1.

Introduction: The mushroom industry has for a long time been considered problematic
from an environmental standpoint. The use of organic manures as substrates, the
operation of open composting yards, and the uncontrolled disposal of spent
compost create an environmental nuisance, including air pollution (bad odours),
water pollution, files and other harmful insects, and ever possible vectoring of
diseases. In recent years, worldwide mushroom production has increased
dramatically (chang, 1991). A considerable proportion of this production takes
place in urban area with increasingly dense populations. At the same time,
environmental awareness has grown, with the result that the enforcement of
pollution control laws has become more and more effective.
This situation forces the mushroom industry to develop technologies that
ensure production with the best possible harmful effects on the environment.
This process will continue in the future, with the techniques developed for
clean mushroom production providing applications in other fields of waste
recycling. There is, in addition, a potential for the development of environmentrelated technologies that exploit certain special biological features of mushroom
for pollution control.
The prevent review deals with a number of aspects of interaction between
mushroom production and environmental issues, on the basic previous
experience, together with extrapolations for the future.
Sure, if more people understood where food comes from, they would
consider agriculture and mushroom farming friendly to the environment.
Rapidly developing communities may begin to tolerate our farms and
agricultural. Promoting mushroom farming as environmentally friendly should
be a long term educational goal of the industry.

As growers we tend to only see composting from a mushrooms point of

view. More importantly the environmentalist, municipal governments and
communities should look to mushroom farms as a disposal agent. Researchers
should be more interested in testing and using agriculture and industrial waste
products for mushroom compost. Growers must use the mushrooms ability to
consume organic materials discarded by man, to help pollution in modern
society.
A worst case scenario is the expansion of municipal waste composting
facilities to use more organic waste products for the sole purpose of disposing of
the urban and industry waste. These waste disposal facilities will be designed
for a fast, complete and efficient reduction of organic materials. The
productivity of their operations may not be as important as having a high
volume capacity to use municipal waste. Mushroom farms will not compete
well with these industries for the organic materials required by our crop.
2. RECYCLING ORGANIC WASTE VIAL MUSHROOM PRODUCTION
:
Most of the substrates used for mushroom production are organic wasters
or by-products, involving agricultural, municipal or industrial wastes. The
exploitation of such waste by the mushroom industry could be environmentally
beneficial, provided that a number of basic aspects are taken into account, so
that proper environmental concepts underpin each case. The following are the
major aspects to be considered.
a) Characterization and Qualification - There is a need to define standard
chemical, physical and biological parameters for the characterization and
qualification of waste intended to serve as substrates for mushroom. Such
parameters must be based on the nutritional requirements of each specific
variety of mushroom, parameters must based on the nutritional

requirements of each specific variety of mushroom. Chemical and

physical parameters have been defined by levanon et al.(1984; 1988), for
example, in the search for alternative recycled materials for use as casing
soils for agaricus bisporus, The solid fraction of the digested slurry
resulting from the thermophilic, methanogenic fermentation of cattle
manure and slaughter-house wastes were fould to be comparable to peatmoss, the material most commonly used as casing soil ( Marchaim et at.,
1991). Chemical parameters were also defined to commonly used to
select substrates for the production of composts for agaricul bisporus.
With the decreasing availability of horse manure, the traditional
substrates, chicken manure and cereal straws were found to provide
useful alternatives (Levanon et al. 1983).
The examination of chemical parameters was found to be necessary
to develop alternative substrates for wood-degrading mushrooms: cotton
straw was found to be suitable for the production of both Pleurotus spp.
And Lentious edodes (Levanon et al., 1989; 1993a). This suitability is
due to the chemical composition of the straw, and especially that of the
lignocelluloses fraction (Silanikove & Levanon, 1986, 1987), that meet
the nutritional needs of these mushrooms.
It should be emphasized that the establishment of such parameters
is essential, for each variety and each location, in order to select the
optimal substrate for production. Proper use of these parameters is
beneficial both to the industry and to the environment.
b) Collection and Storage the methods of collection and storage of
wastes is an important component in the recycling concept. While
manures are usually produced steadily throughout the year, and supply is
therefore less problematic, plant residues, especially straws, are mostly
produced during short seasons, giving rise to the need for special
collection and storage systems. Clearly, the most viable solution for
harvesting and transporting straws is the use of the same farm machinery

as is in actual use on local farms. Thus, contton straws was harvested and
transported by the machinery in local use for forage crops used for animal
feed (Levanon et al., 1988). Storage of plant material can be problematic
and expensive. Cereal straws should be stored under cover, to avoid
contamination resulting from excess humidity, especially rain. This is no
the case with cotton straw because it contains 50-60% humidity at harvest
time. Drying the straw in the fired is impossible because of the rain that
can be expected during the fall. The practical solution that was developed
involves the preservation of cotton straw performed by storing the cotton
straw in farm facilities originally built for silage (Silanikove & Levanon,
1986; 1987). Scaling up the process was performed by storing the cotton
straw in farm facilities originally built for silage (Silanikove et al., 1988).
Such silege was successfully used as a substrate for Pleurotus spp, and
Lentinus Edodes (Levanon et al., 1989; 1993a).
c) Selection of Mushroom Strains One of the most important conditions
for successful mushroom production is to find maximum compatibility
between the fungal strain and its substrate. In their search for the strains
of Lentinus edodes most compatible with cultivation on sawdust, Royse
and May (1987) suggested the identification of genetic differences
between different fungal strains by isoenzyme electrophoresis. This step
was in the selection process to reduce the number of strains that would
later be tested for their biological efficiency (i.e. yield/dry weight of
substrate). Schmidt and Dittberner (1989) studied variations through
mycelia growth rates and the capacity to degrade wood. These two
methods were combined in a two-step method for selection by Levenon et
al. (1993b), when searching for the strain of Lentinus edodes best suited
to cultivation on a mixture of cotton and wheat straws: esterase
isoenzyme assay was used to study genetic variations, after which the

mycelia growth rate was used to determine strain/substrate compatibility

among the strains short-listed by the first step.
d) Handling and Processing Composting facilities are known to cause an
environmental nuisance, by emissions to the air from volatile compounds
and through leachates that run out, which are not only unpleasant in
themselves, but can contaminate surface or even ground water.
In a study by Campet al. (1991), a number of volatile compounds
were identified in air samples taken above compost windrows, including
several that contain sulfur and are the source of bad odours. The
concentration of volatile sulfur compounds in the evolving air during
windrow composting ranged from I-35 mol/m3. It was found that indoor
composting in tunnels reduced odour emission by 90%. Considerable
amounts of ammonia are also released during open composting, as a
result of ammonification. This was the only odourous gas identified in
significant quantities during indoor experiments in tunnels (Gulliver et
al., 1991). Ammonia omission can be minimized, however, by the
manipulation of working conditions.
Other developments in the indoor composting process arise from a
drastic reduction of the period (Kurtzmann, 1991), and the provision of
special inoculation to enhance the process (Nair & Price, 1991; Houdeau
et al., 1991). In the near future, most of the industry will be forced to go
over to indoor composting by increasing concern for clean air.
Consequently, more efforts will be made to develop methods of indoor
composting that are less expensive and more productive. The processing
of lignocellulosic wastes for the production of wood-degrading
mushrooms usually does not include composting. As a result, the
substrate is more susceptible to contamination by pests, and especially by
competing fungi. Hence the heat treatment the such substrate undergoes
becomes more crucial. The cultivation of L. edodes on combinations of
sawdust and agricultural wastes (the synthetic log method) is limited to

small units (1-2 Kg), due to the need to sterilize the substrate. This
method is excessively labour-intensive. A more efficient method was
recently reported (Levanon et al. 1993a) by which bulk pasteurization of
a cotton and wheat straw mixture replaced sterilization, allowing
treatment of 20 kg units of substrate for the cultivation of L. edodes.
e) Recycling Spent Substrate Public awareness and the pressure of
environmental laws is forcing the mushroom industry (like others) to take
responsibility for the disposal or recycling of its own spent raw materials.
An outlet for used substrate is becoming an essential component for every
mushroom production plant. A number of methods for recycling have
already been developed, and new ideas are being studied constantly.
Spent compost that has been used for A. bisporus can be used as a soil
conditioner and as an organic manure for agriculture or horticulture.
Spent compost was found to be useful for land reclamation, and as an
organic manure for the cultivation of corn, without any adverse effect on
runoff or subsurface water quality (Wuest & Fahy, 1992). It is also being
as a substitute for peat as a growth medium (Chong et al., 1991; Maher,
1991). Spent mushroom compost can also be recycled within the industry
itself, as a casing soil, usually mixed with other organic materials, mostly
peat.
The used substrate of wood-degrading mushrooms can be
considered as a feed for ruminants. The digestibility of lignocelluloses
waste by ruminants is inversely proportional to its lignin content. Many
white rot fungi consume components of the plant material (e.g. cellulose)
while breaking down the lignin. Since the loss of organic matter is higher
during the short stage of fructification that during the longer spawn run
phase, the potential feed value of the used substrate decreases after
harvesting the mushrooms. According to Rajarathnam et al. (1992), the
ability of Pleurotus spp. to utilize a wide range of substrates and grow in

a wide range of temperatures gives these species an advantage over other

for this purpose.
Kerem et al. (1992) studied the degradation of lignocelluloses in
cotton straw by Pleurotus ostreatus and Phanerochaete chrysosporium.
They found that, While P. ostreatus showed selectivity for lignin
degradation, P. chrysosporium showed more rapid degradation of the total
organic matter unselectively. The use of cotton straw as a cattle feed, after
its use of produce Pleurotus spp., was reported by Silanikove et al.
(1998).
3. UNCONVENTIONAL USES OF MUSHROOM TECHNOLOGIES
AND PRODUCTS The mushroom industry continually faces the challenge of
producing fresh, clean food products from dirty organic wastes. The
ability to meet this challenge arises first and foremost form the catabolic
and anabolic systems of the organism itself. The technology that is
evolving for mushroom production creates the basis for the optimal
exploitation of these features in the production system.
There are a number of tasks in which the organism and its
production technology can be exploited to reduce or solve ecological
problem.
a) Composting as an Aid to Waste Management Authorities
A solid waster management facility for recycling and composting
consists of three major elements (unit processes). The first completes the
job of separation, started in the household, to yield fraction for recycling,
landfilling and composting. The second element size-reduces and
homogenizes the fraction to be composted. The third element is the
composting system itself, in which the waste is transformed through
biological action to a lesser weight and volume of stabilized, sanitized
process residue that is storable, transportable and usable as a compost.

A number of methods for composting the organic ingredients of the

solid waste are available to waste management authorities. In a
comparative study, Feinstein (personal communication) found that the
composting systems offered by the mushroom industry are superior to
other methods that are available. The advantages of the mushroom
composting tunnel lie in the following categories: general concept,
material handling, biological process control, exhaust air scrubbing,
monitoring progress, and system track record. He concluded that:
certain tunnel system offered in the mushroom growing industry,
which relies on composting, are technologically mature, conform to
settled scientific understanding of composting, and are well-proven in the
routine processing of a variety of demanding agricultural residues. This
situation reflects the highly competitive nature of the mushroom business,
which encourage excellence in composting system design. For waste
management purposes, such systems are distinctly superior to those
originating in waste field.
The growing demand for recycling and composting of solid wastes
will therefore create more opportunities for technologies developed by
the mushroom industry.
b) Bio-Accumulation of Heavy Metals
Metals are among the most commonly used raw materials in an
industrial society. Aqueous effluents emerging from the mining and metal
refining and other industries contain dissolved heavy metals, which are
toxic to living organisms, and pose a biological threat to man as they can
cause serious hazards to public health. One of the most important features
which distinguish metals from other toxic pollutants is their nonbiodegradability. To avoid environmental hazards it is necessary to
remove the metals contaminants from effluents at source. Conventional
techniques for metal removal, prior to discharge, include chemical
precipitation, electrolysis, ion exchange, solvent extraction and

evaporative extraction, but these techniques are likely to become

increasingly expensive and inefficient when the anticipated stricter
statutory limits are imposed.
Using microorganisms as biosorbents for metals offers a potential
alternative to existing methods for detoxification and for recovery of
toxic or valuable metals form industrial discharge water (Sahoo et al.,
1992).
A variety of mechanisms exists for the removal of heavy metal
from solutions by biomaterials, ranging from purely physic-chemical
interactions, such as adsorption to cell walls, to mechanisms dependant
on metabolism, such as transport, internal compartmentation and
extracellular precipitation by excreted metabolites (Fourest & roux,
1992).
The use of living organisms or dead biomass are both possibilities,
Numerous publications have appeared, describing studies of different
organisms for this purpose: bacteria (Sahoo et at., 1992; Remacle, 1992);
filamentous fungi (Fourest & Roux, 1992); the water fern, Azolla (Tel-Or
& Sela,1992); yeasts (Yanni, 1992); marine algae (Volesky, 1992).
The bioaccumulation of heavy metals is known phenomenon in
basidiomycetes, which has been studied principally because of its
harmful effect on mushroom quality. However, the rates and
concentrations of metals accumulates by different species can be
predicted only to a limited extent from the taxonomic status of the species
or the properties of the substrate (Rajarathnam et al., 1992). More
research is needed to explore what advantage can be gained from this
phenomenon and to develop technique to implement such a process.
c) Detoxification of Organic Chemicals
Toxic organic chemicals of agricultural, industrial and municipal
origin are an environmental hazard all over the world. The possible use of
microorganism to detoxify xenobiotic chemicals is confined mainly to
bacterial species, however, in a study of the biodegradation of pesticide

residues in the soil by fungi and bacteria, a specific role for both groups
was demonstrated (Levanon, 1993).
In recent years, the ability of white-rot fungi to biodegrade toxic
chemicals has also been studied. These studies were based on the
hypothesis that ligninolytic systems of fungi are capable of degrading a
broad spectrum of xenobiotic chemicals whose structure resembles that of
lignin (Boominathan & Reddy, 1991). Numerous reports have been
published indicating that white-rot fungi are capable of degrading highly
toxic pesticides and xenoboitic chemicals. The fungus most widely
studied for this purpose has been P. chrysosporium (Aust, 1990). The
lignin-degrading system of this fungus include two families of H2o2requiring extracellular hameperoxidases, designated lignin peroxidasc
(LIP) and manganese-dependent peroxidase (MNP), together with H2o2producing enzymes (Boominathan & Reddy, 1991). In a recent study on
the regulation of these enzymes, overproduction of LIP was demonstrated
by desoretz et al. (1993) under non-limiting nutrient conditions.
The ligninolytic enzyms system of pleurotus spp. differs from that
of P. chrysosporium, in that no evidence has been found of the presence
of LIP and MNP in the former (Sannia et al., 1991; Kerem et at., 1992;
Masaphy & Levanon, 1992). A veratryl alcohol oxidase was found in
cultures of P. ostreatus (Sannia et al., 1991) and there is also evidence of
probable role of for polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and, Especially, laccase in
the ligninolytic system of this fungus (Kerem et al., 1992; Masaphy &
Levanon, 1992). The lingo-cellulolytic activities of the fungus were
induced by the presence of lignocelluloses in the growth medium
( Mesaphy & Levanon, 19992).
The ligninolytic system of Carialus Spp. involves both lignindegrading oxidase and peroxidase activies. C versicolor secretes LIP.
MNP and at least three major laccase-type phenol oxidase. Several
studies have appeared, reporting the use of this fungus for the efficient

degradation of bleach-plant in the growth medium ( Masaphy & Levanon,

1992).
The variations in extracellular ligninolytic enzymatic systems
among species, and the possibility of regulating their activities, create
opportunities for the development of techniques to utilize these features
for the biodegradation of recalcitrant environmental pollutants.
4. Presticides and Biological Control
Over the past decade or more the registration for many presticides used to
control mushroom pests have been discontinued. Several times farms have been
scrutinized for pest control practices, pesticide residues and worker protection
standards. They new EPA workers protection standards have helped farms
become aware of many of these health concerns. Although these regulations
require more work and cost to train employees, they should prevent unwanted
accidents and pesticides poisoning. Overall, the potential problem of pesticide
residues and worker exposure to them is being removed by the improved
pesticide safety practices at farms and by the unwelcome banishment of
registered pesticides for the industry. The AMI continues to lobby the
government and chemical companies to keep the remaining pesticides available.
Fortunately, growers have improved control of the insect pest that once ravaged
our crops. Because physical sealing of the mushroom houses is environmentally
friendly, it has become the most important control method on farms today. As
farmers, we ought to be thankful we have such an option.
Many composting operations use parasitic wasps to control the persky house fly
populations around the composting wharves biologically. This control reduces
the annoyance of the pests to employees and neighbors. Besides parasitic wasps,
other biological control products are available for the growers to use. Widely
used, growth hormone regulators are effective and less toxic to humans;
however, since these compounds are more toxic to aquatic insects, it is

extremely important they do not reach local streams or water supplies.

Biological control products like Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), parasitic nematodes
and plant products are being tested and used on crops to control the mushroom
fly and some fungal diseases. Better control of the mushroom flies not only
helps yield and quality, but it also reduces the intolerable umbers of irritating
flies that invade neighboring homes. The clean up of organic matter around the
farms not only reduce the breeding grounds for pests and deseases, but also
create a more pleasant appearance of the farms to neighbors and passing
motorist. Out of sight out of mind?
5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTION
a)

The mushroom industry, like other industries, most develop its overall

environmental concepts. This is essential in an industry that is largely located in

populated areas, and comply with ever stricter environmental laws and
regulations.
b)

This environmental thinking must be based on zero leakage of

pollutants, at all stages of production and substrate recycling. The eliminations

or recycling of all by-products and used materials must be and integral part of
planning for production.
c)

The evolution of environmental concepts for each production plant must

be tailored to local conditions (environmental, species of mushroom,

substrate, etc.) but based on a number of basic aspects that have to be taken into
consideration under all conditions.
d)

When the industry is built on the foundation of the above criteria, it will

be environmentally beneficial, because its utilization of problematic organic

wastes will neutralize them and thereby contribute to a cleaner environment.

e)

Since the mushroom industry have to face the overcome the challenge of

recycling wastes with minimal pollution, the answer that it develops will be
superior in efficiency and cost-effectiveness to other techniques, and can be
used in waste management facilities.
f)

mushrooms will be found useful in the fast-growing environmental

cleaning and protection industry, due to their particular biological features and
the techniques developed for their production. These uses will include the
biosorption of heavy metals and biodegradation of toxic organic chemicals. It
would not be too visionary to suggest that research will discover further uses in
this field. I would like to throw out the challenge of degrading plastic wasts, the
purification of contaminated water and reclaiming polluted soils as possible
targets for such research.
g)

Recent years have seen significant advances in our understanding of

structure-function relationship within this group of toxins. However, while the

growth of arcs into pores and the steps involved in oligomerization are now
becoming clearer, there are still gaps in the pathways of membrane insertion.
For example, the requirement for cholesterol in events subsequent to cell
binding and perhaps displacement of the undecapeptide loop is unknown, as is
the true binding site for cholesterol. The discovery of new members of this toxin
family will create more questions in the area of mode of action. For example, if
cholesterol is the only receptor for these toxins, why is ILY, a human-specific
cytolysin, incapable of lysing erythrocytes form other species? Indeed, why do
most TACYs show ranges of activities against cells from different species and
cell types within a species? This answers to these questions and more await
further study.
6.

REFERENCES
Change S.T. (1991) Mushroom biology and Mushroom production.

 Chong C. Rinker, D. L & Cline, R. A. (1991). A comparison of five spent

mushroom.
Levanon, D. Dosoretz C. Motro, B. and Cohen. I (1984) Recycling
agriculture wastes for mushroom casing.
V. N. Pathak, Negendra Yadav and Maneesha Gour (2000) Mushroom
Growth and Environment.
M.C. Nar S. Balakrishan (1984) Beneficial fungi and their utilization.