International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering

Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 6, Issue 8, August 2016)

Study of Dome structures with specific Focus on Monolithic

and Geodesic Domes for Housing
Riya Anna Abraham1, G. Kesava Chandran2
1

3rd Year B.Tech, Civil Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal -576104
2
Chief Engineer, DMRC, Karshaka Road, Kochi- 682016
This advantage of domes provides unprecedented
structures for covering areas where we have minimal
interference of internal supports. Their geometrical form,
self-supporting condition with stiffness has enabled their
use in both ancient and modern architectural works.
Today, domes have provided structural economic solutions
for exhibition halls, concert halls and swimming pools that
require large covered spaces. Many an elegant structures
also utilize domes for their splendid and aesthetic
appearance. It will be appropriate to trace the evolution of
domes over the years which this paper deals in its initial
parts.
Modern domes come in various forms or types of
latticed domes such as the Schwedler domes, geodesic
domes and lamella domes. Among the several types we
would like to consider the geodesic and monolithic domes
which are finding wide applications today. What
characterizes the geodesic dome is its hemispherical thinshell structure (lattice-shell) based on a network of
geodesics (great circles) on the surface of a sphere or a
hemisphere. The intersect of the geodesics, forms triangular
elements, which have local and triangular rigidity. This
helps to distribute the structural stress throughout the
geodesic sphere. On the other hand, the monolithic dome
which essentially is a structure cast in a one-piece form is
quite similar to the igloo of the Eskimos. The Igloo is
constructed of blocks of compressed snow. Over a period
of time, these blocks melt and re-freeze to form a strong
and homogeneous structure. The Monolithic dome provides
the twin advantage of both good insulation and great
strength. The strength resulting from the natural strength of
the arch, and the insulation on account of the minimal
surface area. In this paper the key advantages and
disadvantages are described for Geodesic and Monolithic
domes - the two popular domes of today.

Abstract Domes have been a prominent part of

construction dating back from ancient times due to its
uniqueness in providing maximum space with minimum
surface area. Their popularity lost ground during the
medieval period on account of tedious construction methods
and skilled work requirements for large sized domes. Through
this paper we take a short tour on the history of domes
through a general analysis of domes and a comparison of
dome roofs with flat roofs is carried out. The paper also takes
a look into the possible future aspects of domes by evaluating
popular types - two prominent ones being monolithic and
geodesic domes. The paper brings out the various advantages
and key aspects of these types of domes as the modern world
looks out for energy efficient, eco-friendly and durable
housing options. We evaluate housing with geodesic and
monolithic domes with this intent. Our paper concludes that
both geodesic and monolithic domes are sustainable
structures for housing and points out that further research
and investigation needs to be undertaken on the same.
KeywordsGeodesic domes, Geodesic spheres, Monolithic
domes, Flat Roofs, Airforming, Shell, Geotangent, Surface
Area.

I. INTRODUCTION
Domes are hemispherical structures that takes its
evolution from the arch and has found popularity for roofs
and ceilings. Their use during ancient times have been
documented as round huts and ancient tombs in the shape
of solid mounds that have been found in the Middle East,
Mediterranean region and India. It was the Romans who
introduced the large-scale masonry hemisphere of yester
years. Because the dome exerts forces all around its
perimeter, the early structures such as the Roman Pantheon
employed the use of heavy supporting walls. Domes
provide unimpeded wide spaces; in other words from
minimum surface the maximum amount of area.

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Domes in general are lighter structures compared to

other conventional forms of structures. For example we
find transparent domes have been built over a group of
houses in Canada to provide shelter from high winds,
safeguarding homes from extreme temperatures, storing
solar radiation in the external walls of the house and in the
ground. This architecture has demonstrated that it
drastically reduces the heating load of the houses during
winter. Such transparent or translucent domes also provide
pleasant view without the sense of enclosure [1].
With the rising costs for energy, energy demands
becomes a vital and important economic characteristic for
suitable housing constructions. Further, thermal insulation
ensures energy conservation for buildings.
Hence,
influenced by climatic conditions, the building elements
such as roofs play a crucial role in the heat transfer rate [1].
Through this paper we highlight the importance of
Geodesic and Monolithic domes as energy efficient and
disaster resistant structures that can be suitably employed
for housing.

While one was discovered in 1965 at Mezhirich,

Ukraine, archaeologists have unearthed others dating
approximately 19,280 - 11,700 BC [2]. The wigwam was
the creation of Native Americans by using arched branches
or poles that were covered with grass or animal hide.
Another ancient usage of domes is seen in the igloo, a
shelter built by the Eskimos from blocks of compact snow.
Through Fig 1 we have shown three well known ancient
domes.
There is almost no authentic literature on the historical
development from early dome structures to the more
sophisticated ones of the middle ages.
Hence it's
speculated that dome architecture was known to early
Mesopotamian cultures as that in turn explains the
existence of domes during the first millennium BC in China
and the West. Another hypothesis is that the use of the
dome shape in constructions does not have any single point
of origin but was common in all ancient cultures long
before they were being constructed with better and stronger
enduring material.

II. EARLY HISTORY OF DOMES

III. RECENT HISTORY OF DOMES

Earliest domes were most likely human huts constructed

from saplings, reeds, or timbers and covered with thatch,
turf, or animal skins. Over the ages, the materials
transformed depending on the local conditions and
availability to rammed earth, mud-brick, and stone.
Mammoth tusks and bones were discovered to have been
used for some of the earliest dome shaped small dwellings.

Dome construction during the sixth and seventh

centuries primarily relied on empirical techniques and oral
traditions rather than the architectural treatises of today
with practical details. This was found to be adequate for
medium size dome constructions with diameters that
ranged from 12 to 20 meters. Materials that were used were
homogeneous and rigid, while elasticity was ignored,
compression factors were taken into account. The key
references were the weight of materials and the size of the
dome structure. The horizontal rings of iron, stone, or wood
that was employed into the structure counteracted the
lateral tensions of the dome.
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Developments in the field of mathematics and statistics

during the sixth and seventh century AD helped in
formulating more precise formalization of the ideas of the
traditional constructive practices of arches and vaults. It
was during the eighth century that radical changes
commenced in dome structures particularly by considering
them as a composition of smaller elements, each subject to
mathematical and mechanical laws paving the way to
analyse individually, rather than considering the dome as a
whole unit.
Developing countries started adopting domes; more
often as a less expensive alternative to the sloped-roofed or
flat-roofed construction. This arose because dome structure
uses less material to enclose a given volume and also a
lower rate of heat transfer occurs on account of the reduced
surface area. We find domes made with loam in Europe,
mud-bricks or adobes in Africa and Asia. The Persian
dome technique - a way of building without centring was
prevalent in Afghanistan. The Beehive domes at Harran,
Turkey, date back to the 19th century. Extraordinarily thin
parabolic in-shape domes of sun baked clay were known in
Cameroon and had diameters of 20 and 30 feet [3].
While the 19th century saw domes being re-translations
of the domes of the past, rotating dome construction for
housing large telescopes commenced during this period.
The Industrial revolution helped in the new production
techniques of cast iron and wrought iron to be produced at
cheaper rates and in large quantities. Due to large supplies
of iron, Russia had some of the early use of iron
architectural domes in use. The Metal framed domes like
the elliptical dome of Royal Albert Hall in London, the
circular dome of the Halle au Bl in Paris represent the
19th century development of the simple domed form.

Very large spanned Domes were possible with steel and

concrete during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. More
recently, large reinforced concrete domes have been used
as innovative forms in the development of silos because of
their great height in relation to the span that they cover.
Their structural and architectural advantages have been
witnessed in the construction of residential buildings,
schools and stadiums. Three of the dome marvels during
the recent past few centuries is shown in Fig. 2.
IV. ANALYSIS AND FUTURE OF DOMES
Domes belong to the category of self-supporting
structures that take the form of an arch. They distribute
loads around the sides and down to the foundations. Domes
are tightly compacted by gravity and any of the external
loads are carried by the compressive forces that develop
internally. One may view a dome as comprising of
multiple arches with multiple forces generated from the
rotation of an arch about its centre. The network of circular
forces and lines of thrust create a net of compression forces
over the surface of the dome, which in turn provides
resistance to external stresses. A dome, like an arch is
characterized by a thrust. The two forces that makes up the
thrust are the weight of the structure and the horizontal
thrust. Although the thrust acts downwards, the overall
directions depends on the weight and profile of the arch.
The horizontal thrust of the arch is affected by the flatness
and weight of the arch. Also, flatter the arch larger will be
its horizontal thrust. It is the action of the external forces
and weight of a structure that creates the line of thrust.

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The line which defines the equilibrium point between the
resultant of the compression forces within the structure
against the external actions is called the line of thrust, and
it is required to stay at the middle of the arch to ensure
stability.
However, we may note that a circular force depicting a
third force is induced. The induced force is generated as a
result of the rotation of the arch around a vertical axis.
Horizontal rings are generated from domes constructed in
this manner. The circle force acts within the plan of a ring
and can be assimilated to the thrust by the force of gravity
which acts downwards in the vertical plan [4].
For carrying out the analysis of a shell we have to
consider two stresses; the stress acting in the meridional
direction and the stress that acts in the parallel direction.
The concept behind the assumption can be explained using
the idea of chains. The line of thrust always follows a
certain shape of an inverted catenary curve. We can assume
that the suspended chain is under the influence of
gravitational force. The inverted chain represents the line of
compressive stresses (thrust line) centred in the arch for the
catenary chain. This central position helps in optimizing the
arch behaviour which ensures the high stability. Although
tensile forces will be induced if the thrust line moves away
from the centre, the structure will remain stable as long the
thrust line remains at the middle third of the structure. The
forces in the shell are considered to be compressive and
tensile only based on the assumption that the surface has no
stiffness against bending. Even though a reasonably thin
shell structure can accommodate safely a range of loads,
there is a minimum thickness necessary to prevent
compressive buckling.
The thickness of the dome is not dependent on the
compressive stress required to support the dome. Hence, by
increasing the thickness we are increasing the weight and
also the area involved for support, resulting in the
cancellation of the effects. It is to be noted that for a dome
of sufficient thickness, the imposed loads will be much
lesser than those arising due to the self-weight. However, if
the structure is stable in supporting its own self weight,
then any increase of the imposed loads can be seen as
negligible. As a result of modern day advanced technology,
today domes can be constructed with reasonably thin shells
reducing the difference between the imposed loads and the
self-weight. It is necessary to apply further analysis to
make sure that the stability of the dome applies with
additional imposed loads. It may be also noted that local
buckling can be considered as no real threat for masonry
domes [4].

A. Disaster proof
To know how domes effectively distribute forces
laterally the following three reasons are considered key.
The first and most important reason being that movements
that are strong enough to get a dome to sway will not
produce areas of the structure that have no support against
gravity, the reason being that the base is much wider than
the top. The second reason is that domes are capable of
naturally distributing forces in all directions and hence the
design itself is best in dissipating energy. For the third
reason, mostly the mass of the dome lies low and helps in
lowering the centre of gravity. The lowering of the centre
of gravity drastically reduces the chance of the collapse of
the dome. For these reasons, domes are found to be suitable
for the Polar Regions as they can withstand extremely low
temperatures and high winds.
Domes are superior to traditionally constructed buildings
by their strength, superior building materials, its ergonomic
shape, virtually unaffected by time, withstanding seismic
activity or man-made assault and assaults of weather
changes. Dome constructions of today are meeting
standards that are near-absolute survivability. Community
hit by earthquakes, tornadoes or hurricanes, however
infrequent they may be, should construct large dome
structures near their town or villages where they can gather
and seek shelter when natural calamities occur. A good
example is the city of Tupelo, Mississippi where they have
constructed dome shelters. Hence, domes are the most
disaster-resistant structures that can be built having priceto-value ratio more favourable than traditional construction.
B. Energy efficiency
A sphere is the most efficient shape that covers
maximum living area with the least amount of surface area.
If one was to compare a similar sized dome home and a
rectangular house, the dome home will have a surface area
that will be 30 percent lesser. Thus dome structures can
help save the environment from wasted energy. From the
energy perspective domes are relevant in several ways.
The decreased surface area results in use of lesser
building materials.
On account of the lesser surface area the exposure of
domes to the cold during winter and heat during summer
is decreased.
Flow of air is even with return air ducts, be it hot or cold
air due to the concave interior.
Extreme wind turbulence is lowered as the winds that
contribute to heat loss, flow smoothly around the dome.

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As a result of the shape, the inside of the dome prevents
radiant heat flow as it acts as a giant down-pointing
headlight reflector and helps concentrate the interior
heat.
Apart from the aesthetical characteristics, the presence
of domed roof covered by glazed tiles and ventilation
possibility through exterior skylight provide the
monuments with more efficient thermal performance [8].
For day energy saving and lighting purposes, translucent
and transparent domes are being used. Models have been
developed to predict and experiment the thermal and
optical properties of skylight inside domes. These models
are being replaced by single-glazed hemispherical domes.
The mathematical model developed predicted that the
thermal exchange of a pyranometer, simulated very much
like a small glass dome exposed to natural convection.
Electrochromic glazing can be used to prevent the
overheating inside for such structures in the summer.

Whereas, flat roof gained much importance in the

American Southwest and the Middle East during ancient
times. This was so particularly because these regions were
arid and the drainage of water from the roof was not that
important. Flat roofs came into widespread use in the 19th
century in the Americas and Europe, as a result of better
understanding of the practical use of structural steel and
concrete combined with the invention of waterproof
roofing materials.
TABLE 1
Comparison between Flat and Dome Roofs

Feature

C. Endless Design possibilities

Domes have a wide range of design possibilities. The
open floor plan allows you to insert or remove walls almost
anywhere. The dome home is structurally independent of
interior framing. The natural openings that occur within the
construction of the dome allow for windows and large
openings to the outside, letting light in.
Various designs in geodesic dome housing are being
offered by several dome manufacturers. While some
geodesic homes can be assembled within a day some others
may take up to six months time. Many manufacturers
provide dome kits that can be assembled and built by no
more than one or two persons. The very many options are
dependent on the complexity of the design.
It may be noted that even though dome homes can be
built from manufactured kits, the designs can also be
flexible. It is possible to remove up to half of the triangles
in the dome's lowest row without weakening the structure
enabling one the choice of having several windows and
doors. The built dome can sit directly on ground-level
footings (buildings weight is taken by short walls recessed
into the ground), or it can be erected at the top of a riser
wall up to 8 ft (2.5 m) tall.
D. Comparison of domes with flat roofs
A Dome can add dramatic visual interest and aesthetics
to a home by adding it on to a flat roof. The large dome
roofs constructed by the ancient Romans gained much fame
and popularity during the Baroque and the Renaissance
periods in Europe.

Dome Roofs

Vulnerable to
Transverse loads.

More effective against

transverse loads [5]

Deformation

To obtain the same

deformation, the
column section of a
flat roof structure had
to be raised by 40mm
to obtain the same
value as that of a G+4
storied frame dome
roof structure [5]

30%, 34.5% and 35%,

respectively were the
average percentage
reduction in the average
percentage reduction in
deformation, maximum
bending moment and
maximum shear force
[5]

Resistance to
Explosion

This type of roof is

the most compatible
against explosion [6]

The roof because of it

being aerodynamic will
operate well
against explosion, also
with regard to its higher
area of vertical plane
obtains a remarkable
force[6]

Materials
usually used

PVC Membrane ,
TPO
Membrane,
EPDM,
Rubber
Membrane, Modified
Bitumen,
Rolled
roofing [7]

Shingles, metal and

even glass. However,
for a dome roof that
will require less
maintenance, metal is
suggested

Future
Expansion

Future expansion of
the living space an
easy option, since
patios, gardens or
even penthouse rooms
can be added [7]

The unique structure

and area consumption
makes further
expansion a difficult
option

Expenses

177

Flat Roofs

Seismic
stability

Less expensive than

other popular roof
styles

Both expensive and

time-consuming to
construct, prefabricated
options on the market,
can translate to
substantial savings [7]

International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering

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By definition a roof that has a slope not more than 5
degrees can be called as a flat roof. Such a roof can also be
constructed as the ceiling floor of top story in a large-area
building such as a hotel, apartment, shopping mall and
office. Flat roofs soon became the most commonly used
type to cover office buildings, warehouses and other
commercial buildings, as well as many residential
structures. However, flat-roofs are not popular in
geographical areas pertaining to heavy rainfall or snow.
Today it is widely used in housing buildings in many
regions of Turkey. These roofs helps them avoid the huge
costs of installing solar energy systems, a detailed roof
construction and construction of additional stories in the
future. We have summarised the comparison of Flat and
Dome roofs in Table 1.

E. Edge forces
The edge forces (bending and shear) appear at the
boundaries of a shell, they are dependent on the support
conditions. Thickness of the shell locally can be increased
in order to control these edge conditions. For aesthetic and
cost factors this solution may not be valid and therefore an
alternative solution can be used by employing suitable
amounts of reinforcement. The amount of reinforcement is
related to the shape and corresponds to the ultimate limit
states and serviceability of the chosen shape. Analysis of
shear forces and bending moments are used to determine
appropriate amounts.
F. Cracking of domes
Although cracking indicates signs of failure, not all
cracks will lead to collapse as seen in case of St Peters,
Rome. Further analysis is required to determine the
stability of the structure in case yielding occurs due to
compressive forces in the dome.

V. FAILURE MODES OF DOME STRUCTURES

Discussed below are the various key failure modes that
might occur and needs to be addressed before the
construction of a dome structure.

VI. UPCOMING INNOVATIONS FOR DOMES

A. Insufficient thickness
A minimum thickness of 4.2% of the radius is required
to ensure the thrust line remains inside the masonry [9].
This thickness ensures that equilibrium is maintained and
that there is no distortion. If the dome does not embrace
the full 180 degrees, the required minimum thickness falls
sharply.

New age dome construction has applied a patented

process known as airforming. The advantage of such
constructions are described below.
Firstly, since the shape of the dome has the least surface
area and encloses the maximum amount of space, for the
given surface area, only a much lesser quantity of
expensive building materials is required. Hence the
efficiencies and cost savings are substantial. Regardless of
weather conditions, the construction of steel reinforced
concrete domes is fast because it takes place within an airinflated form that covers stockpiled materials and
equipment, allowing construction to continue regardless of
the outside weather conditions. Domes are ideally suited
for structures where open spaces are required. They are
open span and therefore no columns intrude on or interrupt
valuable space. Steel Reinforced concrete domes provide
unprecedented flexibility, especially in buildings requiring
a large amount of open space. The designer has the total
flexibility in the layout of rooms. Virtually any size and
number of rooms are possible.
Another completely new construction method has been
developed at the Vienna University of Technology, which
does not require any timber structures at all. A flat
concrete slab is used to harden the ground, and then an air
cushion below the plate is inflated, bending the concrete
and quickly forming a sustainable shell. Even large event
halls can be built this way at Vienna, a first experimental
structure has now been built using the new method [9].

B. Buckling.
Buckling needs to be considered in areas of largest
compression (normally at the crown of a shell) and
minimum curvature, taking into consideration the nonlinear behaviour of concrete, creep strains of concrete and
the initial imperfections [10].
C. Slope
An angle of <20 degrees is not viable in design [10]. A
slope of this inclination would induce high stresses
resulting in buckling. It may also prevent the even curing of
concrete.
D. The inner forces
In case of domes the membrane in plane tensile forces
are low and can be supported by minimal reinforcement,
however post tensioning might be required at the equator to
support the presence of large tensile forces. Additionally,
cracks may occur as a result of shrinkage due to
insufficient reinforcement at the dome base junctions.

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The main reason behind the popularity of geodesic
domes is its inexpensive rates and high efficiency. These
factors are of great importance in todays context with the
rising environmental and economic issues. Hence proving
the fact that that domes are enjoying the kind of popularity
not seen since their heyday in the late 1960s and early
1970s. Some of the largest geodesic-dome structures, listed
in descending order of diameters, have been presented in
Table 2. The first geodesic dome to attract wide scale
public attention was the dome over the Ford Rotunda
building, which Fuller designed in 1953 [13].

VII. MONOLITHIC AND GEODESIC DOMES FOR HOUSING

Due to the wide variety of dome structures in terms of
varying angles to shapes to support the structure, this paper
picks up two of the major types of dome structures namely
Geodesic and Monolithic domes since they have been
gaining prominence in the building of housing units. Please
refer Fig 3 for some illustrations of Monolithic and
Geodesic domes employed for housing.
A. Geodesic domes
A Geodesic dome can be regarded to be a portion of a
geodesic sphere. Many Building or roof constructions have
utilized the geodesic dome that ranges from 5 to 100
percent of a sphere. The domes that are used for houses are
mostly arrays of triangles forming geodesic spheres
somewhere from three-or five-eighths of a sphere.
The American architect and engineer R. Buckminster
Fuller following World War II was involved in designing
affordable and efficient housing from mass-produced
components and could be executed fast. Fuller began to
work with spherical shapes and framed spheres with a
network of strips approximating great circles (circles on a
sphere with centres that coincide with the sphere's centre),
the strips formed triangles as they crossed one another [11].
Geodesic domes are one of the most efficient structures
due to several reasons. The triangle is a very stable
configuration. Take the case of a rectangle, when a force is
applied to a corner it has the possibility of deforming into a
parallelogram, which is not the case for a triangle.
Therefore, geodesic domes are resistant to tornadoes, forces
due to wind and even earthquakes. Another reason for
efficiency is that the surface area of a geodesic dome is
only 38% of the surface area of a box-shaped building
including the same floor area the surface exposed to
temperature variations is much lesser, thus reducing the
heating and cooling rates when compared with a rectilinear
structure. Also, the construction of a geodesic dome can be
done without heavy machinery by employing prefabricated
components. It requires only few persons to erect the dome
for a 2,000-sq ft (185-sq m) home in a few hours [12]. A
geodesic dome does not require internal columns or interior
load bearing walls to support itself. This property is the key
reason why they are appealing for use as sports arenas,
churches and exhibition halls. Lofty ceilings, being
aesthetically appealing makes them attractive as homes,
and full or partial second-story floors are easily suspended
halfway up the enclosure without any support other than
attachment to the dome itself.

TABLE 2
Popular large Geodesic Domes

No.

Name

Location

Diameter (m)

1.

Fantasy
entertainment
complex

Kyosho Isle, Japan

216

Multi-purpose
arena

Nagoya, Japan

187

Tacoma dome

Tacoma, WA, USA

161

Superior dome

Northern Michigan
Univ Marquette,
MI, USA

160

Walkup skydome

Northern Arizona
Univ. Flagstaff,
AZ, USA

153

The components of an elemental geodesic unit consists

of struts and pins. The Struts in a geodesic dome are force
members that act in tensile and compressive forces to resist
the action of a load. The geodesic dome has members
which follow three sets of principal sets of great circles
intersecting at 60 degree angles, subdividing the dome
surface into a series of equilateral spherical triangles [13].
With increase in complexity in the system of triangles we
obtain a dome which is more spherical. Even though the
structure as a whole is being subjected to bending, the
individual struts are rigid and only subjected to tensile and
compression forces. Load transfer occurs from the struts to
the pins. The pins are then responsible for the transfer of
loads to the next strut and this process repeats till the
foundation level. The pins must be capable of withstanding
the compressive forces passed on from the struts, should
hold the vertices of the struts together and should be
resistant to damages caused by environmental
conditions(weather treatment is employed).

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All the vertices must have a pin connection, which
allows force transmission through to the foundation. The
loads applied include wind load, live load, dead load,
seismic load and gravitational load. All these are to be
withheld by the foundation. Even though a geodesic dome
is typically a self-supporting structure its foundation
(Typically, a circular concrete slab poured onto the earth)
must be capable of carrying the applied loads and
anchoring it into the earth. [14].
The structural Analysis of a geodesic dome might seem
challenging and complex initially but when we look at the
construction and design they are incredibly efficient and
simple structures. The Structural analysis is actually greatly
simplified by the spherical shape and geodesic layout of the
structure. Loads are distributed in a three dimensional
direction, in case of domes, round or circular homes
whereas only one or two load directions are utilised in case
of traditional structures. Air and energy are allowed to
circulate without obstruction in case of a spherical structure
or dome, hence they are the most efficient interior
atmospheres for human dwellings. This property also
enables natural cooling and heating. All over the world
geodesic shelters have been built in varying temperatures
and climates and still are regarded to be one of the most
efficient human shelters.
Geodesic domes provide lightest, strongest and the most
efficient means of enclosing spaces. The triangular
spherical configuration of geodesic domes give it unique
structural capabilities unmatched by other structural
systems. Steel geodesic domes have been wind tunnel
tested to withstand up to 200 mph winds [14]. As long as
the height and span correspond, a geodesic dome can be of
any size. One of the design concerns is the weight of the
struts compared to their spans. It is similar to an egg with a
very thin skin that can resist relatively high uniform load.
With a very small amount of materials, they can resist a
relatively large load. This is why circular homes and domes
are very economical and efficient structures [15].
However, considering the limitations, the geodesic dome
possess somewhat an odd shape. The height and diameter
of the sphere are fully dependent upon each other.
Therefore to reach an attainable height, the diameter must
be sufficient. Interior heights near the edges of the dome
are rather short and awkward. This can be taken care of by
adding riser walls to the dome and also by increasing the
volume and height of the dome [14]. Future advancements
in geodesic dome construction may arise from improved
building materials.

In the year 1997, a concrete cube manufacturer

developed a bevelled, hollow, triangular block having
scored edges that was capable of interlocking with the
adjacent blocks. If properly shaped, these blocks could be
employed for construction of dome structures. Another
innovative idea involves design of domes based on a
different mathematical premise. The edges of the triangular
elements, in case of a geodesic dome align to form great
circles. Although not exactly a geodesic, a new design
patented in the year 1989 uses pentagons and hexagons to
form domes having elliptical cross section. Because of its
mathematical derivation, this design is called Geotangent
[12].
B. Monolithic domes
Another modern dome technology that is gaining
importance in both large and small scale is the monolithic
dome. The basic difference between a geodesic dome and a
monolithic dome is that monolithic domes are much
heavier and are cast in one piece. The construction of a
monolithic dome begins with a circular concrete
foundation, where a canvas airform is attached to the
slab. The monolithic dome is made of one solid piece of
material. The canvas once erected is then inflated using
special fans resulting in the formation of a dome shape.
Once the interior is covered with a layer of polyurethane
foam insulation, a steel bar is enclosed in the foam to give
support to the dome. Followed, by a special mix of
concrete spread over the interior of the building. The
largest monolithic dome in the world is the home of Faith
Chapel Christian Center in Birmingham, AL, which is 280
feet (85 m) in diameter ,72 feet (22 m) tall and having a
floor area of 74,500 square feet (6,920 m2) in two levels
[16].
Over the past several decades, monolithic domes have
proven to be extremely disaster resistant, defying
earthquakes, cyclones and tornadoes. During the hurricane
Katrina in 2005, monolithic domes in parts of Florida are
known to have survived direct hits. In the year 2005 and
2006, monolithic domes in the path of wildfires in
Oklahoma and Texas survived with only slight charring on
the exterior foam insulations. The demolition of Reams
Turtle also demonstrated the durability of the monolithic
dome structure. A wrecking ball demolished a strip several
feet wide around the perimeter of the structure, without a
collapse. When a doorway on one side was pulled down,
the dome finally tipped over, and collapsed.

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Monolithic domes are also fire resistant due to their
largely concrete construction and are capable of lasting for
hundreds or even thousands of years if maintained in good
condition.

In todays world with the rise in technological

innovations their rates are comparable with conventional
structures and much cheaper than earthquake resistant
conventional structures. In a nutshell they could play an
important role in the making of disaster resistant,
sustainable cities.

Monolithic domes are energy efficient housing options

for example a monolithic dome for a living space, having
ceiling and walls with earth-friendly, efficient, extremely
durable and easily maintained, the thermal resistances and
low emissive windows has reduced the energy cost by over
$2000 per year compared to a conventional masonry house
of the same size[17]. Most importantly, a monolithic dome
consumes 50% less energy for cooling and heating than a
same-size, conventionally constructed building. Beginning
in the year1970, Monolithic Domes are being widely build
and are in use in virtually every American state and in
Canada, Africa, South America, Asia, Africa Mexico,
Europe, Asia, and Australia. These domes are not restricted
by site location or by the climate of the area. In terms of
disaster resistance, energy consumption, maintenance, and
durability, monolithic domes perform well in any climate,
even under extremely cold or hot conditions. They can be
constructed anywhere including beaches, mountains and
even underground [17].
The spherical sections of the dome offer minimum
surface area for the contained volume, because of this there
is less surface for transfer of heat with the outside air. The
one piece casting of the monolithic dome also helps in
eliminating many of the gaps through which air can leak,
although this is taken care of to some degree in residential
domes by the addition of multiple windows and doors.
Placing the insulating foam on the exterior of the concrete
shell will make the concrete acts as a thermal mass inside
the building, thus reducing the fluctuations in the interior
temperature far more when compared to traditional home's
insulation of a brick or stone veneer.

The various techniques used in monolithic dome

construction are far different from normal methods of
construction, so only specially trained construction crews
are suited for building a dome employing the modern
techniques. The curved surfaces typical to monolithic dome
construction often result in oddly shaped rooms when
divided, resulting in wasted space at narrow corners. There
are issues of wasted floor space due to wall curvature and
problems fitting furniture. This effect can be minimized by
using an airform of such shape as to allow for straight,
vertical walls at ground level or by constructing the dome
on a stem wall. Also, the monolithic dome's lack of seams
may result in it being too well sealed, this can be taken care
of by using dehumidifiers in all but the driest climates.
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
Through this paper, we have dealt with the brief history
of Domes and have highlighted some of the recent
innovations and focus on using it for modern housing. The
advantage of using them over Flat roofs has also been done
through the paper indicating the superiority of dome
structures. Two popular types namely Geodesic and
Monolithic domes have been discussed. Both Monolithic
and Geodesic domes have advantages particularly for
energy-efficient and disaster resistant housing. Thorough
this paper we have attempted to bring out the relevance of
carrying out further research and investigation in the use of
suitable dome structures for popular constructions like
housing.

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