The present plan is to launch a Mars-orbiter

using PSLV-XL during the November 2013
launch opportunity. Mars-orbiter will be placed
in an orbit of 50080,000 km around Mars and
will have a provision for carrying nearly 25 kg
of scientific payloads on board. An indicative
plan outlay of `39,750 crore at current prices for
the Twelfth Five Year has been made for the DOS.
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a

space-based global navigation satellite system
(GNSS) that provides reliable location and time
information in all weather and at all times and
anywhere on or near the Earth when and where
there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or
more GPS satellites. It is maintained by the
[36]
Improbable as it may seem, the whole idea

behind GPS is to use satellites in space as
reference points for locations here on earth.
Thats right, by very, very accurately measuring
our distance from three satellites we can
triangulate our position anywhere on earth.
Triangulation-What is it?
a)
Position is calculated from distance

measurements (ranges) to satellites.
b)
Mathematically we need four satellite

ranges to determine exact position.
c)
Three ranges are enough if we reject

ridiculous answers or use other tricks.
d)
Another range is required for technical

reasons.
Now, we come to the other varieties of

Satellite based navigation platforms, though all
of them work on the same basic principle but
have their own set of satellites being controlled
by different master-key i.e. nation/union that
owns them. Henceforth, all the powerful nations
having strategic geopolitical angle to their
existential identity are some way into building
their own SATNAV system.
I. GLONASS
In March 2013, Japan announced the

expansion of the Quasi-Zenith Satellite System
from three satellites to four. The $526 million
contract with Mitsubishi Electric for the
construction of three satellites is slated for
launch before the end of 2017.
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Global Navigation Satellite System is a radiobased satellite navigation system operated for the
Russian government by the Russian Space
Forces. Development on the GLONASS began
in the Soviet Union in 1976, with a goal of global
coverage by 1991. Beginning on 12 October 1982,
numerous rockets launches added satellites to
the system until the constellation was completed
in 1995. Following completion, the system fell
into disrepair with the collapse of the Russian
economy. Beginning in 2003, Russia committed
to restoring the system and by 2010 it had
achieved 100% coverage of Russias territory. As
on July 30, 2013, total satellites in the GLONASS
constellation were 29, in which 24 satellites being
operational, while one satellite is in maintenance,
one in Flight Tests phase and 3 more are spare
ones.
a proposed three-satellite regional time transfer

system and enhancement for the Global
Positioning System that would be receivable
within Japan. The first satellite Michibiki was
launched on 11 September 2010. Full operational
status is expected by 2013, though with the
pacifist approach in for a severe change with
the new Japanese government belonging to the
Centre-left approach, and also the economy
growing may be this date can pre-pone.
II. GALILEO
Galileo is a global navigation satellite system

(GNSS) currently being built by the European
Union (EU) and European Space Agency (ESA).
The 5 billion project is named after the famous
Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. One of the
political aims with Galileo is to provide a highaccuracy positioning system upon which
European nations can rely independent from the
Russian GLONASS and US GPS systems which
can be disabled for commercial users in times of
war or conflict.
When in operation, it will use the two ground

operations centers, one near Munich, Germany,
and another in Fucino, Italy and will consist of
30 satellites (27 operational + 3 active spares).
The first experimental satellite, GIOVE-A, was
launched in 2005 and was followed by a second
test satellite, GIOVE-B, launched in 2008. On
October 21, 2011, the first two of four
operational satellites were launched to validate
the system. The next two followed on October
12, 2012, making it possible to test Galileo endto-end. Once this In-Orbit Validation (IOV)
phase has been completed, additional satellites
will be launched to reach Initial Operational
Capability (IOC) around mid-decade and this
will become fully operational by the year 2019.
Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS)
The Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) is
BEIDOU Navigation System
The BeiDou Navigation System or BeiDou

(COMPASS) Navigation Satellite System is a
project by China to develop an independent
satellite navigation system. It may refer to either
one or both generations of the Chinese navigation
system. The first BEIDOU system, officially
called
BEIDOU
Satellite
Navigation
Experimental System, or known as BeiDou-1,
consists of 3 satellites and has limited coverage
and applications. It has been offering navigation
services mainly for customers in China and from
neighboring regions since 2000. The second
generation of the system known as Compass or
BEIDOU-2 will be a global satellite navigation
system consisting of 35 satellites, is still under
construction.
It became operational in China in December
2011, with 10 satellites in use, and began offering
services to customers in the Asia-Pacific region
in December 2012 and the global system will be
started by 2020. The chief designer of BeiDou
navigation system is Sun JIADONG.
India's satellite-based navigation systemGAGAN
A satellite-based navigation system to aid air
traffic from Southeast Asia to Africa, including
over the high seas in the vast region, has been
launched successfully, placing India into a select
group of nations which possess such a
sophisticated technology. GAGAN or the GPS
Aided Geo Augmented Navigation will also help
in marine navigation, search and rescue
[37]
Navigation System for the aviation sector. Final

System Acceptance Test (FSAT) of GAGAN was
successfully completed during July 2012. The
FSAT results have successfully demonstrated
that GAGAN Signals meet the Civil aviation
requirements.
Conclusively, we can say that not only
geopolitical angles of the post cold war that has
engulfed the technical prowess of a nation but
in todays world keeping information network
secure and secretive has also become important.
Reason behind this growing importance of own
navigation pattern can be fear of cyber war as
we have seen with the stuxnet on the verge of
attacking Iranian electric supply lines and its
nuclear installations.
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operations, rail and road transport, survey and

mapping as well as precision farming. The
system, developed jointly by the Indian Space
Research Organisation and Airports Authority
of India, would operationalise a satellite-based
Indian Flight Information Region in conjunction
with all nations from Southeast Asia, Gulf and
West Asia and the eastern coast of Africa. It
would be based on a satellite constellation
consisting of 24 satellites positioned in six earthcentered orbital planes. When commissioned,
GAGAN is expected to provide civil aeronautical
navigation signals consistent with International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standards
based on the Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS) Panel, as part of the Future Air
[38]
NEW TECHNOLOGY
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
SUPER-CONDUCTIVITY
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The flow of electrons is called current and

the materials in which the electrons flow is called
a conductor. Copper, mercury, aluminium, etc.
are good conductors whereas glass, rubber and
wood are bad conductors or insulators. Materials
that dont conduct electricity better than copper
are called semi-conductors.
replacement for liquid helium cut down the costs

considerably. It was also found that superconductive materials like lead, mercury and tin
lost their capability as soon as enough current
flowed through them to generate magnetic fields.
Further research with ceramics, the alloys of
oxides of niobium and titanium, proved that
these kept their conductivity despite strong
magnetic fields. It was in 1973, that Karl Alex
Muller of Zurich Laboratory decided to work on
metallic oxides called ceramics. Paul C.W. Chu
of Houston University found that superconducting materials got damaged when their
temperature was raised to 52K. Hence, he
replaced Barium with Strontium which has a
smaller atomic structure and he could raise the
temperature to 54K. Later, with the use of rare
earth element, temperature was raised to 98K.
In a world plagued by energy crisis, the

concept of super-conductivity has come about
as a boon to mankind. We know that conductors
are mediums that allow electricity to flow
through them. However, due to the resistance
offered by the medium, the current-carrying
capacity of the medium is almost reduced to half
its capability. It has been known that temperature
is a factor that contributes to this resistance,
hence, if the temperature of the carrier could be
lowered to absolute zero (0K or 273C), these
carriers could be made super-conductive,
because at this temperature they lose all
resistance.
It was in the year 1911 that a Dutch physicist

Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, discovered Superconductivity. While studying the variation of
electrical resistance of mercury with
temperature, he found that at near the absolute
zero temperature, the resistance dropped down
to a very small value. It was, however, found
that this transition to super-conductivity
involved more than simply very high or infinite
electrical conductivity. The next step towards
unfolding the mystery of super-conductivity took
place in 1933, when W. Meissner and R.
Ochsenfeld found that a super-conductor placed
in a magnetic field expelled the field from the
interior of the conductor. Later, it was found that
superconductivity needed a temperature of 4.2K,
which was the point at which helium gas
liquifies. Thus, the super-conductive devices had
to be submerged in liquid helium. The main
bottleneck was the high cost involved in such a
process. The discovery of liquid nitrogen as a
Today, Thallium, Barium, Calcium, Copper

oxide, Bismuth, Strontium, Yttrium are
considered the most attractive materials for
super-conductivity.
Uses and Applications: Super-conductors
have many advantages over normal conductors.
These are:
(i) In normal conductors, the energy lost
because of resistance is given off as heat
which makes the packing of electrical
circuits risky. Thus, a super-conductor
with no resistance and consequently no
heat building is found suitable to pack
the circuits tightly.
(ii) They save electricity as energy loss due

to resistance offered by conductors is
reduced.
(iii) They have ability to generate very

powerful fields from relatively small
superconducting electromagnets.
(iv) They can create Josephson junction
which is capable of detecting minute
magnetic fields and also have the
advantage of switching 100 times faster.
[39]
These magnetic field detectors are called

super-conducting quantum interference
devices or SQUIDS.
Due to these inherent advantages, superconductors have been put to a variety of uses:
LASER
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(i) Super-conductor electromagnets are

used to generate extremely powerful
magnetic fields which are used in atomic
colliders.
built and tested the countrys first

superconducting generator. The generator is
cooled by liquid helium and has a capacity of
generating 200KV amperes. It has succeeded in
cutting down on energy loss, but the use of liquid
helium is proving very costly and efforts are on
to substitute it with a relatively cheaper liquid
Nitrogen.
(ii) Mass drivers are used to accelerate the

object to very high velocities.
(iii) Super-conductors are also used in

magneto cardiograms, nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR), magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI), etc. These procedures
help the medical experts to take detailed
images of organs without having to cut
open the skin.
(iv) Magnetic levitated trains (M.L.T.) float
4 inches above their tracks and hence
no friction is involved which could have
limited their speed. These so called
Bullet Trains move at very high speed
upto 500 mph.
Research in India: Acknowledging the

importance of super-conductivity, a Programme
Management Group was set up by the
Government in 1987. It was soon replaced by
the National Super-conductivity Science and
Technology Board in 1991. Research work was
entrusted to DAE, CSIR and IITs. The areas of
research work included improvement in critical
temperature, workability of Yitrium, Bismuth,
Thalium, QNG and MTMG techniques, SQUIDS,
HGMS, etc.
The National Physical Laboratory, New
Delhi, has developed a SQUID at liquid Nitrogen
temperature of 77K. They will help in geological
prospecting and bio-magnetism. Similarly,
Super-conducting magnetic ore separators are
being used in places like Kudremukh, etc. In yet
another field, super-conducting compounds
called monophasic compounds with a critical
transition temperature of 110 K, 90K and 80K
have been obtained. The highest critical
transition temperature of 110 K has been reached
for the compound bismuth, strontium, calcium
and copper oxide. In a major development,
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Hyderabad has
[40]
The name LASER is an acronym for Light

Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. A Laser is an electric apparatus for
producing unified light waves that can be exactly
controlled, precisely focused, and when desired,
made extremely powerful. It can be aimed
precisely enough to destroy a dangerous skin
tumour without affecting other healthy skin
tissues.
Laser light has certain remarkable

properties, which make it chromatic, for
example, a red laser beam has only red light.
Laser is very coherent and can be transmitted
over great distances, without the beam
spreading. It also has the advantage that a lot of
power is concentrated in a very small area. On
the other hand, Sunlight, electric light and the
light from a candle is incoherent. It is a jumble
of different wavelengths and brightness, in what
seems to be a steady light emitted in every
direction. To produce a coherent beam, the
original light has to be coherent, and thats what
a laser is for.
Applications: The Laser beams, which are a
coherent beam of light and intense enough to
vaporise the hardest material ever known, are
being used to drill holes in diamond, to weld
detached retina of eye and destroy maligant brain
tumours located deep inside the brain or in the
spinal cord, and to transmit information. Some
of the major use of laser beams are :
I. In Consumer Electronics: In the

consumer electronics industry, compact
discs (CDs) have revolutionised the
audio industry with their durability and
the fidelity of reproduction. Lasers are
an essential part of the recording and
reading of Compact Discs (CDs). The
recording process is basically similar to
that of an LP, except that instead of a
needle, laser lights are used to read the
grooves. Since the waves are extremely

small, the amount of information stored
on a CD can be huge, leading to
exceptional fidelity.
V. In Defence: Lasers are being used to

generate the immense temperatures
required to study thermonuclear fusion,
and like other technologies, lasers are
being conceived as offensive and
defensive weapons. In fact, lasers
formed one of the main technological
mainstays of the Strategic Defence
Initiative or Star Wars.
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II. In Computer Technology: Computer

memories are another area where lasers
have had a tremendous impact on
ROMs (Read Only Memories). These
optical discs allow a far more dense
storage of data, which are extremely
durable and have a further advantage
in having much faster access times for
retrieval of data.
surgeons to produce self-cauterizing

cuts.
III. In Industries: The whole edifice of

todays industrial society is based on
reliable and fast communications. Lasers
are playing an extremely vital role in
providing data networks.
In clothing factories, computer-guided
lasers move across dozens of layers to
cloth at a time, cutting material for
dozens of suits in a minute. In machine
shops, lasers cut through steel much
faster than saws or other wedge tools.
In a car factory, high-power laser beams
spot-weld the parts of a car body
together.
Industrial applications of Lasers provide

a very concentrated and easilycontrolled source of energy. This
property finds use in laser welding and
drilling, especially where sensitive parts
have to be welded and the damage to
the surrounding parts is to be
minimised.
IV. Medicine & Health Care: Laser surgery

is becoming increasingly, safe and
cheap, thanks to the rapid pace of
technical development. One of the
earliest medical uses of lasers was in
retinal surgery, where detached retinas
were fixed. With the development of
fibre optics, lasers are being used to
burn arterial clots, thus, preventing
risky and expensive open-heart surgery.
A wide beam of laser light can be
focused to an extremely fine point, thus,
producing a very high temperature at
that point. This type of tools is called a
heat knife, which are used by the
Lasers are used to find the target and

to measure the range of targets
accurately, fusion process requires a
starting temperature of millions of
degrees, obtained by concentrated laser
beams.
VI. In Telecommunication: In a telephone

system employing Fibre Optics, voice
vibrations are converted into pulses of
laser light, thousands of per second.
This would be impossible with ordinary
light sources, such as, tungsten bulb,
which require start-up and cool-down
time for each light pulse. Laser light is
instantaneous, so millions of pulses can
be transmitted in a second. A hair-thin
glass fibre can carry several thousand
telephone messages at once.
VII. In cleaning of monuments: Cleaning by

laser, which was introduced in Italy in
the 1970s, has until now remained an
expensive method with a generally
limited performance, mainly consisting
of laboratory equipment transported to
the site. With the development of Lama
(portable laser for the cleaning of
facades and historic buildings),
however, a decisive step has been taken
that could see the widespread adoption
of laser-cleaning.
Laser Technology in India
The importance of laser was recognized by

the scientific community in India fairly early and
several institutions initiated research and
development (R&D) projects, although modest
ones, in this area in the mid-sixties. Since then,
laser-related R&D programmes in India have
expanded considerably and now encompasses
[41]
most of the Department of Atomic Energy to

develop lasers and explore their applications has
been quite massive.
The Survey of India is making use of lasers

in range findings, whereas, for accurate
measurement of air pollutants through Rayleigh
scattering by Laser Diffractrometer, IIT, Madras
has done significant works.
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Dr. Homi Bhabha, the founder of Indian

atomic energy programme, always encouraged
research in frontier areas of science, whether or
not directly related to the atomic energy
programme. Thus, a modest attempt to develop
semiconductor lasers at the Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre (BARC) was initiated in 1964
though at that time laser was in its infancy and
its applications were limited. The first
semiconductor laser in India was developed at
BARC in 1965. This was a major achievement
for India. In another significant breakthrough
an optical communication link using Indianmade semiconductor laser was established in
1966 between BARC and the Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research (TIFR), a distance of 20
kms. Dr. Bhabha had constantly encouraged this
activity and had often visited the laboratories
and the site of the optical transmitter to
encourage the scientists. Dr. Bhabhas successors
continued his policy of encouraging research in
frontline science after his tragic death in an air
crash in 1967.
Varanasi. The Tata Institute of Fundamental

Research, Mumbai, BARC, Mumbai, IIT,
Kharagpur are the centres where theoretical
works on lasers or related topics are being carried
out.
The laser-related activity in the Department

of Atomic Energy got a fillip in 1987 when a new
research institute called Centre for Advanced
Technology (CAT) was established. Since its
inception, CAT has made commendable progress
in both the areas and is widely recognised as an
important R&D centre of India.
At present over 90 research institutions are

working on various aspects of lasers, like their
fabrications, development of laser materials and
their applications to various fields like
meteorology, communications, medicines,
isotope separation and in basic researches.
Scientists then started indigenous commercial
production of nitrogen, argon, helium, cadmium,
and nitrogen pumped dye lasers at various units.
BARC has also done extensive work on Go2
lasers.
In the field of semiconductor lasers, which
differ from other lasers, works are going on at
BARC and Solid State Physics Laboratory, New
Delhi. The major centres in India with extensive
facilities for development of lasers are BARC,
Mumbai, IIT, Kanpur, IIS, Bangalore and BHU,
[42]
Hence lasers have wide range of

applications. But due to limited availability of
lasers, their components and cost effectiveness,
the activities are still very slow in our country in
comparison to other countries.
Laser Development
As the name suggests, Centre for Advanced

Technology (CAT) has given priority to
developing technologies of important lasers and
exploring their application in industry, medicine
and R&D. The first laser built at CAT was a
copper vapour laser. It is the most powerful laser
emitting visible light. Copper vapour lasers
capable of giving upto 40 Watt average power
had been development at CAT. These lasers are
also used to pump tunable dye lasers whose
wavelengths can be changed. Several such lasers
have been given by CAT to universities and
another research laboratories for spectroscopic
studies.
Another important laser developed by CAT

is the carbon dioxide (CO2) laser. Incidentally,
the CO2 laser was invented by a well-known
Indian scientist, Dr. C.K.N. Patel, who was then
working at Bell Labs in USA. CAT has developed
technologies of several types of CO 2 lasers
namely, low power slow CO2 laser, high power
fast flow CO2 laser, tunable CO2 laser and high
pressure pulsed CO2 laser and is also pursuing
applications of these CO2 lasers in medicine and
industry. Laser surgery has many advantages
over conventional surgery. In laser surgery there
is virtually no bleeding, far less trauma to the
patients and healing is faster. Although use of
laser in surgery is widespread in the western
countries, its application in India was limited
due to the high cost of imported surgical lasers.
CAT therefore decided to develop a surgical laser
based on a 60W CO2. This surgical laser has an
articulated arm with seven elbows to allow the
surgeon to guide the laser beam. The laser is

designed for Indian conditions and can
withstand the extreme ambience. Twelve such
lasers have already been supplied to hospitals in
India in cities extending from Delhi to
Thiruvananthapuram and from Mumbai to
Kolkata.
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Medical Applications: CAT has also been

developing lasers for surgery. It has promoted
research in this area in various hospitals through
a National Laser Programme. Apart from the
surgical CO2 laser, CAT has developed nitrogen
laser for medical use. Nitrogen laser has been
found useful for treatment of tuberculosis. Many
patients of TB develop cavities in their lungs
which become breeding ground of the TB
bacillus.
lasting about a millionth of a second. The waves

travel at the speed of light, i.e., 3,00,000 kms per
second or 1,86,000 miles per second, until they
strike some reflecting surface, which may be
almost anything from solid rock to the water
vapour in clouds. The reflected waves are
received by the same antenna, in the intervals
between the pulses. The time interval between
outgoing and reflected pulses is continually
translated into visual data on the screen of a
cathode ray tube, similar to a TV picture tube.
The time taken for the reflected waves to return,
gives the distance of the object and the direction
of return tells about its location.
RADAR AND SONAR
RADAR :
It is acronym for Radio Detecting and

Ranging. Radar is a technique and apparatus
for determining the location of an object by the
use of radio-waves. The most visible and
ubiquitous aspects of radar are the rotating,
curved-surface antennas seen on the top of most
ships and airport towers. Not visible, but equally
important, are the radar antennas hidden in the
noses of aeroplanes.
It is a system employing microwaves for the

purpose of locating, identifying, navigating or
guiding such objects as ships, aircrafts, missiles
or official satellites. It can determine the
direction, distance, height and speed of objects
that are not visible to the human eyes.
The working principle of radar is similar to
that of sight. We see an object when light waves
fall on an object and are reflected from it, and
reach our eyes forming an image of it. Radar uses
a powerful radio transmitter to illuminate objects
with radio-waves and a sensitive radio receiver
to detect the reflected waves, also called echoes,
which are amplified and electronically
transformed so that they can be seen on a display
monitor as spots of light or as an image of the
object observed. A single antenna, generally,
serves both as a transmitter and receiver.
In operation, radar antennas emit pulses of
radio-waves, about 1000 pulses per second, each
Application: Radar has a large variety of

applications, involving precise measurements of
distances. Besides, being used for navigating
ships and aircrafts, it is used for mapping storms
and other meteorological disturbances, and
studying planets and their Moons or Satellites.
It is used for determining altitudes of
aeroplanes, navigating in fog and in the dark,
and even mapping the cloud-shrouded surface
of Venus. A useful application of radar is for
police speed traps. Here, a special radar device
is used, which responds differently to the
reflections from moving objects and stationary
objects.
SONAR:
Acronym for Sound Navigation and

Ranging, Sonar is a technique and apparatus for
determining the location of an object by reflected
sound-waves. In fact, it is a system for detecting
and locating submerged objects or
communication under water by transmitting a
high frequency sound wave and collecting the
reflected wave.
The Sonar principle is used to determine the
depth of shallow bodies of water and to locate
fish, under-water submarines, mines, wrecks,
and other obstacles. Initially, developed as a
military instrument for locating submarines, it
is widely used for measuring water depth, and
in Arctic regions, for measuring ice-thickness.
In Active Sonar, pulses of high-frequency
(high-pitched) sounds are beamed downwards
and at angles from the bottom of a ship. The
echoes are received by an apparatus that
[43]
measures the time interval, then computes the

distance and friction of the reflecting object. This
information is shown on a dial or plotted
automatically on a chart. Passive Sonar does not

send out sounds. It detects sounds made by
submarine engines or other sound-producing
objects.
MISCELLANEOUS
Scientific Institutions
Location
Agharkar Research Institute
Pune
Bose Institute
Kolkata
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research
Bengaluru
Indian Association for the Cultivation of Sciences
Kolkata
Indian Institute of Astrophysics
Bengaluru
Shri Chaitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology
Thiruvananthapuram
S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences
Kolkata
Raman Research Institute
Bengaluru
Birbal Shahni Institute of Palaeobotany
Lucknow
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism
Mumbai
International Advanced Research Centre for Power Metallurgy and
Hyderabad
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Institutes
New Materials
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology
Dehradun
Indian Academy of Sciences
Bengaluru
Indian National Science Academy
New Delhi
Indian National Academy of Engineering
New Delhi
Indian Science Congress Association
Kolkata
National Academy of Sciences
Allahabad
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)
Mumbai
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR)
Kalpakkam
Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT)
Indore
Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC)
Kolkata
Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD)
Hyderabad
Heavy Water Board (HWB)
Mumbai
Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC)
Hyderabad
Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT)
Mumbai
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL)
Mumbai
[44]
Jharkhand (Jaduguda)
Mumbai
Electronic Corporation of India Ltd. (ECIL)
Hyderabad
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR)
Mumbai
Tata Memorial Centre (TMC)
Mumbai
Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics (SINP)
Kolkata
Institute of Physics (IOP)
Bhubaneshwar
Harish Chandra Research Institute (HRI)
Allahabad
Institute of Mathematical Sciences (IMSC)
Chennai
The Institute for Plasma Research (IPR)
Ahmedabad
National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS)
Bengaluru
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC)
Thiruvananthapuram
ISRO Satellite Center
Bengaluru
Sriharikota High Altitude Rocket (SHAR) Centre
Sriharikota
Space Application Centre (SAC)
Ahmedabad
Liquid Propulsions System Center (LPSC)
Bengaluru,
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Uranium Corporation of India Ltd. (UCIL)

Indian Rare Earth Ltd. (IRE)
Valiamala (Kerala) &

Mahendragiri (T.N)
Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU) Ahmedabad

National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA)
Hyderabad
Physical Research Laboratory (PRL)
Ahmedabad
ISRO Inertial System Unit
Thiruvananthpuram
ISRO Telemetry Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC)
Bengaluru
National Institute of Immunology (NII)
New Delhi
National Facilities For Animal Tissue and Cell Culture

(NFATCC)
Pune
National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository

(NFPTCR)
New Delhi
Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP)
Lucknow
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resource (NBPGR)
New Delhi
Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI)
Trivandrum
National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI)
Karnal, Haryana
[45]
COMPUTER TERMINOLOGY
Algorithm: A formal set of instructions

that can be followed to perform a specific
task, such as a mathematical formula or
a set of instructions in a computer
program.
Compatibility: The extent to which a

given piece of hardware or software
conforms to an accepted standard
regardless of the original manufacturer.
Compiler: A program that translates a

high-level programming language such as
C or Pascal into a machine language
program.
Connectivity: In networking, the degree

to which any given computer or
application program can cooperate with
other network components, either
hardware or software, purchased from
other vendors.
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Access: To retrieve data from a storage

device such as a hard disk, or to log in to
a computer system or network.
[46]
Aliasing: In computer graphics, the effect

produced by diagonal lines, curves or
circles, when display resolution is too
coarse to hide the stair-stepped jagged
appearance. Aliasing is also seen when a
bit-mapped graphic is enlarged many
times its original size.
Animation: A method of creating the
illusion of movement by displaying a series
of slightly different images very quickly
so that the eye is deceived into seeing
smooth motion. Animation is a major
component of multimedia applications
and is widely used in computer games.
Attenuation: In communications, the

decrease in power of a signal transmitted
over a wire. Attenuation is measured in
decibels, and increases as the power of
the signal decreases.
Bounce: The return of an e-mail message

to its original sender due to an error in
delivery. This may be due to a simple
spelling mistake in the e-mail address, the
recipients computer system may be down,
or they may no longer subscribe to or
have an account on the system.
Brouter: In networking, a device that

combines the attributes of a bridge and a
router. A brouter can route one or more
specific protocols, such as TCP/IP, and
bridge all others.
Browser: An application program used to

explore Internet resources. A browser lets you
wander from node to node without concern
for the technical details of the links between
the nodes or the specific methods used to
access them, and presents the informationtext, graphics, sound, or video-as a document
on the screen.
Cropping: An editing operation during

which pieces of a graphics image or a
halftone are removed to make the image
fit into a given area, or to remove
unnecessary parts of the image.
Cyberspace: A descriptive term for the

virtual geography of the online world.
This term first appeared in print in
William Gibsons novel Neuromancer,
published in 1984, where it describes the
online world of computers and the
elements of society that use these
computers.
Debugging: The process of finding,

locating and removing logical or
syntactical errors from a computer
program.
Defragmentation: The process of

reorganizing and rewriting files so that
they occupy one large continuous area
on your hard disk rather than several
smaller areas.
Digitizer: A computer peripheral that

converts linear pictorial information such
as maps into digital data by tracing the
image with a puck. Also known as a
digitizing tablet.
Dithering: In computer graphics, the use

of dots of different colours or shades to
produce what seems to be a new colour.
Documentation: The instructions,

tutorials, specifications, troubleshooting
advice, and reference guides that
accompany a computer program or a piece

of hardware.
e-mail: Also called electronic mail. The
use of a network to transmit text messages,
memos, and reports.
Emulator: A device built to work exactly

like another device, either hardware,
software or a combination of both.
Encapsulation: The primary goal of

encapsulation is to isolate the internal
workings of a particular object class, so
that it can be changed and improved by
the programmer without causing
dangerous side effects anywhere else in
the system. By using encapsulation, large
programs can be made much more
readable, because all of the data and
related code is in the same place.
Handshaking: The exchange of control

codes or particular characters to maintain
and coordinate data flow between two
devices, so that data is only transmitted
when the receiving device is ready to
accept the data.
Hypertext: A method of presenting

information so that it can be viewed by
the user in a non-sequential way,
regardless of how the topics were
originally organized.
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Encryption: The process of encoding

information in an attempt to make it
secure from unauthorized access. The
reverse of this process is known as
decryption.
Ethernet: A popular network protocol

and cabling scheme with a transfer rate
of 10 megabits per second, originally
developed by Xerox in 1976.
Firewall: A method of preventing

unauthorized access to a computer
system, often found on networked
computers. A firewall is designed to
provide normal service to authorized
users, while at the same time preventing
those unauthorized users from gaining
access to the system.
Freeware: A form of software distribution

where the author retains copyright of the
software, but makes the program available
to others at no cost. Freeware is often
distributed on bulletin boards, or through
user groups. The program may not be
resold or distributed by others for profit.
Genlocking: A contraction of generator

lock.
The
synchronization
and
superimposition of computer generated
text or graphics onto a video signal, so
that the two images can be combined onto
the same signal and displayed at the same
time.
Interface: That point where a connection

is made between two different parts of a
system, such as between two hardware
devices, between a user and program or
operating system, or between two
application programs.
Interoperability: The ability to run

application programs across local, wide,
and metropolitan area networks, giving
users convenient access to data and
application programs across multi-vendor
networks.
Lurking: The practice of reading an

Internet mailing list or USENET
newsgroup without posting anything
yourself.
Mail Merge: A facility found in most

word processors that joins two files
together to produce a mass mailing of
personalized form letters.
Mnemonic: Pronounced nem-onic. A

name or abbreviation used to help you
remember a long or complex instruction.
Programming languages use many
different mnemonics to represent complex
instructions.
Morphing: A contraction of metamorphosing. The use of specialized

animation software to change one image
into another using a series of intermediate
images. Morphing is used to provide
many of the special effects seen in popular
movies where a man turns into a wolf, or
a fluffy kitten changes into a furious
roaring lion.
Multithreading:
The
concurrent
processing of several tasks or threads
inside the same program. Because several
[47]
tasks can be processed in parallel, one task

does not have to wait for another to finish
before starting.
Outsourcing: To subcontract a companys
data processing operations to outside
contractors rather than maintain
corporate hardware, software, and staff.
Out sourcing is often used as a cost-cutting
mechanism, although the cost savings are
sometimes difficult to quantify.
Telecommuting: Working at home on a

computer connected to the office by
modems and telephone lines instead of
commuting to the office.
Teleconferencing: The use of audio,

video, or computer systems, linked by a
communications channel, to allow widely
separated individuals to take part in a
discussion or meeting all at the same time.
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is then read from disk, and displaces old

information held in memory.
Portability: The degree to which a

program can be moved easily to various
different computing environments with a
minimum number of changes.
Posting: The process of sending an

individual article or e-mail message to a
USENET newsgroup or to a mailing list.
Prodigy: An online information service

providing a variety of services to users of
personal computers, including sports,
weather and stock market reports, travel
information, and home shopping services.
Programming: The process of designing,

writing, testing, debugging, documenting,
and maintaining a program.
Protocol:
In
networking
and
communications, the specification that
defines the procedures to follow when
transmitting and receiving data. Protocols
define the format, timing, sequence, and
error checking systems used.
Router: In networking, an intelligent

connecting device that can send packets
to the correct local area network segment
to take them to their destination.
Semaphore: In programming, an
interprocess communication signal that
indicates the status of a shared system
resource, such as shared memory.
Sort: To place a set of data items into an

ordered list, either numerically,
alphabetically, or by some other criteria
like file date or time.
Spamming: To flood someones mailbox

with unwanted e-mail messages.
Swapping: The process of exchanging one

item for another. In a virtual memory
system, swapping occurs when a program
requests a virtual memory location that is
not currently in memory; the information
[48]
Thesaurus: In word processing, a

program feature that locates and suggests
alternative words, or synonyms, from a
list of alternative words stored on disk.
Thrashing: An excessive amount of disk

activity in a virtual memory system, to
the point where the system is spending
all its time swapping pages in and out of
memory, and no time executing the
application.
Topology: The map of a network. Physical

topology describes where the cables are
run and the workstations or nodes are
located: logical topology refers to the paths
that messages take to get from one user
on the network to another.
Trojan horse: A type of virus that

pretends to be a useful program, such as
a game or a utility program, when in
reality it contains special code that will
internationally damage any system onto
which it is loaded.
Virtual memory: A memory-management

technique that allows information in
physical memory to be swapped out to a
hard disk. This technique provides
application programs with more memory
space than is actually available in the
computer.
Virtual reality: Abbreviated VR. A

computer generated environment that
presents the illusion of reality. The user
may wear a head-mounted display (HMD)
which displays a three-dimensional image
of the environment, and use an
instrumented glove to manipulate objects
within the environment.
Wizard: A technique used by some

applications to guide the inexperienced or
infrequent user through a complex set of
steps by asking questions about the
document they are in the process of
creating as they are actually creating it.
application. Common plug-ins are those

for web browsers (Real Audio, Quick
Time, etc.) or graphics programs (Kais
Power Tools, DigiMarc, etc.)
Shell Account: A software application

that allows use of another machine's
Internet connection. Users do not have a
direct Internet connection, instead, an
Internet connection is made through a
host computers connection.
Packet filter: Looks at each packet

entering or leaving the network and
accepts or rejects it based on user-defined
rules. Packet filtering is fairly effective and
transparent to users, but it is difficult to
configure. In addition, it is susceptible to
IP spoofing.
Application Gateway: Applies security

mechanisms to specific applications, such
as FTP and Telnet servers. This is very
effective, but can impose a performance
degradation.
Proxy Server: Intercepts all messages

entering and leaving the network. The
proxy server effectively hides the true
network addresses. In practice, many
firewalls use two or more of these
techniques in concert. A firewall is
considered a first line of defence in
protecting private information. For greater
security, data can be encrypted.
Flame War: When an online discussion

degenerates into a series of personal
attacks against the debaters, rather than
a discussion of their positions, it is referred
to as a flame war.
Information Superhighway: There is

some debate about this term. Some claim
it refers to the future, where everyone will
have fast, easy access to the Internet and
things such as video conferencing will be
widely available. Others claim that the
Internet as we already know it is the
information Superhighway.
Masking: To conceal a web sites URL in

some manner, normally by using a
domain name. For example, if a URL
shows up as http://www.example.com/
but the web site is actually located at
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Voice mail: A computerized store-andforward system for voice messages. A

voice mail system uses prerecorded
messages to route the caller to the correct
person, department, or mailbox, and then
digitizes the incoming messages and stores
them on disk. Recipients can review their
messages and can often forward them to
another department or person after
attaching their own comments.
Channel: In an ISDN system it is the

bearer channel that carries voice or data
at 64 kbps in either direction. This is in
contrast to D channel which is used for
control signals and data about the call
several B channels can be multiplexed into
higher rate H channel.
HiperLAN: HiperLAN is a set of wiereless

local
area
network
(WLAN)
communication standard primarily used
in European countries. There are two
specifications.
HiperLAN/I
and
HiperLAN/2. Both have been adopted by
the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute. The HiperLAN
standards provide features and capability
similar to those of the IEEE 802.11 WLAN
standard used in US and other countries.
Finger: An Internet tool for locating

people on other sites. Finger can also be
used to give access to non-personal
information, but the most common use is
to see if a person has an account at a
particular site.
Phishing: A technique whereby the

websites of known institutions are entirely
or partly copied and e-mails are used to
obtain private or confidential data of the
customers of those institutions. The
request to provide those data is often
motivated by so-called safety measures or
the need to update data banks.
Plug-in: A small piece of software that
adds features to a larger software
[49]
http://www.somewhere-else.com/
example/, that URL is said to be
masked.
Ping: A program for determining if
another computer is presently connected
to the Internet.
Trolling: The act of deliberately posting

false or inflammatory information in order
to start a flame war or cause aggravation
to others.
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this a Favourite Place or a Hot Spot. Most

browsers contain a simple address book
where the reader can store the addresses
of their favourite places. Click on the name
of the place, and the Browser
automatically goes there, like an online
phone book with an autodialer.
Bookmaking a site just means adding it to
your address book. When someone
bookmarks your site, it means they are
probably going to come back.
Pixel: Shorthand for picture element, a

pixel is the smallest unit of resolution on
a monitor. It is commonly used as a unit
of measurement.
Router: A computer or software package

that handles the connection between two
or more networks. Routers spend all their
time looking at the destination addresses
of the packets passing though them to
decide which route to send them on.
Bookmark: Its just an address book entry

for a Web Address. Some browsers call
Data Compression: Any method of

encoding data so that it occupies less space
than in its original form. Many different
mathematical techniques can be used, but
the overall purpose is to compress the data
so that it can be stored, retrieved, or
transmitted more efficiently. Data
compression is used in facsimile and many
other forms of data transmission, CDROM publishing, still image and video
image manipulation and database
management systems.
[50]
CHRONICLE
GREAT INDIAN
SCIENTISTS
ARYABHATTA
zero was not a numeral only but also a symbol

and a concept. Discovery of zero enabled
Aryabhatta to find out the exact distance
between the earth and the moon. The discovery
of zero also opened up a new dimension of
negative numerals.
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Aryabhatta was a great mathematician and

astronomer of India and the earliest known
author on Algebra. It is believed that he was born
in 476 A.D. in Kusumpur, India. Aryabhatta
was a fifth century mathematician, astronomer,
astrologer and physicist. He was a pioneer in the
field of mathematics. At the age of 23, he wrote
Aryabhattiya, which is a summary of
mathematics of his time.
IAS ACADEMY
There are four sections in this scholarly work.

In the first section he describes the method of
denoting big decimal numbers by alphabets. In
the second section, we find difficult questions
from topics of modern day Mathematics such as
number theory, geometry, trigonometry and
Beejganita (algebra). The remaining two sections
are on astronomy.
Achievements & Contribution
Mathematics:
Aryabhatta's contribution in mathematics is

unparalleled. He suggested formula to calculate
the areas of a triangle and a circle, which were
correct. He was the first mathematician to give
the 'table of the sines', which is in the form of a
single rhyming stanza. This remarkable man
was a genius and continues to baffle many
mathematicians of today. His works was then
later adopted by the Greeks and then the Arabs.
Pi as Irrational: Aryabhata worked on the

approximation for Pi (), and may have realized
that is irrational. In the second part of the
Aryabhatiya, he writes "Add four to 100,
multiply by eight and then add 62,000. By this
rule the circumference of a circle of diameter
20,000 can be approached." In other words,
= ~ 62832/20000 = 3.1416, correct to five
digits. After Aryabhatiya was translated
into Arabic (ca. 820 AD) this approximation was
mentioned in Al-Khwarizmi's book on algebra.
Discovery of zero: Aryabhatta showed that
Algebra: His other works include algebra,

arithmetic, trigonometry, quadratic equations
and the sine table. He gave the formula (a + b)2 =
a2 + b2 + 2ab
Astronomy:
The last two sections of Aryabhattiya were

on Astronomy. Evidently, Aryabhatta contributed greatly to the field of science too,
particularly Astronomy.
In ancient India, the science of astronomy
was well advanced. It was called Khagolshastra.
Khagol was the famous astronomical
observatory at Nalanda, where Aryabhatta
studied. In fact science of astronomy was highly
advanced and our ancestors were proud of it.
The aim behind the development of the
science of astronomy was the need to have
accurate calendars, a better understanding of
climate and rainfall patterns for timely sowing
and choice of crops, fixing the dates of seasons
and festivals, navigation, calculation of time and
casting of horoscopes for use in astrology.
Knowledge of astronomy, particularly
knowledge of the tides and the stars, was of
great importance in trade, because of the
requirement of crossing the oceans and deserts
during night time.
Disregarding the popular view that our
planet earth is Achala (immovable),
Aryabhatta stated his theory that earth is round
and rotates on its own axis He explained that
the appearance of the sun moving from east to
west is false by giving examples. One such
example was: When a person travels in a boat,
the trees on the shore appear to move in the
opposite direction. He also correctly stated that
[51]
the moon and the planets shined by reflected

sunlight.

Scientists at Europe's CERN research centre
have found a new subatomic particle that could
be the Higgs boson, the basic building block of
the universe. It is well known that the 'Higgs' of
Higgs boson refers to British physicist Peter
Higgs, who in 1964 laid much of the conceptual
groundwork for the presence of the elusive
particle. However, it's not exactly common
knowledge that the term "boson" owes its name
to the pioneering work of the late Indian
physicist, Satyendra Nath Bose.Bose
completed his graduation from Presidency
College in Kolkata and Masters from Calcutta
University. He joined the Physics Department
of Calcutta University in 1916. After completing
his master's degree, Bose became a research
scholar at the University of Calcutta in 1916 and
began his studies on the theory of relativity. In
1921, Bose joined the physics department at the
University of Dhaka, which had then been
recently formed, and went on to establish new
departments, laboratories and libraries in which
he could teach advanced courses.
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He was the first person to say that Earth is

spherical and it revolves around the sun. He
already knew that the earth spins on its axis,
the earth moves round the sun and the moon
rotates round the earth. He talks about the
position of the planets in relation to its movement
around the sun. He refers to the light of the
planets and the moon as reflection from the sun.
He also gave a scientific explanation for solar
and lunar eclipse. He goes as far as to explain
the eclipse of the moon and the sun, day and
night, the contours of the earth, the length of
the year exactly as 365 days.
Bose once was awarded 110 marks out of 100 in

mathematics because he had solved some
problems in the exam paper by more than one
method. He made a name for himself in school
due to his love for science; in collaboration with
some of his friends, he constructed a telescope
and other scientific instruments.
He even computed the circumference of the

earth as 24835 miles which is close to modern
day calculation of 24900 miles.
Sidereal periods: Considered in modern

English units of time, Aryabhata calculated the
sidereal rotation (the rotation of the earth
referenced the fixed stars) as 23 hours 56 minutes
and 4.1 seconds; the modern value is 23:56:4.091.
Similarly, his value for the length of the sidereal
year at 365 days 6 hours 12 minutes 30 seconds
is an error of 3 minutes 20 seconds over the
length of a year. The notion of sidereal time was
known in most other astronomical systems of the
time, but this computation was likely the most
accurate in the period.
Recognition and Honours
India's first satellite Aryabhata, was named

after him and the lunar crater Aryabhata is
named in his honour.
SATYENDRA NATH BOSE
Satyendra Nath Bose was the great physicist

of the universe, born on January 1, 1894, in
Calcutta (now Kolkata). Satyendra Nath Bose
discovered what became known as bosons and
went on to work with Albert Einstein to define
one of two basic classes of subatomic particles.
Much of the credit for discovering the boson, or
"God particle," was given to British physicist
Peter Higgs, much to the chagrin of the Indian
government and people.
His father Surendranath was employed in
the Engineering Department of the East India
Railway. As a student of the Hindu High School,
[52]
Bose, who worked in Kolkata and Dhaka,

was a contemporary of Albert Einstein. He made
important contributions to the field of quantum
physics in the 1920s that changed how particle
physics has been studied ever since.
Bose wrote a paper in 1924 in which he

derived Planck's quantum radiation law without
referencing classical physicswhich he was able
to do by counting states with identical properties.
The paper would later prove seminal in creating
the field of quantum statistics.
In 1924, Bose sent the paper to Albert Einstein

in Germany, and the scientist recognized its
importance, translated it into German and
submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious
scientific journal Zeitschrift fr Physik. The
publication led to recognition, and Bose was
granted a leave of absence to work in Europe
for two years at X-ray and crystallography
laboratories, where he worked alongside Einstein

and Marie Curie, among others.
Einstein had adopted Bose's idea and
extended it to atoms, which led to the prediction
of the existence of phenomena that became
known as the Bose-Einstein Condensate, a dense
collection of bosonsparticles with integer spin
that were named for Bose.
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After his stay in Europe, Bose returned to the

University of Dhaka in 1926. Although he did
not have a doctorate, Einstein had recommended
he be made a professor, and so Bose was made
head of the physics department. But upon his
return, Bose did not publish for a significant
period of time.
and a passionate teacher. Prafulla Chandra Ray

was the founder of the Indian School of modern
chemistry. He was a pioneer of chemical
industries in India. Rays activities were not
confined to his laboratory and teaching. His
activities concerned with all spheres of human
interesteducational reform, industrial
development, employment generation & poverty
alleviation, economic freedom and political
advancement of the country. He was a pioneer
in social reform in the country. He took to social
service with a missionary zeal. He was a great
critique of the prevailing caste system in the
Hindu society.
According to a July 2012 New York Times

article in which Bose is described as the "Father
of the 'God Particle,'" the scientist's interests
wandered into other fields, including
philosophy, literature and the Indian
independence movement. He published another
physics paper in 1937 and in the early 1950s
worked on unified field theories.
After 25 years in Dhaka, Bose moved back
to Calcutta in 1945 and continued to research
and teach there until his death in 1974.
The Government of India honored Bose in

1954 with the prestigious Padma Vibhushan, the
second-highest civilian award in India. Five years
later, he was appointed as the National Professor,
the highest honor in the country for a scholar.
Bose remained in that position for 15 years. Bose
also became an adviser to the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research, as well as
president of the Indian Physical Society and the
National Institute of Science. He was elected
general president of the Indian Science Congress
and president of the Indian Statistical Institute.
In 1958, he became a Fellow of the Royal Society.
About 12 years after Bose's death on February
4, 1974, the Indian parliament established the
S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences in
Salt Lake, Kolkata.
PRAFULLA CHANDRA RAY

Prafulla Chandra Ray was an eminent
scientist, an exemplary entrepreneur, a patriot
P C Ray was born on 2 August 1861 in RaruliKatipara, a village in the District of Khulna (in
present day Bangladesh). His early education
started in his village school. After attending the
village school, he went to Kolkata, where he
studied at Hare School and the Metropolitan
College. The lectures of Alexander Pedler in
the Presidency College, which he used to attend,
attracted him to chemistry, although his first love
was literature. He continued to take interest in
literature, and taught himself Latin and French
at home. After obtaining a F.A. diploma from
the University of Calcutta (now Kolkata), he
proceeded to the University of Edinburgh on a
Gilchrist scholarship where he obtained both his
B.Sc. and D.Sc. degrees.
Prafulla Chandra Ray, one of the first Indian

chemical researchers, studied at the prestigious
Edinburgh University. After graduating from
university, he took a position as a Chemistry
Professor at the Presidency College in 1889.
Berthelot who was a very famous chemist,
helped and encouraged him with his admirable
research in Ayurveda.
In 1888, P C Ray made his journey home to
India. Initially he spent a year working with his
famous friend Jagadish Chandra Bose in
his laboratory. In 1889, Prafulla Chandra was
appointed an Assistant Professor of Chemistry
in the Presidency College, Kolkata. His
publications on mercurous nitrite and its
derivatives brought him recognition from all over
the world. Equally important was his role as a
teacher - he inspired a generation of young
chemists in India thereby building up an Indian
[53]
school of chemistry. Famous Indian scientists like

Meghnad Saha and Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar
were among his students.

Prof. Mahalanobis's first paper on statistics
entitled 'Anthropological Observations on AngloIndians of Calcutta, Part I: Male Stature',
published in Records of the Indian Museum in
1922. This paper attracted the attention of Sir
Gilbert Walker, Director General of
Observatories, who requested Mahalanobis to
undertake a systematic study of some
metrological problems. This resulted in an
important discovery by Mahalanobis that the
region of highest control for changes in weather
on the surface of the earth is located about 4
kilometers above sea-level. Subsequently, he was
appointed Meteorologist in the Alipore
Observatory and he held this post from 1922 to
1926.
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In 1902, his research work of History of

Hindu Chemistry was published. P C Ray
believed that the progress of India could be
achieved only by industrialization. He set up the
first chemical factory in India, with very
minimal resources, working from his home. In
1901, this pioneering effort resulted in the
formation of the Bengal Chemical and
Pharmaceutical Works Ltd.
Then he completed graduation in physics from

the Presidency College, Calcutta in 1912. He also
completed Tripos at Kings College, Cambridge.
After that he came back to Calcutta, India, and
here he was introduced to the Principal of
Presidency College and was invited to take
classes in physics.
He retired from the Presidency College in

1916, and was appointed as Professor of
Chemistry at the University Science College. In
1921 when P C Ray reached 60 years, he
donated, in advance, all his salary for the rest of
his service in the University to the development
of the Department of Chemistry and to the
creation of two research fellowships. The value
of this endowment was about two lakh rupees.
He eventually retired at the age of 75. In 1936
Ray retired from his service in the University
College of Science but he continued as Emeritus
Professor of Chemistry till his death. He got
elected as the Indian Science Congress President
in 1920.
In P C Ray, the qualities of both a scientist
and an industrial entrepreneur were combined
and he can be thought of as the father of the
Indian Pharmaceutical industry. P C Ray died
on June 16, 1944 in his living room in the
University College of Science of the Calcutta
University.
PROF. PRASANTA CHANDRA

MAHALANOBIS
Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis was a great

scientist and applied statistician. He is famous
for the Mahalanobis Distance, a statistical
measure. He did pioneering work on
anthropometric variation in India. Professor
Mahalanobis made valuable contributions to the
development of statistical science in India.
Scientist P.C. Mahalanobis was born on June

29, 1893 and died on June 28, 1972. He was the
son of Prabodh Chandra and Nirodbasini. His
father was an active member of the Sadharan
Brahmo Samaj. He started education from
Brahmo Boys School in Calcutta (now Kolkata).
[54]
At the request of the Indian Government,

Mahalanobis undertook some work on
prevention of floods in various regions of the
country. His findings and recommendations,
though often contrary to engineering wisdom
of the time, were accepted by the Government
and resulted in alleviation of the problem of
flooding to a large extent.
Lasting Gift to Statistics:
Mahalanobis's contributions to large scale

sample surveys are among his most significant
and lasting gifts to statistics. He stared his work
on sample surveys with estimation of area and
yield of jute crop in Bengal in 1937.
He made many methodological contributions

to survey sampling that included optimal choice
of sampling design using variance and cost
functions, and the technique of interpenetrating
network of subsamples for assessment and
control of errors, especially non-sampling errors,
in surveys. The concept of pilot surveys was a
forerunner of sequential sampling developed by
Abraham Wald, as acknowledged by Wald in
his book. In addition to introducing these
concepts, Mahalanobis raised important and
difficult philosophical questions on randomness

and representativeness of a sample, which
remain relevant and challenging even today.
Mahalanobis's role as a planner prompted

him to play a pioneering role in the organized
collection of official statistics. He established the
National Sample Survey in 1950 with the
objective of providing comprehensive statistics
relating to all economic and social aspects on an
all-India basis. He also helped in setting up of
the Central Statistical Organization in India, an
apex body for coordination of statistical activities
in India. He was instrumental in the
establishment of formal teaching of statistics in
many Indian universities and also in the Indian
Statistical Institute. In collaboration with the
International Statistical Institute, he established
an International Statistical Education Centre at
the Indian Statistical Institute.
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He was elected Chairman of the United

Nations Subcommission on Statistical Sampling
in 1947, and held the post till 1951. His tireless
advocation of the usefulness of sample surveys
resulted in the final recommendation of this
subcommission that sampling methods should
be extended to all parts of the world.
Mahalanobis received the Weldon Medal from
Oxford University in 1944 and was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society, London, in 1945,
for his fundamental contributions to Statistics,
particularly in the area of large-scale sample
surveys.
Statistical System in India:
Plans for Economic Prosperity of Nation:
Mahalanobis believed that statistics should

be an integral part of the dynamics of national
planning. He was acutely aware of national
problems and national resources. He took a keen
interest and played a key role in formulating
India's second five-year plan based on the foursector model developed by him. Broad sectoral
allocations of employment, capital investment
and increment in national income were worked
out and then split into detailed targets. Even
though national planning seems to have now
gone out of fashion, the need for planning in the
initial stages of a nation's development is still
acknowledged and Mahalanobis's contributions
to Indian national planning continue to be held
in high esteem by economists.
During the last decade of his life, he devised
a statistical method, fractile graphical analysis,
for comparison of socio-economic conditions of
groups of people. This technique has now been
used in many other branches of science.
ISI as an Institution of National Importance:
The year 1931 marks a watershed in the

development of statistics in India. From the
fledgling Statistical Laboratory formed in the
early 1920s by Mahalanobis within the Physics
department of Presidency College, he founded
the Indian Statistical Institute on 17 December,
1931. In 1959, by an act of the Indian Parliament,
the Institute was declared as an 'Institution of
National Importance'.
Mahalanobis became the Honorary President

of the International Statistical Institute in 1957,
and was elected a fellow of the American
Statistical Association in 1961. Throughout his
career he received many other academic honours
and awards. He received the highest national
honour, Padma Vibhushan, from the President
of India in 1968 for his contribution to science
and services to the country.
He had appointed as the Honorary Statistical
Advisor to the cabinet of the Government of
India. He had Weldon medal from Oxford
University in 1944. He was also elected a fellow
of the Royal Society, London in 1945.
SIR C. V. RAMAN
Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was a

great Physicist of India born on November 7th,
1888, in a small village of Thiruvanaikaval near
Tiruchirapalli (Trichonopoly in those days),
Tamil Nadu. His father was a lecturer in
mathematics and physics so that from the first
he was immersed in an academic atmosphere.
He entered Presidency College, Madras (now
Chennai), in 1902, and in 1904 passed his B.A.
examination, winning the first place and the gold
medal in physics; in 1907 he gained his M.A.
degree, obtaining the highest distinctions.
Contributions and Achievements:
C. V. Raman earliest researches in optics and
acoustics - the two fields of investigation to which
[55]
and theoretical studies on the diffraction of light

by acoustic waves of ultrasonic and hypersonic
frequencies (published 1934-1942), and those on
the effects produced by X-rays on infrared
vibrations in crystals exposed to ordinary light.
In 1948 Raman, through studying the
spectroscopic behaviour of crystals, approached
in a new manner fundamental problems of
crystal dynamics. His laboratory has been
dealing with the structure and properties of
diamond, the structure and optical behaviour of
numerous iridescent substances (labradorite,
pearly felspar, agate, opal, and pearls).
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he has dedicated his entire career - were carried

out while he was a student. Since at that time a
scientific career did not appear to present the
best possibilities, Raman joined the Indian
Finance Department in 1907; though the duties
of his office took most of his time, Raman found
opportunities for carrying on experimental
research in the laboratory of the Indian
Association for the Cultivation of Science at
Calcutta (now Kolkata).
In 1917 he was offered the newly endowed
Palit Chair of Physics at Calcutta University, and
decided to accept it. After 15 years at Calcutta
he became Professor at the Indian Institute of
Science at Bangalore (1933-1948), and since 1948
he is Director of the Raman Institute of Research
at Bangalore, established and endowed by
himself. He also founded the Indian Journal of
Physics in 1926, of which he is the Editor. Raman
sponsored the establishment of the Indian
Academy of Sciences and has served as
President since its inception. He also initiated
the Proceedings of that academy, in which much
of his work has been published, and is President
of the Current Science Association, Bangalore,
which publishes Current Science (India).
Raman made many major scientific

discoveries in acoustics, ultrasonic, optics,
magnetism and crystal physics. Raman's works
on the musical drums of India was epoch-making
and it revealed the acoustical knowledge of the
ancient Hindus. It may be noted here that it was
Pythagoras who first formulated what makes a
sound musical to the human ear.
Some of Raman's early memoirs appeared as
Bulletins of the Indian Association for the
Cultivation of Science (Bull. 6 and 11, dealing with
the "Maintenance of Vibrations"; Bull. 15, 1918,
dealing with the theory of the musical
instruments of the violin family). He contributed
an article on the theory of musical instruments
to the 8th Volume of the Handbuch der Physik,
1928.
In 1922 he published his work on the

"Molecular Diffraction of Light", the first of a
series of investigations with his collaborators
which ultimately led to his discovery, on the 28th
of February, 1928, of the radiation effect which
bears his name and which gained him the 1930
Nobel Prize in Physics.Other investigations
carried out by Raman were: his experimental
[56]
Raman developed a vibrant and excellent

school of physics. He established the Indian
Academy of Sciences Bangalore (1934) and the
Raman Research Institute (1948). Among his
other interests have been the optics of colloids,
electrical and magnetic anisotropy, and the
physiology of human vision. Sir C.V. Raman
died on November 21, 1970.
Raman was honoured with a large number

of honorary doctorates and memberships of
scientific societies. Raman was elected as a
Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1924 in
recognition of his outstanding researches in
physical optics, molecular diffraction of light, Xray scattering by liquids and a molecular
anisotropy. It may be noted that Raman had
resigned the Fellowship of the Royal Society. He
was conferred a Knighthood by the British
Government in 1929. In 1941 he was awarded
the Franklin Medal. The erstwhile Soviet Union
honoured him with the International Lenin Prize
in 1957.
In 1930, C. V. Raman was the first `nonwhite', Asian and Indian to receive the Nobel
prize in physics for his work on scattering of light
and discovery of the Raman effect. In 1954 the
Government of India awarded him the title of
the Bharat Ratna. India celebrates National
Science Day on 28 February of every year to
commemorate the discovery of the Raman Effect
in 1928.
JAGADISH CHANDRA BOSE

Jagadish Chandra Bose was an Indian
scientist who discovered and proved in the world
Bose devised and fabricated a new type of

radiator for generating radio waves. He also built
a unique and highly sensitive Coherer or radio
receiver for detecting radio waves. Boses coherer
was far more compact, efficient and effective
than the ones used in Europe. On 29 March 1904
he became the first Indian to get a US patent,
for his "detector for electrical disturbances".
He had his early education in St. Xaviers

High School, and college education in Calcutta
(now Kolkata) and later at Cambridge, England.
He joined the Presidency College, Calcutta as
Assistant Professor of Physics in 1855.
He also demonstrated a new type of radio

waves as small as 1 centimeter to 5 millimeters.
Such waves are now called microwaves, and are
used in radars, ground telecommunication,
satellite communication, remote sensing and
microwave ovens. In May 1895, he read his first
research paper before the Asiatic Society of
Bengal On the polarisation of Electric Rays by
Double Reflecting Crystals. In the same year
one of his papers titled On the Determination
of the Indices of Refraction of Sulphur for the
Electric Ray was communicated to the Royal
Society of London by Lord Rayleigh.
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that plants also have life. They consume food

and sleep during nights, and wake up early in
the mornings. Pain and pleasures are there for
plants too. They also have birth, growth and
death, as human beings. He is regarded as Indias
first modern scientist. Jagadis Chandra Bose was
born on 30th November 1858 in Mymensingh,
now in Bangladesh.
J. C. Bose is one of the most prominent first

Indian scientists who proved by experimentation
that both animals and plants share much in
common. Bose demonstrated that plant tissues
under different kinds of stimuli like mechanical,
application of heat, cold, light, noise, electric
shock, chemicals and drugs, produce electric
response similar to that produced by animal
tissues. He also tried to demonstrate that similar
electric response to stimulation could be noticed
in certain inorganic systems. For his
investigations Bose invented several novel and
highly sensitive instruments. Among these the
most important one was the Crescograph -an
instrument for measuring the growth of a plant.
It could record a growth as small as 1/100,000
inch per second.
Boses experiments on plants were mostly
performed on Minosa pudica and Desmondium
gyrans (Indian Telegraph plant). His findings
subsequently influenced subjects like physiology,
chronobiology, cybernetics, medicine and
agriculture.
Bose did pioneering research, first in physics
and then in physiology. In 1888 Heinrich Rudolf
Hertz (1857-94) produced and detected
electromagnetic waves in the 60 cm wavelength
range and in doing so he verified James Clerk
Maxwells (1831-79) electromagnetic theory.
However, Bose was the first to produce
millimeter-length radio waves and study their
properties. Bose was a pioneer in microwave
optics technology. He was the first to show that
semiconductor rectifiers could detect radio
waves. Boses galena receiver was amongst the
earliest examples of a lead sulphide photo
conducting device.
J. C. Bose was sent to England to get enrolled

into Indian Civil Service. He took interest in
Botany and Zoology. J. C. Bose, as Assistant
Professor and researcher in Physics discovered
the following:
1)
Generation of electro-magnetic waves of

wavelengths 2mm to 5 mm
2)
Common nature of electric response to

all forms of stimulation.
3)
He was the first to find a device that

generated micro-waves of very short
wavelength.
J. C. Bose attained his greatness in the field

of Botany. He was the author of the world
famous books.
Response in the Living and Non-living
The Nervous Mechanism of Plants
In 1903 Bose was honoured with

Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
(CIE) at Delhi by the British Government. He
received in 1912 the Commander of the Star of
India (CSI) at the Coronation of the British
Emperor. He was knighted by the British
Government in 1916. Bose was elected a fellow
of the Royal Society (FRS) of London in 1928.
Bose died on 23 November 1937. He was the
[57]
member of the Vienna Academy of Sciences,

1928 and President of the 14th session of the
Indian Science Congress in 1927.
The 230-year-old Indian Botanic Garden,
Kolkata was renamed as the Acharya Jagadish
Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden in June
2009 in honour of J.C. Bose.
VIKRAM A SARABHAI
Establishing Physical Research Laboratory

His interest in solar physics and cosmic rays
led him to set up many observation stations
around the country. Vikram Sarabhai
established centers for scientific research in
several places of India. He was instrumental in
establishing the Physical Research Laboratory
(PRL) in Ahmedabad. In this, he formed the
Group for the Improvement of Science
Education, in 1963. In the same year, he
established the Nehru Foundation for
Development, for the study of social and
education problems.
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Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai was the main

personality behind the launching of Indias first
satellite, Aryabhatta. He is considered as the
Father of the Indian Space Programme. Vikram
Ambalal Sarabhai had devoted their entire life
to the progress of science in our country.
the Ahmedabad Education Society, which was

founded by his parents. Subsequently, it got
support from the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Department
of Atomic Energy.
Sarabhai's name will remain inseparable

from India's space programme. It was Sarabhai
who put India on the international map in the
field of space research. But then he made equally
pioneering contributions in other fields. He
worked in the fields of textiles, pharmaceuticals,
nuclear power, electronics and many others
incessantly till last.
Vikram Sarabhai was born on August 12,
1919 at Ahmedabad, Gujarat to Shri Ambalal
Sarabhai and Smt. Sarladevi Sarabhai, in a
family of Industrialists. His father Ambalal
Sarabhai was an affluent industrialist and
owned many mills in Gujarat.
He had his early education in a private

school. Here the prevent atmosphere injected
into the young by the seeds of scientific curiosity,
ingenuity and creativity. From this school he
proceeded to Cambridge for his college
education and took the tripods degree from St.
Johns College in 1940. When World War II
began, he returned home and joined as a
research scholar under Sir C.V. Raman at the
IISc, Bangalore. In September, 1942 Vikram
Sarabhai married Mrinalini Sarabhai who was
a celebrated classical dancer of India.
Vikram Sarabhai started his work on cosmic

rays and built the necessary equipment with
which he took measurements. He returned to
Cambridge in 1945. In 1947 he was awarded
the Ph. D. degree. The Physical Research
Laboratory (PRL) was established in November
1947 in a few rooms in M.G. Science Institute of
[58]
In 1966, under its auspices, he established

the Community Science Center, whose object
was to spread scientific knowledge, to create
interest in science and to promote
experimentation among students, teachers and
the general public. After the sudden death of
Dr. Sarabhai in 1971, the then Prime Minister
of India, Smt. Indira Gandhi, renamed the
Centre as the Vikram A. Sarabhai Community
Science Centre, to associate its name with that
of its founder.
To train efficient managers of factories, he
started the Indian Institute of Management (IIM)
at Ahmedabad. Of all the institutions, he
established the most important were the Indian
Space Research Organization with Centers at
Thumba, Ahmedabad, Shriharikota and Arvi.
He established Rocket Launching Stations at
Thumba and Shrihatikota. Along with his work
on the science front, he took utmost interest and
managed family business of Textiles and
Pharmaceuticals.
He was also responsible for the Equatorial
Rocket Building Station at Thumba. Sarabhai set
up the Ahmedabad Textile Industries Research
Association, a laboratory for research in physics
and the Indian Institute of Management.
Effect of solar activity on cosmic rays
Sarabhais study of cosmic rays under the
eminent scientist Dr. C.V.Raman revealed that
cosmic rays are a stream of energy particles
reaching the earth from the outer space, being

influenced on their way by the sun, the
atmosphere and magnetism. This study helps in
observing terrestrial magnetism and the
atmosphere, the nature of the sun and outer
space.
In 1965, the UN General Assembly gave

recognition to TERLS as an international facility.
With the sudden death of Homi Bhabha in an
air crash, Sarabhai was appointed Chairman,
Atomic Energy Commission in May 1966.
As a result of Dr. Sarabhais dialogue with
NASA in 1966, the Satellite Instructional
Television Experiment (SITE) was launched
during July 1975-July 1976 (when Dr. Sarabhai
was no more). Dr. Sarabhai started a project for
the fabrication and launch of an Indian Satellite.
As a result, the first Indian satellite, Aryabhatta,
was put in orbit in 1975 from a Russian
Cosmodrome. This development furthers the
indigenous capability for satellite launching from
low-orbiting to synchronous levels.
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By collecting and analysing his own

observations as well as those of other scientists,
Sarabhai's team concluded that meteorological
effects could not entirely affect the observed daily
variations of cosmic rays; further, the residual
variations were wide and global and these were
related to variations in solar activity.
Space Science and Technology Center at Thumba

for creating fabrication, testing and other
auxiliary facilities. Establishing an Experimental
Satellite Communication Earth Station at
Ahmedabad.
In the observed cosmic ray anisotropies were

to be regarded as modulation effect to the solar
wind, then Sarabhai could visualize a new field
of research opening up in solar and
interplanetary Physics.
The first opportunity came in 1957-58 during

the International Geo-physical year (IGY). The
Indian program for the IGY had been one of the
most significant ventures of Sarabhai. It exposed
him to the new vistas of space science with the
launching in 1957 of Sputnik-I. Subsequently,
the Indian National Committee for Space
Research was created, of which Sarabhai became
Chairman.
Soaring to Space
The establishment of the Indian Space

Research Organisation (ISRO) was one of his
greatest achievements. He successfully convinced
the government to the importance of a space
programme for a developing country like India
after the Russian Sputnik launch.
Rocket Launching Station: Dr. Homi Jehangir

Bhabha, supported Dr. Sarabhai in setting up
the first rocket launching station in India. The
Rocket Launching station (TERLS) was
established at Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram on the coast of the Arabian Sea, primarily
because of its proximity to the equator. After a
remarkable effort in setting up the infrastructure,
personnel, communication links, and launch
pads, the inaugural flight was launched on
November 21, 1963 with a sodium vapour
payload.
To implement the space programme,
Sarabhai took the following steps during 19611966. Expanding PRL and making it the
headquarters for Space activities. Setting up the
Like Bhabha, Sarabhai wanted the practical

application of science to reach the common man.
Thus he saw a golden opportunity to harness
space science to the development of the country
in the fields of communication, meteorology,
remote sensing and education. Vikram Sarabhai
died at the age of 52 on December 31, 1971 at
Kovalam, Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala.
Some of the most well-known institutions
established by Sarabhai are :1. Physical Research Laboratory (PRL),
Ahmedabad
2. Indian Institute of Management (IIM),
Ahmedabad
3. Community Science Centre, Ahmedabad
4. Darpan Academy for Performing Arts,
Ahmedabad (alongwith his wife)
5. Vikram Sarabhai Space
Thiruvananthapuramm
Centre,
6. Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad

7. Faster Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR),
Kalpakkam
8. Varaiable Energy Cyclotron Project,
Kolkata
9. Electronics Corporation of India Limited
(ECIL), Hyderabad
[59]
10. Uranium Corporation of India Limited

(UCIL), Jaduguda, Jharkhand
Even while he was the head of the Indian

space programme, he devoted substantial efforts
towards boundary layer research. His most
important contributions are presented in the
seminal book Boundary Layer Theory by
Hermann Schlichting. He was a popular
professor at the Indian Institute of Science, (IISc)
located in Bangalore. He is credited for setting
up the first supersonic wind tunnel in India at
IISc. He also pioneered research on
relaminarization of separated boundary layer
flows, three-dimensional boundary layers and
trisonic flows.
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Sarabhai was President of the Physics section

of the Indian Science Congress (1962), President
of the General Conference of the I.A.E.A.,
Vienna (1970), Vice-President, Fourth U.N.
Conference on `Peaceful uses of Atomic Energy'
(1971).
he directed the Indian space programme through

a period of extraordinary growth and
spectacular achievement. Major Programmes
were carefully defined and systematically
executed, including in particular the launch of
Indian satellites on Indian rocket vehicles.
Sarabhai was the second chairman of Indias

Atomic Energy Commission and the Indian
Space Research Organization (ISRO). He was
conferred Padma Vibhushan in 1972. He was
also awarded Dr. Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar
Medal in Physics in 1962.
PROF. SATISH DHAWAN
Prof. Satish Dhawan was an Indian rocket

scientist who was born on September 25, 1920,
in Srinagar, India. He is considered by the Indian
scientific community to be the father of
experimental fluid dynamics research in India
and one of the most eminent researchers in the
field of turbulence and boundary layers. His
father was a high-ranking civil servant of
undivided India and retired as the resettlement
Commissioner of Government of India at the
time of partition. He completed graduation from
the University of Punjab in Lahore, Pakistan. He
also completed B.A. in Mathematics and physics,
and M.A. in English Literature and a B.E. in
Mechanical Engineering. In 1947, he obtained
an M.S. in Aeronautical Engineering from the
University of Minnesota. Later, he moved to the
California Institute of Technology, where he was
awarded the Aeronautical Engineers Degree in
1949, and a Ph. D in Aeronautical and
Mathematics in 1951, which he pursued with
eminent aerospace scientist Professor Hans W.
Liepmann as adviser.
After completion of education he joined the

Indian Institute of Science in 1951 and became
its Director in 1962. In 1972, he was appointed
Chairman of the Space Commission and of the
Indian Space Commission and of the Indian
Space Research Organization (ISRO), and
Secretary to the Government of India in the
Department of Space. In the following decade,
[60]
Prof. Satish Dhawan carried out pioneering

experiments in rural education, remote sensing
and satellite communications. His efforts led to
operational systems like INSAT- a
telecommunications satellite, IRS - the Indian
Remote Sensing satellite and the Polar Satellite
Launch Vehicle (PSLV) that placed India in the
league of space faring nations.
These projects were all distinguished by their
keen sensitivity to the true needs of a developing
nation, a confident appreciation of the ability of
its scientists and engineers, and the carefully
planned involvement of Indian space
programme came to be seen in the 1980s as a
model of technology development and
application carried out within the country.
Following the death of Prof. Satish Dhawan

on January 3, 2002, the Indian satellite launch
centre at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, located
about 100 km north of Chennai in South India
was renamed as the Prof. Satish Dhawan Space
Centre.
Prof. Satish Dhawan received many awards
for his contribution to science and technology,
few of them are as:
Padma Vibhushan Award, (Indias second

highest civilian honour), in 1981.
Indira Gandhi Award
Integration, in 1999.
for
National
Distinguished Alumnus Award, Indian

Institute of Science.
Distinguished Alumnus Award, California
Institute of Technology, 1969.
SUBRAHMANYAN CHANDRASEKHAR
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The Nobel Laureate in physics

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was one of the
greatest scientists of the 20th century became a
legend in his life time. He was a great scientist,
an accomplished teacher and a formidable
scholar. Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was
born in Lahore on October 19, 1910. His father
C. Subrahmanyan Iyer was in Government
Service.
Chandrasekhar in 1930, when he was a student.

The Chandrasekhar Limit plays a crucial role in
understanding the stellar evolution. If the mass
of a star exceeded this limit, the star would not
become a white dwarf. It would continue to
collapse under the extreme pressure of
gravitational forces. The formulation of the
Chandrasekhar Limit led to the discovery of
neutron stars and black holes. It may be noted
that stars are stable, that is they do not collapse
because internal pressures (due to the thermal
motion of the atomic nuclei and electrons and
also the pressure of the radiation generated by
nuclear reactions) balance gravity.
C.V. Raman, the first Indian to get Nobel

Prize in science was the younger brother of
Chandrasekhar's father. Chandrasekhar grew
up in Madras (now Chennai). He went to a
regular school when he was eleven. He joined
the Madras Presidency College in 1925 where
in the first two years he studied Physics,
Chemistry, English and Sanskrit. On July 31,
1930 Chandrasekhar left for England for higher
studies and thus began a long and outstanding
scientific career which spanned 65 years. Except
for the first six years he worked at the University
of Chicago.
Chandrasekhar was renowned for his work

in the field of stellar evolution, and in the early
1930s, he was the first to theorise that a
collapsing massive star would become an object
so dense that not even light could escape it, now
known as the Black hole. He demonstrated that
there is an upper limit (known as
Chandrasekhar Limit) to the mass of a White
dwarf star. His theory challenged the common
scientific notion of the 1930s that all stars, after
burning up their fuel, became faint, planer-sized
remmants known as white dwarfs. But today,
the extremely dense neutron stars and black holes
implied by Chandrasekhars early work are a
central part of the field of astrophysics.
He is best known for his celebrated discovery
of Chandrasekhar Limit. He showed that there
is a maximum mass which can be supported
against gravity by pressure made up of electrons
and atomic nuclei. The value of this limit is about
1.44 times a solar mass. This was derived by
However, for every star a time will come

when nuclear reactions will cease and that
means there will be no internal pressure to match
the gravitational pull. Depending on the mass
there are three possible final stages of a star white dwarf, neutron star and black hole.
Chandrasekhar was awarded (jointly with

the nuclear astrophysicist W.A. Fowler) the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983. While
Chandrasekhar
is
best
known
for
Chandrasekhar Limit, for him there was no limit.
His work spanned physics, astrophysics and
applied mathematics.
The genius Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar,
known to the world as Chandra, died on August
21, 1995 in Chicago, Illinois, USA.
DR. HAR GOBIND KHORANA
Har Gobind Khorana was born on January

9th, 1922 in Raipur, Punjab, which is now part
of eastern Pakistan. He is the youngest of a family
of one daughter and four sons. His father was a
patwari, a village agricultural taxation clerk in
the British Indian system of government.
Har Gobind Khorana did his schooling from
the D.A.V. High School in Multan (now West
Punjab, Pakistan). Later, he studied at the Punjab
University in Lahore where he obtained an M.
Sc. degree.
Khorana lived in India until 1945, when the
award of a Government of India Fellowship
made it possible for him to go to England and he
studied for a Ph. D. degree at the University of
Liverpool. Roger J. S. Beer supervised his
[61]
indispensable tools in biotechnology, widely used

in biology labs for sequencing, cloning and
genetic engineering.
Khorana spent a postdoctoral year (19481949) at the Eidgenssische Technische

Hochschule in Zurich with Professor Vladimir
Prelog. The association with Professor Prelog
molded immeasurably his thought and
philosophy towards science, work, and effort.
Dr. Har Gobind Khorana shared the Nobel

Prize for Medicine and Physiology in 1968 with
Marshall Nirenberg and Robert Holley. Khorana
has won many awards and honors for his
achievements, amongst them the Padma
Vibhushan, Membership of the National
Academy of Sciences, USA as well as a Fellow
of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science. H. Gobind Khorana
died on 9 November 2011.
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research, and, in addition, looked after him

diligently. It was the introduction of Khorana to
Western civilization and culture.
After a brief period in India in the fall of 1949,

Khorana returned to England where he obtained
a fellowship to work with Professor G. W.
Kenner and Lord A.R. Todd. He stayed in
Cambridge from 1950 till 1952. Again, this stay
proved to be of decisive value to Khorana.
Interest in both proteins and nucleic acids took
root at that time.A job offer in 1952 from Dr.
Gordon M. Shrum of the University of British
Columbia took him to Vancouver. The British
Columbia Research Council offered at that time
very little by way of facilities, but there was all
the freedom in the world to do what the
researcher liked to do.
During the following years, with Dr. Shrum's
inspiration and encouragement and frequent
help and scientific counsel from Dr. Jack
Campbell, a group began to work in the field of
biologically interesting phosphate esters and
nucleic acids. Among the many devoted and
loyal colleagues of this period, there should, in
particular, be mention of Professor Gordon M.
Tener, who contributed much to the spiritual
and intellectual well-being of the group.In
1960 Khorana moved to the Institute for Enzyme
Research at the University of Wisconsin. He
became a naturalized citizen of the United States.
As of the fall of 1970 Khorana was appointed
Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Biology and
Chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Dr. Har Gobind Khorana shared the Nobel

Prize for Medicine and Physiology in 1968 with
Marshall Nirenberg and Robert Holley for
cracking the genetic code. They established that
this code, the biological language common to all
living organisms, is spelled out in three-letter
words: each set of three nucleotides codes for a
specific amino acid. Dr. Khorana was also
the first to synthesize oligonucleotides (strings of
nucleotides). Today, oligonucleotides are
[62]
HOMI JEHANGIR BHABHA
Homi Jehangir Bhabha is mostly known as

the chief architect of India's nuclear programme.
Homi Jehangir Bhabha was a multifaceted
personality - scientist, visionary and institution
builder. He was born on October 30, 1909 in a
Parsi family of Bombay (now Mumbai).
After finishing schooling, Bhabhas parents

sent him to Cambridge University, UK for higher
education in mechanical engineering. In 1930,
Bhabha completed mechanical engineering in
first class and stay for the degree in physics. After
completing his degree in 1932, Bhabha
continued his research at Cambridge University.
Bhabhas first paper appeared in 1934, based

on theoretical explanation of shower production
in cosmic rays. His name is associated with
Bhabha scattering, which involves relativistic
exchange scattering of electrons and BhabhaHeitler theory, dealing with production of
electron and positron showers in cosmic rays.
Thus, it was no surprise that at an young age of
31, he was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society,
London. Bhabha rubbed shoulders with great
physicists like Bohr, Pauli, Dirac, Cockcroft and
others, who later became Noble Laureates.
Bhabha was on vacation during 1939, when
the second world war broke out and he could
not go back abroad to continue his research. He
then joined Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
as a Reader in Department of Physics, headed
by Sir C. V. Raman and set up a cosmic ray
research unit.
In 1944, Bhabha wrote his historical letter to

the Tata trust for support in setting up a centre
for research work in nuclear science, which
could play a central role in the development of
nuclear energy. This was just two years after
1942, when the first experimental demonstration
of nuclear reactor was made in USA.
Bhabha, a person of perfection, purpose and

excellence, ensured these qualities in all his
endeavours viz., research, management,
buildings and environment. Bhabha was a great
scientific manager and followed the mantra of
right man for the right job.
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All the more so, the country was still under

the British rule and industrially undeveloped.
There was a clear similarity in vision between
the great Jamshedji Nusserwanji Tata and
Bhabha with respect to the need for education,
scientific research and human resource
development for economic prosperity. Based on
this letter, Tata Trust supported him to set up a
laboratory at Kenilworth, Bombay. Subsequently,
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was
formed and large scale research in physics,
chemistry, electronics and mathematics
commenced. Thus, Bhabha had converted the
difficulty of not going back abroad to a great
opportunity of setting up of front ranking
research facilities within the country.
Bhabha gave utmost importance to the

development of quality human resources. The
commencement and continuation of BARC
Training School for the scientific manpower over
the last 50 years is a real tribute to Bhabhas
foresight on quality manpower.
Creation of Atomic Energy Commission:
Bhabha was instrumental for the formation

of Atomic Energy Commission in 1948 and the
Department of Atomic Energy in 1954 and he
chalked out a focussed research and minerals
exploration programmes for nuclear energy. He
was such a visionary that he had realized the
importance of nuclear power programme way
back in 1950s and enunciated a three stage
nuclear programme so as to meet the energy
security of the nation. It consisted of utilization
of natural uranium, plutonium and abundant
thorium resources in thermal, fast and advanced
nuclear reactors with closed fuel cycle.
He also had balanced perspective on the role

of other energy resources such as coal, oil and
solar. A significant factor that contributed for
the growth of nuclear sciences and its
applications was Bhabha's rapport with the then
Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, who
reposed complete confidence in him. This was
possible because Bhabha had the deserving
credentials and his passion matched with
Nehrus vision of modern India. There was a
great synergy in thinking between Nehru and
Bhabha with respect to industrialization and
scientific research, evolving hand-in-hand.
Bhabha had received many prestigious

national and international awards and
recognitions. In 1954, he was conferred
with Padma Bhushan award for outstanding
contributions to nuclear science. In 1955, he was
elected as the President of the first International
Conference on the 'Peaceful Uses of Atomic
Energy', organized by the UN at Geneva.
At a young age of 56, Bhabha suddenly
passed away in 1966 due to a plane crash in
Switzerland.
SRINIVASA RAMANUJAN
Srinivasa Ramanujan, Indian mathematician, whose contributions to the theory of

numbers includes pioneering discoveries of the
properties of the partition function. Srinivasa
Ramanujan Aiyangar was an Indian
Mathematician who was born in Erode, Tamil
Nadu on December 22, 1887. Ramanujan is very
well known for his efforts on continued fractions
and series of hypergeometry. When Ramanujan
was thirteen, he could work out Loneys
Trigonometry exercises without any help. At the
fourteen, he was able to acquire the theorems of
cosine and sine given by L. Euler. Synopsis of
Elementary Results in Pure and Applied
Mathematics by George Shoobridge Carr was
reached by him in 1903. The book helped him a
lot and opened new dimensions to him which
helped him introduce about 6,165 theorems for
himself.
As he had no proper and good books in his
reach, he had to figure out on his own the
solutions for all the questions. It was in this quest
that he discovered many tremendous methods
and new algebraic series.
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In 1904, he received a merit scholarship in a

local college and became more indulgent into
mathematics. He lost his interest in all other
subjects due to which he lost his scholarship.
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In 1911 Ramanujan published the first of his

papers in the Journal of the Indian Mathematical
Society. His genius slowly gained recognition,
and in 1913 he began a correspondence with the
British mathematician Godfrey H. Hardy that led
to a special scholarship from theUniversity of
Madras and a grant from Trinity College,
Cambridge. Ramanujan traveled to England in
1914, where Hardy tutored him and collaborated
with him in some research.
much additional unorganized material which

remained uninvestigated until the sustained
efforts of Berndt and his coworkers who
systematically examined and proved
Ramanujan's sometimes vague or ambiguous
statements. For anyone with a little knowledge
of number theory, Ramanujan's notebooks make
absolutely fascinating reading. It is therefore a
great pity that their publisher, Springer-Verlag,
has chosen to price these slim volumes at the
ridiculous price of about $100 apiece.
Hardy said Ramanujan could have become

an outstanding mathematician if his skills had
been recognized earlier. It was said about his
talents
of
continued
fractions
and
hypergeometric series that, he was
unquestionably one of the great masters. It was
due to his sharp memory, calculative mind,
patience and insight that he was a great formalist
of his days. But it was due to his some methods
of working in the work analysis and theories of
numbers that did not let him excel that much.
Ramanujans knowledge of mathematics
(most of which he had worked out for himself)
was startling. Although almost completely
ignorant of what had been developed, his
mastery of continued fractions was unequaled
by any living mathematician. He worked out the
Riemann series, the elliptic integrals,
hypergeometric series, the functional equations
of the zeta function, and his own theory of
divergent series. On the other hand, the gaps in
his knowledge were equally startling. He knew
nothing of doubly periodic functions, the
classical theory of quadratic forms, or Cauchys
theorem, and had only the most nebulous idea
of what constitutes a mathematical proof.
In England, Ramanujan made further

advances, especially in the partition of numbers.
His papers were published in English and
European journals, and in 1918 he became the
first Indian to be elected to the Royal Society of
London.
Ramanujan published some of his results in
journals, and many are beautiful indeed.
However, his working notebooks contained
[64]
Srinivasa Ramanujan hailed as an all-time

great mathematician, like Euler, Gauss or Jacobi,
for his natural genius, has left behind 4000
original theorems, despite his lack of formal
education and a short life-span.
HardyRamanujan number:
The number 1729 is known as the Hardy

Ramanujan number after a famous anecdote of
the British mathematician G.H. Hardy regarding
a visit to the hospital to see Ramanujan. Hardy
said I remember once going to see him when
he was ill. I had ridden in taxi cab number 1729
and remarked that the number seemed to me
rather a dull one, and that I hoped it was not an
unfavorable omen. "No," he replied, "it is a very
interesting number; it is the smallest number
expressible as the sum of two cubes in two
different ways."
The two different ways are:
1729 = 13 + 123 = 93 + 103.
Generalizations of this idea have created the

notion of "taxicab numbers". Coincidentally,
1729 is also a Carmichael number.
He got elected as the fellow in 1918 at the

Trinity College at Cambridge and the Royal
Society. He died on April 26, 1920.
On the 125th anniversary of his birth,

Government of India declared the birthday of
Ramanujan, December 22, as 'National
Mathematics Day' and the year 2012 celebrated
as the National Mathematics Year.
MEGHNAD SAHA
Meghnad Saha was a great Indian scientist.
He made remarkable contribution to the field of
Astrophysics. He put forward an ionization

formula which explained the presence of the
spectral lines. Meghnad Saha belonged to a poor
family and struggled to rise in life. He was born
in Seoratali, Dacca district, now in Bangladesh,
on October 6, 1893.
Saha was the leading spirit in organizing the

scientific societies like the National Academy of
Science (1930), Indian Institute of Science
(1935), and the Indian Association for the
Cultivation of Science (1944). The lasting
memorial to him is the Saha Institute of Nuclear
physics founded in 1943 in Calcutta.
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Meghnad Saha took admission in the

Kishorilal Jubilee School and passed the Entrance
examination of the Calcutta University in 1909,
standing first among the student from East
Bengal obtaining the highest marks in languages
(English, Bengali and Sanskrit combined) and in
Mathematics. In 1911, he ranked third in the ISc
exam while the first position went to another
great scientist Satyendranath Bose. After that he
took admission in Presidency College, Calcutta
(now Kolkata). In 1913, he graduated from
Presidency College with Mathematics major and
got the second rank in the first one. In 1915, both
S. N. Bose and Meghnad Saha ranked first in
M.Sc. exam, Meghnad Saha in Applied
Mathematics and S.N. Bose in Pure Mathematics.
installed in the institute. In 1950, India had its

first cyclotron in operation. He invented an
instrument to measure the weight and pressure
of solar rays. He produced the famous equation,
which he called equation of the reaction-isobar
for ionization, which later became known as
Sahas Thermo-Ionization Equation.
In 1917, he started his professional career and

joined as lecturer at the newly opened University
College of Science in Calcutta. He taught
Quantum Physics. Along with S.N. Bose, he
translated the papers published in German by
Einstein and Hermann Minkowski on relativity
into English versions. In 1919, American
Astrophysical Journal published On Selective
Radiation Pressure and its Application a
research paper by Meghnad Saha. He put
forward an ionization formula which
explained the presence of the spectral lines. The
formula proved to be a breakthrough in
astrophysics. He went abroad and stayed for two
years. He spent time in research at Imperial
College, London and at a research laboratory in
Germany.
In 1932, Meghnad Saha moved to Allahabad

University and Uttar Pradesh Academy of
Science was established in 1932. He returned to
Science College, Calcutta in 1938. During this
time, Saha got interested in Nuclear physics. In
1947, he established Institute of Nuclear Physics
which later was named after him as Saha
Institute of Nuclear Physics.
Having seen cyclotrons used for research in
nuclear physics abroad, he ordered one to be
He was the chief architect of river planning

in India. He prepared the original plan for
Damodar Valley Project. For the sake of
development of science he joined politics and in
1952 he was elected as a Member of Parliament
for the North-West Calcutta constituency. He
was an advocate for the peaceful use of nuclear
energy and instrumental in the reformation of
the Indian calendar. He died on February 16,
1956 due to a heart attack.
Meghnad Saha was an Indian astrophysicist

who nominated for the Nobel prize in physics
in 1935-36. In 1927, Meghnad was elected as a
fellow of London's Royal Society.
In 1947, he established Institute of Nuclear
Physics which later was named after him as Saha
Institute of Nuclear Physics. He took the first
effort to include Nuclear Physics in the
curriculum of higher studies of science.
RAJA RAMANNA
Raja Ramanna was a multifaceted

personality an eminent nuclear physicist, a
highly accomplished technologist, an able
administrator, an inspiring leader, a gifted
musician, a scholar of Sanskrit literature and
philosophy. He made important contributions,
both theoretical and experimental, in various
areas of nuclear physics.
Following the ideals of his illustrious
predecessors Homi Bhabha and Vikram
Sarabhai in Indias nuclear energy programme,
Ramanna played an important role in placing
the countrys indigenous nuclear capabilities on
[65]
a firm footing and in this process his

contributions towards shaping Indias energy
and security programmes are quite significant.
In fact Ramanna is regarded as one of the most
successful creators of Science and Technology
in India.
Ramanna and his coworkers measured the

energy and angular distributions of prompt
neutrons and gamma rays emitted by fission
fragments. Such measurements provided
important information on the times of these
radiations, presence of scission neutrons, the
average spin of the fission fragments and so on.
The investigations carried out by Ramanna and
his coworkers on light charged particle emission
in fission induced by thermal and fast neutrons
provided important insight on the mechanism
of emission of these particles.
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Ramannas contribution to Indias peaceful

nuclear explosion experiment is well-known.
Indias first peaceful nuclear experiment was
carried out underground in the Rajasthan desert,
Pokhran, on May 18, 1974.
a programme of experimental investigations of

secondary radiations emitted in thermal neutroninduced fission of U235.
Ramanna was born in Tumkur in Karnataka

on January 28, 1925. His father, B. Ramanna,
was in the judicial service of the Mysore state.
He had his early education in Mysore and
Bangalore. After completing his intermediate
studies at St Josephs, Bangalore he joined the
Madras Christian College in Tambaram. After
obtaining his BSc (Honours) degree in physics
from Madras Christian College in Tambaram,
he went to England to work for his doctoral in
the field of nuclear physics at the Kings College,
London, as Tata Scholar. He obtained his PhD
degree in 1948. Ramanna was deeply influenced
by Homi Jehangir Bhabha. Ramanna died on
24th September, 2004 at Mumbai after a cardiac
arrest.
Ramanna made important contributions in

several areas of neutron, nuclear and reactor
physics. Ramanna played a leading role in
organizing physics and rector physics
programmes at the Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre, Trombay. Ramanna was a young reactor
physicist in the team under Bhabha, when
Indias first research reactor, Apsara, was
commissioned on August 04, 1956.
As a part of the studies relating to the design

and construction of Apsara, Ramanna studied
the process of neutron thermalisation in several
moderating assemblies. Ramanna and his group
determined the neutron diffusion and slowing
down constants in water and beryllium oxide
by using a pulsed neutron source. The neutron
spectra emerging out of these moderating
assemblies were also studied.
Apsara, once commissioned, made intense
thermal neutron beams available for basic
research. This prompted Ramanna to undertake
[66]
The stochastic theory of fragment mass and

charge distributions in fission is a unique
contribution of Ramanna to fission theory. The
theory, which was based on the model of a
random exchange of nucleons between the two
nascent fission fragments prior to scission, could
explain most of the observed features of
fragment mass and charge distribution in low
energy fission and their dependence on the
excitation energy of the fissioning nucleus. A
geometrical interpretation of atomic and nuclear
binding energies was another novel contribution
of Ramanna and his group.
Ramannas most important contribution was
the creation of a vast pool of trained scientific
manpower. To develop the skilled manpower
required for this task, the BARC (DAE) Training
School was established in 1957 under the
leadership of Ramanna.
Ramanna directly or indirectly helped to

build up a number of institutions in the country.
In the early 1980s he took the initiative for setting
up a Centre for Advanced Technology at Indore,
devoted to the development for advanced
accelerators, lasers and other related
technologies. He helped to establish the Variable
Energy Cyclotron Centre (VEC) at Kolkata.
Raja Ramanna was an able administrator.

He held many prestigious positions. He was the
Director of the Bhaba Atomic Research Centre
(1972-78 and 1981-83). He was Scientific
Advisor to the Minister of Defence; DirectorGeneral, DRDO and Secretary for Defence
Research, Government of India (1978-81). He

was Chairman of the Atomic Energy
Commission (1984-87). He was first Director of
the National Institute of Advanced Studies,
Bangalore established by J. R. D. Tata and
President, 30th General Conference of the
International Atomic Energy Agency (1986).
Salim Ali, as a married man, required money

to make a living, so he joined the museum as a
clerk. He published a research paper discussing
the nature and activities of the weaver bird in
1930. The piece made him famous and
established his name in the field of ornithology.
Salim also traveled from place to place to find
out more about different species of the birds.
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Ramanna served as the Minister of State for

Defence in the Union Cabinet (January to
November 1990). Ramanna was a nominated
Member of the Parliament, Rajya Sabha, (August
1997-August 2003). He was a member of the first
National Security Advisory Board. In whichever
capacity he worked, he worked with a
missionary zeal.
museum of the Bombay Natural History Society.

Only 20 years old, he conducted the visitors and
instructed them about the preserved birds. His
interest in the living conditions of birds grew
even more. Therefore, Salim visited Germany
and saw Dr. Irvin Strassman. He came back to
India after one year but his post in the museum
had been removed for financial reasons.
Among the various awards that he received

included: Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award
(1963), Padma Vibhushan Award (1975),
Meghnad Saha Medal of the Indian National
Science Academy (1984), R. D. Memorial Award
(1985-86), Asutosh Mookerjee Gold Medal
(1996). He was awarded doctorate (honoris
causa) by several universities.
DR. SALIM ALI
Salim Moizuddin Abdul Ali was one of the

greatest ornithologists and naturalists of all time
and is also known as the Birdman of India.
He was one of the very first scientists to carry
out systematic bird surveys in India and abroad.
His research work is considered highly influential
in the development of ornithology. Dr. Slim Ali
is also known as the father of Indian ornithology.
Salim Ali was born on November 12, 1896
in Bombay (now Mumbai). He attended college,
but did not receive any university degree. To
assist his brother in wolfram mining, he went to
Burma (now called Myanmar), but spent most
of his time looking for birds. Soon, he returned
back to Bombay.
This genius died on June 20, 1987 at the age

of 90.
For twenty years he camped and studied

birds. With a notebook in his pocket and
binoculars, he walked hundreds of miles. It was
hard, scary, dangerous work.
As soon as Salim returned, he studied

zoology, and secured a position of a guide at the
From what he had collected, he published

The Book of Indian Birds in 1941? in which he
discussed the kinds and habits of Indian birds.
The book sold very well for a number of years.
He also collaborated with S. Dillon Ripley, a
world-famous ornithologist, in 1948. The
collaboration resulted in the Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan (10 Volume Set); a
comprehensive book that describes the birds of
the subcontinent, their appearance, habitat,
breeding habits, migration etc. Salim also
published other books. His work The Fall of
Sparrow included many incidents from his real
life.
Salim not only researched about birds, but
also contributed to the arena of protection of
nature. For his extraordinary efforts, he was
given an international award of Rs. 5 lacs, but
he donated all the money to Bombay Natural
History Society. The Government of India
honored him with Padma Vibushan in 1983.
National Wildlife Fellowship Award
In order to commemorate the memory of the

great wildlife conservationist of the country, i.e.,
Dr. Salim Ali to inspire and promote, particularly
the younger generation of wildlife managers and
scientists for taking up research/experimental
projects aimed at conservation of the rich wildlife
heritage of this country, the Govt. of India,
Ministry of Environment and Forests has decided
to award the fellowship alternatively each year.
Dr. Salim Ali National Wildlife Fellowship
Award, 2011 for, Research/experimental project
on avian wildlife is due for award.
[67]
DR. SHANTI SWAROOP BHATNAGAR
His contribution in the areas of magnetochemistry and physical chemistry of emulsion

were largely recognized. He played an
instrumental role in the establishment of the
National Research Development Corporation
(NRDC) of India, which brinsg coordination
between research and development. He was
responsible for the initiation of the Industrial
Research Association movement in India.
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Dr. Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar was a

eminent Scientist of India. He was known
as The Father of Research Laboratories.
Bhatnagar was born on February 21, 1894 in
Shahpur, now in Pakistan. After completing his
M. Sc. in India, he went to England on a
fellowship. He got his D. Sc. degree from the
London University in the year 1921, under the
guidance of chemistry professor Frederick G.
Donna. When he came back, Bhatnagar was
presented with proposal of professorship at the
renowned Banaras Hindu University.
Education and Educational Adviser to the

Government. He played a major role both in
the Constitution and Deliberations of the
Scientific Manpower Committee Report of 1948.
He was a University Professor for more than 19
years. He first worked at the Banaras Hindu
University, then he moved to Punjab University,
where he had a reputation as a very inspiring
teacher.
Though his area of interest included

emulsions, colloids, and industrial chemistry, but
his primary contributions were in the spheres of
magnetochemistry. Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru himself was an activist of scientific
development. After India gained freedom from
British rule in 1947, the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research was established under the
leadership of Dr. Bhatnagar, who was appointed
its first director-general. He became the first
director-general of the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1940.
He was known as the The Father of

Research Laboratories. He is largely
remembered for having established various
chemical laboratories in India. He also developed
a total twelve national laboratories, just a few
names are Central Food Processing
Technological Institute, Mysore, the National
Physical Laboratories, New Delhi, National
Chemical Laboratory, Pune, the Central Fuel
Institute, Dhanbad, and the National
Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur.
He also played an important part with Homi

Jehangir Bhabha, P .C. Mahalanobis, Vikram
Sarabhai and others in building of postindependent S &T infrastructure and in the
formulation of Indias science and technology
policies. He was the founder Director of the
(CSIR) which later it became a major agency for
research in India. He was also the Chairman of
the University Grants Commission (UGC).
Bhatnagar was the Secretary of Ministry of
[68]
Bhatnagar constituted the one-man

Commission in 1951 to negotiate with oil
companies for starting refineries and this
ultimately led to the establishment of many oil
refineries in different parts of the country. He
induced many individuals and organizations to
donate liberally for the cause of science and
education. He exhibited high poetic talent
particularly in Urdu. He died in 1st January 1955
at the age of 60 in New Delhi.
Bhatnagar used to spend all his spare time

in his laboratory doing research. Dr. Bhatnagar
was knighted by the British Government in the
year 1941 as an award for his research in science,
whereas, on March 18, 1943 he was selected as
fellow of the Royal Society. Bhatnagar was also
a recipient of Padma Vibhushan in 1954. After
his death, ASIR established a Bhatnagar
Memorial award for eminent scientists in his
honour.
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar (SSB) Prize for

Science and Technology was instituted in the
year 1957, in the memory of late Dr (Sir) Shanti
Swarup Bhatnagar, FRS, the founder director of
the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research
(CSIR). The SSB Prize is awarded each year on
the basis of conspicuously important and
outstanding contributions to human knowledge
and progress, made through work done primarily
in India during the five years, preceding the year

of the prize. The SSB Prize comprises a citation,
a cash award of Rupees 5,00,000/- and a plaque.
BIRBAL SAHNI
Birbal Sahni was not only botanist but also

geologist. By using simple instruments and his
huge knowledge of ancient plants, he estimated
the age of some old rocks. He showed to the
people that the age of the salt range, now in
Pakistan Punjab, is 40 to 60 million years old and
not about 100 million years, as believed till then.
He found that the Deccan Traps in Madhya
Pradesh were of the tertiary period, about 62
million years old. Besides, Sahni took a keen
interest in archaeology. One of his investigations
led to the discovery of coin moulds in Rohtak in
1936. For his studies on the technique of casting
coins in ancient India he was awarded the
Nelson Wright Medal of the Numismatic Society
of India in 1945.
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Birbal Sahni (1891- 1949) was a world

famous palaeobotanist, who studied the fossils
of the Indian subcontinent. He was born on 14th
November 1891 at Bhera, Saharanpur District,
now a part of West Punjab in Pakistan. He was
the founder of Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeobotany, which is situated in Lucknow.
him. Amongst a large number of fossil plants

described by him from Rajmahal Hills of
Jharkhand, was his most remarkable discovery
of a new group of fossil gymnosperms, to which
he gave the name Pentoxylae. Sahni studied
Ptilophyllum and other related elements from
Rajmahal Hills and found that stem Buaklandia,
leaf Ptilophyllum and flower Williamsonia
belong to the same plant which he reconstructed
and named as Williamsonia sewardiana.
He was the son of Ishwar Devi and Lala

Ruchi Ram Sahani. His father was a chemistry
teacher who was interested in the study of
nature. He got his education from Punjab
University, Lahore. Later on, in 1911 he went to
England, where he entered the Emmanuel
College at Cambridge. In 1913 Sahni obtained a
first class in Part-I of the Natural Sciences Tripos
and he completed the Part-II of the Tripos in
1915. After that he studied under Professor A.C.
Seward, and got his D.Sc. Degree from Landon
University in 1919.
Contributions and Achievements
After completion of his education Birbal

Sahni came back to India and worked as
Professor of Botany at Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi and Punjab University for
about a year.
Palaeobotany is a subject which requires the

knowledge of botany and geology subject. It also
require for an daring guts and a physique good
enough for trekking on the mountains for
collection of rocks that contain plant fossils. Once
the rocks have been collected and ground, the
abilities of a detective are required to piece
together the picture of that ancient plant from
the scattered information available in the fossils.
From childhood Sahni was interested in these
qualities.
Birbal Sahni was the first botanist to study
extensively the flora of Indian Gondwana. Sahni
also explored the Rajmahal hills in Jharkhand,
which is a treasury of fossils of ancient plants.
Here he discovered some new genus of plants.
His research contribution in palaeobotany
covered such a vast range that no aspect of
palaeobotany in India was left untouched by
Palaeobotanical studies should be done in

relation to the geological and geographical
conditions under which the plants lived and
died. He himself made important contributions
in geological studies. He threw considerable light
on problems like the age of the Deccan Traps,
the Saline Series and the timing of the Himalayan
uplift.
Being a teacher, Sahni first raised the
standard of teaching at the Department of
Botany. Next he established the Department of
Geology. A logical sequence was the
establishment of the institute of palaeobotany.
It was the first of its kind in the world.
Because of abiding interest in geology and

his fundamental contributions to the study of
plant life in the past, Birbal Sahni was recognized
by several academies and institutions in India
and abroad. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Society of London (FRS) in 1936, the highest
British scientific honor, awarded for the first time
to an Indian botanist. He was elected VicePresident, Palaeobotany section, of the
[69]
went to Tiruchchirapalli for his higher studies.

After completing his BSc from St. Josephs college
he joined the Madras Institute of Technology
(MIT), for studying aeronautical engineering.
From MIT, he went to Hindustan Aeronautics
Limited (HAL) at Bangalore as a trainee. As
aeronautical engineer Dr. Kalam had two
options -- in short, to join the Directorate of
Technical Development and Production, or DTD
& P (Air) of the Ministry of Defence or the Indian
Air Force. As he could not make it to Indian Air
Force, Dr. Kalam joined the Technical Centre
(Civil Aviation) of the DTD&P (Air) as Senior
Scientific Assistant on a basic salary of Rs. 250/
.
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International Botanical Congresses of 1930 and

1935, respectively; General President of the
Indian Science Congress for 1940; President,
National Academy of Sciences, India, 19371939
and 1943-1944. In 1948 he was elected an
Honorary Member of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences. Another high honour
which came to him was his election as an
Honorary President of the International Botanical
Congress, Stockholm in 1950.
Sahni died on 10th April, 1949 within less
than a week of the foundation stone laying
ceremony of his institute. His wife, Savitri Sahni,
completed the task he had left undone. The
institute is today known as the Birbal Sahni
Institute of Palaeobotany. In November 1969 the
Palaeobotanical Society divested its possession
of the Institute and transferred its assets to Birbal
Institute of Plaeobotany Society whereby the
Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaebotany came
under the management of its new Governing
Body under the Department of Science and
Technology, Government of India.
DR. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM
Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam,

popularly known as Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam,
served the country as the 11th President of India.
It is very significant that he is the first scientist
to occupy the Rashtrapati Bhavan. He is a man
who has taken unto himself, the task of changing
the destiny of India. He is a man with a vision.
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam is often also referred to
as the Missile Man of India.
His vision is to make India a developed

country. He has given his plan of action and a
road map for realizing his vision. He has
articulated his thoughts in his three books: India
2020: A Vision for the New Millennium, Wings
of Fire: An Autobiography of A. P. J. Abdul
Kalam and Ignited Minds: Unleashing the Power
Within India.
Dr. Kalam was born on October 15, 1931, in

a middle-class Tamil family in the island town
of Rameswaram, Dhanushkodi, in Tamil Nadu.
After studying in a primary school in

Ramaeswaran, Dr. Kalam went to Schwartz
High School at Ramanathpuram from where he
[70]
While working at the Air force Directorate

he got a chance to realise his dream. He joined
the Indian Committee for Space Research
(INCOSPAR), the predecessor of the Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO). And thus
Dr. Kalam started his much talked about career
in rocket and missile technology.
First Phase: Before he became President of

the country, Dr. Kalam had divided his career
in four phases. In the first phase (1963-82) he
worked with the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO). At ISRO he served in
various capacities. After initiating Fibre
Reinforced Plastics (FRP) activities and spending
some time with the aerodynamics and design
group he joined the satellite launching vehicle
team at Thumba. Here he was made the Project
Director of the Mission for SLV-3. He played a
crucial role in developing satellite launch vehicle
technology and expertise in control, propulsion
and aerodynamics. The SLV-3 project managed
to put Rohini, a scientific satellite, into orbit in
July 1980. India also acquired the ability to
design various kinds of rocket systems.
Second Phase: The second phase of his

career started when he joined the Defence
Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO) in 1982. As Director of DRDO, Dr.
Kalam was entrusted with the Integrated Guided
Missile Development Programme (IGMDP).
Under his leadership India has been able to
develop strategic missiles. Like Nag (an anti-tank
guided missile), Prithvi (a surface to surface
battlefield missile), Akash (a swift, medium range surface-to-air missile), Trishul (a quickreaction surface-to-air missile) and Agni (an
intermediate range ballistic missile). Three new

laboratories/facilities in the area of missile
technology were established.
In 1997 Dr. APJ Kalam was given the highest

civilian award of India, the Bharat Ratna.
Dr. Kalam became the President of India on July
25, 2002.
DR. LALJI SINGH

Dr. Lalji Singh is one of the eminent scientists
of the country and served as the 25th ViceChancellor of Banaras Hindu University (BHU),
Varanasi. Born on 5th July, 1947 in Jaunpur,
Uttar Pradesh, Dr. Singh rose to acquire the place
among the premier scientists of India. He holds
the position of Bhatnagar Fellow of CSIR at
(CCMB), Hyderabad, of which he was Director
for a long period of 11 years from 1998 to 2009.
He spent 13 years in the Institute of Animal
Genetics, University of Edinburgh (1974-1987)
before joining CCMB.
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Third Phase: Dr. Kalam identifies his third

phase with his participation with Indias mission
to become a nuclear weapon state, jointly
undertaken by DRDO and Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE) with the active support
of the armed forces. During this phase he, as
Chairman of the Technology Information,
Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC),
also got involved with the creation of Technology
Vision 2020 and the India Millennium Missions
(IMM 2020), which is an integratied version of
technology vision and Indias security concerns.
In November 1999 Dr. Kalam was appointed as
Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government
of India.
Fourth Phase: His fourth phase started after

he left the post of Principal Scientific Adviser.
He joined the Anna University at Chennai as
Professor of Technology and Societal
Transformation. As part of realizing his mission
he decided to ignite the minds of the young. For
this purpose he wanted to reach at least 100,000
students in different parts of the country before
August 2003. He has already met about 40,000
students. His fourth phase took a sudden turn,
which he himself perhaps did not visualize: He
became the President of India.
Other field of Interest
Kalam continues to take an active interest in

other developments in the field of science and
technology as well. He has proposed a research
programmed for developing bio-implants. He is
a supporter of pen source software over
proprietary solutions and believes that the use
of open source software on a large scale will
bring more people the benefits of Information
Technology.
Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam regards his work on

Indias nuclear weapons program as a way to
assert Indias place as a future superpower. Even
during his tenure as president, APJ Kalam took
avid interest in all spheres of Indias science and
technology. He has even put forward a project
plan for establishing bio-implants. He is also an
ardent advocate of open source software over
proprietary solutions to churn out more profits
in the field of information technology in India.
Dr Lalji Singh obtained his M.Sc., and Ph.D

(Cytogenetics) from Banaras Hindu University,
which later awarded him Honorary degree of
D.Sc. in the year 2004 and its Distinguished
Alumnus Award in the year 2009. Dr. Lalji was
awarded Ph.D. in 1971 for his work in the area
of Cytogenetics and he worked on "Evolution of
karyotypes in snakes".
Dr. Lalji Singh has an exemplary research

and professional experience of around 45 years,
during which he has published more than 219
research papers in internationally reputed
journals, including a full article in 'Nature' (2009)
which has been also covered on the cover page
of 'Nature'.
In June 1987 Lalji came back to India and
joined Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology
(CCMB), Hyderabad as senior scientist. His
research interests include Molecular basis of Sexdetermination; DNA Fingerprinting and genetic
diversity; Wildlife Conservation; Silkworm
Genome Analysis; Human Genome Analysis and
Ancient DNA Studies.
Dr. Lalji Singh and his colleagues developed
a probe called Bkm-derived probe for DNA
fingerprinting which brought CCMB to limelight.
Since then this probe is being extensively used
for
forensic
investigation,
paternity
determination and seed stock verification.
[71]
Award for Life Sciences 2008; Vigyan Gaurav

Award of the Council of Science & Technology,
Government of Uttar Pradesh (2003); Goyal
Prize in Life Sciences (2000) and New
Millennium Plaques of Honour Award 20012002 for outstanding services in the field of
Biological Sciences presented by the Prime
Minister of India at the 89th Session of the Indian
Science Congress(2002) to name a few. He is also
Fellow of the Third World Academy of Sciences,
Trieste, Italy (2002).
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For the first time in the annals of Indian

history DNA fingerprinting evidence was
presented in the court of law. This unique work
of Lalji, prompted Government of India's
Department of Biotechnology (DBT) to form
autonomous institution "Centre for DNA
Fingerprinting and Diagnostics (CDFD)" in 1995.
Currently housed at CCMB, Lalji shouldered the
responsibility of setting up of this new national
facility. As its Officer-on-Special-Duty (OSD),
Lalji worked towards development, acquisition
and standardization of protocols for carrier
detection, prenatal diagnosis and genetic
counseling for all the genetic disorders prevalent
within India.
In order to explore the tremendous potential
of the indigenously developed technology of
DNA fingerprinting, Dr. Lalji Singh has
proposed, pursued and established a new centre,
the Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and
Diagnostics (CDFD) at Hyderabad under the
Department of Biotechnology (DBT). In July
1998 he was appointed as the Director of the
(CCMB), Hyderabad.
Based on the studies of Dr. Lalji Singh and
his colleagues on Wildlife Conservation,
Government of India has set up a "Laboratory
for the Conservation of Endangered Species
(LaCONES)" in Hyderabad. For regenerative
medicine, Dr Singh has setup 'Clinical Research
Facility (CRF)' in collaboration with NIMS. He
is founder of 'Genome Foundation', a non-profitmaking organization registered under
Companies Act 25 in Hyderabad.
The social impact of some of the research

works carried out by Dr. Singh include
development of a Universal Probe for DNA
fingerprinting, conservation of wildlife, species
identification for forensic applications, DNA
based molecular diagnostics and work on genetic
affinities of Andaman islanders.
The contribution of Dr. Lalji Singh has been

profusely rewarded which include, apart from
"Padmashri" by President of India in 2004, B P
Pal Memorial Award at the 97th Indian Science
Congress, 2010; Life Time Achievement Award
for the year 2008 by the Biotech Research Society
(BRSI), BHU, Varanasi; CSIR Technology
[72]
M.S. SWAMINATHAN
India's well-known geneticist and

international administrator, Monkombu
Sambasivan Swaminathan was born on August
7, 1925 in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu. After
preliminary education in Tamil Nadu,
Swaminathan obtained his Ph D as a geneticist
from Cambridge University, United Kingdom,
in 1952. Popularly known as the Father of Green
Revolution in India, the missionary of ever-green
revolution continues to work for a hunger-free
society.
His stated vision is to rid the world of hunger
and poverty. Swaminathan is an advocate of
moving India to sustainable development,
especially using environmentally sustainable
agriculture, sustainable food security and the
preservation of biodiversity, which he calls an
"evergreen revolution".
After a two-year postdoctoral stint at the

University of Wisconsin, USA, he returned to
India and joined the Indian Agricultural
Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi. It was from
IARI that the wheat revolution was
choreographed during the 1960s. He is known
for his contributions in wheat, rice, potato and
jute genetics, after which he worked on Mexican
dwarf wheat varieties and conservation of plant
genetic resources.
He established the National Bureau of Plant,

Animal and Fish Genetic Resources of India and
the International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute, besides serving as the Principal
Secretary in the Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India.
During the next two decades he held a
number of research and administrative positions

(mostly in the Indian civil service). While
working in these positions he helped introduce
Mexican semi-dwarf wheat plants to Indian
fields and helped to bring about greater
acceptance of modern farming methods. The
seeds of Green Revolution in India were sown
in Punjab Agricultural University (PAU).
Dr. Swaminathan has been recognized with

a number of national and international awards,
including Padma Shri (1967), Padma Bhushan
(1972), Padma Vibhushan (1989), the Ramon
Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership
(1971), and the Albert Einstein World Award
on Science (1986). He was the first laureate of
the World Food Prize (1987) that is regarded as
the Nobel Prize in Agriculture. He was also a
nominated Member of Parliament (Rajya Sabha).
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From 1972 to 1979 he was director general

of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
and he was minister of Agriculture from 1979
to 1980. He served as director general of the
International Rice Research Institute (198288)
and became president of the International Union
for the Conservation of Nature and Natural

Resources in 1988.
He was awarded the First World Food Prize

in October 1987 and has been described by the
United Nations Environment Programme as "the
Father of Economic Ecology".
[73]
NEW DEVELOPMENTS
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
1. MRAM Technology
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A team of researchers, led by Dr Yang

Hyunsoo, from the Department of Electrical &
Computer Engineering at the National
University of Singapore (NUS) Faculty of
Engineering developed the new Magnetoresistive
Random Access Memory (MRAM) technology
that that enables bigger and longer lasting
memory in electronics such as laptops and
smartphones. The technology will drastically
increase storage space and enhance memory
which will ensure that fresh data stays intact,
even in the case of a power failure.
The device AV Magnivisualizer which was

developed by the Institute of Cytology and
Preventive Oncology under the Indian Council
of Medical Research (ICMR) has 95 per cent
accuracy for detecting pre-cancerous lesions.
Randomised clinical control trials have
confirmed its efficacy in reducing incidence and
mortality of the disease. It can be made available
in remote rural areas.
The new technology can also be applied in

transportation, military and avionics systems,
robotics, etc. Currently pursued schemes with
a very thin magnetic layer can only retain
information for about a year. The innovation is
expected to change the architecture of
computers, making them much easier to
manufacture as it does away with many
facilities such as flash memory, effectively
bringing down the cost.
MRAM is emerging as the next big thing in
data storage as it is non-volatile, which means
that data can be retrieved even when the
electronic equipment is not powered up. The
current methods of applying MRAM revolve
round the technology which uses an 'in-plane',
or horizontal, current-induced magnetisation.
This method uses ultra-thin ferromagnetic
structures which are challenging to implement
due to their thickness of less than 1 nanometre.
Their manufacturing reliability is low and tends
to retain information for only less than a year.
2. Indigenous Cervical Cancer Diagnostic
Kit
The Union Health and Family Welfare

Ministry launched AV Magnivisualizer, an
indigenous device that can detect early cervical
cancer and be used even by healthcare workers
with basic training.
[74]
This is a user-friendly device which costs

about Rs 10,000 as against the present devices
which cost between Rs 8-10 lakh and are beyond
the reach of most people.
The device has a white light source with

variable interchangeable magnification and can
be operated on a 12- volt battery in rural and
semi-urban areas where electric supply is not
regular. Magnivisualizer has been found to pick
up 1.5 times more high-grade pre-cancerous
lesions than the ordinary tungsten light.
AV Magnivisualizer would be available in

the market within the next 8-9 months and
efforts would be made to provide them up to
the Community Health Centres in the initial
phase. In the next phase it would be made
available in the Primary Health Centres (PHC),
where cervical cancer cases go undetected.
Cervical cancer is the most common
malignancy among Indian women, particularly
those who marry early. Current estimates
indicate that approximately 1.32 lakh new cases
are diagnosed and 74,000 deaths occur annually
in India, accounting for nearly one-third of
global cervical cancer deaths.
Cervical cancer takes about a decade to fully

develop and is often detected when it has spread
substantially. It starts from a pre-cancer stage
called dysplasias and early detection and
appropriate treatment at this stage can halt its
progression, resulting in decreased incidence or
mortality.
At present, cytology screening or Pap Smear
is available only in advanced cytology centres,

Regional Cancer Centres and some medical
colleges. The required infrastructure, trained
manpower and related mechanism for initial
screening are not available to carry out
population-based screening at the State or the
national level.
Worldwide Facts About Cervical Cancer
One of the world's greenest supercomputer

has been created by Cambridge University. The
energy-efficient high-performance computer,
named Wilkes after Cambridge computing
pioneer Maurice Wilkes, has been listed second
in the 'Green 500'; placed 166 in the Top 500 list
of the world's fastest supercomputers. It is the
most efficient air-cooled supercomputer in the
world and fastest GPU supercomputer in the
UK.
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Cervical cancer is the No. 1 women's

cancer in sub-Saharan Africa and is the
third most common cancer in women
worldwide, with 530,000 new cases and
275,00 deaths annually.
3. Greenest Supercomputer
Some 80 to 90 percent of women in subSaharan Africa have never had a pelvic

exam.
More than 85 percent of the global burden

of cervical cancer occurs in resourcelimited countries, yet the World Health
Organization estimates less than 5
percent of these women have access to
screening even once in a lifetime.
Cervical cancer is four to five times more
prevalent among women who are HIVpositive.
HPV vaccination offers a promising

solution for women in developing nations
who do not have access to screenings for
cervical cancer, although the cost of the
vaccination is a major barrier for many
resource-limited countries.
Cervical cancer is the No. 1 cancer
affecting women in 37 countries in South
and Central America, west and southern
Africa, and Asia.
Cervical cancer occurs in the cells of the

cervix, the lower part of the uterus that
connects to a woman's vagina. Various
strains of the human papillomavirus
(HPV), a sexually transmitted infection,
are the culprits in causing most cases of
cervical cancer.
Most women's immune systems prevent

the HPV virus from turning cancerous. In
a small percentage of women, however,
the virus survives for years, and, if not
detected and prevented, some cells on the
surface of the cervix turn into cancer cells.
The performance of Wilkes is equivalent to

4,000 desktop computers working at the same
time; it has energy efficiency of 3,361 Mega-flops
per watt; provides 100 gigabytes per-second
bandwidth, and a message rate of over 137
million messages a second.
The supercomputer, designed and built by
the in-house engineering team, will be used for
the development of the Square Kilometre Array
(SKA), the world's largest telescope.
Apart from playing a crucial role in the design
process of SKA, the supercomputer can also be
used to design and test jet engines and new drugs
to fight cancer, and study the fundamental
nature of the nucleus of the atom.
4. MAVEN launched by NASA
NASA has launched its unmanned MAVEN

spacecraft towards Mars to study the Red
Planet's atmosphere for clues as to why Earth's
neighbour lost its warmth and water over time.
The white Atlas V 401 rocket carrying the Mars
Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN)
orbiter blasted off on schedule time. MAVEN is
the first spacecraft devoted to exploring and
understanding the Martian upper atmosphere.
The flawless lift-off of the $671 million
spacecraft kicked off the 10-month journey to
the Red Planet. Arrival at Mars is scheduled for
September 2014, with the science mission of the
solar-wing panelled orbiter set to begin two
months later.
One of its three scientific tools is a solar wind
and ionosphere gauge called the Particles and
Fields Package, built by the University of
California at Berkeley Space Sciences Laboratory.
A second tool, called the Remote Sensing
Package, was built by the Laboratory for
[75]
Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University

of Colorado and will determine global
characteristics of the upper atmosphere and
ionosphere. The third instrument, the Neutral
Gas and Ion Mass Spectrometer, was built by
NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. It will
measure the composition and isotopes of neutrals
and ions.
The cost of the mission is approximately

Rs. 450 crore.
With this mission, India will be the first

Asian country and the fourth in the world
to take part in interplanetary exploration.
The Mars Orbiter payloads

Lyman Alpha Photometer(LAP): This device
is an absorption cell photometer that will help
determine the relative abundance of Deuterium
and Hydrogen from Lyman-Alpha emission in
the upper Martian atmosphere. The results from
the device will mainly help us understand the
loss process of water from Mars, among other
things.
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The probe is different from past NASA

missions because it focuses not on the dry surface
but on the mysteries of the never-before-studied
upper atmosphere. Much of MAVEN's year-long
mission will be spent circling the planet 6,000
kilometers above the surface. However, it will
execute five deep dips to a distance of just 125
kilometers above the Martian landscape to get
readings of the atmosphere at various levels.
Orbiter into its trajectory is about 40

minutes.
Researchers have described the mission as a

search for a missing piece to the puzzle of what
happened to Mars' atmosphere, perhaps billions
of years ago, to transform Earth's neighbour from
a water-bearing planet that might have been
favourable for life to a dry, barren desert.
5. Mars Orbiter Mission
Mars Colour Camera(MCC): This tri-colour

camera will provide information regarding the
Martian surface like surface features and
composition. It will also help monitor the
dynamic events and weather on the planet. The
camera will also monitor Phobos, and Deimos,
the two satellites of mars.
The mission objectives are both technological

and scientific in nature. Here are some of the
important objectives for ISRO.
Methane Sensor for Mars(MSM): This

device will measure Methane(CH4) in the planet's
atmosphere and map its sources.
Design and realisation of a Mars orbiter

with a capability to survive and perform
Earthbound manoeuvres, cruise phase of
300 days, Mars orbit insertion / capture,
and on-orbit phase around Mars.
Deep space communication, navigation,

mission planning and management.
Exploration of Mars surface features,

morphology, mineralogy and Martian
atmosphere by indigenous scientific
instruments.
Mission Facts
The 1,337 kg Mars Orbiter Satellite will

be put into a 250 km X 23,500 km
elliptical orbit.
The launch vehicle being used is a PSLVC25.
This is the 25th mission of PSLV and fifth

in the XL configuration.
Time from launch to injection of the
[76]
Mars Exospheric Neutral Composition

Analyser(MENCA): This device is a mass
spectrometer that can analyse neutral
composition in the range of 1 to 300 amu with
unit mass resolution.
Thermal
Infrared
Imaging
Spectrometer(TIS): This device will measure the
thermal emission both during day and night. TIS
can also map surface composition and
mineralogy of the planet.
6. India Rolls out its First Indigenous LCA Tejas
Tejas, India's first indigenous Light Combat

Aircraft (LCA), which is all set to replace the
MiG-21 series, has been developed by the Defence
Research and Development Organization
(DRDO) with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
(HAL) as its principal partner.
Tejas is the smallest, light weight, single
engine, single seat, supersonic, multirole, combat
aircraft, and best in its class in the world. It has

many features of stealth fighter aircraft. It will
be used by both the Indian Air Force (IAF) and
the Navy.
The exercises are aimed at training technical

personnel and their leadership as well as testing
the capability of NATO and its partners to
coordinate their efforts in foiling multiple
simulated cyber attacks.
About Cyber Defence Exercises
Objective: Cyber defence exercise allows

its participants to learn and test the skills
needed to fend off a real attack.
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This fourth generation combat aircraft has

Carbon Composites, light weight/high strength
material for primary structures, quadruplex
Digital Flight Control System; glass Cockpit and
digital Avionics to give multirole capabilities
with carefree manoeuvring. These capabilities
are further raised by several on-board Sensors,
Communication and Navigation Systems that
are supported by powerful Mission Computers
and Cockpit Display System.
European Union have the observer status.
This is for the first time an indigenously

designed and developed military fighter aircraft
has been certified for Indian Air Force.
Stealth aircraft are designed to avoid
detection using a variety of advanced
technologies that reduce reflection/emission
of radar, infrared, visible light, RadioFrequency (RF) spectrum, and audio,
collectively.
Features of stealth fighter aircraft
The aircraft has a totally digital flyby-wire control system; the wings are
made entirely of composite structures.
Built by unstable configuration'

technique. It has open architecture
software for avionics. DRDO can
update it as and when required.
It integrates a 'glass cockpit' in which

information is displayed 'real-time' to
the pilot.
7. Cyber Coalition 2013: NATO's Largestever Cyber-security Exercise
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization

(NATO) has started its largest-ever cyber security
exercises to practice thwarting large and
simultaneous attacks on member states and their
partners. The drill was hosted by National
Defence College training centre in Tartu, Estonia.
Codenamed Cyber Coalition 2013, the

exercises involve participants from more than 30
countries across Europe, including five nonNATO nations: Austria, Finland, Ireland,
Sweden, and Switzerland. New Zealand and the
First exercise: 2008, a joint between

Swedish and Estonian universities.
Second Exercise: Baltic Cyber Shield

(2010), organised by Swedish National
Defence College (SNDC), various Swedish
institutions and the Estonian Cyber
Defence League.
Since 2012, the exercise series is called

Locked Shields.
8. World's
Unveiled
First
Nanotube
Computer
A group of Stanford researchers led by

Professor Subhasish Mitra had successfully built
a working computer albeit an extremely simple
one entirely from transistors fashioned from
carbon nanotubes. The nanotubes have long
held the promise of allowing smaller, faster and
lower-powered computing, though they have
proved difficult to work with.
The computer can right now perform only
basic functions at speeds likened to a 1950s
computer, but the tiny machine was hailed as a
breakthrough in the search for an alternative to
silicon transistors. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are
rolled-up, single-layer sheets of carbon atoms
tens of thousands can fit into the width of a
single human hair. They are pliable and have
the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any
known material. Silicon is a good semiconductor
but cannot be reduced to such a thin layer.
Experts believe the structure of CNTs may make
them better at carrying currents thus yielding
transistors that are faster, more energy efficient
and smaller than silicon.
The computer is just a few square millimetres
in size and able to perform basic counting and
number-sorting functions using 178 transistors
[77]
Control and Prevention (CDC) and WHO

(World Health Organization), there are no
specific treatments for patients who become ill
with MERS-CoV infection.
All what doctors can currently do is provide
supportive medical care to help relieve the
symptoms. Supportive cares means providing
treatment to prevent, control or relieve
complications and side effects, as well as
attempting to improve the patient's comfort and
quality of life. Supportive care (supportive
therapy) does not include treating or improving
the illness/condition.
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each holding between 10 and 200 nanotubes. It

runs at 1 kilohertza processing capacity
millions of times weaker than today's computers.
The 178-transistor limit was due to the team
using a university chip-making facility rather
than an industrial process, meaning the
computer could in theory be made much bigger
and faster. The machine ran a basic operating
system that allowed it to multitask and swap
between the two processes.
Mitra and his team had been able to deal
with two inherent shortcomings of CNT
transistors: the tubes do not always grow in
perfectly straight lines, which mean that
mispositioned ones can cause a short circuit,
while others changed form and could not be
switched on and off. The team devised a method
to burn up and eliminate the uncontrolled CNTs
in a transistor and to bypass mispositioned ones.
9. MERS VIRUS
MERS-CoV (Middle East Respiratory

Syndrome Coronavirus), previously known as
the Novel Coronavirus or SARS-like virus, is a
member of the coronavirus family.
Coronaviruses commonly cause respiratory

illness in mammals, including humans.
Coronaviruses are responsible for approximately
1 in every 3 cases of the common cold. MERSCoV is much more deadly than any other
coronavirus seen before.
MERS-CoV is a new coronavirus strain that
appeared last year. It started making people ill
in the Middle East in 2012 and was first identified
when a man in Saudi Arabia came down with
"SARS-like" symptoms. He died in June 2012.
Symptoms
Coronaviruses cause respiratory infections in

humans and animals. Patients have been
presented with fever, cough and breathing
difficulties.
10. Fixed Dose Drug Combinations
A combination drug most commonly refers

to a fixed-dose combination (FDC), which is a
formulation including two or more active
pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) combined in
a single dosage form, which is manufactured and
distributed in certain respective fixed doses.
Advantages
Simpler dosage schedule improves

compliance and therefore improves
treatment outcomes.
Reduces inadvertent medication errors.
Allows for syngergistic combinations.
Eliminates drug shortages by simplifying

drug storage and handling, and thus
lowers risk of being "out of stock".
Procurement, management and handling

of drugs is simplified.
Side effects are reduced by using one drug

of the combination for this purpose.
Potential for drug abuse can be minimized

by using one drug of the combination for
this purpose.
Disadvantages
It causes pneumonia and, sometimes, kidney

failure. Most of the people who have been
infected so far have been older men, often with
other medical conditions.
FDCs are (possibly) more expensive than

separate tablets.
Potential quality problems, especially with

rifampicin in FDCs for TB, requiring bioavailability testing.
What are the treatment options for MERSCoV infection?
Dosing is inflexible and cannot be

regulated to patient's needs (each patient
has unique characteristics such as weight,
According to the US Centers for Disease
[78]
age, pharmacogenetics, co-morbidity, that

may alter drug metabolism and effect).
Drug interactions may lead to alteration

of the therapeutic effect.
11. Umpire Decision Review System
These keys complement each other in that

one does not function in the absence of the other.
They are used by browsers and servers to encrypt
and decrypt information regarding the identity
of the certificate user during information
exchange processes. The private key is stored on
the user's computer hard disk or on an external
device such as a token. The user retains control
of the private key; it can only be used with the
issued password.
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The Umpire Decision Review System is a

technology-based system used in the sport of
cricket. The system was first introduced in Test
cricket, for the sole purpose of reviewing
controversial decisions made by the on-field
umpires in the case of a batsman being dismissed
or not.
with a pair of electronic keys - public and private

keys - and this association is endorsed by the CA.
The certificate contains information about a
user's identity (for example, their name, pincode,
country, email address, the date the certificate
was issued and the name of the Certifying
Authority that issued it).
There are basically three components in

UDRS.
Hawk-Eye, Eagle Eye, or Virtual Eye: balltracking technology that plots the
trajectory of a bowling delivery that has
been interrupted by the batsman, often
by the pad, and can determine whether it
would have hit the wicket or not.
Hot Spot: Infra-red imaging system that
illuminates where the ball has been in
contact with bat or pad.
Snickometer, which relies on directional

microphones to detect small sounds made
as the ball hits the bat or pad, however is
no longer used.
12. Digital Signature
A digital signature is a mathematical scheme

for demonstrating the authenticity of a digital
message or document. A valid digital signature
gives a recipient reason to believe that the
message was created by a known sender, such
that the sender cannot deny having sent the
message (authentication and non-repudiation)
and that the message was not altered in transit
(integrity). Digital signatures are commonly used
for software distribution, financial transactions,
and in other cases where it is important to detect
forgery or tampering.
Digital signatures can be used to authenticate
the source of messages. When ownership of a
digital signature secret key is bound to a specific
user, a valid signature shows that the message
was sent by that user.
A Digital Signature Certificate explicitly
associates the identity of an individual/device
The public key is disseminated with the

encrypted information. The authentication
process fails if either one of these keys in not
available or do not match. This means that the
encrypted data cannot be decrypted and
therefore, is inaccessible to unauthorized parties.
13. 3D Printing Technology
Additive manufacturing or 3D printing is a

process of making a three-dimensional solid
object of virtually any shape from a digital model.
3D printing is achieved using an additive
process, where successive layers of material are
laid down in different shapes. 3D printing is also
considered distinct from traditional machining
techniques, which mostly rely on the removal of
material by methods such as cutting or drilling.
Advantages
Manufacture of Customized Products.
Rapid Prototyping.
Low cost of production.
Disadvantages
Manufacture of Dangerous Items
Issues of counterfeiting.
Issues of intellectual property rights.
3D printing applications
One of the most important applications of

3D printing is in the medical industry. With 3D
printing, surgeons can produce mockups of parts
[79]
of their patient's body which needs to be operated

upon.
3D printing makes it possible to make a part
from scratch in just hours. It allows designers
and developers to go from flat screen to exact
part.
Light weight
High strength-to-weight ratio
Corrosion resistance
Weather resistance
Low thermal conductivity
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Nowadays almost everything from aerospace

components to toys are getting built with the help
of 3D printers. 3D printing is also used for
jewellery, architecture, fashion designing, art,
and interior designs.
although other fibres such as paper or wood or

asbestos have been sometimes used. FRP has the
following properties-
What is the difference between a basic rapid

prototyping machine and a 3D printer?
3D printers are the simple version of rapid

prototyping machines.
Rapid prototyping is a conventional method

that has been used by automotive and aircraft
industries for years.
In general 3D printers are compact and

smaller than RP machines. They are ideal for use
in offices. They use less energy and take less
space. They are designed for low volume
reproduction of real objects made of nylon or
other plastics. That also means 3D printers make
smaller parts. Rapid prototyping machines have
build chambers at least 10 inches on a side, a 3D
printer has less than 8 inches on a side. However,
a 3D printer is capable of all the functions of
rapid prototyping machine such as verifying and
validating design, creating prototype, remote
sharing of information, etc.
Consequently 3D printers are easy to handle

and cheap to maintain. You can buy one of those
DIY kit in the market and build up yourself. It is
cheaper than the professional rapid prototyping,
for $1000 or less you can have one 3D printer,
while the professional rapid prototyping cost at
least $50,000.
3D printers are less accurate than rapid
prototyping machines. Because of its simplicity
the material choices are also limited.
14. FRP Composite Material
Non-magnetic
Applications
Construction
of
FRP
Composites
in
Fibre-reinforced plastics are best suited for

any design programme that demands weight
savings, precision engineering, finite tolerances,
and the simplification of parts in both production
and operation. A moulded polymer artefact is
cheaper, faster, and easier to manufacture than
cast aluminium or steel artefact, and maintains
similar and sometimes better tolerances and
material strengths
There are three broad divisions into which
applications of FRP in civil engineering can be
classified: applications for new construction,
repair and rehabilitation applications, and
architectural applications.
FRPs have been used widely by civil

engineers in the design of new construction.
Structures such as bridges and columns built
completely out of FRP composites have
demonstrated exceptional durability, and
effective resistance to effects of environmental
exposure. Pre-stressing tendons, reinforcing bars,
grid reinforcement and dowels are all examples
of the many diverse applications of FRP in new
structures.
One of the most common uses for FRP

involves the repair and rehabilitation of damaged
or deteriorating structures. Several companies
across the world are beginning to wrap damaged
bridge piers to prevent collapse and steelreinforced columns to improve the structural
integrity and to prevent buckling of the
reinforcement.
Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also fibrereinforced polymer) is a composite material made

of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. The
fibres are usually glass, carbon, basalt or aramid,
Architects have also discovered the many

applications for which FRP can be used. These
include structures such as siding/cladding,
roofing, flooring and partitions.
[80]
CHRONICLE
Sample Questions
IAS ACADEMY
(Science & Technology)
1. Native resolution is the resolution at which a

TV or monitor is designed to display images.
720p and 1080i are the two main standards for
broadcasting HDTV signals.
4. Project Glass - a smart pair of glasses with an

integrated heads-up display revealed by Google
is a:
I. Prototype for an augmented reality
headset that would have the capabilities of
a smartphone and more.
II. The p in 720p means fewer video frames

per second, thus it doesn't handle fastmoving video.
II. It will include a camera, GPS functionality,

and Internet connectivity, and voiceactivation software.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
III. The operating system software used in the

glasses will be Symbian OS.
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I. The "i" in 1080i means it presents fastmoving action much more clearly.
(a) I only
(b) II only
(c) Both
(d) None
IV. Google Glasses will also use voice input and

output.
Country
I. Japan
(a) I and II
(b) I, II and IV
(c) II, III and IV
(d) I only
2. Match the following

Lunar Missions
A. SMART-1
B. Luna 2
II. USA
C. Hiten
III. European Space

Agency
D. GRAIL
IV. Soviet Union
Codes:
(a) A-III; B-II; C-I; D-IV

(b) A-III; B-IV; C-I; D-II
(c) A-IV; B-II; C-III; D-I

(d) A-IV; B-II; C-I; D-III
3. Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is a suite of

standard network layer protocols for the
Internet. The salient characteristics of IPV6 are:
I. IPv6 has 132-bit (16-byte) source and
destination addresses.
II. It provides better support for QoS.
III. It provides an in-built security and

promotes interoperability between different
IPv6 implementations.

(a) I only
(b) I and II
(c) II and III
(d) All
5. Read the following statements related to pulsar

stars.
I. A pulsar is a highly magnetized, rotating
neutron star that emits a beam of electromagnetic radiation.
II. These are very dense stars composed almost

entirely of neutrons and have a diameter
of only 20 km (12 miles) or less.
III. It emit only at X-ray or gamma-ray

wavelengths.
(a) Only I and II

(b) Only II
(c) Only I and III
(d) All of these
6. India's Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)

has become the member of the Multinational
Design Evaluation Program (MDEP). Read the
following statements related to MDEP and
choose the correct answer from the codes given
below.
1
I. MDEP is a program through which

national regulators share technical data and
standardize regulations and practices in
order to avoid duplication of work and
review new nuclear power reactor designs.
II. Participating nations are Canada, China,
France, Russia, the UK and the USA only.
III. All licensing and regulatory decisions are
taken by MDEP and national regulators are
bonded by the order.
(a) Only I
(b) Only I and III
(c) Only II and III
(d) None of the above
9. What is Surface Computing?
(a) Surface computing is the ability to use
computing capability without a pre-defined
location and/or connection to a network
to publish and/or subscribe to information.
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Codes:
Which of the above statements are incorrect?
(a) I only
(b) II and III

(c) I and III
(d) I and II
7. Ultrasound waves or ultrasonic waves are the

terms used to describe elastic waves with
frequency greater than 20,000 Hz. Read the
following statements related to ultrasound
waves.
I. It propagates through the medium (liquid

and gaseous only) in a finite time as a
mechanical sound wave by the vibrations
of molecules, atoms or any particles present.
II. The speed of propagation depends upon

their frequencies.
III. They cannot be transmitted over long
distance as loss of energy is very high.
Which of the above statements correctly defines
the characteristics of ultrasound waves?
(a) I only
(b) II only
(c) Surface computing is a practice of using a

network of remote servers hosted on the
Internet to store, manage, and process data,
rather than a local server.
(d) Surface computing is term used in

computer science to refer the problem in
computer science whose solution is not
predictable, uncertain and between 0 and 1.
10. Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a planned

ground-based large segmented mirror reflecting
telescope, which will enable astronomers to
study objects in our own solar system and stars
throughout our Milky Way and its neighboring
galaxies, and forming galaxies at the very edge
of the observable Universe. The board of
directors of the TMT Observatory Corporation
has selected which of the following as the
preferred site for the Thirty Meter Telescope?
(c) II and III
(a) Cerro Armazones in Chile
(d) I and III
(b) Mauna Kea in Hawaii
8. Lithium-ion batteries are nowadays very

popular in iPods, laptops, cellphones. The
advantages of Lithium-ion batteries over other
batteries are:
I. The rate of self-discharge is much lower
than that of other rechargeable cells such
as Ni-Cad and NiMH forms.
II. Memory effect is almost nil in Lithium-ion

batteries.
III. The energy density is very high as compared
to other batteries.
2
(b) Surface computing allows people to interact

with content and information by using their
hands and natural movements.
(c) San Pedro Mrtir, Mexico
(d) Cerro Tolar, Chile
11. Indo-French space cooperation is all set to soar

to new heights with the scheduled launch of a
satellite to study changes in the environment.
Consider these statements regarding SARAL
and identify incorrect statement/s;
I. The SARAL-Altika satellite, a joint project
of the space agencies of India and France,
will complement the observations of the
seas made by current satellites.
II. Indias rocket, Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

(PSLV) will put the 450 kg Indo-French
satellite into orbit from its spaceport at
Sriharikota.
III. SARAL is short for Satellite with ARgos and
ALtiKa, the two main devices on it which
have been provided by ISRO. Besides
building the spacecraft, French space agency
CNES will launch and operate it through
its life.
III. Shale gas is believed to change the energy

dynamics of the world as it will reduce the
dependence on the middle eastern
petroleum resources
(a)
I only
(c) I and III
(b) II only
(d) II and III
14. A quantum dot display is a type of display

technology used in flat panel displays as
an electronic visual display. Quantum dots (QD)
or semiconductor nanocrystals are a form of
light emitting technology and consist of nanoscale crystals that can provide an alternative
for applications such as display technology.
Which of the statements about QD displays are
true?
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IV. AltiKa is a Ka-band altimeter system,

dedicated to accurate measurement of the
rise in the sea levels.
resources, thus making it a clean source of

energy
Codes:
(a) Only II and III
(b) Only II and IV

(c) Only III
(d) Only IV
12. Consider the following statements
I. Nishant is an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle(UAV) developed by ADE (Aeronautical

Development Establishment) of the DRDO.
II. Rustom is a lightweight multirole fighter
aircraft developed by DRDO.
III. Tejas is a Medium Altitude Long Endurance

unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV)
being developed by DRDO.
IV. Ulka is an air-launched expendable target

drone developed by DRDO.
Which of these statements are true?
(a) I and III only
(b) I, II and III
(c) I and IV only

(d) II, III and IV
13. Shale gas is natural gas formed from being

trapped within shale formations. Shale gas has
become an increasingly important source of
natural gas since the start of this century. Which
among these statements regarding Shale gas are
true?
I. Production of shale gas increased

considerably after technological advances in
directional and horizontal drilling,
microseismic imaging, and hydraulic
fracturing
II. The greenhouse effect of Shale gas is
minimal when compared to other petroleum
I. Quantum dot displays are able to yield a

greater portion of the visible spectrum than
current technologies, thus enlarging the
colour range of the display
II. Quantum dot displays use 30 to 50% less

electrical power than an LCD, in large part
because nanocrystal displays don't need a
backlight
III. Compared to LCD and OLED, the

manufacturing cost of QD-LED is relatively
low and development of novel and even
more cost-efficient fabrication process is
possible, effectively bringing the cost even
lower
(a) I and II
(b) II and III

(c) I and III
(d) All of the above
15. Consider the following statements and select

the correct answer?
I. Black silicon is a semiconductor material,
with very low reflectivity and high
absorption of visible light.
II. Black silicon is produced by irradiating

standard silicon with femtosecond laser
pulses under a sulfur containing
atmosphere.
III. Black silicon solar cells can absorb nearly

all of the sunlight that hits them, including
infrared radiation, and produce twice the
electricity of regular solar panels.
3
Codes:
(a) I, II, only
(b) II, III, only
(c) I, III only
(d) All
16. A quantum computer is a computation device

that uses quantum mechanical phenomena,
such as superposition and entanglement, to
perform operations on data. Quantum
computers require data to be encoded in form
of
(b) qubits
(c) 0 or 1
(d) Both (a) & (c)
I. An integrated circuit (IC) an entire electrical

circuit with numerous transistors, wires,
and other electrical devices all built into a
single square of semiconductor such as
silicon, germanium, antimony, etc.
II. Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a system
of building very-large integrated circuits
that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce
a single "super-chip".
III. The cost of ICs over discrete circuits are low
because the chips, with all their
components, are printed as a unit
by photolithography rather than being
constructed one transistor at a time.
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(a) bits
19. Which of these statements about Integrated

chips are
17. Open source software (OSS) is computer

software with its source code made available
and licensed with an open source license in
which the copyright holder provides the rights
to study, change and distribute the software to
anyone and for any purpose. Which among the
following statements regarding open source
software are true?
I. GNU/Linux, Mozilla Firefox, Apache
HTTP Server, Android etc. are examples of
open source software
II. In general, open source software is

compact, and as a result requires less
hardware power to accomplish the same
tasks as compared to closed/proprietary
software, thus bringing down the cost of
hardware power required.
Codes:
(a) I only
(b) II only
(c) Both of the above (d) None of the above
18. In the context of recent outbreaks of Swine flu

consider the following statements and select the
correct answer?
I. Swine influenza, also called, swine flu, hog
flu and pig flu, is a respiratory disease,
caused by a strain of the influenza type A
virus known as H1N1.
II. Symptoms of Swine flu include fever,

cough, sore throat, body aches, headache,
chills and fatigue.
III. Swine influenza A (H1N1) virus has
components of pig and bird influenza
viruses thus the transmission of the virus
from pigs to humans is most common and
always leads to human flu.
Codes:
(a) I, II only
(b) II, III only
(c) I, III only
(d) All
(a) Only 1 & 3 are correct
(b) Only 2 & 3 are correct
(c) Only 1 & 2 are correct
(d) All are correct
20. Brain Fingerprinting is a forensic science

technique to determine whether specific
information is stored in a subject's brain. Which
among the following statements are true
regarding Brain Fingerprinting?
I. It does this by measuring electrical brainwave responses to words, phrases,
or pictures that are presented on a
computer screen.
II. The technique of Brain Fingerprinting is

controversial, because some people consider
it unethical and invasive to electrically
probe human thoughts and feelings.
(a) I only
(b) II only
(c) Bothe of the above
21. Research into the health benefits of foods has

been escalating during the last five to seven
years, driven by consumers aware of the
relationship of diet to optimal health, everincreasing health care costs and others
motivated to take control of their own health.
Which of the following are correctly matched?
I. Nutraceutical - a food or food product that
reportedly provides health and medical
benefits, including the prevention and
treatment of disease.
II. Functional foods - are enriched with
vitamins and minerals, usually at a range
up to 100 percent of the Dietary Reference
Intake, formally called the Recommended

Daily Allowance for that nutrient.
II. The density of heavy water is lower than

normal water.
III. Fortified foods - any product (other than

tobacco) that is intended to supplement the
diet and contains vitamin, mineral, herb or
other botanical; an amino acid or
metabolite; an extract; or any combination
of the mentioned items.
(c) Only III
(d) All of the above
(a) I and II
(b) II and III
(c) All of the above
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(b) Only II
Which of the above statements are true?
24. Consider the following statement about the

recently launched Science, Technology and
Innovation Policy (STI) 2013 and select the
correct answer?
Codes:
(a) Only I
III. Heavy water is usually radioactive.
I. One of the main aims of policy is to

promoting the spread of scientific temper
among the youth.
22. Bio-engineering researchers from Stanford

University have developed the first biological
Internet or 'Bi-Fi'. Read the following statements
regarding Bi-Fi:
II. A Strong and viable Science, Research and

Innovation system for High Technology led
path for India (SRISHTI) are the goal for
the STI policy.
I. The technology uses an innocuous

bacterium called M13 to increase the
complexity and amount of information that
can be sent from cell to cell.
III. New policy seeks to

Expenditure in Research
(GERD) to 2% from the
GDP in this decade
enhanced private sector
II. M13 reproduces within its host, takes

strands of DNA -- strands that engineers
can control -- wrap them up one by one
and send them out encapsulated within
proteins produced by M13 that can infect
other cells.
Which of the above statements are true?
(a) I only
(b) II only
(c) Both I and II
(d) Neither I nor II
raise the Gross

and Development
present 1% of the
by encouraging
contribution.
Codes:
(a) I, II only
(b) II, III only
(c) I, III only
(d) All
25. Which among the following is/ are produced

by the Council of Scientific & Industrial
Research (CSIR)?
23. Heavy water is a form of water that contains a

larger than normal amount of the hydrogen
isotope
deuterium
rather
than
the
common hydrogen-1 isotope that makes up most
of the hydrogen in normal water. Heavy water
is used in nuclear reactors. Read the following
statements about the heavy water:
I. Heavy water has molecular weight of
18amu.
I. Risorine- indigenously drug formulation

against tuberculosis.
II. First indigenous Wankel Engine powered

unmanned Air Vehicle NISHANT.
III. Diastep - shelf footwear for low risk

diabetic patients.
Codes:
(a) I, II only
(b) II, III only
(c) I, III only
(d) All
CHRONICLE
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
(ANSWERS)
IAS ACADEMY
14. (a)
2. (b)
15. (d)
3. (d)
16 (b)
4. (b)
17. (c)
5. (a)
18. (a)
6. (a)
19. (b)
7. (b)
20. (c)
8. (d)
21. (a)
9. (b)
22. (b)
10. (b)
23. (d)
11. (c)
24. (b)
12. (c)
25. (d)
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1. (d)
13. (c)
CHRONICLE
UPSC Questions
IAS ACADEMY
(Science & Technology)
5. Mercury
1. Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic

Engineering) allows genes to be transferred.
6. Lead
7. Plutonium
1. across different species of plants.
Select the correct answer using the codes given

below.
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2. from animals to plants.

3. from microorganisms to higher organisms.
(a) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only

below.
(b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 2, 4, 5 and 7 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
5. The efforts to detect the existence of Higgs boson

particle have become frequent news in the recent
past. What is /are the importance/importances
of discovering this particle?
2. Which of the following can be found as

pollutants in the drinking water in some parts
of India?
1. Arsenic
2. Sorbitol
3. Fluoride
4. Formaldehyde
1. It will enable us to understand as to why

elementary particles have mass.
2. It will enables us in the near future to
develope the technology to transferring
matter from one point to another without
traversing the physical space between them.
5. Uranium

below.
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2, 4 and 5 only
(c) 1, 3 and 5 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
3. It will enable us to create better fuels for

nuclear fission.

below:
3. With reference to the usefulness of the byproducts of sugar industry, which of the
following statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
1. Bagasse can be used as biomass fuel for the

generation of energy.
(b) 2 and 3 only
2. Molasses can be used as one of the

feedstocks for the production of synthetic
chemical fertilizers.
(d) 1, 2 and 3
3. Molasses can be used for the production of

ethanol.
(c) 1 and 3 only
6.
Mycorrhizal biotechnology has been used in

rehabilitating degraded sites because mycorrhiza
enables the plants to.

below.
1. resist drought and increase absorptive area
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
3. Resist disease infestation
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
4. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old

and used computers or their parts, which of
the following are released into the environment
as e-waste?
2. tolerate extremes of PH

below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
1. Beryllium
2. Cadmium
(c) 1 and 3 only
3. Chromium
4. Heptachlor
(d) 1, 2 and 3
7. Consider the following statements:

If there were no phenomenon of capillarity
1. It would be difficult to use a kerosene lamp.
2. One would not be able to use a straw to
consume a soft drink.
Which of the statements given above is/are

correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
3. The blotting paper would fail to function.
11. Graphene is frequently in news recently. What

is its importance?
4. The big trees that we see around would

not have grown on the Earth.
1. It is a two-dimensional material and has

good electrical conductivity.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest

materials tested so far.
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high

optical transparency.
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(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
8. Consider the following kinds of organisms:

1. Bacteria
2. Fungi
4. It can be used as 'conducting electrodes'

required for touch screens, LCDs and
organic LEDs.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
3. Flowering plants
Some species of which of the above kinds of

organisms are employed as biopesticides?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
9. Biomass gasification is considered to be one of

the sustainable solutions to the power crisis in
India. In this context, which of the following
statement is/are correct?
1. Coconut shells, groundnut shells and rice
husk can be used in biomass gasification.
2. The combustible gases generated from

biomass gasification consist of hydrogen
and carbon dioxide only.
3. The combustible gases generated from
biomass gasification can be used for direct
heat generation but not in internal
combustion engines.
below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
12. With reference to stem cells, frequently in the

news, which of the following statements is/are
correct?
1. Stem cells can be derived from mammals only.
2. Stem cells can be used for screening new
drugs.
3. Stem cells can be used for medical
therapies.

below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
13. A team of scientists at Brookhaven National

Laboratory including those from India created
the heaviest anti-matter (anti-helium nucleus).
What is/are the implication/implications of the
creation of anti-matter?
1. It will make mineral prospecting and oil
exploration easier and cheaper.
10. What is the role of ultraviolet (UV) radiation in

the water purification systems?
2. It will help probe the possibility of the

existence of stars and galaxies made of antimatter.
1. It inactivates/kills the harmful microorganisms in water.
3. It will help understand the evolution of the

universe.
2. It removes all the undesirable odours from

water.
3. It quickens the sedimentation of solid
particles, removes turbidity and improves
the clarity of water.
2

below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
14. Which of the following is/are cited by the

scientists as evidence/evidences for the
continued expansion of universe?
1. Detection of microwaves in space.
2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in
space.
3. Movement of asteroids in space.
4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in
space.
1. Bt brinjal has been created by inserting a

gene from a soil fungus into its genome.
2. The seeds of Bt brinjal are terminator seeds
and therefore, the farmers have to buy the
seeds before every season from the seed
companies.
3. There is an apprehension that the
consumption of Bt brinjal may have adverse
impact on health.
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below:
17. What are the reasons for the people's resistance

to the introduction of Bt brinjal in India?
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) None of the above can be cited as evidence
15. Electrically charged particles from space

travelling at speeds of several hundred km/sec
can severely harm living beings if they reach
the surface of the Earth. What prevents them
from reaching the surface of the Earth?
(a) The Earths magnetic field diverts them

towards its poles.
(b) Ozone layer around the Earth reflects them
back to outer space.
(c) Moisture in the upper layers of atmosphere
prevents them from reaching the surface of
the Earth.
(d) None of the statements (a), (b) and (c) given

above is correct.
16. To meet its rapidly growing energy demand,

some opine that India should pursue research
and development on thorium as the future fuel
of nuclear energy. In this context, what
advantage does thorium hold over uranium?
1. Thorium is far more abundant in nature
than uranium.
2. On the basis of per unit mass of mined

mineral, thorium can generate more energy
compared to natural uranium.
3. Thorium produces less harmful waste

compared to uranium.
4. There is some concern that the introduction

of Bt brinjal may have adverse effect on
the biodiversity.

below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
18. Other than resistance to pests, what are the

prospects for which genetically engineered
plants have been created?
1. To enable them to withstand drought.
2. To increase the nutritive value of the
produce.
3. To enable them to grow and do
photosynthesis in spaceships and space
stations.
4. To increase their shelf life.

below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
19. Satellites used for telecommunication relay are

kept in a geostationary orbit. A satellite is said
to be in such an orbit when:
1. The orbit is geosynchronous.
2. The orbit is circular.
3. The orbit lies in the plane of the Earth's

equator.
4. The orbit is at an altitude of 22,236 km.

correct?

below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2, and 3
(c) 2 and 4 Only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
20. At present, scientists can determine the

arrangement or relative positions of genes or
DNA sequences on a chromosome. How does
this knowledge benefit us?
(b) Bluetooth is used for Wireless Local Area

Networks, (WLAN) only, whereas Wi-Fi is
used for Wireless Wide Area Networks
(WWAN) only.
1. It is possible to know the pedigree of

livestock.
(c) When information is transmitted between

two devices using Bluetooth technology, the
devices have to be in the line of sight of
each other, but when Wi-Fi technology is
used the devices need not be in the line of
sight of each other.
2. It is possible to understand the causes of all

human diseases.
3. It is possible to develop disease-resistant
animal breeds.
(d) The statemen (a) and (b) given above are

correct in this context.
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correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 Only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
24. What is the difference between a CFL and an

LED lamp?
21. Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of

sustainable energy. Why?
1. To produce light, a CFL uses mercury

vapour' and phosphor while an LED lamp
uses semiconductor material.
1. They use living organisms as catalysts to

generate electricity from certain substrates.
2. The average life span of a CFL is much

longer than that of an LED lamp.
2. They use a variety of inorganic materials

as substrates.
3. A CFL is less energy-efficient as compared

to an LED lamp.
3. They can be installed in waste water

treatment plants to cleanse water and
produce electricity.

correct?
Which of the Statements given above is/are

correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) l and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
25. A new optical disc format known as the Bluray Disc (BD) is becoming popular. In what
way is it different from the traditional DVD?
22. The Function of heavy water in a nuclear

reactor is to.
(a) Slow down the speed of neutrons.
1. DVD supports Standard Definition video

while BD supports High Definition video.
2. Compared to a DVD, the BD format has
several times more storage capacity.
(b) Increase the speed of neutrons.
3. Thickness of BD is 2-4 mm while that of

DVD is 1-2 mm.
(c) Cool down the reactor.
(d) Stop the nuclear reaction.
23. What is the difference between Bluetooth and

Wi-Fi devices?
(a) Bluetooth uses 2-4GHz .radio frequency

band, whereas Wi-Fi can use 2-4 GHz or
5GHz frequency band.
Which of the statements given above is /are

correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
CHRONICLE
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

UPSC QUESTIONS
(ANSWERS)
IAS ACADEMY
14. (b)
2. (a)
15. (a)
3. (d)
16 (d)
4. (b)
17. (b)
5. (a)
18. (c)
6. (d)
19. (a)
7. (d)
20. (d)
8. (d)
21. (d)
9. (a)
22. (a)
10. (a)
23. (c)
11. (c)
24. (c)
12. (b)
25. (b)
CH
IA R
S ON
AC IC
AD LE
EM
Y
1. (a)
13. (c)

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SCIENCE &

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Science And Technology In India .......................................................... 5-19

Health And Hygienc ............................................................................. 20-44

Electronics and Computers .................................................................. 45-79

Robotics Technology ............................................................................. 80-85

A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

Madras, Kanpur and Delhi, besides a number

The enthusiastic efforts of Mr. Shanti Swarup

Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi gave the

Soon after assuming office, Nehru appointed

Indias development plans have consistently

Chronicle IAS Academy

in science and technology (S&T). The fruits of

increasing the share of global scientific

As the Indian economy continues on the

Linking contributions of Science Research

Creating an environment for enhanced

The country needs to move up from investing

Enabling conversion of R & D output with

Seeking S&T based high risk innovation

Fostering resource optimized cost-effective

Creating a robust national innovation

Establishing linkages between discovery

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND

Promoting the spread of scientific temper

Enhancing skills for applications of science

Making careers in science, research and

Establishing world class infrastructure for

Positioning India among the top five

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SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(v) Optimal Utilization of Existing

(xi) Industry and scientific R&D;

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ies which improve the performance of

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1. Department of Science and Technology

our sub-continent, the Department has set

facets of promoting Science and Technology in

Survey of India (SOI): The information

National Atlas and Thematic Mapping

Autonomous Scientific Institutions: As part

The programmes of Department of Science

Formulation of policies relating to S&T

Promotion of new areas of S&T

Support and Grants-in-aid to Scientific

R & D Promotion Programme

S & T Programmes for Socio-economic

Natural Resources Data Management

S & T Entrepreneurship Development

S & T Communication and Popularization

Promotion of S&T at the State, District, and

All other measures needed for the promotion

2. India Meteorological Department (IMD)

National Centre for Medium Range

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3. Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)

1948, is the apex body, which lays down policies

Nuclear Power Programme: To use the

Research and Development Units: R & D

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC):

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