AE15301 AIRACRAFT

MATERIALS AND
MANUFACTURING
TECHNOLOGY

UNIT I
CASTING
Manufacturing
Manufacturing in its broadest sense is the process of converting raw materials into
useful products.
It includes
i) Design of the product
ii) Selection of raw materials and
iii) The sequence of processes through which the product will be manufactured.

Casting Processes:
The casting process involves pouring of liquid metal in to a mold cavity and
allowing it to solidify to obtain the final casting.
The flow of molten metal into the mold cavity depends on several factors like
minimum section thickness of the part, presence of corners, non-uniform crosssection of the cast, and so on.
The casting processes can be broadly classified into expendable mold casting and
permanent mold casting processes
Expendable Mold Casting:
Expendable mold casting is a generic classification that includes sand, plastic, shell,
plaster, and investment (lost-wax technique) molds.
All these methods use temporary, non-reusable molds.
After the molten metal in the mold cavity solidifies, the mold is broken to take out
the solidified cast.
Expendable mold casting processes are suitable for very complex shaped parts and
materials with high melting point temperature.
However, the rate of production is often limited by the time to make mold rather
than the casting itself.
Following are a few examples of expendable mold casting processes.
Sand Casting:
Sand casting is widely used for centuries because of the simplicity of the process.
The sand casting process involves the following basic steps: (a) place a wooden or
metallic pattern in sand to create a mold, (b) fit in the pattern and sand in a gating
system, (c) remove the pattern, (d) fill the mold cavity with molten metal, (e) allow
the metal to cool, and (f) break the sand mold and remove the casting.
The sand casting process is usually economical for small batch size production.

 The quality of the sand casting depends on the quality and uniformity of green sand
material that is used for making the mold. a two-part sand mold, also referred to as a
cope-and-drag sand mold.
The molten metal is poured through the pouring cup and it fills the mold cavity
after passing through down sprue, runner and gate.
The core refers to loose pieces which are placed inside the mold cavity to create
internal holes or open section.
The riser serves as a reservoir of excess molten metal that facilitates additional
filling of mold cavity to compensate for volumetric shrinkage during solidification.
Sand castings process provides several advantages.
It can be employed for all types of metal. The tooling cost is low and can be used
to cast very complex shapes. However sand castings offer poor dimensional accuracy
and surface finish.

Shell molding
Shell molding:
It is similar to sand casting.
Normally a machined pattern of grey iron or aluminum is used in this process.
The pattern is heated to 2500 C to 2600 C and the sand resin mixture is poured over
its surface.
The heated pattern melts the resin creating bonds between the sand grains.
After a dwell period the pattern and sand inverted and extra sand is cleaned off.
The mold cavity is now formed by a hardened shell of sand.
The mold is then heated in an oven for further curing.
The shell thus formed constitutes one half of the mold.
Two such halves are placed over one another to make the complete mold.
The sands used in shell molding process are usually finer than the same used in sand
casting.
This process is ideal for complex shaped medium sized parts.
This method can be employed for making an integrate shapes, thin and sharp
corners small projection which are not possible in green sand mold.

 Subsequent machining operations are also reduced due to more dimensional

accuracy.

Investment casting:
Investment casting is also referred to as lost-wax casting since the pattern is
made of wax.
The wax patterns are first dipped into a slurry of refractory material and
subsequently, heated so that the wax melts away keeping a refractory
mold.
The mold is then further cured to achieve proper strength. Very high melting
temperature material can be cast in investment casting process because of
the refractory mold.
The molten metal is poured into the mold and is taken out after solidification
by breaking the mold.
Very high dimensional accuracy and surface finish can be achieved in
investment casting process. However, the tooling cast is usually high and
hence, investment casting process is primarily used for large size batch
production or for specific requirements of complex shape or casting of
very high melting temperature material.
Vacuum Casting:
In this process, a mixture of fine sand and urethane is molded over metal
dies and cured with amino vapor.
The molted metal is drawn into the mold cavity through a gating system
from the
bottom of the mold.

 The pressure inside the mold is usually one-third of the atmospheric

pressure. Because the mold cavity is filled under vacuum, the vacuum casting
process is very suitable for thin walled, complex shapes with uniform
properties.

Plaster mold casting

Plaster mold casting, also called rubber plaster molding (RPM), is a method of
producing aluminum or zinc castings by pouring liquid metal into typical plaster
(gypsum) molds.
The plaster molds used as negative molds are created from gypsum and water.
After mixing and forming the mold shape, the plaster molds are dried and baked
in an oven to remove any water remaining in the mold.
Often, the molds are made in two halves i.e. cope and drag molds and the
halves of the plaster molds are clamped together with any required cores
positioned appropriately in the mold.
Molten metal is subsequently poured into the negative plaster mold and allowed
to dry. The final part is taken out after breaking the mold.
The final cast may require machining operation depending upon the requisite
dimensional accuracy.
This process is often used for producing prototypes of final part or component.
Ceramic mold casting .
The ceramic mold casting is used to produce split molds from a quick-setting
ceramic investment.
Blended ceramic particles are mixed rapidly with liquid binder to form free
flowing slurry that is poured quickly over a pattern.
The casting does not require wax patterns and there are no limits to size or alloy.
Foundry applications are large and complex impellers, valve bodies, and military
hardware.
The green strength of ceramic mold casting is high. Ceramic mold casting.
method uses a ceramic slurry prepared by mixing fine grained refractory powders
of Zircon (ZrSiO4), Alumina (Al2O3), Fused Silica (SiO2) and a liquid chemical
binder (Alcohol based Silicon Ester) for making the mold.

Permanent Mold Casting processes :

Permanent mold casting processes involve the use of metallic dies that are
permanent in nature and can be used repeatedly.
The metal molds are also called dies and provide superior surface finish and
close tolerance than typical sand molds.
The permanent mold casting processes broadly include pressure die casting,
squeeze casting, centrifugal casting, and continuous casting.

Pressures die casting:

The pressure die casting process is the most common for Al, Zn and Mg castings
(low melting point).
The liquid metal is injected into the mold under high pressure and allowed to
solidify at the high pressure.
The solidified cast is then taken out of the mold or the die which is ready for the
next cast.
Pressure die casting is suitable for large batch size production. Two types of
pressure die casting are generally common in the industry (a) high pressure die
casting and (b) low pressure die casting.
Very high production rates can be achieved in pressure die casting process with
close dimensional control of the casting.
However, the process is not suitable for casting of high melting temperature
materials as the die material has to withstand the melting (or superheated)
temperature of the casting. Pressure die castings also contain porosity due to the
entrapped air. Furthermore, the dies in the pressure die casting process are
usually very costly.
In the hot-chamber die casting process, the furnace to melt material is part of the
die itself and hence, this process is suitable primarily for low-melting point
temperature materials such as aluminum, magnesium etc.

Squeeze casting:
Molten metal is poured into a metallic mold or die cavity with one-half of the die
squeezing the molten metal to fill in the intended cavity under pressure .
Fiber reinforced casting with SiC or Al2O3 fibers mixed in metal matrix have been
successfully squeeze cast and commercially used to produce automobile pistons.
However, squeeze casting is limited only to shallow part or part with smaller
dimensions.

Centrifugal casting:
In centrifugal casting process, the molten metal poured at the center of a rotating mold or
die. Because of the centrifugal force, the lighter impurities are crowded towards the
center of the case. For producing a hollow part, the axis of rotation is placed at the center
of the desired casting. The speed of rotation is maintained high so as to produce a
centripetal acceleration of the order of 60g to 75g. The centrifuge action segregates the
less dense nonmetallic inclusions near to the center of rotation that can be removed by
machining a thin layer. No cores are therefore required in casting of hollow parts although
solid parts can also be cast by this process. The centrifugal casting is very suitable for
axisymmetric parts. Very high strength of the casting can be obtained. Since the molten
metal is fed by the centrifugal action, the need for complex metal feeding system is
eliminated. Both horizontal and vertical centrifugal castings are widely used in the
industry.

Continuous casting
Continuous casting process is widely used in the steel industry.
In principle, continuous casting is different from the other casting processes in the
fact that there is no enclosed mold cavity.
Molten steel coming out from the furnace is accumulated in a ladle.
After undergoing requisite ladle treatments, such as alloying and degassing, and
arriving at the correct temperature, the ladle is transported to the top of the
continuous casting set-up.
From the ladle, the hot metal is transferred via a refractory shroud (pipe) to a holding
bath called a tundish.
The tundish allows a reservoir of metal to feed the casting machine.
Metal is then allowed to pass through a open base copper mold.
The mold is water-cooled to solidify the hot metal directly in contact with it and
removed from the other side of the mold.
The continuous casting process is used for casting metal directly into billets or other
similar shapes that can be used for rolling.
The process involves continuously pouring molten metal into a externally chilled
copper mold or die walls and hence, can be easily automated for large size
production.
Since the molten metal solidifies from the die wall and in a soft state as it comes out
of the die wall such that the same can be directly guided into the rolling mill or can
be sheared into a selected size of billets.

Defects in Casting Processes:

There are various defects that are experienced during casting, in particular, sand
casting processes. A brief explanation of some of the significant defects and their
possible remedial measures are indicated in the text to follow.
Shrinkage
Shrinkage of molten metal as it solidifies is an important issue in casting. It can reduce
the 5-10% volume of the cast. Gray cast iron expands upon solidification due to phase
changes. Need to design part and mold to take this amount into consideration. The
thickness of the boss or pad should be less than the thickness of the section of the boss
adjoins and the transition should be gradual. The radius for good shrinkage control
should be from one half to one third of the section thickness. Shrinkage defect can be
reduced by decreasing the number of walls and increasing the draft angle.

Porosity:
Porosity is a phenomenon that occurs in materials, especially castings, as they change
state from liquid to solid during the manufacturing process. Casting porosity has the
form of surface and core imperfections which either effects the surface finish or as a
leak path for gases and liquids. The poring temperature should be maintained properly
to reduce porosity. Adequate fluxing of metal and controlling the amount of gasproducing materials in the molding and core making sand mixes can help in
minimizing this defect.
Hot tear
Hot tears are internal or external ragged discontinuities or crack on the casting surface,
caused by rapid contraction occurring immediately after the metal solidified. They may
be produced when the casting is poorly designed and abrupt sectional changes take
place; no proper fillets and corner radii are provided, and chills are inappropriately
placed. Hot tear may be caused when the mold and core have poor collapsibility or
when the mold is too hard causing the casting to undergo severe strain during cooling.
Incorrect pouring temperature and improper placement of gates and risers can also
create hot tears. Method to prevent hot tears may entail improving the casting design,
achieving directional solidification and even rate of cooling all over, selecting proper
mold and poured materials to suit the cast metal, and controlling the mold hardness in
relation to other ingredients of sand.

Scar:
It is usually found on the flat casting surface. It is a shallow blow.
Blowhole:
Blowholes are smooth round holes that are clearly perceptible on the surface of the
casting. To prevent blowholes, moisture content in sand must be well adjusted, sand of
proper grain size should be used, ramming should not be too hard and venting should
be adequate.
Blister:
This is a scar covered by the thin layers of the metal.
Dross:
The lighter impurities are appearing on the top of the cast surface is called the dross. It
can be taken care of at the pouring stage by using items such as a strainer and a skim
bob.
Dirt
Sometimes sand particles dropping out of the cope get embedded on the top surface of
a casting. When removed, these leave small angular holes is known as dirts.
Wash
It is a low projection on the drag surface of a casting commencing near the gate. It is
caused by the erosion of sand due to high velocity liquid metal.
Buckle
It refers to a long fairly shallow broad depression at the surface of a casting of a high
temperature metal. Due to very high temperature of the molten metal, expansion of the
thin layered of the sand at the mold face takes place. As this expansion is obstructed by
the flux, the mold tends to bulge out forming a V shape.
Rat tail
It is a long shallow angular depression found in a thin casting. The cause is similar to
buckle.
Shift
A shift results in a mismatch of the sections of a casting usually as a parting line.
Misalignment is common cause of shift. This defect can be prevented by ensuring
proper alignment of the pattern for die parts, molding boxes, and checking of pattern
flux locating pins before use.
Warped casting
Warping is an undesirable deformation in a casting which occurs during or after
solidification. Large and flat sections are particularly prone to wrap edge. Wrap edge
may also be due to insufficient gating system that may not allow rapid pouring of

metal or due to low green strength of the sand mold or inadequate / inappropriate draft
allowance in the pattern / mold cavity.
Metal Penetration and Rough Surfaces
This defect appears as an uneven and rough external surface of the casting. It may be
caused when the sand has too high permeability, large grain size, and low strength.
Soft ramming may also cause metal penetration.
Fin
A thin projection of metal, not intended as a part of casting, is called a fin. Fins occur
at the parting of the mold or core sections. Molds and cores in correctly assembled will
cause the fin.
High metal pressures due to too large downsprue, insufficient weighing of the molds or
improper clamping of flasks may again produce the fin defect.

Cold Shut and Mis-Run

A cold shut is a defect in which a discontinuity is formed due to the imperfect fusion of
two streams of metal in the mold cavity. The reasons for cold shut or mis-run may be
too thin sections and wall thickness, improper gating system, damaged patterns, slow
and intermittent pouring , poor fluidity of metal caused by low pouring temperature,
improper alloy composition, etc.
Inspections of Casting:
Visual inspection
Visible defects that can be detected provide a means for discovering errors in the
pattern equipment or in the molding and casting process. Visual inspection may prove
inadequate only in the detection of sub surface or internal defects.
Dimensional inspection
Dimensional inspection is one of the important inspections for casting. When precision
casting is required, we make some samples for inspection the tolerance, shape size and
also measure the profile of the cast. This dimensional inspection of casting may be
conducted by various methods:
Standard measuring instruments to check the size of the cast.
Contour gauges for the checking of profile, curves and shapes
Coordinate measuring and Marking Machine
Special fixtures

X-Ray Radiography
In all the foundries the flaw detection test are performed in the casting where the
defects are not visible. This flaw detection test is usually performed for internal
defects, surface defects etc. These tests are valuable not only in detecting but even in

locating the casting defects present in the interior of the casting. Radiography is one of
the important flaw detection test for casting. The radiation used in radiography testing
is a higher energy (shorter wavelength) version of the electromagnetic waves that we
see as visible light. The radiation can come from an X-ray generator or a radioactive
source.
Magnetic particle inspection
This test is used to reveal the location of cracks that extend to the surface of iron or
steel castings, which are magnetic nature. The casting is first magnetized and then iron
particles are sprinkled all over the path of the magnetic field. The particles align
themselves in the direction of the lines of force. A discontinuity in the casting causes
the lines of the force to bypass the discontinuity and to concentrate around the
extremities of the defect.
Fluorescent dye-penetration test
This method is very simple and applied for all cast metals. It entails applying a thin
penetration oil-base dye to the surface of the casting and allowing it to stand for some
time so that the oil passes into the cracks by means of capillary action. The oil is then
thoroughly wiped and cleaned from the surface. To detect the defects, the casting is
pained with a coat of whitewash or powdered with tale and then viewed under
ultraviolet light. The oil being fluorescent in nature, can be easily detect under this
light, and thus the defects are easily revealed.
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing used for detecting internal voids in casting is based on the principle
of reflection of high frequency sound waves. If the surface under test contains some
defect, the high frequency sound waves when emitted through the section of the
casting, will be reflected from the surface of defect and return in a shorter period of
time. The advantage this method of testing over other methods is that the defect, even
if in the interior, is not only detected and located accurately, but its dimension can also
be quickly measured without in any damaging or destroying the casting.
Fracture test
Fracture test is done by examining a fracture surface of the casting. it is possible to
observe coarse graphite or chilled portion and also shrinkage cavity, pin hole etc. The
apparent soundness of the casting can thus be judged by seeing the fracture.
Macro-etching test (macroscopic examination)
The macroscopic inspection is widely used as a routine control test in steel production
because it affords a convenient and effective means of determining internal defects in
the metal. Macro-etching may reveal one of the following conditions:
Crystalline heterogeneity, depending on solidification
Chemical heterogeneity, depending on the impurities present or localized
segregation and
Mechanical heterogeneity, depending on strain introduced on the metal, if
any.

Sulphur Print test

Sulphur may exist in iron or steel in one of two forms; either as iron sulphide or
manganese sulphide. The distribution of sulphur inclusions can easily examined by this
test.

Microscopic Examination
Microscopic examination can enable the study of the microstructure of the metal alloy,
elucidating its composition, the type and nature of any treatment given to it, and its
mechanical properties. In the case of cast metals, particularly steels, cast iron,
malleable iron, and SG iron, microstructure examination is essential for assessing
metallurgical structure and composition. Composition analysis can also be done using
microscopic inspection. Distribution of phase can be observed by metallographic
sample preparation of cast product. Grain size and distribution, grain boundary area
can be observed by this procedure. Distribution of nonmetallic inclusion can also be
found from this process of inspection.
Chill Test
Chill test offers a convenient means for an approximate evaluation of the graphitizing
tendency of the iron produced and forms an important and quick shop floor test for
ascertaining whether this iron will be of the class desired. In chill test, accelerated
cooling rate is introduced to induce the formation of a chilled specimen of appropriate
dimension. It is then broken by striking with a hammer in such a manner that the
fracture is straight and midway of its length. The depth of chill obtained on the test
piece is affected by the carbon and silicon present and it can therefore be related to the
carbon equivalent, whose value in turn determines the grade of iron.

Design Recommendations for Casting:

1. Compensate the shrinkage of the solidified molten metal by making patterns of
slightly oversize.
2. In sand casting, it is more economical and accurate if the parting line is on a flat
plane Contoured parting lines are not economical. Further, some degree of taper, or
draft is recommended to provide to the pattern for its easy removal. The
recommended draft angles for patters under various conditions are given elsewhere.
3. In sand casting, it is recommended to attach the raiser near to the heavier section.
The thinnest sections are farthest from the raiser and solidify first and then the
solidification proceeds toward the direction of raiser i.e. towards the heavier section.
4. Sharp corners in a casting design cause uneven cooling and lead to formation of
hot spots in the final cast structure. Moreover sharp corner in a casting structure acts
as a stress raiser. Rounding the corner decreases the severity of the hot spot and
lessens the stress concentration. Abrupt changes in sections should be avoided.
Fillets and tapers are preferable to sharp steps.

5. The interior walls and sections are recommended to be 20% thinner than the
outside members to reduce the thermal and residual stresses, and metallurgical
changes .
6. The interior walls and sections are recommended to be 20% thinner than the
outside members to reduce the thermal and residual stresses, and metallurgical
changes.
7. When a hole is placed in a highly stressed section, add extra material around the
hole as reinforcement.
8. To minimize the residual stresses in the gear, pulley or wheel casting, a balance
between the section size of the rim, spokes and hub is maintained.
9. An odd number of curved wheel spokes reduce cast-in-residual stresses.
10. Similar to sand casting, permanent mold castings also require draft for the easy
withdrawal of the casting from the mold. The recommended draft angles are given
elsewhere.
11. Due to pattern shrinkage, investment shrinkage and metal shrinkage during
solidification, there is always a tendency for an investment part to dish (develop
concave surfaces where flat surfaces are specified). This condition takes place in
areas of thick cross section. Dishing is minimized by designing parts with uniformly
thin walls.

12. When keys and keyways are required, the recommended ratio of width to depth is 1.0
or more. The minimum castable key width is 2.3 mm for ferrous metals and 1.5 mm for
nonferrous metals.

13. Heavy bosses connecting to the surface can cause sinks due to the shrinkage of the
large mass of the metal in the boss during cooling. This shrinkage problem can be reduced
by moving the boss away from the surface and connecting it to the surface with a short rib.

UNIT II

WELDING

Welding:
Welding is a materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating
them to suitable temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application
of pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler material.
Welding is used for making permanent joints.
It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine
frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.
Classification of welding processes :
(i) Arc welding

Carbon arc
Metal arc
Metal inert gas
Tungsten inert gas
Plasma arc
Submerged arc
Electro-slag
(ii) Gas Welding

Oxy-acetylene
Air-acetylene
Oxy-hydrogen
iii) Resistance Welding
Butt
Spot
Seam
Projection
Percussion

(iv) Thermit Welding

(v) Solid State Welding
Friction
Ultrasonic

 Diffusion
Explosive

(vi) Newer Welding

Electron-beam
Laser
(vii)Related Process
Oxy-acetylene cutting
Arc cutting
Hard facing
Brazing
Soldering

Welding practice & equipment :

STEPS:
Prepare the edges to be joined and maintain the proper position
Open the acetylene valve and ignite the gas at tip of the torch
Hold the torch at about 45deg to the work piece plane
Inner flame near the work piece and filler rod at about 30 40 deg
Touch filler rod at the joint and control the movement according to the flow of the material
Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes :
Consumable consumed during welding process
Source of filler metal in arc welding
Nonconsumable not consumed during welding process
Filler metal must be added separately
Consumable Electrodes
Forms of consumable electrodes
Welding rods (a.k.a. sticks) are 9 to 18 inches and 3/8 inch or less in diameter and must be
changed frequently
Weld wire can be continuously fed from spools with long lengths of wire, avoiding frequent
interruptions.
In both rod and wire forms, electrode is consumed by arc and added to weld joint as filler
metal.

No consumable Electrodes
Made of tungsten which resists melting
Gradually depleted during welding (vaporization is principal mechanism)
Flux
A substance that prevents formation of oxides and other contaminants in welding, or dissolves
them and facilitates removal
Provides protective atmosphere for welding
Stabilizes arc
Reduces spattering
Arc welding
Uses an electric arc to coalesce metals
Arc welding is the most common method of welding metals
Electricity travels from electrode to base metal to ground
Arc welding Equipments
A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.)
Two cables- one for work and one for electrode
Electrode holder
Electrode
Protective shield
Gloves
Wire brush
Chipping hammer
Goggles

Advantages
Most efficient way to join metals

Lowest-cost joining method

Affords lighter weight through better utilization of materials

Joins all commercial metals

Provides design flexibility

Disadvantages

 Manually applied, therefore high labor cost.

Need high energy causing danger
Not convenient for disassembly.
Defects are hard to detect at joints.
GAS WELDING
Sound weld is obtained by selecting proper size of flame, filler material and method of moving
torch
The temperature generated during the process is 33000c.
When the metal is fused, oxygen from the atmosphere and the torch combines with molten
metal and forms oxides, results defective weld
Fluxes are added to the welded metal to remove oxides
Common fluxes used are made of sodium, potassium. Lithium and borax.
Flux can be applied as paste, powder, liquid. solid coating or gas.
GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT
1. Gas Cylinders Pressure
Oxygen 125 kg/cm2
Acetylene 16 kg/cm2
2. Regulators
Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2
Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2
Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the work pieces welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valve
7. Non return valve
Types of Flames
Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long white inner area (Feather)
surrounded by a transparent blue envelope is called Carburizing flame (30000c)
Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone surrounded by the transparent blue
envelope is called Neutral flame (It has a balance of fuel gas and oxygen) (32000c)
Used for welding steels, aluminium, copper and cast iron.
If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more pointed, while the envelope
becomes shorter and more fierce is called Oxidizing flame
Has the highest temperature about 34000c
Used for welding brass and brazing operation

Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting operations:
(a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing flame
Fusion welding processes
Definition : Fusion Welding is defined as melting together and coalescing materials by
means of heat
Energy is supplied by thermal or electrical means
Fusion welds made without filler metals are known as autogenous welds
Filler Metals:
Additional material to weld the weld zone
Available as rod or wire
They can be used bare or coated with flux
The purpose of the flux is to retard the
Shielded metal arc welding process
An electric arc is generated between a coated electrode and the parent metal
The coated electrode carries the electric current to form the arc, produces a gas to control the
atmosphere and provides filler metal for the weld bead
Electric current may be AC or DC. If the current is DC, the polarity will affect the weld size and
application
Process
Intense heat at the arc melts the tip of the electrode
Tiny drops of metal enter the arc stream and are deposited on the parent metal
As molten metal is deposited, a slag forms over the bead which serves as an insulation against
air contaminants during cooling

 After a weld pass is allowed the cool, the oxide layer is removed by a chipping hammer and
then cleaned with a wirebrush before the next pass.

Fig: Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding process. About 50% of all largescale industrial welding operations use this process.

Fig: Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding process (also known as stick
welding, because the electrode is in the shape of a stick).

Submerged arc welding

Weld arc is shielded by a granular flux, consisting of silica, lime, manganese oxide, calcium
fluoride and other compounds.
Flux is fed into the weld zone by gravity flow through nozzle.
Thick layer of flux covers molten metal
Flux acts as a thermal insulator, promoting deep penetration of heat into the work piece
Consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire fed automatically through a tube
Power is supplied by 3-phase or 2-phase power lines

Fig: Schematic illustration of the submerged-arc welding process and equipment. The unfused
flux is recovered and reused
Gas metal arc welding
GMAW is a metal inert gas welding (MIG)
Weld area shielded by an effectively inert atmosphere of argon,helium,carbon dioxide,various
other gas mixtures
Metal can be transferred by 3 methods :
Spray transfer
Globular transfer
Short circuiting
Process capabilities
GMAV process is suitable for welding a variety of ferrous and non-ferrous metals
Process is versatile, rapid, economical, welding productivity is double that of SMAW
Flux cored arc welding
Flux cored arc welding is similar to a gas metal arc welding
Electrode is tubular in shape and is filled with flux
Cored electrodes produce more stable arc improve weld contour and produce better mechanical
properties
Flux is more flexible than others

Fig: Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-welding process. This operation is similar
to gas metal-arc welding.
Electro gas Welding
EGW is welding the edges of sections vertically in one pass with the pieces placed edge to edge
Similar to Electro gas welding
Weld metal is deposited into weld cavity between the two pieces to be joined
Difference is Arc is started between electrode tip and bottom part of the part to be welded
Flux added first and then melted by the heat on the arc
Molten slag reaches the tip of the electrode and the arc is extinguished
Heat is then continuously produced by electrical resistance of the molten slag
Single or multiple solid as well as flux-cored electrodes may be used
Process capabilities
Weld thickness ranges from 12mm to 75mm
Metals welded are steels, titanium, aluminum alloys
Applications are construction of bridges, pressure vessels, thick walled and large diameter
pipes, storage tanks and ships.


Fig : Schematic illustration of the electrogas welding process.
It is a low temperature joining process. It is performed at temperatures above 840 F and it
generally affords strengths comparable to those of the metal which it joins. It is low temperature
in that it is done below the melting point of the base metal. It is achieved by diffusion without
fusion (melting) of the base
Brazing can be classified as
Torch brazing
Dip brazing
Furnace brazing
Induction brazing

Advantages
Dissimilar metals which canot be welded can be joined by brazing
Very thin metals can be joined
Metals with different thickness can be joined easily
In brazing thermal stresses are not produced in the work piece. Hence there is no distortion
Using this process, carbides tips are brazed on the steel tool holders

Disadvantages
Brazed joints have lesser strength compared to welding
Joint preparation cost is more
Can be used for thin sheet metal sections
Soldering
It is a low temperature joining process. It is performed at temperatures below 840F for joining.
Soldering is used for,
Sealing, as in automotive radiators or tin cans
Electrical Connections
Joining thermally sensitive components
Joining dissimilar metals

Inert Gas Welding

For materials such as Al or Ti which quickly form oxide layers, a method to place an inert
atmosphere around the weld puddle had to be developed
Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
Uses a consumable electrode (filler wire made of the base metal)
Inert gas is typically Argon
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and an inert gas for arc shielding
Melting point of tungsten = 3410C (6170F)
A.k.a. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
In Europe, called "WIG welding"
Used with or without a filler metal
When filler metal used, it is added to weld pool from separate rod or wire
Applications: aluminum and stainless steel most common

Advantages
High quality welds for suitable applications
No spatter because no filler metal through arc
Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux
Disadvantages
Generally slower and more costly than consumable electrode AW processes
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Special form of GTAW in which a constricted plasma arc is directed at weld
area
Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that focuses a high velocity stream of inert gas
(argon) into arc region to form a high velocity, intensely hot plasma arc stream
Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C (50,000F), due to constriction of arc, producing a plasma
jet of small diameter and very high energy density

Resistance Welding (RW)

A group of fusion welding processes that use a combination of heat and pressure to accomplish
coalescence
Heat generated by electrical resistance to current flow at junction to be welded
Principal RW process is resistance spot welding (RSW)

Fig: Resistance welding, showing the components in spot welding, the main process in the
RW group.
Components in Resistance Spot Welding
Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)
Two opposing electrodes
Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts between electrodes
Power supply from which a controlled current can be applied for a specified time duration
Advantages
No filler metal required
High production rates possible
Lends itself to mechanization and automation
Lower operator skill level than for arc welding
Good repeatability and reliability
Disadvantages
High initial equipment cost
Limited to lap joints for most RW processes
Resistance Seam Welding

Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

Fusion welding process in which heat for welding is provided by a highly-focused, high-intensity
stream of electrons striking work surface
Electron beam gun operates at:
High voltage (e.g., 10 to 150 kV typical) to accelerate electrons
Beam currents are low (measured in milliamps)
Power in EBW not exceptional, but power density is
Advantages
High-quality welds, deep and narrow profiles
Limited heat affected zone, low thermal distortion
High welding speeds
No flux or shielding gases needed
Disadvantages
High equipment cost
Precise joint preparation & alignment required
Vacuum chamber required
Safety concern: EBW generates x-rays
Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
Fusion welding process in which coalescence is achieved by energy of a highly concentrated,
coherent light beam focused on joint
Laser = "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation"
LBW normally performed with shielding gases to prevent oxidation
Filler metal not usually added
High power density in small area, so LBW often used for small parts
Comparison: LBW vs. EBW
No vacuum chamber required for LBW
No x-rays emitted in LBW
Laser beams can be focused and directed by optical lenses and mirrors
LBW not capable of the deep welds and high depth-to-width ratios of EBW
Maximum LBW depth = ~ 19 mm (3/4 in), whereas EBW depths = 50 mm (2 in)
Thermit Welding (TW)
FW process in which heat for coalescence is produced by superheated molten metal from the
chemical reaction of thermite
Thermite = mixture of Al and Fe3O4 fine powders that produce an exothermic reaction when
ignited
Also used for incendiary bombs
Filler metal obtained from liquid metal
Process used for joining, but has more in common with casting than welding

Fig: Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible tapped, superheated metal flows into
mold; (3) metal solidifies to produce weld joint.
Applications
Joining of railroad rails
Repair of cracks in large steel castings and forgings
Weld surface is often smooth enough that no finishing is required
Diffusion Welding (DFW)
SSW process uses heat and pressure, usually in a controlled atmosphere, with sufficient time for
diffusion and coalescence to occur
Temperatures 0.5 Tm
Plastic deformation at surfaces is minimal
Primary coalescence mechanism is solid state diffusion
Limitation: time required for diffusion can range from seconds to hours
Applications
Joining of high-strength and refractory metals in aerospace and nuclear industries
Can be used to join either similar and dissimilar metals
For joining dissimilar metals, a filler layer of different metal is often sandwiched between base
metals to promote diffusion
Friction Welding (FRW)
SSW process in which coalescence is achieved by frictional heat combined with pressure
When properly carried out, no melting occurs at faying surfaces
No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally used
Process yields a narrow HAZ
Can be used to join dissimilar metals
Widely used commercial process, amenable to automation and mass production

Fig: Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact; (2) parts brought into contact to
generate friction heat; (3) rotation stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created.
Applications
Shafts and tubular parts
Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm equipment, petroleum and natural gas
Limitations
At least one of the parts must be rotational
Flash must usually be removed
Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which must be taken into consideration in product design)
Weld Defects
Undercuts/Overlaps
Grain Growth
A wide T will exist between base metal and HAZ. Preheating and cooling
methods will affect the brittleness of the metal in this region
Blowholes
Are cavities caused by gas entrapment during the solidification of the weld
puddle. Prevented by proper weld technique (even temperature and speed)
Inclusions
Impurities or foreign substances which are forced into the weld puddle during the welding
process. Has the same effect as a crack. Prevented by proper technique/cleanliness.
Segregation
Condition where some regions of the metal are enriched with an alloy ingredient and
others arent. Can be prevented by proper heat treatment and cooling.
Porosity
The formation of tiny pinholes generated by atmospheric contamination.
Prevented by keeping a protective shield over the molten weld puddle.

UNIT III
MACHINING

THE LATHE :
FUNCTION OF THE LATHE
The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a piece of work to give it the
required shape and size.
TYPES OF LATHE
Lathes of various designs and constructions have been developed to suit the various
conditions of metal machining.
1. Speed lathe.
Woodworking
Centering.
Polishing.
Spinning.
2. Bench lathe.
3. Tool room lathe.
4. Capstan and Turret lathe.
5. Special purpose.
Wheel lathe.
Gap bed lathe.
T-lathe.
6. Engine lathe.
Belt drive.
Individual motor drive.
Duplicating lathe.
Gear head lathe.
Spinning.
1. Automatic lathe.

The Speed Lathe:

The speed lathe, in construction and operation, is the simplest of all types of lathe. It
consists of a bed, a headstock, a tailstock and a tool-post mounted on an adjustable slide.
There is no feed box, lead screw or conventional type of carriage. The tool is mounted
on the adjustable slide and is fed into work purely by hand control.
This characteristic of the lathe enables the designer to give high spindle speeds which
usually range from 1200 to 3600 r.p.m. As the tool is controlled by hand, the depth of cut
and the thickness of chip is very small
The engine lathe or centre lathe :
This lathe is the most important member of the lathe family and is the most widely
used.
The term engines is associated with the lathe owing to the fact that early lathes were
driven by steam engines. Similar to the speed lathe, the engine lathe has got all the basic
parts
This is a small lathe usually mounted on a bench. It has practically all the parts of an
engine lathe or speed lathe and it performs almost all the operations, its only difference
being in the size.
This is used fur small and precision work.

The bench lathe:

 This is a small lathe usually mounted on a bench. It has practically all the parts of an
engine lathe or speed lathe and it performs almost all the operations, its only difference
being in the size.
This is used fur small and precision work.
The tool room lathe:
A tool room lathe having features similar to an. engine lathe is much more accurately built
and has a wide range of spindle speeds ranging from a very low to a quite high speed up to
2500 r.p.m.
This is equipped, besides other things, with a chuck, taper turning attachment, draw in
collet attachment, thread chasing dial, relieving attachment, steady and follower rest, pump
for coolant, etc.
This lathe is mainly used for precision work on tools, dies, gauges and in machining work
where accuracy is needed. The machine is costlier than an engine lathe of the same size.
The capstan and turret lathe:
These lathes are development of the engine lathe and are used for production work.
The distinguishing feature of this type of lathe is that the tailstock of an engine lathe is
replaced by a hexagonal turret, on the face of which multiple tools may be fitted and fed into
the work in proper sequence.
The advantage is that. several different types of operations can be done on a work piece
without re- setting of work or tools, and a number of identical parts can be produced in the
minimum time.
Special purpose lathe:
As the name implies, they are used for special purposes and for jobs which cannot be
accommodated or conveniently machined on a standard lathe.
The wheel is made for finishing the journals and turning the tread on railroad car and
locomotive wheels. The gap bed lathe, in which a section of the bed adjacent to the
headstock is recoverable, is used to swing extra-large diameter pieces.
The T-lathe, a new member of the lathe family, is intended for machining of rotors for jet
engines. The axis of the lathe bed is at right angles to the axis of the headstock spindle is the
form of a T.
The duplicating lathe is one for duplicating the shape of a flat. or round template on to the
workpiece. Mechanical, air, and hydraulic devices are all used to coordinate the movements
of the tool to reproduce accurately.

Automatic lathe :
These are high speed, heavy duty, mass production lathes with complete automatic control.
Once the tools are set and the machine is started it performs automatically all the operations
to finish the job

 The changing of tools, speeds, and feeds are also done automatically. After the job is
complete, the machine will continue to repeat the cycles producing identical parts even
without the attention of an operator.
An operator who has to look after five or six automatic lathes at a time will simply look
after the general maintenance of the machine and cutting tool, load up a bar stock and
remove finished products from time to time.
THE SIZE OF A LATHE:
The size of a lathe is expressed or specified by the following items
1. The height of the centres measured from the lathe bed
2. The swing diameter over bed.
This is the largest diameter of work that will FEED MECHANISM
The movement of the tool relative to the work is termed as feed. A lathe tool may have
three types of feed longitudinal, cross, and angular.
When the tool moves parallel to the lathe axis, the movement is termed as Longitudinal!
feed and is effected by the movement of the carriage.
When the tool moves at right angle to the lathe axis with the help of the cross slide the
movement is termed across feed, while the movement of the tool by compound slide when
it is swiveled at an angle to the lathe axis is termed as angular feed. Cross and longitudinal
feed are both hand and power operated, but angular feed is only hand operated.
The feed mechanism has different units through which motion is transmitted from the headstock
spindle to the carriage. Following are the units:
1.End of bed gearing.
2.Feed gearbox.
3.Feed rod and lead screw
4.Apron mechanism.
End of bed gearing: This gearing serves the purpose of transmitting the drive to the lead screw
and feed shaft, either direct or through a gear box. In modern lathes, tumbler gear mechanism or
bevel gear feed reversing mechanism is incorporated to reverse the direction of feed.
Tumbler gear mechanism:.
Tumbler gears are used to give the desired direction of movement to the lathe carriage,
via lead screw or the feed shaft.
Apron mechanism Different designs of apron mechanism for transforming rotary motion
of the feed rod and the lead screw into feed motion of the carriage are constructed by
different makers of the lathe
THREAD CUTTING MECHANISM
The rotation of the lead screw is used to transverse the tool along the work to produce screw
thread. The half-nut mechanism illustrated in Fig makes the carriage to engage or disengage with
the lead screw. it comprises a pair of half nuts 7 capable of moving in or out of mesh with the
lead screw.
LATHE ACCESSORIES AND ATTACHMENTS

 Lathe accessories include centers, catch plates and carriers, chutes, collets, face plates,
angle plates, mandrels, and rests.
They are used either for holding and supporting the work or for holding the tool.
Attachments are additional equipment used for specific purposes.
They include stops, ball turning rests, thread chasing dials, and taper turning, milling,
grinding, gear cutting, turret, cutter, relieving a id crank pin turning attachments.

LATHE OPERATIONS
Operations which are performed in a lathe either by holding the workpiece between
centres or by a chuck are:
Straight turning.
Shoulder turning.
Chamfering.
Thread cutting.
Facing.
Knurling.
Filing.
Taper turning.
Eccentric turning.
Polishing.
Grooving.
Spinning.
Spring winding.
Forming.

Operation which is performed by holding the work by a chuck era faceplate or an angle
plate are:
Drilling
Reaming
Boring
Counterboring
Taperboring
Internal thread cutting
Tapping
Undercutting
Parting-off
Operations which are performed by using special attachments
Grinding
Milling

Work Holding Devices:

Fig : (a) and (b) Schematic illustrations of a draw-in-type collets. The workpiece is
placed in the collet hole, and the conical surfaces of the collet are forced inward by
pulling it with a draw bar into the sleeve. (c) A push-out type collet. (d) Workholding
of a part on a face plate.
Three jaw chuck: -For holding cylindrical stock centered.
For facing/center drilling the end of your aluminum stock

Four-Jaw Chuck - This is independent chuck generally has four jaws, which are adjusted
individually on the chuck face by means of adjusting screws

Collet Chuck:
Collet chuck is used to hold small workpieces

Magnetic Chuck
Thin jobs can be held by means of magnetic chucks

CENTERING

Where the work is required to be turned between centres or between a chuck and a centre,
conical shaped holes must be provided at the ends of lbs workpiece to provide bearing
surface for lathe centres. Centering is the process of producing conical holes in workpieces.
TURNING:
Turning in a lathe is to remove excess material from the workpiece to produce a coneshaped or a cylindrical surface. The various types of turning made in lathe work for
various purposes are described below.
STRAIGHT TURNING:
The work is turned straight when it is made to rotate about the lathe axis, and the tool is
fed parallel to the lathe axis The straight turning produces a cylindrical surface by
removing excess metal from the workpiece.
TAPER TURNING METHODS:
A taper may be turned by any one of the following methods: 1. By a broad nose form tool.
2. By setting over the tailstock centre. 3. By swivelling the compound rest. 4. By a taper
turning attachment. 5. by combining longitudinal and cross feed in a special lathe. Taper
Turning by a form tool A broad nose tool having straight cutting edge is set on to the work at half taper
angle, and is fed straight into the work to generate a tapered surface
The half angle of taper will correspond to 90 minus side cutting edge angle of the
tool. In this method the tool angle should be properly checked before use.
This method is limited to turn short length of taper only. This is due to the reason
that the metal is removed by the entire cutting edge, and any increase in the length of
the taper will necessitate the use of a wider cutting edge.
This will require excessive cutting pressure, which may distort the work due to
vibration and spoil the work surface.
Taper turning by setting over the tailstock:
The principle of turning taper by this method is to shift the axis of rotation of the
workpiece, at an angle to the lathe axis, feeding the tool parallel to the lathe axis.
The angle at which the axis of rotation of the workpiece is shifted is equal to half
angle of the taper. This is done when the body of the tailstock is made to slide on its
base towards or away from the operator by a setover screw as illustrated
The amount of setover being limited, this method is suitable for turning small taper
on long jobs.
The main disadvantage of this method is that the live and dead centres are not
equally stressed and the wear is not uniform. Moreover, the lathe carrier being set at
an angle, the angular velocity of the work is not constant.
Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest:

 This method employs the principle of turning taper by rotating the workpiece on
the lathe axis and feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
The tool mounted on the compound rest is attached to a circular base, graduated in
degree, which may be swivelled and clamped at any desired angle.
The setting of the compound rest is done by swivelling the rest at the half taper
angle, if this is already known. If the diameter of the small and large end and length
of taper are known.
Taper turning by a taper attachment:
The principle of turning taper by a taper attachment is to guide the tool in a straight
path set at an angle to the axis of rotation of the workpiece, while the work is being
revolved between centres or by a chuck aligned to the lathe axis. Consists essentially
of a bracket or frame which is attached to the rear end of the lathe bed and supports a
guide bar pivoted at the centre.
The bar having graduations in degrees may be swivelled on either side of the zero
graduation and is set at the desired angle with the lathe axis.

SHAPER
Shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool in which the ram moves the cutting tool
backwards and forwards in a straight line. The basic components of shaper are shown in Fig.
It is intended primarily to produce flat surfaces. These surfaces may be horizontal, vertical, or
inclined. In general, the shaper can produce any surface composed of straight-line elements.
The principal of shaping operation is shown in Fig. Modern shapers can also generate
contoured surface as shown in Fig. A shaper is used to generate flat (plane) surfaces by means
of a single point cutting tool similar to a lathe tool.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SHAPER

A single point cutting tool is held in the tool holder, which is mounted on the ram. The
workpiece is rigidly held in a vice or clamped directly on the table. The table may be
supported at the outer end. The ram reciprocates and thus cutting tool held in tool holder

moves forward and backward over the workpiece. In a standard shaper, cutting of material
takes place during the forward stroke of the ram. The backward stroke remains idle and no
cutting takes place during this stroke. The feed is given to the workpiece and depth of cut is
adjusted by moving the tool downward towards the workpiece. The time taken during the idle
stroke is less as compared to forward cutting stroke and this is obtained by quick return
mechanism. The cutting action and functioning of clapper box is shown in Fig. during
forward and return stroke.

Fig: Working Principle of Shaping Machine

Fig: Surface Produced by Shaper

Fig: Cutting action and functioning of clapper Box

TYPES OF SHAPERS
Shapers are classified under the following headings:
(1) According to the type of mechanism used for giving reciprocating motion to the ram
(a) Crank type
(b) Geared type
(c) Hydraulic type
(2) According to the type of design of the table:

(a) Standard shaper

(b) Universal shaper
(3) According to the position and travel of ram:
(a) Horizontal type
(b) Vertical type
(c) Traveling head type
(4) According to the type of cutting stroke:
(a) Push type
(b) Draw type.
A brief description these shapers is given belowCrank Shaper
This is the most common type of shaper. It employs a crank mechanism to change circular
motion of a large gear called bull gear incorporated in the machine to reciprocating motion
of the ram. The bull gear receives power either from an individual motor or from an overhead
line shaft if it is a belt-driven shaper.
Geared Shaper
Geared shaper uses rack and pinion arrangement to obtain reciprocating motion of the ram.
Presently this type of shaper is not very widely used.
Hydraulic Shaper
In hydraulic shaper, reciprocating motion of the ram is obtained by hydraulic power. For
generation of hydraulic power, oil under high pressure is pumped into the operating cylinder
fitted with piston. The piston end is connected to the ram through piston rod. The high
pressure oil causes the piston to reciprocate and this reciprocating motion is transferred to the
ram of shaper. The important advantage of this type of shaper is that the cutting speed and
force of the ram drive are constant from the very beginning to the end of the cut.
Standard Shaper
In standard shaper, the table has only two movements, horizontal and vertical, to give the fee
Universal Shaper
A universal shaper is mostly used in tool room work. In this type of shaper, in addition to the
horizontal and vertical movements, the table can be swiveled about an axis parallel to the
ram ways, and the upper portion of the table can be tilted about a second horizontal axis
perpendicular to the first axis
Horizontal Shaper
In this type of shaper, the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a horizontal axis.
Vertical Shaper
In vertical shaper, the ram reciprocates in a vertical axis. These shapers are mainly used for
machining keyways, slots or grooves, and internal surfaces.
Travelling Head Shaper
In this type of shaper, the ram while it reciprocates, also moves crosswise to give the required
feed.
Push Type Shaper
This is the most general type of shaper used in common practice, in which the metal is
removed when the ram moves away from the column, i.e. pushes the work.
Draw Type Shaper

In this type of shaper, the cutting of metal takes place when the ram moves towards the
column of the machine, i.e. draws the work towards the machine. The tool is set in a reversed
direction to that of a standard shaper.
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF SHAPER
the parts of a standard shaper. The main parts are given as under.
1. Base
2. Column
3. Cross-rail
4. Saddle
5. Table
6. Ram
7. Tool head
8. Clapper box
9. Apron clamping bolt
10. Down feed hand wheel
11. Swivel base degree graduations
12. Position of stroke adjustment hand wheel
13. Ram block locking handle
14. Driving pulley
15. Feed disc
16. Pawl mechanism
17. Elevating screw
Some of important parts are discussed as under.

Base
It is rigid and heavy cast iron body to resist vibration and takes up high compressive load. It
supports all other parts of the machine, which are mounted over it. The base may be rigidly
bolted to the floor of the shop or on the bench according to the size of the machine.
Column

The column is a box shaped casting mounted upon the base. It houses the ram-driving
mechanism. Two accurately machined guide ways are provided on the top of the column on
which the ram reciprocates.
Cross rail
Cross rail of shaper has two parallel guide ways on its top in the vertical plane that is
perpendicular to the rai1 axis. It is mounted on the front vertical guide ways of the column. It
consists mechanism for raising and lowering the table to accommodate different sizes of jobs
by rotating an elevating screw which causes the cross rail to slide up and down on the vertical
face of the column. A horizontal cross feed screw is fitted within the cross rail and parallel to
the top guide ways of the cross rail. This screw actuates the table to move in a crosswise
direction.
Saddle
The saddle is located on the cross rail and holds the table on its top. Crosswise movement of
the saddle by rotation the cross feed screw by hand or power causes the table to move
sideways.
Table
The table is a box like casting having T -slots both on the top and sides for clamping the
work. It is bolted to the saddle and receives crosswise and vertical movements from the
saddle and cross rail.
Ram
It is the reciprocating part of the shaper, which reciprocates on the guide ways provided
above the column. Ram is connected to the reciprocating mechanism contained within the
column.
Tool head
The tool head of a shaper performs the following functions(1) It holds the tool rigidly,
(2) It provides vertical and angular feed movement of the tool, and
(3) It allows the tool to have an automatic relief during its return stroke.
The various parts of tool head of shaper are apron clamping bolt, clapper box, tool post, down
feed, screw micrometer dial, down feed screw, vertical slide, apron washer, apron swivel pin,
and swivel base. By rotating the down feed screw handle, the vertical slide carrying the tool
gives down feed or angular feed movement while machining vertical or angular surface. The
amount of feed or depth of cut may be adjusted by a micrometer dial on the top of the down
feed screw. Apron consisting of clapper box, clapper block and tool post is clamped upon the
vertical slide by a screw. The two vertical walls on the apron called clapper box houses the
clapper block, which is connected to it by means of a hinge pin. The tool post is mounted
upon the clapper block. On the forward cutting stroke the clapper block fits securely to the
clapper box to make a rigid tool support. On the return stroke a slight frictional drag of the
tool on the work lifts the block out of the clapper box a sufficient amount preventing the tool
cutting edge from dragging and consequent wear. The work surface is also prevented from
any damage due to dragging
SHAPER OPERATIONS

A shaper is a machine tool primarily designed to generate a flat surface by a single point
cutting tool. Besides this, it may also be used to perform many other operations. The different
operations, which a shaper can perform, are as follows:
1. Machining horizontal surface
2. Machining vertical surface
3. Machining angular surface
4. Slot cutting
5. Key ways cutting
6. Machining irregular surface
7. Machining splines and cutting gears

MILLING
A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed against a rotating
multipoint cutter. The milling cutter rotates at high speed and it removes metal at a very fast
rate with the help of multiple cutting edges. One or more number of cutters can be mounted
simultaneously on the arbor of milling machine. This is the reason that a milling machine
finds wide application in production work. Milling machine is used for machining flat
surfaces, contoured surfaces, surfaces of revolution, external and internal threads, and helical
surfaces of various cross-sections. Typical components produced by a milling are given in
Fig. In many applications, due to its higher production rate and accuracy, milling machine has
even replaced shapers and slotters.

PRINCIPLE OF MILLING
In milling machine, the metal is cut by means of a rotating cutter having multiple cutting
edges. For cutting operation, the workpiece is fed against the rotary cutter. As the workpiece
moves against the cutting edges of milling cutter, metal is removed in form chips of trochoid
shape. Machined surface is formed in one or more passes of the work. The work to be
machined is held in a vice, a rotary table, a three jaw chuck, an index head, between centers,
in a special fixture or bolted to machine table. The rotatory speed of the cutting tool and the
feed rate of the workpiece depend upon the type of material being machined
MILLING METHODS
There are two distinct methods of milling classified as follows:
1. Up-milling or conventional milling, and
2. Down milling or climb milling.
UP-Milling or Conventional Milling Procedure
In the up-milling or conventional milling, as shown in Fig.the metal is removed in form of
small chips by a cutter rotating against the direction of travel of the workpiece. In this type of
milling, the chip thickness is minimum at the start of the cut and maximum at the end of cut.
As a result the cutting force also varies from zero to the maximum value per tooth movement
of the milling cutter. The major disadvantages of up-milling process are the tendency of
cutting force to lift the work from the fixtures and poor surface finish obtained. But being a
safer process, it is commonly used method of milling.

Down-Milling or Climb Milling

Down milling is shown in Fig. It is also known as climb milling. In this method, the metal is
removed by a cutter rotating in the same direction of feed of the workpiece. The effect of this
is that the teeth cut downward instead of upwards. Chip thickness is maximum at the start of
the cut and minimum in the end. In this method, it is claimed that there is less friction
involved and consequently less heat is generated on the contact surface of the cutter and
workpiece. Climb milling can be used advantageously on many kinds of work to increase the

number of pieces per sharpening and to produce a better finish. With climb milling, saws cut
long thin slots more satisfactorily than with standard milling. Another advantage is that
slightly lower power consumption is obtainable by climb milling, since there is no need to
drive the table against the cutter.

TYPES OF MILLING CUTTERS

Types of milling cutters along with workpieces. Milling cutters are made in various forms to
perform certain classes of work, and they may be classified as:
(1) Plain milling cutters,
(2) Side milling cutters,
(3) Face milling cutter,
(4) Angle milling cutters,
(5) End milling cutter,
(6) Fly cutter,
(7) T-slot milling cutter,
(8) Formed cutters,
(9) Metal slitting saw,
Milling cutters may have teeth on the periphery or ends only, or on both the periphery and
ends. Peripheral teeth may be straight or parallel to the cutter axis, or they may be helical,
sometimes referred as spiral teeth.

TYPES OF MILLING MACHINES

Milling machine rotates the cutter mounted on the arbor of the machine and at the same time
automatically feed the work in the required direction. The milling machine may be classified
in several forms, but the choice of any particular machine is determined primarily by the size
of the workpiece to be undertaken and operations to be performed. With the above function or

requirement in mind, milling machines are made in a variety of types and sizes. According to
general design, the distinctive types of milling machines are:
1. Column and knee type milling machines
(a) Hand milling machine
(b) Horizontal milling machine
(c) Universal milling machine
(d) Vertical milling machine

2. Planer milling machine

3. Fixed-bed type milling machine
(a) Simplex milling machine.
(b) Duplex milling machine.
(c) Triplex milling machine.
4. Machining center machines
5. Special types of milling machines
(a) Rotary table milling machine.
(b) Planetary milling machine.

(c) Profiling machine.

(d) Duplicating machine.
(e) Pantograph milling machine.
(f) Continuous milling machine.
(g) Drum milling machine
(h) Profiling and tracer controlled milling machine
Some important types of milling machines are discussed as under.
Column and Knee Type Milling Machine
A simple column and knee type milling machine. It is the most commonly used milling
machine used for general shop work. In this type of milling machine the table

is mounted on the knee casting which in turn is mounted on the vertical slides of the main
column. The knee is vertically adjustable on the column so that the table can be moved up
and down to accommodate work of various heights. The column and knee type milling
machines are classified on the basis of various methods of supplying power to the table,
different movements of the table and different axis of rotation of the main spindle. Column
and knee type milling machine comprises of the following important parts1. Base
2. Column
3. Saddle
4. Table
5. Elevating screw
6. Knee
7. Knee elevating handle
8. Cross feed handle
9. Front brace
10. Arbor support
11. Arbor
12. Overhanging arm
13. Cutter
14. Cone pulley

15. Telescopic feed shaft.

The principal parts of a column and knee type milling machine are described as under.
Base
It is a foundation member for all the other parts, which rest upon it. It carries the column at its
one end. In some machines, the base is hollow and serves as a reservoir for cutting fluid.
Column
The column is the main supporting member mounted vertically on the base. It is box shaped,
heavily ribbed inside and houses all the driving mechanism for the spindle and table feed.
The front vertical face of the column is accurately machined and is provided with dovetail
guide way for supporting the knee.
Knee
The knee is a rigid grey iron casting which slides up and down on the vertical ways of the
column face. An elevating screw mounted on the base is used to adjust the height of the knee
and it also supports the knee. The knee houses the feed mechanism of the table, and different
controls to operate it.
Saddle
The saddle is placed on the top of the knee and it slides on guide ways set exactly at 90 to
the column face. The top of the saddle provides guide-ways for the table.
Table
The table rests on ways on the saddle and travels longitudinally. A lead screw under the table
engages a nut on the saddle to move the table horizontally by hand or power. In universal
machines, the table may also be swiveled horizontally. For this purpose the table is mounted
on a circular base. The top of the table is accurately finished and T -slots are provided for
clamping the work and other fixtures on it

Overhanging arm
It is mounted on the top of the column, which extends beyond the column face and serves as
a bearing support for the other end of the arbor.
Front brace
It is an extra support, which is fitted between the knee and the over-arm to ensure further
rigidity to the arbor and the knee.
Spindle
It is situated in the upper part of the column and receives power from the motor through belts,
gears. and clutches and transmit it to the arbor.
Arbor
It is like an extension of the machine spindle on which milling cutters are securely mounted
and rotated. The arbors are made with taper shanks for proper alignment with the machine
spindles having taper holes at their nose. The draw bolt is used for managing for locking the
arbor with the spindle and the whole assembly. The arbor assembly consists of the following
components.
1. Arbor
2. Spindle

3. Spacing collars
4. Bearing bush
5. Cutter
6. Draw bolt
7. Lock nut
8. Key block
9. Set screw
Planer Type Milling Machine
It is a heavy duty milling machine. It resembles a planer and like a planning machine it has a
cross rail capable of being raised or lowered carrying the cutters, their heads, and the saddles,
all supported by rigid uprights. There may be a number of independent spindles carrying
cutters on the rail as two heads on the uprights. The use of the machine is limited to
production work only and is considered ultimate in metal re-moving capacity.
Special Type Milling Machines
Milling machines of non-conventional design have been developed to suit special purposes.
The features that they have in common are the spindle for rotating the cutter and provision for
moving the tool or the work in different directions.
OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON MILLING MACHINE
Unlike a lathe, a milling cutter does not give a continuous cut, but begins with a sliding
motion between the cutter and the work. Then follows a crushing movement, and then a
cutting operation by which the chip is removed. Many different kinds of operations can be
performed on a milling machine but a few of the more common operations will now be
explained. These are:
Plain milling or slab milling
The plain and slab milling operation. It is a method of producing a plain, flat, horizontal
surface parallel to the axis of rotation of the cutter.
Face milling
Illustrates the face milling operation. It is a method of producing a flat surface at right angles
to the axis of the cutter.
Side milling
Illustrates the side milling operation. It is the operation of production of a flat vertical surface
on the side of a work-piece by using a side milling cutter.
Angular milling
Illustrates angular milling operation. It is a method of producing a flat surface making an
angle to the axis of the cutter.
Gang-milling
Illustrates the gang milling operation. It is a method of milling by means of two or more
cutters simultaneously having same or different diameters mounted on the arbor of the
milling machine.
Form milling
Illustrates the form milling operation. It is, a method of producing a surface having an
irregular outline.
End milling

Illustrates end milling operation. It is a method of milling slots, flat surfaces, and profiles by
end mills.
Profile milling
Illustrates profile milling operation. It is the operation of reproduction of an outline of a
template or complex shape of a master die on a workpiece.
Saw milling
Illustrates saw milling operation. It is a method of producing deep slots and cutting materials
into the required length by slitting saws.
T-slot milling
Illustrates T-slot milling operation.
Keyway milling
Illustrates keyway milling operation.
Gear cutting milling
Illustrates gear cutting milling operation.
Helical milling
Illustrates helical milling operation.
Flute milling
It is a method of grooving or cutting of flutes on drills, reamers, taps, etc,

Straddle milling
It is a method of milling two sides of a piece of work by employing two side-milling cutters
at the same time.

Thread milling
It is a method of milling threads on dies, screws, worms, etc. both internally and externally.
As an alternative to the screw cutting in a lathe, this method is being more extensively
introduced now a day in modern machine shops.
Grinding Machines
Grinding Machines are also regarded as machine tools. A distinguishing feature of grinding
machines is the rotating abrasive tool. Grinding machine is employed to obtain high
accuracy along with very high class of surface finish on the workpiece. However, advent of
new generation of grinding wheels and grinding machines, characterised by their rigidity,
power and speed enables one to go for high efficiency deep grinding (often called as abrasive
milling) of not only hardened material but also ductile materials. Conventional grinding
machines can be broadly classified as:
(a) Surface grinding machine
(b) Cylindrical grinding machine
(c) Internal grinding machine
(d) Tool and cutter grinding machine
Surface grinding machine:
This machine may be similar to a milling machine used mainly to grind flat surface.
However, some types of surface grinders are also capable of producing contour surface with
formed grinding wheel. Basically there are four different types of surface grinding machines
characterised by the movement of their tables and the orientation of grinding wheel spindles
as
follows:
Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table
Vertical spindle and reciprocating table
Horizontal spindle and rotary table
Vertical spindle and rotary table

Horizontal spindle reciprocating table grinder

this machine with various motions required for grinding action. A disc type grinding wheel
performs the grinding action with its peripheral surface. Both traverse and plunge grinding
can be carried out in this machine as shown in Fig

Vertical spindle reciprocating table grinder

This grinding machine with all working motions is shown in Fig. The grinding operation is
similar to that of face milling on a vertical milling machine. In this machine a cup shaped wheel
grinds the workpiece over its full width using end face of the wheel as shown in Fig. This brings
more grits in action at the same time and consequently a higher material removal rate may be
attained than for grinding with a peripheral wheel

Horizontal spindle rotary table grinder

Surface grinding in this machine is shown in Fig. In principle the operation is same as that for
facing on the lathe. This machine has a limitation in accommodation of workpiece and
therefore does not have wide spread use. However, by swivelling the worktable, concave or
convex or tapered surface can be produced on individual part as illustrated in Fig.

Vertical spindle rotary table grinder

The principle of grinding in this machine is shown in Fig.The machine is mostly suitable for
small workpieces in large quantities. This primarily production type machine often uses two
or more grinding heads thus enabling both roughing and finishing in one rotation of the work
table

Creep feed grinding machine:

This machine enables single pass grinding of a surface with a larger down feed but slower
table speed than that adopted for multi-pass conventional surface grinding. This machine is
characterised by high stiffness, high spindle power, recirculating ball screw drive for table
movement and adequate supply of grinding fluid. A further development in this field is the
creep feed grinding centre which carries more than one wheel with provision of automatic
wheel changing. A number of operations can be performed on the workpiece. It is implied
that such machines, in the view of their size and complexity, are automated through CNC.

High efficiency deep grinding machine:

The concept of single pass deep grinding at a table speed much higher than what is possible
in a creep feed grinder has been technically realized in this machine. This has been made
possible mainly through significant increase of wheel speed in this new generation grinding
machine
Cylindrical grinding machine
This machine is used to produce external cylindrical surface. The surfaces may be straight,
tapered, steps or profiled. Broadly there are three different types of cylindrical grinding
machine as follows:
1. Plain centre type cylindrical grinder
2. Universal cylindrical surface grinder
3. Centreless cylindrical surface grinder
Plain centre type cylindrical grinder
this machine and various motions required for grinding action. The machine is similar to a
centre lathe in many respects. The workpiece is held between head stock and tailstock
centres. A disc type grinding wheel performs the grinding action with its peripheral surface.
Both traverse and plunge grinding can be carried out in this machine as shown in Fig.

Universal cylindrical surface grinder

Universal cylindrical grinder is similar to a plain cylindrical one except that it is more
versatile. In addition to small worktable swivel, this machine provides large swivel of head
stock, wheel head slide and wheel head mount on the wheel head slide.

This allows grinding of any taper on the workpiece. Universal grinder is also equipped with an
additional head for internal grinding. Schematic illustration of important features of this machine
is shown in Fig
Special application of cylindrical grinder
Principle of cylindrical grinding is being used for thread grinding with specially formed
wheel that matches the thread profile. A single ribbed wheel or a multi ribbed wheel can be
used as shown in Fig.

Roll grinding is a specific case of cylindrical grinding wherein large workpieces such as shafts,
spindles and rolls are ground.
External centreless grinder
This grinding machine is a production machine in which out side diameter of the workpiece
is ground. The workpiece is not held between centres but by a work support blade. It is
rotated by means of a regulating wheel and ground by the grinding wheel.
In through-feed centreless grinding, the regulating wheel revolving at a much lower surface
speed than grinding wheel controls the rotation and longitudinal motion of the workpiece.
The regulating wheel is kept slightly inclined to the axis of the grinding wheel and the
workpiece is fed longitudinally as shown

The grinding wheel or the regulating wheel or both require to be correctly profiled to get the
required taper on the workpiece
Tool post grinder
A self powered grinding wheel is mounted on the tool post or compound rest to provide the
grinding action in a lathe. Rotation to the workpiece is provided by the lathe spindle. The
lathe carriage is used to reciprocate the wheel head
Internal grinding machine
This machine is used to produce internal cylindrical surface. The surface may be straight,
tapered, grooved or profiled.
Broadly there are three different types of internal grinding machine as follows:
1. Chucking type internal grinder
2. Planetary internal grinder
3. Centreless internal grinder
Chucking type internal grinder
This machine and various motions required for grinding action. The workpiece is usually
mounted in a chuck. A magnetic face plate can also be used. A small grinding wheel performs
the necessary grinding with its peripheral surface. Both transverse and plunge grinding can be
carried out in this machine as shown in Fig.

Planetary internal grinder

Planetary internal grinder is used where the workpiece is of irregular shape and can not be
rotated conveniently as shown in Fig. this machine the workpiece does not rotate. Instead, the
grinding wheel orbits the axis of the hole in the workpiece.

Centreless internal grinder

This machine is used for grinding cylindrical and tapered holes in cylindrical parts (e.g.
cylindrical liners, various bushings etc). The workpiece is rotated between supporting roll,
pressure roll and regulating wheel and is ground by the grinding wheel as illustrated in Fig.

Tool and cutter grinder machine

Tool grinding may be divided into two subgroups: tool manufacturing and tool resharpening.
There are many types of tool and cutter grinding machine to meet these requirements. Simple
single point tools are occasionally sharpened by hand on bench or pedestal grinder. However,
tools and cutters with complex geometry like milling cutter, drills, reamers and hobs require
sophisticated grinding machine commonly known as universal tool and cutter grinder. Present
trend is to use tool and cutter grinder equipped with CNC to grind tool angles, concentricity,
cutting edges and dimensional size with high precision.

DRILLING MACHINE
Drilling is an operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from the
job by cutting tool called drill. A drill is a rotary end-cutting tool with one or more cutting
lips and usually one or more flutes for the passage of chips and the admission of cutting fluid.
A drilling machine is a machine tool designed for drilling holes in metals. It is one of the
most important and versatile machine tools in a workshop. Besides drilling round holes,

many other operations can also be performed on the drilling machine such as counter- boring,
Counter sinking, honing, reaming, lapping, sanding etc.

CONSTRUCTION OF DRILLING MACHINE

Workpiece. Different parts of a drilling machine are shown in Fig. and are discussed below:
(i) The head containing electric motor, V-pulleys and V-belt which transmit rotary motion to
the drill spindle at a number of speeds.
(ii) Spindle is made up of alloy steel. It rotates as well as moves up and down in a sleeve. A
pinion engages a rack fixed onto the sleeve to provide vertical up and down motion of the
spindle and hence the drill so that the same can be fed into the workpiece or withdrawn from
it while drilling. Spindle speed or the drill speed is changed with the help of V-belt and Vstep-pulleys. Larger drilling machines are having gear boxes for the said purpose.
(iii) Drill chuck is held at the end of the drill spindle and in turn it holds the drill bit.
(iv) Adjustable work piece table is supported on the column of the drilling machine. It can be
moved both vertically and horizontally. Tables are generally having slots so that the vise or
the workpiece can be securely held on it.
(v) Base table is a heavy casting and it supports the drill press structure. The base supports
the column, which in turn, supports the table, head etc.
(vi) Column is a vertical round or box section which rests on the base and supports the head
and the table. The round column may have rack teeth cut on it so that the table can be raised
or lowered depending upon the workpiece requirements.
This machine consists of following parts
1. Base
2. Pillar
3. Main drive
4. Drill spind
5. Feed handle
6. Work table

Fig: Construction of drilling machine

TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINE
Drilling machines are classified on the basis of their constructional features, or the type
of work they can handle. The various types of drilling machines are:
(1) Portable drilling machine
(2) Sensitive drilling machine
(a) Bench mounting
(b) Floor mounting
(3) Upright drilling machine
(a) Round column section
(b) Box column section machine
(4) Radial drilling machine
(a) Plain
(b) Semi universal
(c) Universal
(5) Gang drilling machine
(6) Multiple spindle drilling machine
(7) Automatic drilling machine
(8) Deep hole drilling machine
(a) Vertical
(b) Horizontal
Few commonly used drilling machines are described as under.

Portable Drilling Machine

A portable drilling machine is a small compact unit and used for drilling holes in worpieces in
any position, which cannot be drilled in a standard drilling machine. It may be used for
drilling small diameter holes in large castings or weldments at that place itself where they are
lying. Portable drilling machines are fitted with small electric motors, which may be driven
by both A.C. and D.C. power supply. These drilling machines operate at fairly high speeds
and accommodate drills up to 12 mm in diameter.
Sensitive Drilling Machine
It is a small machine used for drilling small holes in light jobs. In this drilling machine, the
workpiece is mounted on the table and drill is fed into the work by purely hand control. High
rotating speed of the drill and hand feed are the major features of sensitive drilling machine.
As the operator senses the drilling action in the workpiece, at any instant, it is called sensitive
drilling machine. A sensitive drilling machine consists of a horizontal table, a vertical
column, a head supporting the motor and driving mechanism, and a vertical spindle. Drills of
diameter from 1.5 to 15.5 mm can be rotated in the spindle of sensitive drilling machine.
Depending on the mounting of base of the machine, it may be classified into following types:

1. Bench mounted drilling machine, and

2. Floor mounted drilling machine
Upright Drilling Machine
The upright drilling machine is larger and heavier than a sensitive drilling machine. It is
designed for handling medium sized workpieces and is supplied with power feed
arrangement. In this machine a large number of spindle speeds and feeds may be available for
drilling different types of work. Upright drilling machines are available in various sizes and
with various drilling capacities (ranging up to 75 mm diameter drills). The table of the
machine also has different types of adjustments. Based on the construction, there are two
general types of upright drilling machine:
(1) Round column section or pillar drilling machine.
(2) Box column section.
The round column section upright drilling machine consists of a round column where as the
upright drilling machine has box column section. The other constructional features of both
are same. Box column machines possess more machine strength and rigidity as compared to
those having round section column.
Radial Drilling Machine
The radial drilling machine consists of a heavy, round vertical column supporting a
horizontal arm that carries the drill head. Arm can be raised or lowered on the column and
can also be swung around to any position over the work and can be locked in any position.
The drill head containing mechanism for rotating and clamped at any desired position. These
adjustments of arm and drilling head permit the operator to locate the drill quickly over any
point on the work. The table of radial drilling machine may also be rotated through 360 deg.
The maximum size of hole that the machine can drill is not more than 50 mm. Powerful drive
motors are geared directly into the head of the machine and a wide range of power feeds are
available as well as sensitive and geared manual feeds. The radial drilling machine is used
primarily for drilling medium to large and heavy workpieces. Depending on the different
movements of horizontal arm, table and drill head, the upright drilling machine may be
classified into following types1. Plain radial drilling machine
2. Semi universal drilling machine, and
3. Universal drilling machine.

In a plain radial drilling machine, provisions are made for following three movements 1. Vertical movement of the arm on the column,
2. Horizontal movement of the drill head along the arm, and
3. Circular movement of the arm in horizontal plane about the vertical column.
In a semi universal drilling machine, in addition to the above three movements, the drill head
can be swung about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the arm. In universal machine, an
additional rotatory movement of the arm holding the drill head on a horizontal axis is also
provided for enabling it to drill on a job at any angle.
Gang Drilling Machine
In gang drilling machine, a number of single spindle drilling machine columns are placed
side by side on a common base and have a common worktable. A series of operation may be
performed on the job by shifting the work from one position to the other on the worktable.
This type of machine is mainly used for production work.
Multiple-Spindle Drilling Machine
The multiple-spindle drilling machine is used to drill a number of holes in a job
simultaneously and to reproduce the same pattern of holes in a number of identical pieces in a
mass production work. This machine has several spindles and all the spindles holding drills
are fed into the work simultaneously. Feeding motion is usually obtained by raising the
worktable.
TYPES OF DRILLS
A drill is a multi point cutting tool used to produce or enlarge a hole in the workpiece. It
usually consists of two cutting edges set an angle with the axis. Broadly there are three types
of drills:
1. Flat drill,

2. Straight-fluted drill, and

3. Twist drill
Flat drill is usually made from a piece of round steel which is forged to shape and ground to
size, then hardened and tempered. The cutting angle is usually 90 deg. and the relief or
clearance at the cutting edge is 3 to 8 deg. The disadvantage of this type of drill is that each
time the drill is ground the diameter is reduced. Twist drill is the most common type of drill
in use today. The various types of twist drills (parallel shank type and Morse taper shank
type) are shown in Fig

Number sizes
In metric system, the drill is generally manufactured from 0.2 to 100 mm. In British system
the drills sizes range from No. 1 to No. 80. Number 80 is the smallest having diameter equal
to 0.0135 inch and the number 1 is the largest having diameter equal to 0.228 inch. Number 1
to number 60 is the standard sets of drills. The numbers 61 to 80 sizes drills are not so
commonly used. The diameter of drills increases in steps of approximately by 0.002 inch.

Letter sizes
The drill sizes range from A to Z, A being the smallest having diameter equal to 0.234 inch
and Z being the largest having diameter equal to 0.413 inch, increasing in steps of
approximately O.010 inch fractional sizes: The drill sizes range from 1/64" inch to 5 inch in
steps of 1/64 inches up to 1.75 inches, then the steps gradually increase. The drill sizes range
from A to Z, A being the smallest having diameter equal to 0.234 inch and Z being the largest
having diameter equal to 0.413 inch, increasing in steps of approximately O.010 inch
fractional sizes: The drill sizes range from 1/64" inch to 5 inch in steps of 1/64 inches up to
1.75 inches, then the steps gradually increase. The drill is generally removed by tapping a
wedge shaped drift into the slot in the drilling machine spindle as shown in Fig.

Twist Drill Geometry

Twist drill geometry and its nomenclature are shown in Fig. A twist drill has three principal
parts:
(i) Drill point or dead center
(ii) Body
(iii) Shank.
Drill axis is the longitudinal centre line.
Drill point is the sharpened end of the drill body consisting of all that part which is shaped to
produce lips, faces and chisel edge.
Lip or cutting edge is the edge formed by the intersection of the flank and face
Lip length is the minimum distance between the outer corner and the chisel-edge corner of
the lip.
Face is that portion of the flute surface adjacent to the lip on which the chip impinges as it is
cut from the work.
Chisel edge is the edge formed by the intersection of the flanks.
Flank is that surface on a drill point which extends behind the lip to the following flute.
Flutes are the grooves in the body of the drill, which provide lips, allow the removal of chips,
and permit cutting fluid to reach the lips.
Flute length is the axial length from the extreme end of the point to the termination of the
flutes at the shank end of the body.
Body is that portion of the drill nomenclature, which extends from the extreme cutting end to
the beginning of the shank.
Shank is that portion of the drill by which it is held and driven,
Heel is the edge formed by the intersection of the flute surface and the body clearance.
Body clearance is that portion of the body surface reduced in diameter to provide diametric
clearance.
Core or web is the central portion of the drill situated between the roots of the flutes and
extending from the point end towards the shank; the point end of the core forms the chisel
edge.
Lands are the cylindrically ground surfaces on the leading edges of the drill flutes. The width
of the land is measured at right angles to the flute.

Recess is the portion of the drill body between the flutes and the shank provided so as to
facilitate the grinding of the body. Parallel shank drills of small diameter are not usually
provided with a recess.
Outer corner is the corner formed by the intersection of the lip and the leading edge of the
land.
Chisel edge comer is the corner formed by the intersection of a lip and the chisel edge.
Drill diameter is the measurement across the cylindrical lands at the outer corners of the
drill. .
Lead of helix is the distance measured parallel to the drill axis between corresponding points
on the leading edge of a flute in one complete turn of the flute.
Helix angle is the angle between the leading edge of the land and the drill axis.
Rake angle is the angle between the face and a line parallel to the drill axis. It is bigger at the
face edges and decreases towards the center of the drill to nearly 0. The result is that the
formation of chips grows more un-favorable towards the centre.
Lip clearance angle is the angle formed by the flank and a plane at right angles to the drill
axis; the angle is normally measured at the periphery of the drill. To make sure that the main
cutting edges can enter into the material, the clearance faces slope backwards in a curve. The
clearance angle is measured at the face edge, must amount to 5 up to 8.
Point angle is the included angle of the cone formed by the lips

OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON DRILLING MACHINE

A drill machine is versatile machine tool. A number of operations can be performed on
it. Some of the operations that can be performed on drilling machines are:
1. Drilling
2. Reaming
3. Boring
4. Counter boring
5. Countersinking
6. Spot facing
7. Tapping
8. Lapping
9. Grinding
10. Trepanning.
The operations that are commonly performed on drilling machines are drilling, reaming,
lapping, boring, counter-boring, counter-sinking, spot facing, and tapping. These operations
Drilling:
This is the operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from the job
by a rotating cutting tool called drill as shown in Fig. Drilling removes solid metal from the
job to produce a circular hole. Before drilling, the hole is located by drawing two lines at
right angle and a center punch is used to make an indentation for the drill point at the center
to help the drill
in getting started. A suitable drill is held in the drill machine and the drill machine is adjusted
to operate at the correct cutting speed. The drill machine is started and the drill starts rotating.
Cutting fluid is made to flow liberally and the cut is started. The rotating drill is made to feed
Into the job. The hole, depending upon its length, may be drilled in one or more steps. After
the drilling operation is complete, the drill is removed from the hole and the power

Reaming
This is the operation of sizing and finishing a hole already made by a drill. Reaming is
performed by means of a cutting tool called reamer as shown in Fig. Reaming operation
serves to make the hole smooth, straight and accurate in diameter. Reaming operation is
performed by means of a multitooth tool called reamer. Reamer possesses several cutting
edges on outer periphery and may be classified as solid reamer and adjustable reamer.

Boring
Shows the boring operation where enlarging a hole by means of adjustable cutting tools with
only one cutting edge is accomplished. A boring tool is employed for this purpose

Counter-Boring
Counter boring operation is shown in Fig. It is the operation of enlarging the end of a hole
cylindrically, as for the recess for a counter-sunk rivet. The tool used is known as counterbore.

Counter-Sinking
Counter-sinking operation is shown in Fig. This is the operation of making a cone shaped
enlargement of the end of a hole, as for the recess for a flat head screw. This is done for
providing a seat for counter sunk heads of the screws so that the latter may flush with the
main surface of the work.

Lapping
This is the operation of sizing and finishing a hole by removing very small amounts of
material by means of an abrasive. The abrasive material is kept in contact with the sides of a
hole that is to be lapped, by the use of a lapping tool.

Spot-Facing
This is the operation of removing enough material to provide a flat surface around a hole
to accommodate the head of a bolt or a nut. A spot-facing tool is very nearly similar to the
Counter-bore.
Tapping
It is the operation of cutting internal threads by using a tool called a tap. A tap is similar to a
bolt with accurate threads cut on it. To perform the tapping operation, a tap is screwed into
the hole by hand or by machine. The tap removes metal and cuts internal threads, which will
fit into external threads of the same size. For all materials except cast iron, a little lubricate
oil is applied to improve the action. The tap is not turned continuously, but after every half
turn, it should be

reversed slightly to clear the threads. Tapping operation is shown in Fig. The geometry
and nomenclature of a tap is given in Fig.

Core drilling
Core drilling operation is shown in Fig. It is a main operation, which is performed on radial
drilling machine for producing a circular hole, which is deep in the solid metal by means of
revolving tool called drill.

SIZE OF A DRILLING MACHINE

Different parameters are being considered for different types of drilling machines to
determine their size. The size of a portable drilling machine is decided by the maximum
diameter of the drill that it can hold. The sensitive and upright drilling machines are specified
by the diameter of the largest workpiece which can be centered under the drill machine
spindle. A radial drilling machine is specified by the length of the arm and the diameter of the
column. To specify a drilling machine completely, following other parameters may also be
needed:
1. Table diameter
2. Number of spindle speeds and feeds available
3. Maximum spindle travel
4. Morse taper number of the drill spindle
5. Power input
6. Net weight of the machine
7. Floor space required, etc.
CUTTING SPEED

The cutting speed in a drilling operation refers to the peripheral speed of a point on the
surface of the drill in contact with the work. It is usually expressed in meters/min. The cutting
speed (Cs) may be calculated as: Cs = ((22/7) D N)/1000 Where, D is the diameter of the
drill in mm and N is the rpm of the drill spindle.
FEED
The feed of a drill is the distance the drill moves into the job at each revolution of the spindle.
It is expressed in millimeter. The feed may also be expressed as feed per minute. The feed per
minute may be defined as the axial distance moved by the drill into the work per minute. The
feed per minute may be calculated as:
F = Fr N
Where, F = Feed per minute in mm.
Fr = Feed per revolution in mm.
N = R.P.M. of the drill.

Computer-controlled lathes (CNC lathes)

Computer-controlled (numerically controlled, NC, CNC) lathes incorporate a computer
system to control the movements of machine components by directly inserted coded
instructions in the form of numerical data. A CNC lathe is especially useful in contour
turning operations and precise machining. There are also not chuck but bar modifications.
A CNC lathe is essentially a turret lathe. The major advantage of these machines is in
their versatility - to adjust the CNC lathe for a different part to be machined requires a
simple change in the computer program and, in some cases, a new set of cutting tools.

UNIT IV
AIRCRAFT METAL ALLOYS AND SUPERALLOYS

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ALLOY STEELS

Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts between
1.0% and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels are
broken down into two groups: low-alloy steels and high-alloy steels.

Advantages:
Greater harden ability
Less distortion and cracking
Greater ductility at high strength
Greater high temperature strength
Greater stress relief at given hardness
Better mach inability at high hardness
High elastic ratio and endurance strength.
Disadvantages:
Tendency toward austenite retention
Cost
Special handling
Temper brittleness in certain grades.
Purpose of alloying:
Strengthening of the ferrite
Improved corrosion resistance
Better harden ability
Grain size control
Greater strength
Improved mach inability
Improved ductility
Improved toughness
Better wear resistance
Improved cutting ability
Improved case hardening properties etc.
Improved high or low temperature stability.

Classification of alloy steels according to chemical composition:

Alloys steels are divided into three-component steels, containing one alloying
element in addition to iron and carbon: four component steels, containing two
alloying elements, etc
Classification of alloy steels according to structural class:
Alloys steels may be classified on the basis of the structure that is obtained when
specimens of small cross section are cooled in air.

They are classified as:

1.
2.

Pearlitic
Martensitic

3.

Austentic

4.

Ferritic

5.

Carbidic

Classification of alloy steels according to purpose:

Alloys steels are further classified according to their use.

Structural Steels

Tools Steels

Steels with special physical properties

Quenched and Tempered Steels
Corrosion resistant steels
Stainless steels
Ultra-High Strength Steels
Heat Resisting Steels
Shock resisting Steels
Magnet Steels
EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
Alloying elements are added to effect changes in the properties of steels. The basis of this
section is to cover some of the different alloying elements added to the basic system of iron
and carbon, and what they do to change the properties or effectiveness of steel.
Carbon :
The presence of carbon in iron is necessary to make steel.
Carbon is essential to the formation of cementite (as well as other carbides), and to
the formation of pearlite, spheroidite, bainite, and iron-carbon martensite, with
martensite being the hardest of the micro-structures, and the structure sought after by
knife makers.
The hardness of steel (or more accurately, the hardenability) is increased by
the addition of more carbon, up to about 0.65 percent.

Wear resistance can be increased in amounts up to about 1.5 percent. Beyond

this amount, increases of carbon reduce toughness and increase brittleness.

The steels of interest to knife makers generally contain between 0.5 and 1.5
percent carbon. They are described as follows:
Low Carbon: Under 0.4 percent
Medium Carbon: 0.4 - 0.6 percent

 High Carbon: 0.7 - 1.5 percent

Carbon is the single most important alloying element in steel.
Manganese
Manganese slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and also increases the
hardness penetration of steel in the quench by decreasing the critical quenching
speed.
This also makes the steel more stable in the quench.
Steels with manganese can be quenched in oil rather than water, and therefore
are less susceptible to cracking because of a reduction in the shock of quenching.
Manganese is present in most commercially made steels.
Chromium
As with manganese, chromium has a tendency to increase hardness penetration.
This element has many interesting effects on steel. When 5 percent chromium
or more is used in conjunction with manganese.
The critical quenching speed is reduced to the point that the steel becomes air
hardening.
Chromium can also increase the toughness of steel, as well as the wear
resistance.
Probably one of the most well known effects of chromium on steel is the
tendency to resist staining and corrosion.
Steels with 14 percent or more chromium are referred to as stainless steels. A
more accurate term would be stain.

Silicon :
Silicon is used as a deoxidizer in the manufacture of steel.
It slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and when used in conjunction with
other alloys can help increase the toughness and hardness penetration of steel.
Nickel :
Nickel increases the strength of ferrite, therefore increasing the strength of the
steel.
It is used in low alloy steels to increase toughness and hardenability.
Nickel also tends to help reduce distortion and cracking during the quenching
phase of heat treatment
Molybdenum :
Molybdenum increases the hardness penetration of steel, slows the critical quenching
speed, and increases high temperature tensile strength.
Vanadium
Vanadium helps control grain growth during heat treatment. By inhibiting
grain growth it helps increase the toughness and strength of the steel.

 Tungsten:
Used in small amounts, tungsten combines with the free carbides in steel during
heat treatment, to produce high wear resistance with little or no loss of toughness.
High amounts combined with chromium gives steel a property known as red
hardness. This means that the steel will not lose its working hardness at high
temperatures.
An example of this would be tools designed to cut hard materials at high speeds,
where the friction between the tool and the material would generate high
temperatures.
Copper :

The addition of copper in amounts of 0.2 to 0.5 percent primarily improves steels
resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
It should be noted that with respect to knife steels, copper has a detrimental effect
to surface quality and to hot-working behavior due to migration into the grain
boundaries of the steel.
Niobium :
In low carbon alloy steels Niobium lowers the transition temperature and aids in a
fine grain structure.
Niobium retards tempering and can decrease the hardenability of steel because it
forms very stable carbides. This can mean a reduction in the amount of carbon
dissolved into the austenite during heat treating.
Boron :
Boron can significantly increase the hardenability of steel without loss of ductility.
Its effectiveness is most noticeable at lower carbon levels.
The addition of boron is usually in very small amounts ranging from 0.0005 to
0.003 percent.
Titanium :
This element, when used in conjunction with Boron, increases the
effectiveness of the Boron in the hardenability of steel

Carbon steel v/s Alloys Steels:

Carbon steel
Carbon steel is also known as plain steel
It is an alloy of steel where carbon is the

Alloys Steels
Alloy steel is a type of steel that has presence
of certain other elements apart from iron and

main constituent and no minimum

percentage of other alloying elements is
mentioned.
Carbon steel is not stainless steel as it is
classified
under
alloy
steels.
As the name implies, carbon content is
increased in the steel making it harder
and stronger through application of heat
treatments.
addition of carbon makes the steel less
ductile.
The weldability of carbon steel is low
and higher carbon content also lowers
the melting point of the alloy.

carbon
Commonly added elements in alloy steel are
manganese, silicon, boron, chromium,
vanadium and nickel.
The quantity of these metals in alloy steel is
primarily dependent upon the use of such steel
Alloy steels are divided into low alloy steels
and high alloy steels
When the percentage of added
elements goes past 8 (in terms of
weight), the steel is referred to as high
alloy steel.
In cases where added elements remain
below 8% by weight of the steel, it is a
low alloy steel.

To keep the alloy steel wieldable,

carbon content needs to be reduced.

Heat Treatment of Steels:

Steels can be heat treated to produce a great variety of microstructures and properties.
Generally, heat treatment uses phase transformation during heating and cooling to
change a microstructure in a solid state.
In heat treatment, the processing is most often entirely thermal and modifies only
structure.
Thermo mechanical treatments, which modify component shape and structure,
Thermo chemical treatments which modify surface chemistry and structure are also
important processing approaches which fall into the domain of heat treatment.
According to cooling rate we can distinguish two main heat treatment
operations:
annealing - upon slow cooling rate (in air or with a furnace)
- produces equilibrium structures according to the Fe-Fe3C diagram
Quenching - upon fast cooling (in oil or in water)
- gives non-equilibrium structures
Among annealing there are some important heat treatments processes like:
normalising
Spheroid sing
stress relieving
Normalising
The soaking temperature is 30-50C above A3 or A cm in austenite field range.
The temperature depends on carbon content.
After soaking the alloy is cooled in still air.
This cooling rate and applied temperature produces small grain size.
The small grain structure improve both toughness and strength (especially yield
strength).

During normalising we use grain refinement which is associated with allotropic

transformation upon heating .
Spheroidising:
The process is limited to steels in excess of 0.5% carbon and consists of heating the
steel to temperature about A1 (727C).
At this temperature any cold worked ferrite will recrystallise and the iron carbide
present in pearlite will form as spheroids or ball up.
As a result of change of carbides shape the strength and hardness are reduced
Quenching :
Soaking temperature 30-50C above A3 or A1, then fast cooling (in water or oil) with
cooling rate exceeding a critical value.
The critical cooling rate is required to obtain non-equilibrium structure called marten
site
During fast cooling austenite cannot transform to ferrite and pearlite by atomic
Diffusion.
Martensite is supersaturated solid solution of carbon in -iron (greatly supersaturated
ferrite) with tetragonal body centered structure.
Martensite is very hard and brittle.
Martensite has a needle-like structure.
Tempering:
This process is carried out on hardened steels to remove the internal stresses and
brittleness created by the severe rate of cooling.
The treatment requires heating the steel to a temperature range of between 200 and
600C depending upon the final properties desired.
This heat energy allows carbon atoms to diffuse out of the distorted lattice
Structure associated with martensite, and thus relieves some of the internal stresses.
As a result the hardness is reduced and the ductility (which was negligible before
tempering treatment) is increased slightly.
The combined effect is to toughen the material which is now capable of resisting
certain degree of shock loading.
The higher the tempering temperature the greater the capacity for absorbing shock.

Corrosion prevention techniques:

They are classified into following points2. Environmental Modifications
3. Metal Selection and Surface Conditions
4. Cathodic Protection
5. Corrosion Inhibitors
6. Coating
7. Plating
Environmental Modification:

 Corrosion is caused through chemical interactions between metal and gases in the
surrounding environment. By removing the metal from, or changing, the type of
environment, metal deterioration can be immediately reduced.
This may be as simple as limiting contact with rain or seawater by storing metal
materials indoors, or could be in the form of direct manipulation of the environmental
affecting the metal.
Methods to reduce the sulfur, chloride or oxygen content in the surrounding
environment can limit the speed of metal corrosion.
For example, feed water for water boilers can be treated with softeners or other
chemical media to adjust the hardness, alkalinity or oxygen content in order to reduce
corrosion on the interior of the unit.
Metal Selection and Surface Conditions:
No metal is immune to corrosion in all environments, but through monitoring and
understanding the environmental conditions that are the cause of corrosion, changes to the
type of metal being used can also lead to significant reductions in corrosion.
Metal corrosion resistance data can be used in combination with information on the
environmental conditions to make decisions regarding the suitability of each metal.
The development of new alloys, designed to protect against corrosion in specific
environments are constantly under production. Hastelloy nickel alloys, Nirosta steels and
Timetaltitanium alloys are all examples of alloys designed for corrosion prevention.
Monitoring of surface conditions is also critical in protecting against metal deterioration from
corrosion. Cracks, crevices or asperous surfaces, whether a result of operational requirements,
wear and tear or manufacturing flaws, all can result in greater rates of corrosion.
Proper monitoring and the elimination of unnecessarily vulnerable surface conditions, along
with taking steps to ensure that systems are designed to avoid reactive metal combinations
and that corrosive agents are not used in the cleaning or maintenance of metal parts are all
also part of effective corrosion reduction program.

Cathodic Protection:
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals are situated together in a
corrosive electrolyte.
This common problem for metals submerged together in seawater, but can also occur
when two dissimilar metals are immersed in close proximity in moist soils. For these
reasons, galvanic corrosion often attacks ship hulls, offshore rigs and oil and gas
pipelines.
Cathodic protection works by converting unwanted anodic (active) sites on a metal's
surface to cathodic (passive) sites through the application of an opposing current.

 This opposing current supplies free electrons and forces local anodes to be polarized
to the potential of the local cathodes.
Cathodic protection can take two forms. The first is the introduction of galvanic
anodes. This method, known as a sacrificial system, uses metal anodes, introduced to
the electrolytic environment, to sacrifice themselves (corrode) in order to protect the
cathode.
While the metal needing protection can vary, sacrificial anodes are generally made
of zinc, aluminum or magnesium, metals that have the most negative electro-potential.
The galvanic series provides a comparison of the different electro-potential - or
nobility - of metals and alloys.
In a sacrificial system, metallic ions move from the anode to the cathode, which leads
the anode to corrode more quickly than it otherwise would. As a result, the anode
must regularly be replaced.
A second method of cathodic protection is referred to as impressed current protection.
This method, which is often used to protect buried pipelines and ship hulls, requires
an alternative source of direct electrical current to be supplied to the electrolyte.
The negative terminal of the current source is connected to the metal, while the
positive terminal is attached to an auxiliary anode, which is added to complete the
electrical circuit. Unlike a galvanic (sacrificial) anode system, in an impressed
current protection system, the auxiliary anode is not sacrificed.
Corrosion Inhibitors:
Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that react with the metal's surface or the environmental
gases causing corrosion, thereby, interrupting the chemical reaction that causes corrosion.
Inhibitors can work by adsorbing themselves on the metal's surface and forming a
protective film. These chemicals can be applied as a solution or as a protective coating via
dispersion techniques. The inhibitors process of slowing corrosion depends upon:
Changing the anodic or cathodic polarization behavior
Decreasing the diffusion of ions to the metal's surface
Increasing the electrical resistance of the metal's surface
Major end-use industries for corrosion inhibitors are petroleum refining, oil and gas
exploration, chemical production and water treatment facilities.
The benefit of corrosion inhibitors is that they can be applied in-situ to metals as a
corrective action to counter unexpected corrosion.

Coatings:
Paints and other organic coatings are used to protect metals from the degradative effect of
environmental gases.

 Coatings are grouped by the type of polymer employed. Common organic coatings
include:
Alykd and epoxy ester coatings that, when air dried, promote cross-link oxidation
Two-part urethane coatings
Both acrylic and epoxy polymer radiation curable coatings
Vinyl, acrylic or styrene polymer combination latex coatings
Water soluble coatings
High-solid coatings
Powder coatings
Plating:
Metallic coatings, or plating, can be applied to inhibit corrosion as well as provide
aesthetic, decorative finishes.
There are four common types of metallic coatings:
Electroplating: A thin layer of metal - often nickel, tin or chromium - is deposited on
the substrate metal (generally steel) in an electrolytic bath. The electrolyte usually
consists of a water solution containing salts of the metal to be deposited.
Mechanical plating: Metal powder can be cold welded to a substrate metal by
tumbling the part, along with the powder and glass beads, in a treated aqueous
solution. Mechanical plating is often used to apply zinc or cadmium to small metal
parts
Electroless: A coating metal, such as cobalt or nickel, is deposited on the substrate
metal using a chemical reaction in this non-electric plating method.
Hot dipping: When immersed in a molten bath of the protective, coating metal a thin
layer adheres to the substrate metal.

Aircraft Alloy Steels Selection &Applications:

Steel is considered to be an alloy if the maximum alloying element content within the steel
surpasses at least one of the following limits:

1.65% Manganese
0.6% Copper
0.6% Silicon

It may also be considered an alloy steel if there is a prescribed minimum quantity of the
following elements added to produce a specific alloying effect:
Up to 3.99% Chromium
Up to 3.99% Aluminum
Up to 3.99% Boron
and a definite minimum quantity of cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium,
tungsten, vanadium, zirconium, and etc.

American

Iron

and

Steel

Institute

Designations

The first two digits of the AISI number series indicates the primary alloying element in the
alloy steel as follows:

3xx
0xx
1xx
3xx
4xx
6xx
7xx
8xx
0xx
1xx
1xxx
1xx
6xx
7xx
8xx
2xx
3xx

Manganese 1.75%
Molybdenum 0.25%
Chromium 0.5%, 0.8%, 0.95%, Molybdenum 0.12%, 0.2%, 0.3%
Chromium 0.5%, 0.8%, Molybdenum .25%, Nickel 1.83%
Molybdenum 0.53%
Molybdenum 0.2%, 0.25%, Nickel 0.85%, 1.83%
Chromium 0.45%, Molybdenum 0.2%, 0.35%, Nickel 1.05%
Molybdenum 0.25%, Nickel 3.50%
Chromium 0.4%
Chromium 0.8%, 0.88%, 0.93%,0.95%, 1.00%
Chromium 1.03%, 1.45%, Carbon 1.04%
Chromium 0.6%, 0.95%, Vanadium 0.13%, 0.15%
Chromium 0.5%, Molybdenum 0.2%, Nickel .55%
Chromium 0.5%, Molybdenum 0.25%, Nickel 0.55%
Chromium 0.5%, Molybdenum 0.35%, Nickel 0.55%
Silicon 2.0%
Chromium 1.2%, Molybdenum 0.12%, Nickel 3.25%

The letter "E" prefixed before the number indicates that the alloy was electric' furnace processed. All other alloys were either open hearth processed, or processed by the basic

oxygen method, or it may be electric furnace processed with no adjustments made in the
phosphorus and sulfur limits. The last two digits indicate the mid-carbon range contained
within the alloy. Example: 4140 indicates the mid-carbon range of this alloy is .40%. If
there is a five number series, the last three digits indicate the mid-carbon range
Example: 52100 indicate the mid-carbon range of this alloy is 1.00%.

Aluminum alloys:
Aluminum alloys (or aluminum alloys; see spelling differences) are alloys in
which aluminum (Al) is the predominant metal.
The
typical
alloying
elements
are
copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon and zinc
There are two principal classifications, namely casting alloys and wrought alloys,
both of which are further subdivided into the categories heat-treatable and nonheat-treatable.
About 85% of aluminium is used for wrought products, for example rolled plate,
foils and extrusions.
Cast aluminium alloys yield cost-effective products due to the low melting point,
although they generally have lower tensile strengths than wrought alloys
The most important cast aluminium alloy system is AlSi, where the high levels
of silicon (4.013%) contribute to give good casting characteristics.
Aluminium alloys are widely used in engineering structures and components
where light weight or corrosion resistance is required
Alloys composed mostly of aluminium have been very important in aerospace
manufacturing since the introduction of metal skinned aircraft.

Aluminium-magnesium alloys are both lighter than other aluminium alloys and
much less flammable than alloys that contain a very high percentage of
magnesium.
Aluminium alloy surfaces will formulate a white, protective layer of corrosion aluminium
oxide if left unprotected by anodizing and/or correct painting procedures.

Heat Treatment of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys:

The application of the term heat treatable to aluminum alloys, both wrought and
cast, is restricted to the specific operations employed to increase strength and
hardness by precipitation hardening thus the term heat treatable serves to
distinguish the heat treatable alloys from those alloys in which no significant
strength improvement can be achieved by heating and cooling.
The non-heat treatable alloys depend primarily on cold work to increase strength

Annealing
Annealing is applied to both grades to promote softening.
Complete and partial annealing heat treatments are the only ones used for the nonheat treatable alloys.
The exception is the 5000 series alloys which are sometimes given low temperature
stabilisation treatment and this is carried out by the producer.
Annealing is carried out in the range 300-410C depending on the alloy.
Heating times at temperature vary from 0.5 to 3 hours, conditional on the size of the
load and the alloy type.
Generally, the time need not be longer than that required to stabilise the load at
temperature. Rate of cooling after annealing is not critical.
Where parts have been solution heat-treated a maximum cooling rate of 20C per
hour must be maintained until the temperature is reduced to 290C.
Below this temperature, the rate of cooling is not important.
Solution Heat Treatment:
This is applicable to the heat treatable alloys and involves a heat treatment process
whereby the alloying constituents are taken into solution and retained by rapid
quenching.
Subsequent heat treatment at tower temperatures i.e. ageing or natural ageing at
room temperature allows for a controlled precipitation of the constituents thereby
achieving increased hardness and strength.
Time at temperature for solution treatment depends on the type of alloy and the
furnace load.
Sufficient time must be allowed to take the alloys into solution if optimum
properties are to be obtained.
The solution treatment temperature is critical to the success of the procedure.
It is desirable that the solution heat treatment is carried out as close as possible to
the liquidus temperature in order to obtain maximum solution of the constituents.
Accurate furnace temperature and special temperature variation must be controlled
to within a range of 5C for most alloys.
Overheating must be avoided i.e. exceeding initial eutectic melting temperatures.

 Often the early stages of overheating are not apparent but will result in a
deterioration of mechanical properties.
Proper solution heat treatment of the aluminium alloys requires an expert
knowledge of the alloy being treated plus the correct heat treatment plant.
Quenching
This is a critical operation and must be carried out to precise limits if optimum
results are to be obtained.
The objective of the quench is to ensure that the dissolved constituents remain in
solution down to room temperature.
The speed of quenching is important and the result can be affected by excessive
delay in transferring the work to the quench.
The latitude for the delay is dependant on section and varies from 5 to 15 seconds
for items of thickness varying from 0.4mm to 12.7mm.
Generally, very rapid precipitation of constituents commences at around 450C for
most alloys and the work must not be allowed to fall below this temperature prior to
quenching.
Another factor to be considered in quenching is the work load and the ability of
the quenchant to extract the heat at sufficient rate to achieve the desired results.
The usual quenching medium is water at room temperature.
In some circumstances slow quenching is desirable as this improves the resistance
to stress corrosion cracking of certain copper-free Al-Zn-Mg alloys.
Parts of complex shapes such as forgings, castings, impact extrusions and
components produced from sheet metal may be quenched at slower quenching rates
to improve distortion characteristics.
Thus a compromise must be considered to achieve a balance of properties in some
instances.
Quenchants used in slower quenching applications include water heated to 6580C, boiling water, aqueous solutions of polyalkalene glycol or forced air blast.
Age Hardening
After solution treatment and quenching, hardening is achieved either at room
temperature (natural ageing) or with a precipitation heat treatment (artificial
ageing).
In some alloys sufficient precipitation occurs in a few days at room temperature
to yield stable products with properties that are adequate for many applications.
These alloys sometimes are precipitation heat treated to provide increased
strength and hardness in wrought and cast alloys.
Other alloys with slow precipitation reactions at room temperature are always
precipitation heat treated before being used.
In some alloys, notably those of the 2xxx series, cold working of freshly
quenched materials greatly increases its response to later precipitation treatment.
Mills take advantage of this phenomenon by applying a controlled amount of
rolling (sheet and plate) or stretching (extrusion, bar and plate) to produce higher
mechanical properties.

 However, if the higher properties are used in design, reheat treatment must be
avoided.
Where natural ageing is carried out the time may vary from around 5 days for the
2xxx series alloys to around 30 days for other alloys.
The 6xxx and 7xxx series alloys are considerably less stable at room temperature
and continue to exhibit changes in mechanical properties for many years.
With some alloys, natural ageing may be suppressed or delayed for several days
by refrigeration at -18C or lower.
It is common practice to complete forming, straightening and coining before
ageing changes material properties appreciably.
Conventional practice allows for refrigeration of alloys 2014 - T4 rivets to
maintain good driving characteristics.
The artificial ageing or precipitation heat treatments are low temperature long
time processes. Temperatures range from 115-200C and times from 5-48 hours.
As with solution treatment accurate temperature control and spatial variation
temperatures are critical to the process and generally temperatures should be held
to a range of 7C.
The change of time-temperature parameters for precipitation treatment should
receive careful consideration.
Larger particles or precipitates result from longer times and higher temperatures.
The objective is to select the cycle that produces the optimum precipitate size and
distribution pattern.
Unfortunately, the cycle required to maximise one property, such as tensile
strength, is usually different from that required to maximise others such as yield
strength and corrosion resistance.
Consequently, the cycles used represent compromises that provide the best
combination of properties.
Magnesium Alloys:
Magnesium alloy developments have traditionally been driven by aerospace industry
requirements for lightweight materials to operate under increasingly demanding
conditions.
Magnesium alloys have always been attractive to designers due to their low density,
only two thirds that of aluminium.
This has been a major factor in the widespread use of magnesium alloy castings and
wrought products.
A further requirement in recent years has been for superior corrosion performance and
dramatic improvements have been demonstrated for new magnesium alloys.
Improvements in mechanical properties and corrosion resistance have led to greater
interest in magnesium alloys for aerospace and speciality applications, and alloys are
now being specified on programmes such as the McDonnell Douglas MD 500
helicopter.
Properties:

Light weight

Low density (two thirds that of aluminum)

Good high temperature mechanical properties
Good to excellent corrosion resistance

Applications:
Aerospace:
For many years, RZ5 alloy has been the preferred material for helicopter transmission
casings due to the combination of low density and good mechanical properties.
More recently, however, the requirement for longer intervals between overhauls and
hence improved corrosion properties has caused manufacturers to reconsider material
choice.
In the past, RZ5 was generally used for gearbox casings but many new programmes
will use WE43 instead including the main rotor gearbox castings. For this application, an
aluminium transmission would have been used but for the exceptional corrosion
resistance of WE43.
The Eurocopter EC 120 and NH90 helicopters have also flown with WE43
transmission casings and WE43 is specified for the Sikorsky S92.
Further applications for WE43 will go ahead in the future both on new programmes
and also to replace RZ5 on older helicopters.
RZ5, ZRE1, MSR and EQ21 alloys are widely used for aircraft engine and gearbox
casings.
This will continue although it is likely that WE43 will be used increasingly for its
corrosion and high temperature properties.
Very large magnesium castings can be made, such as intermediate compressor
casings for turbine engines.
These include the Rolls Royce Tay casing in MSR, which weighs 130kg and the
BMW Rolls Royce BR710 casing in RZ5.
Other aerospace applications include auxiliary gearboxes (F16, Eurofighter 2000,
Tornado) in MSR or RZ5, generator housings (A320 Airbus, Tornado and Concorde in
MSR or EQ21) and canopies, generally in RZ5.
Magnesium alloy forgings are also used in aerospace applications including critical
gearbox parts for the Westland Sea King helicopter and aircraft wheels, both in ZW3.
Forged magnesium parts are also used in aero engine applications.
In the future, magnesium forgings are most likely to be used in higher temperature
applications
Automotive motor racing:
In motor racing, RZ5 is generally used for gearbox casings although MSR/EQ21
alloys are also being used increasingly due to their superior ambient temperature
properties or because of increased operating temperatures.
RZ5 wheels have been shown to have significantly better performance than Mg-AlZn alloy wheels under arduous racing conditions.

Due to the high operating temperature of racing engines, WE54 castings have been
used for a variety of Formula 1 engine parts and are used for engine components for
a limited edition road car.
Forged WE54 pistons offer great future potential for motor racing and other
applications will exist for other wrought products.
Magnesium alloys are also used in many other engineering applications where
having light weight is a significant advantage.
Magnesium-zirconium alloys tend to be used in relatively low volume applications
where they are processed by sand or investment casting, or wrought products by
extrusion or forging.
Zirconium-free alloys, principally AZ91 but also other alloys, are used in automotive
and various other high volume applications.
Bicycles:
As mentioned above Melram 072, the metal matrix composite is used in the bicycle
industry due to its excellent stiffness and reduced weight compared to aluminium.
Other Applications:
Other applications include electronics, sporting goods, nuclear applications, office
equipment, flares, sacrificial anodes for the protection of other metals, flash photography
and tools

Refractory metals:
Are classes of metals that are extraordinarily resistant to heat and wear. The
expression is mostly used in the context of materials
science, metallurgy and
engineering.
The definition of which elements belong to this group differs. The most common
definition
includes
five
elements:
two
of
the fifth
period (niobium and molybdenum) and three of the sixth period (tantalum, tungsten,
and rhenium).

 They all share some properties, including a melting point above 2000 C and
high hardness at room temperature.
They are chemically inert and have a relatively high density.
Their high melting points make powder metallurgy the method of choice
for fabricating components from these metals.
Some of their applications include tools to work metals at high temperatures, wire
filaments, casting molds, and chemical reaction vessels in corrosive environments.
Partly due to the high melting point, refractory metals are stable against creep
deformation to very high temperatures.
Most definitions of the term 'refractory metals' list the extraordinarly high melting
point as a key requirement for inclusion
By one definition, a melting point above 4,000 F (2,200 C) is necessary to
qualify
the five elements niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten and rhenium are
included in all definitions.

Molybdenum alloys:
Molybdenum based alloys are widely used, because they are cheaper than superior
tungsten alloys. The most widely used alloy of molybdenum is the TitaniumZirconium- Molybdenum alloy TZM, composed of 0.5% titanium and 0.08% of
zirconium (with molybdenum being the rest).
The alloy exhibits a higher creep resistance and strength at high temperatures,
making service temperatures of above 1060C possible for the material.
The alloy exhibits a higher creep resistance and strength at high temperatures,
making service temperatures of above 1060C possible for the material.
The high resistivity of Mo-30W an alloy of 70% molybdenum and 30 tungsten
against the attack of molten zinc makes it the ideal material for casting zinc. It is
also used to construct valves for molten zinc
Molybdenum is used in mercury wetted reed relays, because molybdenum does
not form amalgams and is therefore resistant to corrosion by liquid mercury
Molybdenum is the most commonly used of the refractory metals. Its most
important use is as a strengthening alloy of steel.Structural tubing and piping often
contains molybdenum, as do many stainless steels.
Its strength at high temperatures, resistance to wear and low coefficient of
friction are all properties which make it invaluable as an alloying compound
Its excellent anti-friction properties lead to its in greases and oils where
reliability and performance are critical
Tungsten and its alloys
Up to 22% rhenium is alloyed with tungsten to improve its high temperature
strength and corrosion resistance.

 Thorium as an alloying compound is used when electric arcs have to be

established. The ignition is easier and the arc burns more stable than without the
addition of thorium. For powder metallurgy applications binders have to be used
for the sintering process.
For the production of the tungsten heavy alloy a binder mixtures
of nickel and iron or nickel and copper are widely used.
the tungsten content of the alloy is normally above 90%. The diffusion of the
binder elements into the tungsten grains is low even at the sintering temperatures
and therefore the interior of the grains is pure tungsten.
Tungsten and its alloys are often used in applications where high temperatures
are present but still a high strength is necessary and the high density is not
troublesome
Tungsten's high density and strength is also a key property for its use in
weapon projectiles, for example as an alternative to depleted Uranium for tank
guns.
Its high melting point makes tungsten a good material for applications
like rocket nozzles, for example in the UGM-27 Polaris.
Niobium alloys
Niobium is nearly always found together with tantalum, and was named
after Niobe, the daughter of the mythical Greek king Tantalus for whom tantalum
was named.
Niobium has many uses, some of which it shares with other refractory metals.
It is unique in that it can be worked through annealing to achieve a wide range
of strength and elasticity, and is the least dense of the refractory metals.
It can also be found in electrolytic capacitors and in the most
practical
superconducting alloys.
Niobium can be found in aircraft gas turbines, vacuum tubes and nuclear
reactors
An alloy used for liquid rocket thruster nozzles, such as in the main engine of
theApollo Lunar Modules, is C103, which consists of 89% niobium, 10% hafnium
and 1% titanium.
Another niobium alloy was used for the nozzle of the Apollo Service Module.
As
niobium is oxidized at temperatures above 400 C, a protective coating is
necessary for these applications to prevent the alloy from becoming brittle
Tantalum and its alloys
Tantalum is one of the most corrosion resistant substances available.
Many important uses have been found for tantalum owing to this property,
particularly
in
the medical and surgical fields,
and
also
in
harsh acidic environments.
It is also used to make superior electrolytic capacitors
Tantalum films provide the second most capacitance per volume of any substance
after Aerogel and allow miniaturization of electronic components and circuitry

Many cellular phones and computers contain tantalum capacitors.

Rhenium alloys
Rhenium is the most recently discovered refractory metal
It is found in low concentrations with many other metals, in the ores of other
refractory metals, platinum or copper ores.
it is useful as an alloy to other refractory metals, where it adds ductility and tensile
strength.
Rhenium alloys are being used in electronic components, gyroscopes and nuclear
reactors.
Rhenium finds its most important use as a catalyst. It is used as a catalyst in
reactions such as alkylation, dealkylation,hydrogenation and oxidation.
However its rarity makes it the most expensive of the refractory metals.
Inconel alloys:
Inconel is a family of austenitic nickel-chromium-based super alloys
Inconel alloys are typically used in high temperature applications. It is sometimes
referred to in English as "Inco" (or occasionally "Inconel").
Common trade names for Inconel Alloy 625 include: Inconel 625, Chronin 625,
Altemp 625, Haynes 625, Nickelvac 625 and Nicrofer 6020

Properties:
Inconel alloys are oxidation- and corrosion-resistant materials well suited for
service in extreme environments subjected to high pressure and kinetic energy.
When heated, Inconel forms a thick and stable passivating oxide layer protecting
the surface from further attack.
Inconel retains strength over a wide temperature range, attractive for hightemperature applications where aluminum and steel would succumb to creep as a
result of thermally-induced crystal vacancies (see Arrhenius).
Inconel's high temperature strength is developed by solid solution
strengthening or precipitation strengthening, depending on the alloy.
In age-hardening or precipitation-strengthening varieties, small amounts
of niobium combine with nickel to form the intermetallic compound Ni3Nb or
gamma prime ('). Gamma prime forms small cubic crystals that inhibit slip and
creep effectively at elevated temperatures.
The formation of gamma-prime crystals increases over time, especially after three
hours of a heat exposure of 850 C, and continues to grow after 72 hours of
exposure.
Monel alloys:
Monel is a series of nickel alloys, primarily composed of nickel (up to 67%) and
copper, with some iron and other trace elements.

 Monel alloy 400 is binary alloy of the same proportions of nickel and copper as is
found naturally in the nickel ore from the Sudbury (Ontario) mines and is therefore
considered a puritan alloy
Properties:
Compared to steel, Monel is very difficult to machine as it work-hardens very
quickly.
It needs to be turned and worked at slow speeds and low feed rates.
It is resistant to corrosion and acids, and some alloys can withstand a fire in pure
oxygen
It is commonly used in applications with highly corrosive conditions. Small
additions of aluminum and titanium form an alloy (K-500) with the same corrosion
resistance but with much greater strength due to gamma prime formation on aging.
Monel is typically much more expensive than stainless steel.
Monel alloy 400 has a specific gravity of 8.83, an electrical conductivity of
approximately 34% IACS, and (in the annealed state) a hardness of 65 Rockwell
K Monel:
It Is a nickel-copper alloy which combines the excellent corrosion resistance of
MONEL alloy 400 with the added advantages of greater strength and hardness
The increased properties are obtained by adding aluminum and titanium to the
nickel-copper base, and by heating under controlled conditions so that
submicroscopic
Particles of Ni3 (Ti, Al) are precipitated throughout the matrix.
The thermal processing used to effect precipitation is commonly called age
hardening or aging.
Nimonic:
is a registered trademark of Special Metals Corporation that refers to a family
of nickel-based high-temperature low creep superalloys.
Nimonic alloys typically consist of more than 50% nickel and
20% chromium with additives such astitanium and aluminium
The main use is in gas turbine components and extremely high performance
reciprocating internal combustion engines.
Properties:
Due to its ability to withstand very high temperatures, Nimonic is ideal for use
in aircraft parts and gas turbine components such as turbine blades and exhaust
nozzles on jet engines, for instance, where the pressure and heat are extreme.
It is available in different grades, including Nimonic 75, Nimonic 80A, and
Nimonic 90.
Nimonic 80a was used for the turbine blades on the Rolls-Royce Nene, Nimonic
90 on the Bristol Proteus, and Nimonic 105 on the Rolls-Royce Spey aviation gas
turbines
Nimonic 263 was used in the combustion chambers of the Rolls-Royce/Bristol
Olympus used on the Concorde supersonic airliner.

Super alloy:
A superalloy, or high-performance alloy, is an alloy that exhibits excellent
mechanical strength and resistance to creep (tendency for solids to slowly move or
deform under stress) at high temperatures; good surface stability; and corrosion
and oxidation resistance.
Superalloys typically have a matrix with an austenitic face-centered
cubic crystal structure.
A superalloy's base alloying element is usually nickel, cobalt, or nickel-iron.
Superalloy development has relied heavily on both chemical and process
innovations and has been driven primarily by the aerospace and power industries.
Typical applications are in the aerospace, industrial gas turbine and marine
turbine industries, e.g. for turbine blades for hot sections of jet engines, and bimetallic engine valves for use in diesel and automotive applications.
Examples
of
superalloys
are Hastelloy, Inconel (e.g.
IN100,
IN600,
IN713), Waspaloy, Rene alloys (e.g. Rene 41, Rene 80, Rene 95, Rene N5),
Haynes alloys, Incoloy, MP98T, TMS alloys, and CMSX (e.g. CMSX-4) single
crystal alloys.
Superalloys are commonly used in parts of gas turbine engines that are subject to
high temperatures and require high strength, excellent high temperature
creep resistance, fatigue
life,
phase
stability,
and oxidation and corrosion resistance
Superalloys develop high temperature strength through solid solution strengthening.
The most important strengthening mechanism is through the formation of
secondary phase precipitates such as gamma prime and carbides through
precipitation.
Superalloys (such as Nimonic 80A) are also used in the poppet valves of piston
engines, both for diesel and gasoline engines.