Electrical Transport

Ref. Ihn Ch. 10

YC, Ch 5; BW, Chs 4 & 8

 Electrical Transport The study of the transport of

electrons & holes (in semiconductors) under various conditions.
A broad & somewhat specialized area. Among possible topics:

1. Current (drift & diffusion)

8. Flux equation

2. Conductivity

9. Einstein relation

3. Mobility

10. Total current density

4. Hall Effect

11. Carrier recombination

5. Thermal Conductivity

12. Carrier diffusion

6. Saturated Drift Velocity 13. Band diagrams in an

electric field
7. Derivation of Ohms Law

Definitions & Terminology

Bound Electrons & Holes: Electrons which are immobile or trapped at defect
or impurity sites, or deep in the Valence Bands.
Free Electrons: In the conduction bands
Free Holes: In the valence bands
Free charge carriers: Free electrons or holes.
Note: It is shown in many Solid State Physics texts that:
Only free charge carriers contribute to the current!
Bound charge carriers do NOT contribute to the current!
Only charge carriers within 2kBT of the Fermi energy EF contribute to
the current.

The Fermi-Dirac Distribution

NOTE! The energy levels within ~ 2kBT of EF (in the tail,

where it differs from a step function) are the ONLY ones which
enter conduction (transport) processes! Within that tail, instead of
a Fermi-Dirac Distribution, the distribution function is:

f() exp[-(E - EF)/kBT]

(A Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution)

 Only charge carriers within 2 kBT of EF contribute to the current:

Because of this, the Fermi-Dirac distribution can be replaced by the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution to describe the charge carriers at
equilibrium.

BUT, note that, in transport phenomena,

they are NOT at equilibrium!
The electron transport problem isnt as simple as it looks!
Because they are not at equilibrium, to be rigorous, for a correct theory,
we need to find the non-equilibrium charge carrier distribution function to
be able to calculate observable properties.
In general, this is difficult. Rigorously, this must be approached by using
the classical (or the quantum mechanical generalization of) Boltzmann
Transport Equation.

A Quasi-Classical Treatment of Transport

This approach treats electronic motion in an electric field E using a Classical,
Newtons 2nd Law method, but it modifies Newtons 2nd Law in 2 ways:
1. The electron mass mo is replaced by the effective mass m*
(obtained from the Quantum Mechanical bandstructures).
2. An additional, (internal frictional or scattering or collisional)
force is added, & characterized by a scattering time

In this theory, all Quantum Effects are buried in m* & .

Note that:
m* can, in principle, be obtained from the bandstructures.
can, in principle, be obtained from a combination of Quantum
Mechanical & Statistical Mechanical calculations.
The scattering time, could be treated as an empirical parameter in this
quasi-classical approach.

Notation & Definitions

(notation varies from text to text)
v (or vd) Drift Velocity
This is the velocity of a charge carrier in an E field
E External Electric Field
J (or j) Current Density
Recall from classical E&M that, for electrons alone (no holes):
j = nevd
(1)
n = electron density
A goal is to find the Quantum & Statistical Mechanics
average of Eq. (1) under various conditions (E & B fields, etc.).

 In this quasi-classical approach, the electronic

bandstructures are almost always treated in the
parabolic (spherical) band approximation.
This is not necessary, of course!
So, for example, for an electron at the bottom of the
conduction bands:
EC(k) EC(0) + (2k2)/(2m*)
Similarly, for a hole at the top of the valence bands:
EV(k) EV(0) - (2k2)/(2m*)

Electronic Motion

Electrons travel at (relatively) high velocities for a time t &

then collide with the crystal lattice. This results in a net
motion opposite to the E field with drift velocity vd.
The scattering time t decreases with increasing temperature
T, i.e. more scattering at higher temperatures. This leads to
higher resistivity.

Recall: NEWTONS 2nd Law

In the quasi-classical approach,

the left side contains 2 forces:
FE = qE = electric force due to the E field
FS = frictional or scattering force
due to electrons scattering with impurities &
imperfections. Characterized by a scattering time .
Assume that the magnetic field B = 0. Later, B 0

The Quasi-classical Approximation

Let r = e- position & use F = ma

m*a = m*(d2r/dt2) = - (m*/)(dr/dt) +qE

m*(d2r/dt2) + (m*/)(dr/dt) = qE
Here, -(m*/)(dr/dt)

= - (m*/)v =

or

frictional or scattering force.

= Scattering Time.
includes the effects of e- scattering from phonons, impurities, other e- , etc.
Usually treated as an empirical, phenomenological parameter
However, can be calculated from QM & Statistical Mechanics, as we will
briefly discuss.

 With this approach:

The entire transport problem is classical!

The scattering force: Fs = - (m*/)(dr/dt) = - (m*v)/
Note that Fs decreases (gets more negative) as v increases.
The electrical force: Fe = qE
Note that Fe causes v to increase.
Newtons 2nd Law:
F = ma
m*(d2r/dt2) = m*(dv/dt) = Fs + Fe
Define the Steady State condition, when a = dv/dt = 0
At steady state, Newtons 2nd Law becomes Fs = -Fe (1)
At steady state, v vd (the drift velocity)
Almost always, well talk about Steady State Transport
(1) qE = (m*vd)/

 So, at steady state, qE = (m*vd)/ or vd = (qE)/m* (1)

(2)
Definition of the mobility : vd E
(1) & (2) The mobility is:
(q)/m*
(3)
Using the definition of current density J, along with (2):
J nqvd = nqE
(4)
Using the definition of the conductivity gives:
J E (This is Ohms Law ) (5)
(4) & (5)
= nq
(6)
(3) & (6) The conductivity in terms of & m*
(7)
= (nq2 )/m*

Summary of Quasi-Classical Theory of Transport

Macroscopic
dq
Current: i
(Amps)
dt

q idt

V
i
R
R

L
A

Charge
Ohms Law

Microscopic
di
Current Density: J (A/m 2 )
dA

i J dA

Current

J E where resistivity

conductivity

J n e v d where n carrier density

vd drift velocity

Resistance

m
ne2

where scattering time

The Drift velocity vd is the net electron velocity (0.1 to 10-7 m/s).
The Scattering time is the time between electron-lattice
collisions.

Two-dimensional (2D) case

Current density j=I/W
where W is the width of the sample
[j] = A/m (instead of A/m2)
Conductivity [] = -1 (not -1m-1)
Specific resistivity [] = (not m)

Resistivity vs Temperature
The resistivity is temperature dependent mostly because
of the temperature dependence of the scattering time .
E
m
1

2
J
n
ne
In Metals, the resistivity increases with increasing temperature. Why?
Because the scattering time decreases with increasing temperature T, so as
the temperature increases increases (for the same number of conduction
electrons n)
In Semiconductors, the resistivity decreases with increasing temperature.
Why? The scattering time also decreases with increasing temperature T.
But, as the temperature increases, the number of conduction electrons also
increases. That is, more carriers are able to conduct at higher temperatures.

Quasi-Classical Steady State Transport

Summary (Ohms Law)
Current density: J E (Ohms Law)
Conductivity:
= (nq2)/m*
Mobility:
= (q)/m*
= nq
As weve seen, the electron concentration n is strongly
temperature dependent! n = n(T)
Weve said that is also strongly temperature dependent! =
(T). So, the conductivity is strongly temperature
dependent!
= (T)

 if a magnetic field B is present also, is a tensor:

Ji = jijEj, ij= ij(B) (i,j = x,y,z)
NOTE: This means that J is not necessarily parallel to E!
In the simplest case, is a scalar:

J = E, = (nq2)/m*
J = nqvd, vd = E
= (q)/m*, = nq
If there are both electrons & holes, the 2 contributions
are simply added (qe= -e, qh = +e):

= e(ne + ph), e = -(ee)/me , h = +(eh)/mh

Note that the resistivity is simply the inverse of the conductivity:

(1/)

More Details

The scattering time the average time a charged particle

spends between scatterings from impurities, phonons, etc.
Detailed Quantum Mechanical scattering theory shows that is
not a constant, but depends on the particle velocity v:
= (v).
If we use the classical free particle energy = ()m*v2, then
= ().
Seeger (Ch. 6) shows that has the approximate form:
() o[/(kBT)]r
where o= classical mean time between collisions & the exponent
r depends on the scattering mechanism:
Ionized Impurity Scattering: r = (3/2)
Acoustic Phonon Scattering: r = - ()

Numerical Calculation of Typical Parameters

Calculate the mean scattering time & the mean free path
for scattering = vth for electrons in n-type silicon & for
holes in p-type silicon.

vd = E, J = E, = (q)/m*
= nq, ()(m*)(vth)2 = (3/2) kBT
?

l ?

0 .1 5 m

em

1 .1 8 m

/ (V s )

10

*
e

12

sec

v t h e le c 1 . 0 8 x 1 0 5 m / s
l e v t h e le c

l h v t h h o le

0 .5 9 m

0 .0 4 5 8 m
h

hm
q

/ (V s )

1 .5 4 x 1 0

13

sec

v t h h o le 1 . 0 5 2 x 1 0 5 m / s

(1 . 0 8 x 1 0 5 m / s ) (1 0

12

s) 10

(1 . 0 5 2 x 1 0 5 m / s ) (1 . 5 4 x 1 0

13

s e c ) 2 .3 4 x 1 0

Carrier Scattering in Semiconductors

Some Carrier Scattering Mechanisms

Defect Scattering
Phonon Scattering
Boundary Scattering
(From film surfaces, grain boundaries, ...)

Grain

Grain Boundary

Scattering Mechanisms

Defect Scattering

Crystal
Defects

Neutral

Impurity

Carrier-Carrier Scattering

Alloy

Ionized

Lattice Scattering

Intervalley

Intravalley

Acoustic

Deformation
potential

Optical

Piezoelectric

Nonpolar

Acoustic

Polar

Optical

Some Possible
Results of

Carrier Scattering
1. Intra-valley
2. Inter-valley
3. Inter-band

Defect Scattering
Ionized Defects

Perturbation Potential

Charged Defect

Neutral Defects

Scattering from Ionized Defects

(Rutherford Scattering)
The thermal average Carrier Velocity in the
absence of an external E field depends on temperature as:
As
The Mean Free Scattering Rate depends on the temperature as:
So, (1/) <v>-3 T-3/2
This gives the temperature dependence of the
Mobility as:

Carrier-Phonon Scattering
Lattice vibrations (phonons) modulate the periodic
potential, so carriers are scattered by this (slow) time
dependent, periodic, potential. A scattering rate
calculation gives: ph ~ T-3/2 . So

Scattering from Ionized Defects &

Lattice Vibrations Together

ph ~ T-3/2

Mobility of 3-dimensional GaAs

The two-dimensional electron gas

Properties of 2D gases
Electron density: ns 1011-1012 cm-2
Dispersion relation:
Wave function:
Density of states:
Fermi energy as a function of electron density:

Fermi wavevector:

Fermi wavelength:

Fermi velocity:

Ref. Ihn Ch. 9

Mobility of 2D electron gas in remotely-doped

Ga(Al)As heterostructures

Current record: 30106 cm2/Vs mean free path 0.3 mm

- limited by background impurity scattering
Theoretical limit: 100106 cm2/Vs

Conductivity from Boltzmanns

transport equation
Formal transport theory

https://nanohub.org/resources/10575

Boltzmann Transport Equation for Particle Transport

Distribution Function of Particles: f = f(r,p,t)
--probability of particle occupation of momentum p at location r and time t
Equilibrium Distribution: f0, i.e. Fermi-Dirac for electrons,
Bose-Einstein for phonons
Non-equilibrium, e.g. in a high electric field or temperature gradient:

f
f
v r f F p f
t
t scat

f fo

homogeneous electron gas

stationary case
Relaxation Time Approximation

f fo
f

r,p
t scat

Relaxation time