BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Roofs
The primary purpose of a roof is to protect a buildings interior, but it may also be
used to contribute to a buildings exterior appearance.
The completed roof consists of several components, including the roof frame, roof
deck, vapor barrier, insulation, water proof roofing material, flashing and drains,
construction and control joints
In the design of a roof, a number of factors are considered .e.g.: weather,
appearance, height, area, and style of the frame.
A roof may be constructed as a flat roof from a timber, metal or concrete framed
platform which is either horizontal or inclined up to 10degrees to the horizontal, or
as a pitched roof with one or more slopes pitched at more than 10 degrees to the
horizontal. Some of the examples of pitched roofs are: Symmetrical pitch,
asymmetrical pitch, mono-pitch with trussed rafters, and mono-pitch with slopping
soffit, butterfly roof, and lean to roof.

lean-to

mono-pitch with sloping soffit

asymmetrical pitch

butterfly roof

symmetrical pitch

mono-pitch with trussed rafters

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Figure 1 Sketches of the different pitched roofs

4.1. The functional requirements of a roof are:

Stability
Strength
Exclusion of wind and rain
Durability
Fire resistance
Thermal properties

Stability
A roof is constructed to support the dead load of the roof structure and its
covering, insulation and internal finishes, snow loads and pressure or suction due
wind without undue deflection or distortion. The dead load can be calculated from
unit weight of materials set out in BS 648. Snow loads are assumed from average
snow falls. The pressure of wind on a roof will depend on the exposure, height and
shape of the roof and the surrounding buildings. Wind blowing across a roof will
tend to cause pressure on the wind ward side and suction on the opposite side of
the building.
The stability of a flat roof depends on the adequate support from walls or beams
and sufficient depth or thickness of timber joist or concrete relative to spans, and
the assumed loads to avoid gross deflection under load.

Strength: The strength of a roof depends on the characteristics of the materials

from which it is constructed and the way in which they are put together in the form
of a platform or some form of triangulated frame.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Exclusion of wind and rain: A roof excludes rain through the material with
which it is covered; varying from the continuous impermeable layer of asphalt
covering that can be laid horizontal to exclude rain, to the small units of clay tiles
that are laid overlapping down slopes so that rain runs rapidly to the eaves. In
general the smaller the units of roof covering, such as tiles or slate, the greater the
pitch or slope to exclude rain that runs down in the joints between the tiles onto
the back of another tile or slate lapped under and so on down the roof.
Impermeable materials such as asphalt and bitumen that are laid without joints
can be laid flat and sheet metals such as lead and copper that are joined with
welts can be laid with a very shallow fall.

Durability: This depends largely on the ability of the roof covering to exclude rain.
Persistent penetration of water into the roof structure may cause decay of timber,
corrosion of steel or disintegration of concrete

Fire resistance: A roof and its covering should have adequate resistance to
damage by fire, and against spread of flame for escape in fire, for the periods of
from thirty minutes to six hours.
Thermal properties: The materials of roof structures and roof coverings are
generally poor insulators against transfer of heat and it is usually necessary to use
some material which is a good insulator, such as light weight boards, quilts or
loose fill to provide insulation against excessive loss or gain of heat.
Insulating materials may be applied to the underside or the top of flat roofs or
between the joists of timber flat roofs. Rigid materials such as wood wool, that
serves as roof deck and insulation are laid on top of the roof and non-structural
materials at ceiling level or on top below some form of decking. It is of good
practice to fix insulating materials at ceiling level in timber flat roofs, so that there
can be cross ventilation between the joists from permanent vents, to limit
condensation risks as required by building Regulations 1981.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Vapor barrier: Insulating materials are effective against transfer of heat to the
extent that they retain still air between fibers, in granules or in minute spaces.
When this light weight materials absorb water they lose their insulating properties
as water enters the air spaces, and water is not a good insulator. Precaution must
be taken, therefore, to prevent moisture or water saturating the insulation either
through the roof covering or from humid warm air from inside the buildings. As a
barrier to humid warm air from inside the building, an impermeable vapour barrier
should be fixed between the warm air side and the insulation. This vapor barrier
takes the form of a sheet of bitumen, polythene, or aluminum that is impermeable
to moisture.

4.2. FLAT ROOFS

A flat roof by definition is any roof with a slope of less than ten degrees.
The simplest roof to construct is a flat roof, framed in wood, steel, or reinforced
concrete.
Factors considered in the choice of material to use for structural frame work.

Cost

Size (span)

Availability of materials and equipment

Working Space

4.2. 1Timber flat roof construction:

Timber flat roofs consists of soft wood timber joist of 38 to 50 thick and from 75 to
225 deep placed on edges from 400 to 600 apart with the ends of the joists built
into or onto or against brick walls and partitions.
Strutting between joists:

Solid or herringbone strutting should be fixed

between the roof joists. When timber is seasoned it shrinks, and timber such as
roof joists, which is not cut on the radius of the circle of the log does not shrink

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

uniformly. The shrinkage will tend to make the floor joists twists, or wind, and to
prevent this

solid strutting
75 - 225

100 x 75 wall plates

Roof joists

Figure 2
timber strutting is used. Herringbone strutting consists of short lengths of 50 x 38
softwood timber nailed between the joists as shown in the illustration below. The
other method of strutting termed solid strutting consists of short length of timber
of the same section as the joists which are nailed between the joists in a line or
staggered as in the figure below. This is not usually so effective a system of
strutting as the herringbone system, because unless the short solid lengths are cut
very accurately to fit to the sides of the joists they do not firmly strut between the
joists.
Note: Ceiling noggings can also be used in place of strutting.
Usually one set of struts is used for joists spanning up to 3.6 and two for joists
spanning more than 3.6. A single set of struts is fixed across the roof at mid span.

Roof deck/boards: Boards which are left rough surfaced from the saw are usually
employed to board timber flat roofs and is called rough boarding and are usually
19 thick cut with square. For good work tongued and grooved boards are often

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

used as the plain edged boarding may shrink and twist out of level as they dry.
Chip boards may also be used in lieu of them to maintain a level roof deck
End support of joists: Roof joists are normally supported on timber or metal wall
plates. Wall plates serve to distribute the roof loads uniformly over the walls and
Provides a level bed for the roof joists.
Where there is a parapet wall, the end of the joists can rest on the inner walls of
cavity walls or on metal hangers.

19mm timber boarding

roof joist

100 x 75 wall plate or

metal plates

Figure 3

19mm timber boarding

roof joist

100 x 75wall plate on

brick corbel

Figure 4

wall plate resting on the inner wall of a cavity wall construction

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

The ends of roof joists are sometimes carried on brick corbel courses, timber plate
and corbel brackets or on hangers.

19mm timber boarding

roof joist

100 x 75 wall plate on

steel corbel brackets
built in at 750 centresl

Figure 5. Timber joists on wall plates supported by steel corbel brackets

The ends of roof joists built into solid brick walls should be given some protection
from dampness by treating them with a preservative. Timber joist may be built into
a solid external wall if the wall is thick enough to prevent penetration of moisture
to the joist ends and where the wall is protected externally with slate or tile
hanging.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

cavity insulation carried

upto joint roof insulation

bituminus felt on boards

on insulation

timber joists
100 x 75 wall plate
cavity
wall
Figure 6. joists end on cavity walls

Timber firring: Flat roofs are usually constructed so that the surface has a slight
slope or fall towards rainwater outlets. This slope could be achieved by fixing the
joists to a slight slope but the ceiling below the roof would then also be sloping. It
is usual to provide a sloping surface to the roof by means of firring pieces. These
consist of either tapered lengths of softwood nailed across the joists or varying
depth lengths of softwood nailed across the joists. Tapered firring is used for roofs
covered with chipboard or wood wool slabs and the varying depth firring for boards
laid parallel to the slope of the roof so that variations in the level of the boards do
not impede the flow of rainwater down the shallow slope. As an alternative to
firring, some insulating boards are cut or made to a slight wedge section to provide
the necessary fall to a roof.

varying height
firring pieces nailed
across joists
tapered firing piece nailed
to top of joists

75 - 225

joists
100 x 75wall plates

Roof joists

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Figure 7. Timber firring

Thermal insulation: A timber flat roof provides poor insulation against loss or
gain of heat as most of the materials used are poor insulators.
Any material that is to be a good thermal insulator must have a great number of
tiny air spaces in it as it is the air trapped in these spaces that acts as the thermal
insulator.
Insulating materials are manufactured in the form of boards, slabs, quilts or loose
fill and when used with timber roofs the boards and slabs are fixed on the joists
under the boarding or on the underside of the joists. Quilted materials are usually
laid between or over the joists and dry fill between the joists.
4.2.2. Reinforced concrete roofs
Reinforced concrete roofs have a better resistance to damage by fire and can
safely support self weight, wind/rain pressure. The resistance to fire required by
building regulations for most offices, large blocks of flats, factories and public
buildings is greater than can be obtained with a timber roof.
A reinforced concrete roof will usually span the least width between the external or
external walls and internal load bearing walls and will be supported on walls and
partitions.

Monolithic Reinforced concrete roof

The word monolithic means one stone and is used in buildings to described one
unbroken mass of any material. A monolithic concrete roof is one unbroken solid
mass of concrete cast-in-situ and reinforced with mild steel reinforcing bars. To
support the concrete while it is still wet and plastic, and for seven days after it has
been placed, a temporary centering has to be used (form work). This takes the
form of rough timer boarding or steel sheets, supported on timber or steel beams
and post. The steel reinforcement is laid out on top of the centering and raised 15

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

above the centering by means of small blocks of fine concrete (spacers) which are
tied to the reinforcement bars with wires. The wet concrete is then placed and
spread on the centering, and is compacted and leveled off. It is usual to design the
roof to span the least width of the building and two opposite sides of the concrete
are build into walls incase of parapet walls.

asphalt on screed

concrete roof

cavity
wall

insulating lining fixed to

sofit of roof and inside of
wall for intermittent heating

Figure 8. Reinforced concrete roof

Centering: The temporary timber board or sheet steel support for monolithic
concrete floor or roof is termed centering.
Reinforcement of concrete: The steel reinforcing bars are cast into the under
side of the roof with 15 of concrete cover below them to prevent the steel rusting
and to give it some protection incase of fire. The thicker the concrete cover to the
reinforcement the greater the resistance of the roof to fire.
The duty of determining the amount of reinforcement to use in a concrete roof is
done by Engineers usually Structural or Civil Engineers. When the engineer
designs a reinforced concrete roof, he usually calculates the amount of steel
reinforcement required for an imaginary strip of roof 300 wide spanning between
the walls, as though the roof were made up of strips of 300 wide concrete beams
placed side by side.

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Because the centering required to give temporary support to a monolithic concrete
roof tends to obstruct and delay building operation below the roof, the most
common concrete roof used today are the self centering concrete.
Self-centering concrete roofs:
These are constructed with precast reinforced concrete slabs which are cast in the
manufacturers yard and are delivered to the building site where they are hoisted
to the level of the roof and placed in position. Once in their positions they require
no support other than the bearing of their ends on beams or walls.
Advantages of self centering concrete roofs:

Concrete has good quality since it is done under strict specialized

supervision

It is faster to complete roofing as the roof slabs can be ordered for in

advance.

There is no much interference of the activities below the roof.

Disadvantages:
Difficulty in hoisting where there is no enough space
The joints sometimes leak when not well finished

Thermal insulation: A reinforced concrete roof provides poor insulation against

loss or gain of heat and some material which is a good thermal insulator should be
incorporated in the construction of the roof or a light weight concrete slab be used.
One way of doing this is to used light weight aggregate instead of sand when
screeding. It is the screed which provides the slope for the rain water to run off the
roof. The light weight aggregate in common use are foamed slag, pumice and
vermiculite. These materials are porous and it is the air trapped in the minute
pores of the material which at once make them light in weight and good thermal
insulator.

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Foam slag: This is formed by spraying water on molten slag which is poured off
molten iron in blast-furnaces. The water causes the slag to expand into a porous
light weight mass. The slag is crushed into small particles used for screed which
greatly improves on the thermal properties of the concrete roof. The thickness of
the screed is usually 25mm. This is a cheap material to use.
Pumice: This is a rock of volcanic origin which is usually porous, light weight, and
a good thermal insulator. It is crushed into small particles and used for screeding
though usually expensive and hence not commonly used.
Vermiculite: This is a micaceous mineral which consists of fine layers of materials
closely packed. When it is heated the fine layers open out and gases are trapped
in the many spaces between the expanded layers. It is very light in weight and
most commonly used today because of its effectiveness in thermal insulation.
Any of the rigid, light weight insulating boards may be used to improve the
thermal insulation of a concrete roof fixed either on top or below the concrete roof.
The most convenient place for the insulating board is on top of the concrete roof,
under the roof covering. By insulating the concrete roof from out side air, concrete
roof can act to store heat in continuously heated buildings (winter).

4.3. FLAT ROOF COVERINGS:

The materials used to cover flat roofs are: Built-up bitumen felt, mastic asphalt and
the non ferrous sheet metals, lead, copper, zinc and aluminum.

4.3.1 Built-up bitumen felt:

This is one of the cheapest and most commonly used roof coverings for flat and
shallow roof slopes. The roof is built with three layers of bitumen roof felt.
The three types of base materials used for bitumen roofing are: fibre, asbestos and
glass fibre, the material of the base being felted and impregnated with bitumen.
The surface of the under layer is finished with fine mineral granules so that the

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

bitumen does not bond in rolls and the exposed layers are finished with a mineral
particle finish. The method of fixing is based on the nature of the roof surface to
which it is being applied. The felt is laid across the roof with 50 side lap and 75 end
laps between sheets.
Glass fibre based felts have excellent dimensional stability, are non-absorbent and
will not rot. Normally used for very good quality works
Asbestos based felts have good resistance to damage by fire, good dimensional
stability and are used as a base layer for fire resistance and for good quality work
for both under layers and exposed layers.

Timber boarded roofs: On a timber board or chip board roof surface with the
insulation either under the boards or at or over the ceiling level, the first under
layer of felt is nailed to the boards either at 150 centers both across and along the
roof, or at 50 centers along the laps of sheets and 150 centers elsewhere. The
wider centre of nailing is considered adequate for fixing. The second under layer is
then bonded to the first in hot bitumen spread by mop or brush on the first under
layer, and the top, or exposed layer, likewise bonded to the second under layer
with the joints between sheets in each layer breaking joint.

Dry insulation boards: Rigid preformed insulation boards may be used as

insulation and the surface for bitumen felt roofing on a timber board or chipboard
covered roof and on metal and timber roof decking. Many of the rigid, dry
insulation boards, except expanded polystyrene, are suitable for the direct
application of bitumen felt roofing. The insulation boards are laid on an underlay of
self finished roofing felt that serves as a barrier against warm air from the room
below. The under layer of felt may be nailed, or partially or fully bonded on hot
bitumen to the boards. The insulation board is then partially or fully bonded to the
felt underlay and the roof finish of three layers of glass fibre, asbestos or asbestos
first layer and felt fibre layers is then fully bonded to the insulation.

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Concrete screed finish: Cement screeds and particularly light weight aggregate
screeds on concrete roofs take time to thoroughly dry out and may absorb rain
water so that it is likely that some water will be trapped in the screed once
bitumen felt covering has been applied. The heat of the sun will then cause this
water to vaporize and the vapor pressure will cause the felt roofing to blister, crack
and let in water. To relieve this water vapor pressure, it is practice to use a venting
layer of felt on wet screeded roofs. This perforated layer of felt is laid dry on the
screed and the three layers of felt are then bonded to it. The venting layer allows
water vapor to be released through vapor pressure releases at abutments and
verges of the roof.

Parapet walls and abutments: The bitumen felt roofing should be turned up
150 against parapet and abutting walls, over an angle fillet as shown in the sketch
below and either the damp-proof course turned down over the upstand of the felt
roofing or a separate flashing dressed over the upstand.

copping with a dpc under

non-ferrous sheet metal flashing built into wall and

dressed over upstand of
roofing felt

3-layers of roofing felt

bitumen felt dpc

angle fillet

timber boards
on isulation board &
vapour pressure barrier

Figure 9. Parapet wall

Eaves and Verges: Either the bitumen felt roofing may be dressed over gutters
with a welt or a separate non-ferrous drip may be used. Similarly, either the felt or
a separate flashing may be used at verges.

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

3-layers of bitumen
roofing felt on top of 25 screed

felt turned over verge fillet

and nailed to fascia

concrete roof

cavity
wall filled up to
roof level with insulation

Figure 9. Treatment at eaves and verges

Mastic asphalt: This is a mixture of naturally occurring material which is soft, has
a low melting point and is an effective barrier to penetration of water.
Asphalt is manufactured either by crushing natural rock asphalt and mixing it with
natural lake asphalt, or by crushing natural limestone and mixing it with bitumen
whilst the two materials are sufficiently hot to run together. The heated asphalt is
run into moulds in which it solidifies as it cools.
Solid blocks of asphalt are heated on the building g sites and the hot plastic
material is spread over the surface of the roof in two layers breaking joint to a
finished thickness of 20mm. as it cools it hardens and forms a continuous, hard
water proof surface.
Parapet walls: External walls of buildings are raised above the level of the roof as
a parapet wall for the sake of the appearance of the building as a whole.
Parapet walls should not be built above the roof level higher than six times the
least thickness of the parapet wall for the sake of stability as they are free
standing. To prevent rain water from saturating parapet walls, it is essential that it
should be covered or capped with some non-absorbent material. Natural stone,
concrete, and bricks are some of the materials used for capping.
Parapet wall d.p.c: It is good practice to build a continuous horizontal d.p.c into
brick parapet wall at the junction of the roof covering, upstand or skirting with the
wall. In stone capping similarly rain water usually penetrate through the cracks
and saturate the wall below. If frost occurs the parapet wall may be damaged,

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

therefore it is good practice to build in a continuous layer of dpc of bituminous felt,
copper or lead below the stone.
Parapet to cavity walls: The construction of a parapet built on a cavity wall is
usually somewhat different from that built on a solid wall. An external wall built
with a cavity to prevent rain penetrating the wall and it is logical to continue the
cavity to at least the top of the roof, so that the cavity protects roof timber or
concrete built into or against the wall. The cavity should always be continued to
the level of the asphalt skirting.

copping with a dpc under

Cavity gutter of
felt or metal

non-ferrous sheet metal flashing built into wall and

dressed over upstand of
roofing felt

3-layers of roofing felt

weep holes

angle fillet
flat roof

Figure 10
Thermal insulation: For effectiveness the thermal insulation of a wall must be
continuous for the height of the wall up to the insulation in the roof. Where a cavity
lining or fill is used in a cavity wall it must be carried up at least to the roof
insulation.
Sheet metal roof coverings
Sheet metal is used as a covering because it gives excellent protection against
wind and rain; it is durable and lighter in weight than asphalt, tiles or slates. The
four common sheet forms used are; lead, copper, zinc and aluminum.

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Properties of metals which make them to be used as either a flat roof or pitched
roof covering are:
Lead: This is a heavy, comparatively soft metal with poor resistance to tearing and
crushing hence has to be used in thick sheets as a roof covering. It is malleable
and can easily be bent and beaten into quite complicated shapes without damage
to the sheets. Lead is quite resistant to all weathering and can last up to 100
years.
Copper: This is a heavy metal with good mechanical strength and malleable.
Because of its mechanical strength this metal can be used in quite thin sheets as a
roof covering. Like lead, copper can be beaten and bent into complicated shapes.
On exposure to atmosphere a thin layer of copper oxide forms which is tenacious,
non-absorbent and prevents further oxidation of the copper below. Copper is quite
weather resistant and last as long as lead.
Zinc: It is one of the lighter metals with good mechanical strength but not so
malleable and normally brittle. Zinc sheet is liable to damage in very heavily
polluted industrial atmospheres and should not be used there. The useful life of
zinc as a roof covering is between 20 to 40 years.
Aluminum: This is one of the lightest metals with moderate mechanical strength
and is as malleable as copper. It is resistant to all weathering agents. On exposure
to atmosphere a film of aluminium oxide forms which is dense and tenacious and
prevents further corrosion. Aluminium as a roof covering has a useful life
intermediate between zinc and lead. Bitumen and asphalt have replaced the above
metal roof covering because of their low initial cost, although metal roof covering
is becoming more common because of their use for low pitched roofs, architectural
designs (fashion).
Joint sheets:
The sheets of metals have to be fixed to the roof and jointed to allow for expansion
and contraction without tearing. Three types of jointing have been developed
which successfully joints the sheets, keeps out water and allows for expansion and
contraction.

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

All metal sheets are laid to a fall or slope on roofs so that water runs off. The
longitudinal joints are usually in form of a roll. Rounded timber battens some 50
square are nailed to the roof and the edges of the sheets are either overlapped or
covered at these timber rolls. The joints across or transverse to the fall of the roof
are always formed as a small step called a drip. The purpose of the drip is to
accelerate the flow of rain water running down the shallow slope of the roof
Upstand and apron: Where there is a parapet wall around the roof or where the
roof is built up against a wall, the sheets are turned up against the wall about 150
as an upstand. The top of these upstands are not fixed in any way so that the
sheets can expand without restrain. To cover the gap between the upstand and the
wall strips of sheets, the sheets are tucked into a horizontal brick joint, wedged in
place and then dressed down over the upstand as an apron flashing.
Rain water gutters: If the flat roof is surrounded on all sides by parapet walls it is
necessary to collect the rain water falling off at the lowest point of the roof. A
shallow timber framed gutter is constructed and is lined with sheets. The gutter is
constructed to slope or fall towards one or more rain water outlets. The gutter is
usually made 300 wide and is formed between one roof joist, spaced 300 from a
wall, and the wall itself.
Sketch how it is done.
Eaves gutter: Where the roof has no parapet walls as for copper roof covering
where the beauty of the roof covering is of importance, the run off rain water is
discharged into an eaves gutter as in the sketch.
It is practice to drain the water from the gutters into down pipes which discharges
the water into reserve tanks or into storm water channels
Draw the sketch
Sheet metal covering to concrete roofs: Bitumen and asphalt have been the
cheapest roof coverings on concrete roofs but they have a useful life of some
twenty years only as a result sheet metals are sometime preferred. The sheet
metal is jointed and fixed to a concrete roof in the same way as a timber roof. The
wood rolls are secured to the concrete by screwing them to splayed timber battens

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

set into the screed on the concrete or by securing them with bolts set in sand and
cement in holes punched in the screed as shown below.

Roofing felt: It is essential that sheet metal be laid on a continuous layer of

roofing felt laid on the surface of the concrete roof. The felt enables the metal to
contract and expand freely and prevents it tearing on any sharp projections in the
surface of the concrete roof.

PITCHED ROOFS
A pitched roof has one or more roof slopes at a pitch or slope of more than 10 0 to
the horizontal. The most common roof shape is the symmetrical pitch roof pitched
to a central ridge with equal slopes.

Hip

Ridge
Verge board

Hipped end

Gable end
with a vent
Eaves

Figu
re 11. Illustration of a pitched roof with a hip and a gabled end
The traditional roofing materials like slate and tiles can only be successfully fixed
on to a surface inclined at least 25degrees to the horizontal.
The construction method is to slope the surfaces by pitching the rafters on either
sides of the ridge piece with the rafters bearing on the wall plate. This is the
simplest roof because each pair of rafters acts like two arms pinned at the top and

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

is called a couple. Precautions should be taken on the span as the weight of the
roof tends to spread the rafters of a couple roof and over turn the supporting walls.
In the traditional pitched roof form, timber ties are nailed to the foot of pairs of
rafters to prevent them spreading under the load of the roof. The ties may also
serve to support the ceiling frame. The other approach is to use timber ties nailed
to the foot of pairs of rafters to prevent them spreading under the load of the roof
and is termed a closed couple roof
A modification of the close couple roof is the collar roof, where the ties are fixed
between pairs of rafters one third the height of the roof up from the wall plate.
The advantage here is that the roof may extend up into the part of the roof

3.5max

couple roof

4.5max

collar roof

5.5max

closed couple roof

Fig
ure 12.
Trussed rafters
A trussed rafter is a triangular roof frame of rafters, ceiling joists and internal webs
joined with spiked connector plates and assembled in a factory. A trussed rafter
uses up to 60% less timber than a comparable traditional pitched roof and requires
less on site labor as most of the members are brought to the site and assembled
or to be assembled only. Timber- framed pitched roofs are usually constructed with
trussed rafters and are the most economical and convenient way of framing
pitched roofs.
Trussed rafters are fabricated from stress graded timbers, accurately cut to shape
and assembled and joined with steel connector plates. Much of the preparation

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

and fabrication of these trussed rafters is mechanized, resulting in accurately cut
and finished trusses that are delivered to site ready to be lifted and fixed as a roof
frame. The connector plates are made from carbon steel which is stamped out so
that the teeth protrude. The connector- plates are machine pressed to form strong
rigid joints and is used where the joints are butt joints. If the members overlap one
another, split rings and bolts are used to connect them. The split rings are set in
circular grooves cut in the meeting places and a bolt through the assembly holds
the two together tightly.
Trussed rafters are erected and nailed to a timber wall plate, bedded on the
external walls, at centers to suit the roof covering.
200 x 32-50 ridge board

Collarpiece
100 x50 ties and struts

100-150 rafters on
wall plates

150 x 50 tie beams

at 400-600 centres

100 x 75 wall plate

fitting into the bird mouth
on the rafter

A typical trussed rafter

Figure 13 Trussed rafters
Size of roof timbers
Rafters are usually 38 50 thick and 100 150 deep and are spaced at from 400
to 600 centers. The depth of rafters and the centers at which they are fixed
depends on the type and weight of the roof covering they have to support and
their unsupported length. In addition to the dead weight of the roof covering, such
as tiles or slates, the rafters have to be able to resist the pressure of wind. Collars
are usually 44 thick and are usually as deep as the roof rafters. The ridge board is

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

usually 25 38 thick and so deep that the whole depth of the splay cut ends of
rafters bear on it.
Eaves: This is a general term used to describe the lowest courses of the slates or
tiles and the timber supporting them. The eaves of most pitched roofs are made to
project some 150 to 300 beyond the external face of walls and in Uganda they are
as wide as 600. This gives some protection to walls and enhances the appearance
of buildings. Eaves can also be finished flush with the wall. The roof coverings
drains into an eaves gutter fixed to the fascia boards. The soffit of projecting eaves
can be finished closed with boards, sheets or plastered ceiling or it can also be left
open.

125x50 rafters

50x25 bracket nailed to rafter

to support soffit

125x50 tie beam

or ceiling joists

225x25 fascia

19 soffit board
making a closed eaves
FIGURE 14 DETAIL OF CLOSED EAVES CONSTRUCTION

Purlin or double roof: A purlin is a continuous timber fixed horizontally under

the roof rafters to give the support between the ridge and the wall plate. The
purlin is in turn supported by means of timber struts which bear onto a load
bearing partition or fixed onto the tie beams resting on the wall plates. It will be
seen that the purlins support the rafters mid-way between the ridge and the eaves
and are supported by struts at intervals of about 1.8 along their lengths. Where
the roof slope is long, more than a line of purlin should be provided corresponding
to the struts. Collars fixed every fourth rafter serve to brace the roof and provide a
secure fixing for the purlins which bear on them. The size of the purlins depends

22

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

on the weight of the roof and their unsupported length between the struts. With
struts not more than 1.8 apart a 125 x 50 purlin is used for most rafters.
Collars of the same section as the roof rafters are fixed to every third or fourth
rafter. Struts are usually 75 square in section. The foot of the strut is fixed to a
timber wall plate bedded in mortar on the load bearing partition. Incase of terrace
buildings the purlins can be made to rest on the diving walls, this also helps to
prevent the spread of fire from one house to the other. In this Case the diving wall
should be taken up to the under side of the roof covering or even through to form
a parapet wall.
Timber trusses
A strongly constructed purlin roof depends for support on the load bearing
partitions conveniently placed and these partitions often restrict freedom in
planning the rooms of the building. A method of constructing pitched roofs so as to
avoid the use of struts to support the purlins, and load bearing partitions to
support the struts, is to use timber trusses. The word truss means tied together
and a timber roof truss is a triangular frame of light section timbers fixed together.
The timber trusses span between external walls and are spaced about 1.8m apart
and they serve to support the purlins which in turn support the roof rafters. The
timbers of the truss are bolted together and to make the connections rigid
galvanized iron timber connectors are bolted between each two timbers at
connections. The strength of the trusses derives mainly from the rigidity of the
connections.
To reduce the quantity of timbers used, the ceiling rafters are given support by
means of hangers and binders. The hangers are nailed to the purlins and to these
are nailed horizontal binders to which the ceiling joists are nailed or secured with
metal plates.
The timber connectors have opposed teeth which when firmly bolted between the
timbers prevents any scissor movement between them. Timber trusses have
largely been superseded by trussed rafters for most domestic buildings.

23

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

24

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

200 x 32-50 ridge board

100-150 rafters on
wall plates

150x50 purlin
125 x50 collar & 75 x 75 strut
to every 3rd or 4th rafter

150 x 50 tie beams/ceiling

joists at 400-600 centres

Load bearing partition

FIGURE 15: A typical trussed rafter for span upto 7.5

100 x 75 wall plate

fitting into the bird mouth
on the rafter

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

200 x 32-50 ridge board

75x38 tie

all joints in truss bolted through

timber connectors
75 x 50 hangers

100x38 rafters at
400-600 c/c

150x50 purlin

150 x 50 tie beams/ceiling

joists at 400-600 centres

75x50 strut

125x50 ceiling
binders
100 x 75 wall plate
fitting into the bird mouth
on the rafter

FIGURE 16: A typical trussed rafter for span

upto 8.0

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

75x38 tie

galvanised steel gang-nail

connector plates at all joints

100x38 rafters at
400-600 c/c
150 x 50 tie beams/ceiling
joists at 400-600 centres

75x50 strut

Figure 17: A typical trussed rafter for span upto 12.0 and pitch
from 15 to 40 deg.

Hipped roofs
The most economical way of constructing a pitched roof is to form it with two slopes
with gable ends. But a simple gable end roof sometimes looks clumsy due to the
great area of tile or slate covering and this can be avoided by forming hipped ends
to the roof.
The hipped ends are pitched at the same slope as the main part of the roof and the
rafters in the triangle of the hipped end are pitched up to a hip rafter. The hip rafters
carry the ends of the cut rafters in the hipped ends and those of the main roof
slopes. The hip rafter is usually 38-50 thick and 200 to 250 deep. The cut jack
rafter are nailed each side of the hip rafter. Because the hip rafter carries the ends
of several jack rafters it tends to over turn the walls at the corner of the building

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

where it bears on the wall plates and to resist this, angle tie should always be fixed
across the angle of the roof. The angle ties are usually 100 x 75 timber and are
either firmly bolted to or dovetail housed into the top of the wall plates some 600
from the corner of the building.

200x 38 ridge board

end of hipped rafters
cut & nailed to ridge board

200x50 hip rafter bearing

on the wall plate

125x50jack rafters

125 x 50 ceiling joists

100x75 wall plate

load bearing wall

Figure 18: hipped roof construction

Roof Ventilation
The limited capacity of air to hold moisture in the form of water vapor increases
with temperature. When the temperature of air falls, so does its capacity to hold
moisture and the surplus moisture is given up in the form of condensation. The air
inside heated buildings usually contains more water vapor than outside air and so
has a higher vapor pressure which creates a vapor drive from the area of high
pressure inside the building to the out side through the material of the roofs, so that
warm moist air will penetrate the ceiling and insulation of roofs and condense on
cold surfaces inside the roof space due to condensation which will cause corrosion
of fixings and decay of timber.
To prevent an excessive built-up of moisture from condensation inside roofs, a cross
ventilation of roof spaces by vents not less than 0.3% of the roof plan area is
required. This is done by fixing ventilators either in the soffit of overhanging eaves
incases of hipped roofs or on the gable ends incase of gabled ends

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Lamella Roof construction

A lamella roof is a curved roof similar in shape to one formed by the use of
bowstring trusses, but without the use of frame work of webs and lower chords
found in truss roof. It does however; provide clear spans of great width. It is formed
by framing together a series of intersecting arches made up of relatively short
members called lamellas. They are made of 50-100 material (steel or concrete),
3.6m to 4.9m long, beveled, bored with two holes at each end, and bolted together.
A reinforced concrete lamella roof may be erected over a curved form made the
width of the building and the depth of one bay carried over movable scaffolds. The
erection of the formwork is begun from both sides at the sill and completed at the
centre. The horizontal thrust developed in this roof must be taken care of by tie
rods, wooden ties, buttressed walls or wall columns. The usual length of individual
members is 3.6, 4.2 or 4.9 with arch spacing of approximately 1.2, 1.36 or 1.5
respectively. The angles between the intersecting lamellas should not exceed 45 0
and should preferably be between 380 and 400
Decking must be applied directly over the framework of the roof.
Folded plate roofs: A folded roof is another roof in which the roof slab has been
formed in thin, self supporting structure, usually made either of wood or concrete.
A concrete roof of this type can be made with precast panels or may be cast-in-situ.
The rest of the construction is like for flat roofs except in this case they are pitched
and folded.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Lamella roof

lag screw

plate

bolt

tie rod

Lamella joint
Figure 19: construction of a lamella roof.

Figure 20: Folded plate roof construction

Pitched Roof Coverings

The traditional covering for pitched roofs, plain clay tiles and natural slates, are
much less used than they were because they are comparatively expensive and the
majority of pitched roofs of new buildings are covered with single lap concrete tiles
and Mangalore tiles.
The small unit pitched roof coverings are single lap tiles, plain tiles and slates.
Single lap tiles
These are so shaped that they overlap the edges of adjacent tiles in each course.
The overlap prevents water entering the roof between adjacent tiles and in

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

consequence the tiles can be laid with a single end lap. The advantage of single lap
tiling is that its weight per unit area is up to 40% less than that of plain tiling.
Plain tiles: These are flat rectangular roofing units of size 265 by 165 with holes
for nailing and nibs for hanging to batten. These tiles are laid double lap down the
slope of the roof because water running between the open joints between adjacent
tiles runs on to the back of a tile double lapped under the joint. A plain tile roof is
generally heavier than a comparable single lap tile roof.
Concrete roofing tiles: These are extensively used today as a substitute for good
quality clay tiles. They are manufactured from a mixture of carefully graded sand,
and Portland cement which is compressed in a mould and painted in different colors.
Clay roofing tiles: Clay can be excavated, molded and burned without any
expensive or elaborate machinery and for years clay roofing tiles have been used in
Uganda. There are hand made clay tiles and machine pressed clay roofing tiles.
Hands made roofing tiles are not so good and usually have a lot of defects.
Mangalore clay roofing tiles (Uganda clay roofing tiles)
These are the single lap clay tiles. They differ from ordinary single lap tiles in that
one or more grooves exist in the vertical edges of the tiles. The tiles are machine
pressed during the manufacturing. They are hung on softwood battens of 50x38 and
weighs 40kg per unit roof area. Each unit has a weight of 2.5kg and there are 15
pieces in a square meter. The side laps are usually 50 and the end laps are
adjustable with a minimum of 62. Mangalore tiles are of size 400x230.
In Uganda roofing timber is supplied in sizes of 150x50, 100x50, 100x 75, 75x50
and 250x 25 and 4.2m long.
Roof trusses.
The trusses for Mangalore roofing tiles consists of principal rafters of double pieces
of 100x50 at 1.8m centers with common rafters of the same size to that of the
principal rafters in between at a spacing of 600 centers. The main tie/ tie beams or
ceiling joists are of 150 x 50 and the purlins of the same size are used to transfer
the loads from the common rafters to the principal rafters. The tie beams are fixed

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

to the legs of the principal rafters at the same centering. Struts and ties are from
100 x50 timbers and the struts serves to transmit the load from the purlins to the
tie beams and onto the wall plates which are of size 100x75

38x200 ridge piece

100x50 tie
100x50 principal rafters at
1.8m c/c made of 2pcs of
rafters
150 x 50 tie beams/ceiling
joists at 1.8m centres

100x50 strut

100x75 wall plate

Figure 21: A typical principal trussed rafter

100x50principal rafter

38x50 timber battens

laid over plain sheets

150x50tie beam
100x75 wall plate

plain galv. sheet

metal

Figure 22: Detail of laying mangalore roofing tiles

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Traditionally battens were laid on polythene supported by chicken wire mesh due
high cost of metal sheets. This was meant to prevent water escaping through the
numerous joints to the inside of the roof. Today the cost of galvanized plain sheets
of lower gauges have come down and with the coming up of many industries they
are readily available in the local markets and as a result most roofs in Uganda are
now covered with plain iron sheets underneath the battens to receive tiles. Battens
of usually size 50x38 are fixed using wire nails at a margin of 312 to 338. The tiles
ate then hooked on the battens starting from down the eaves moving up the slope
of the roof to the ridge piece.
Ridge: Any one of the four standard sections of clay ridges may be used to cover
the ridge. Ridges are usually laid using mortar. It is economical to first pack the
broken pieces of the tiles around the ridge piece before applying the mortar.
Hips: Hips are laid the same way like the ridges. However to prevent the tiles from
slipping down the hip a galvanized iron or wrought-iron hip iron is fixed to the hip or
fascia.

Read about:
Roofing slates, Pan Tiles, Spanish tiles, and Italian tiles especially the laying.

Timber Pitched Roofs in Sheet Metal Coverings

Various methods are used to make roofing sheets, two basic types are generally
made: corrugated and flat. Galvanized steel, aluminum and galbestos are all used to
make corrugated roofing sheets of varying width, depth and pattern of corrugation
and allowable span, depending on the gauge and material used.
Corrugated sheet metal roofing sheets are normally supported on wood or steel
purlins properly spaced according to the gauge of the metal and the roof load
involved. Manufactures normally give tables of unsupported length of the sheets
depending on the gauges to guide roofers in spacing the purlins.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

There are two common laying orders for roofing sheets. Laying should start at the
leeward end of the building so that side laps will have better protection from wind
driven rain. The top edges of eave sheets should extend at least 38 beyond the
back of steel purlin and 75 beyond the centre line of timber purlins. At side laps
where edge corrugation of adjacent sheets is opposite in direction, the under
lapping side should finish with an upturn edge and overlapping side with a down
turned edge.
Sheets should extend at least one corrugation over the gable and there should be
75 of over hang at the eaves. End laps between sheets should generally be 150 and
side laps of 1.5corrugations but they may be increased to 225 and two corrugations
for extreme conditions
Special nails with a ring or screw-type shank should be used for fastening
corrugated sheets to wood purlin. Nails should be driven at the top of corrugations,
but care must be taken not to drive them so far as to flatten the corrugation, thus
preventing the next sheet from fitting properly. Sheets are fastened to steel purlins
with stain less self-tapping screws and aluminum washers.
Steel Roof Trusses
Mild steel is much stronger than timber, it is more fire resisting and its sections can
be readily assembled to for comparatively simple connections. It is principally for
these reasons that mild steel is now employed extensively for roof trusses of small
and medium spans and its supersede of timber as a material for trusses of large
span.
Steel for trusses of open (unceiled) roofs of certain buildings, well designed for large
spans with light weight members and satisfactory appearance, chiefly because of
the small size of the members and the simple joints are commonly in use. Mild steel
trusses must be painted periodically to prevent rusting.
A steel truss like the built-up truss is a triangulated structure. The principle rafters
are prevented from spreading by connecting their lower ends by a tie and strut and
ties are provided at intermediate points to afford adequate bracing. The struts
should be kept as short as possible. The centre line principle is adopted through out

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

and thus the point of attachment of each purlin coincides with the intersection of
the axes of truss members. Secondary stresses such as bending moments in the
rafters are thereby avoided.
All the members of a modern metal roof truss are mild steel, and most, if not all
should be of angles. Angles effectively resist both compression and tension
stresses; they can be conveniently attached and the manufacturing process is more
economical. Struts consist of either single or double angles and the main consist of
either one or two angles placed back to back. Until comparatively recently, it was a
common practice to use single or double flat bars for the main tie, as they were
suitable for resisting tension stresses, however, owing to wind pressure and the
abnormal strain imposed during the transportation and the erection of trusses,
members may be subjected to changes of stresses and flats will not resist
compression. Flat main therefore tend to become buckled. .if a ceiling is to be
provided, ceiling joints can readily be fixed to a main tie of double angles and this is
an additional reason why they should be used instead of flats.

Connections
The members of a truss are connected together normally by means of:
a. Bolts and thin plates called gussets
b. welding
c. rivets ( not in common use)
The pitch of rivets is the distance between their centers and should not be less
than 2.5 times the diameter of the bolts. The maximum pitch should not exceed
32t or 300mm. the size of the bolts depends upon that of the members to be
connected, thus 16mm diameter bolts are commonly employed for angles and
flats up to 60mm wide and 20mm diameter bolts for larger members. When
making a joint, a number, even if subjected to a small stress, should be
connected to a gusset by at least two bolts. If a member consists of double
angles, gussets are always placed between them.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

Support to the trusses

Sound concrete pads of sufficient thickness and area must be provided to give
reliable and level bearing for the end of the truss and to receive the steel fixing
bolts. The bolts are called ragged bolts or ragged lewis bolts.

Fixing the roof coverings

Purlins are laid across the rafters to support the sheeting or tiles/slates (battens).
The purlins can be from timber members or metal angles or zed sections. The
spacing of the purlins will depend on the roof loading, the type of roof covering used
and the spacing of the mild steel roof trusses. Manufactures will recommend
maximum centers appropriate to the roof coverings.
Traditionally a hook bolt was used to fix the sheeting, but this presented problems
with water proofing at the top of the bolts. Today an Oakley clip is fixed and
adjusted inside the roof and ensures a satisfactory water seal.

100x50 timber purlin

1

80x80x6

rafter L

1
1

shoe

65

65

65

x 50 x 6 strut L

x 50 x 6 ties L

x 50 x 6main tie L

6mm gusset

Figure 24: Typical trusses of upto 6m span and upto 3.7 c/c

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

175x100 purlin
1

12mmdia.coach bolt

80x80x6L.rafter

150x 150x10L.cleat 150long

rafter

1
80X80X10
L.cleats welded
to bearing plates

65x60x6.L. Tie

150 X140X328Pad stone

strut

Figure (a)section thru the strut

Figure (b)section thru the pad stone

150x 150x10L.cleat 150long

oakley clip

twin angle rafter

Zed purlin

strut

Figure 26: showing the fixing of the roof covering on the zed purlin

Figure 25: details

of a steel truss connection to the strut and a section thru the pad stone.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES