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modern physics and Eastern mysticism are most striking, and

we shall often encounter statements where it is almost impossible to say whether they have been made by physicists
or by Eastern mystics.
When I refer to Eastern mysticism, I mean the religious
philosophies of Hinduism, Buddhism and Taoism. Although
these comprise a vast number of subtly interwoven spiritual
disciplines and philosophical systems, the basic features of
their world view are the same. This view is not limited to the
East, but can be found to some degree in all mystically oriented
philosophies. The argument of this book could therefore be
phrased more generally, by saying that modern physics leads
us to a view of the world which is very similar to the views
held by mystics of all ages and traditions. Mystical traditions
are present in all religions, and mystical elements can be found
in many schools of Western philosophy. The parallels to modern
physics appear not only in the
of Hinduism, in the
or in the Buddhist sutras, but also in the fragments of
Heraclitus, in the Sufism of Ibn
or in the teachings of
the Yaqui sorcerer Don Juan. The difference between Eastern
and Western mysticism is that mystical schools have always
played a marginal role in the West, whereas they constitute
the mainstream of Eastern philosophical and religious thought.
I shall therefore, for the sake of simplicity, talk about the
Eastern world view and shall only occasionally mention other
sources of mystical thought.
If physics leads us today to a world view which is essentially
mystical, it returns, in a way, to its beginning, 2,500 years ago.
It is interesting to follow the evolution of Western science
along its spiral path, starting from the mystical philosophies of
the early Greeks, rising and unfolding in an impressive development of intellectual thought that increasingly turned away
from its mystical origins to develop a world view which is in
sharp contrast to that of the Far East. In its most recent stages,
Western science is finally overcoming this view and coming
back to those of the early Creek and the Eastern philosophies.
This time, however, it is not only based on intuition, but also
on experiments of great precision and sophistication, and on
a rigorous and consistent mathematical formalism.


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three-dimensional curved space to be one in which Euclidean

geometry is no longer valid. Einsteins theory, now, says that
three-dimensional space is actually curved, and that the
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Wherever there is a massive object, e.g. a star or a planet, the

space around it is curved and the degree of curvature depends
on the mass of the object. And as space can never be separated
from time in relativity theory, time as well is affected by the
presence of matter, flowing at different rates in different parts
of the universe. Einsteins general theory of relativity thus
completely abolishes the concepts of absolute space and
time. Not only are all measurements involving space and time
relative; the whole structure of space-time depends on the
distribution of matter in the universe, and the concept of
empty space loses its meaning.
The mechanistic world view of classical physics was based on
the notion of solid bodies moving in empty space. This notion
is still valid in the region that has been called the zone of
middle dimensions, that is, in the realm of our daily experience
where classical physics continues to be a useful theory. Both
concepts-that of empty space and that of solid material
bodies-are deeply ingrained in our habits of thought, so it is
extremely
for us to imagine a physical reality where
they do not apply. And yet, this is precisely what modern
physics forces us to do when we go beyond the middle dimensions. Empty space has lost its meaning in astrophysics and
cosmology, the sciences of the universe at large, and the

concept of solid objects was shattered by atomic physics, the

science of the infinitely small.
At the turn of the century, several phenomena connected
with the structure of atoms and inexplicable in terms of classical
physics were discovered. The first indication that atoms had
some structure came from the discovery of X-rays; a new
radiation which rapidly found its now well known application
in medicine. X-rays, however, are not the only radiation emitted
by atoms. Soon after their discovery, other kinds of radiation
were discovered which are emitted by the atoms of so-called
radioactive substances. The phenomenon of radioactivity gave
definite proof of the composite nature of atoms, showing that
the atoms of radioactive substances not only emit various
types of radiation, but also transform themselves into atoms of
completely different substances.
Besides being objects of intense study, these phenomena
were also used, in most ingenious ways, as new tools to probe
deeper into matter than had ever been possible before. Thus
Max von Laue used X-rays to study the arrangements of atoms
in crystals, and Ernest Rutherford realized that the so-called
alpha particles emanating from radioactive substances were
high-speed projectiles of subatomic size which could be used
to explore the interior of the atom. They could be fired at
atoms, and from the way they were deflected one could draw
conclusions about the atoms structure.
When Rutherford bombarded atoms with these alpha
particles, he obtained sensational and totally unexpected
results. Far from being the hard and solid particles they were
believed to be since antiquity, the atoms turned out to consist
of vast regions of space in which extremely small particles-the
electrons-moved around the nucleus, bound to it by electric
forces. It is not easy to get a feeling for the order of magnitude
of atoms, so far is it removed from our macroscopic scale. The
diameter of an atom is about one hundred millionth of a
metre. In order to visualize this diminutive size, imagine an
orange blown up to the size of the Earth. The atoms of the
orange will then have the size of cherries. Myriads of cherries,
tightly packed into a globe of the size of the Earth-thats a
magnified picture of the atoms in an orange.
An atom, therefore, is extremely small compared to


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Once this was perceived, the physicists began to learn to ask

the right questions and to avoid contradictions. In the words
of Heisenberg, they somehow got into the spirit of the quantum
theory, and finally they found the precise and consistent
mathematical formulation of this theory.
The concepts of quantum theory were not easy to accept
even after their mathematical formulation had been completed.
Their effect on the physicists imaginations was truly shattering.
Rutherfords experiments had shown that atoms, instead of
being hard and indestructible, consisted of vast regions of
space in which extremely small particles moved, and now
quantum theory made it clear that even these particles were
nothing like the solid objects of classical physics. The subatomic
units of matter are very abstract entities which have a dual
aspect. Depending on how we look at them, they appear
sometimes as particles, sometimes as waves; and this dual
nature is also exhibited by light which can take the form of
electromagnetic waves or of particles.
This property of matter and of light is very strange. It seems
impossible to accept that something can be, at the same time,
a particle-i.e. an entity confined to a very small volume-and

a particle

a wave

a wave, which is spread out over a large region of space. This

contradiction gave rise to most of the
paradoxes
which finally led to the formulation of quantum theory. The
whole development started when Max
discovered that
the energy of heat radiation is not emitted continuously, but
appears in the form of energy packets. Einstein called these
energy packets quanta and recognized them as a fundamental
aspect of nature. He was bold enough to postulate that light
and every other form of electromagnetic radiation can appear
not only as electromagnetic waves, but also in the form of
these quanta. The light quanta, which gave quantum theory
its name, have since been accepted as bona fide particles and
are now called photons. They are particles of a special kind,
however,
and always travelling with the speed of
light.


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*The rotation of an electron in its orbit must not be understood in the classical
sense; it is determined by the shape of the electron wave in terms of the
probabilities for the particles existence in certain parts of the orbit.

task of physicists to understand the structure of nuclei, their

constituents and the forces which hold them together so
tightly.
The first important step towards an understanding of nuclear
structure was the discovery of the neutron as the second
constituent of the nucleus, a particle which has roughly the
same mass as the proton (the first nuclear constituent)-about
two thousand times the mass of the electron-but does not
carry an electric charge. This discovery not only explained
how the nuclei of all chemical elements were built up from
protons and neutrons, but also revealed that the nuclear force,
which kept these particles so tightly bound within the nucleus,
was a completely new phenomenon. It could not be of electromagnetic origin since the neutrons were electrically neutral.
Physicists soon realized that they were here confronted with a
new force of nature which does not manifest itself anywhere
outside the nucleus.
An atomic nucleus is about one hundred thousand times
smaller than the whole atom and yet it contains almost all of
the atoms mass. This means that matter inside the nucleus
must be extremely dense compared to the forms of matter
we are used to. Indeed, if the whole human body were compressed to nuclear density it would not take up more space
than a pinhead. This high density, however, is not the only
unusual property of nuclear matter. Being of the same quantum
nature as electrons, the
the protons and
neutrons are often called-respond to their confinement with
high velocities, and since they are squeezed into a much smaller
volume their reaction is all the
violent. They race about
in the nucleus with velocities of about 40,000 miles per second!
Nuclear matter is thus a form of matter entirelydifferent from
anything we experience up here in our macroscopic environment. We can, perhaps, picture it best as tiny drops of an
extremely dense liquid which is boiling and bubbling most
fiercely.
The essential new aspect of nuclear matter which accounts
for all its unusual properties is the strong nuclear force, and
the feature that makes this force so unique is its extremely
short range. It acts only when the
come very near
to each other, that is, when their distance is about two to


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three times their diameter. At such a distance, the nuclear

force is strongly attractive, but when the distance becomes
less the force becomes strongly repulsive so that the
cannot approach each other any closer. In this way, the nuclear
force keeps the nucleus in an extremely stable, though extremely
dynamic equilibrium.
The picture of matter which emerges from the study of
atoms and nuclei shows that most of it is concentrated in tiny
drops separated by huge distances. In the vast space between
the massive and fiercely boiling nuclear drops move the
electrons. These constitute only a tiny fraction of the total
mass, but give matter its solid aspect and provide the links
necessary to build up the molecular structures. They are also
involved in the chemical reactions and are responsible for the
chemical properties of matter. Nuclear reactions, on the other
hand, generally do not occur naturally in this form of matter
because the available energies are not high enough to disturb
the nuclear equilibrium.
This form of matter, however, with its multitude of shapes
and textures and its complicated molecular architecture, can
exist only under very special conditions, when the temperature
is not too high, so that the molecules do not jiggle too much.
When the thermal energy increases about a hundredfold, as
it does in most stars, all atomic and molecular structures are
destroyed. Most of the matter in the universe exists, in fact, in
a state which is very different from the one just described. In
the centre of the stars exist large accumulations of nuclear
matter, and nuclear processes which occur only very rarely on
earth predominate there. They are essential for the great variety
of stellar phenomena observed in astronomy, most of which
arise from a combination of nuclear and gravitational effects.
For our planet, the nuclear processes in the centre of the Sun
are of particular importance because they furnish the energy
which sustains our terrestrial environment.
has been one of
the great triumphs of modern physics to discover that the
constant energy flow from the Sun, our vital link with the
world of the very large, is a result of nuclear reactions, of
phenomena in the world of the infinitely small.
In the history of mans penetration into this submicroscopic

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that size are needed to study the world of the infinitely small.
They are the supermicroscopes of our time.
Most of the particles created in these collisions live for only
an extremely short time-much less than a millionth of a
second-after which they disintegrate again into protons,
neutrons and electrons. In spite of their exceedingly short
lifetime, these particles can not only be detected and their
properties measured but are actually made to leave tracks
which can be photographed! These particle tracks are produced in so-called bubble chambers in a manner similar to
the way a jet plane makes a trail in the sky. The actual particles
are many orders of magnitude smaller than the bubbles making
up the tracks, but from the thickness and curvature of a track
physicists can identify the particle that caused it. The picture
shows such bubble chamber tracks. The points from
which several tracks emanate are points of particle collisions,
and the curves are caused by magnetic fields which the
experimenters use to identify the particles. The collisions of
particles are our main experimental method to study their
properties and interactions, and the beautiful lines, spirals and
curves traced by the particles in bubble chambers are thus of
paramount importance for modern physics.


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being the Rig Veda. Written in ancient Sanskrit, the sacred

language of India, the Vedas have remained the highest
religious authority for most sections of Hinduism. In India,
any philosophical system that does not accept the authority
of the Vedas is considered to be unorthodox.
Each of these Vedas consists of several parts which were
composed at different periods, probably between
and
500 B.C. The oldest parts are sacred hymns and prayers.
Subsequent parts deal with sacrificial rituals connected with
the
hymns, and the last, called the Upanishads, elaborate
their philosophical and practical content. The Upanishads
contain the essence of Hinduisms spiritual message. They
have guided and inspired Indias greatest minds for the last
twenty-five centuries, in accordance with the advice given in
their verses :
Taking as a bow the great weapon of the
One should put upon it an arrow sharpened by
meditation.
Stretching it with a thought directed to the essence of
That,
Penetrate that Imperishable as the mark, my friend.
The masses of the Indian people, however, have received
the teachings of Hinduism not through the Upanishads, but
through a large number of popular tales, collected in huge
epics, which are the basis of the vast and
Indian
mythology. One of those epics, the Mahabharata, contains
Indias favourite religious text, the beautiful spiritual poem of
the Bhagavad
The
as it is commonly called, is a
dialogue between the god Krishna and the warrior Arjuna who
is in great despair, being forced to combat his own kinsmen
in the great family war which forms the main story of the
Mahabharata. Krishna, disguised as Arjunas charioteer, drives
the chariot right between the two armies and in this dramatic
setting of the battlefield he starts to reveal to Arjuna the most
profound truths of Hinduism. As the god speaks, the realistic
of the war between the two families soon fades
away and it becomes clear that the battle of Arjuna is the
spiritual battle of man, the battle of the warrior in search of
enlightenment. Krishna himself advises Arjuna:

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But the man who knows the relation between the forces
of Nature and actions, sees how some forces of Nature
work upon other forces of Nature, and becomes not their

To be free from the spell of

to break the bonds of
karma means to realize that all the phenomena we perceive
with our senses are part of the same reality. It means to experience, concretely and personally, that everything, including
our own self, is Brahman. This experience is called moksha, or
liberation in Hindu philosophy and it is the very essence of
Hinduism.
Hinduism holds that there are innumerable ways of liberation.
It would never expect all its followers to be able to approach
the Divine in the same way and therefore it provides different
concepts, rituals and spiritual exercises for different modes of
awareness. The fact that many of these concepts or practices
are contradictory does not worry the Hindus in the least,
because they know that Brahman is beyond concepts and
images anyway. From this attitude comes the great tolerance
and inclusiveness which is characteristic of Hinduism.
The most intellectual school is the Vedanta which is based
on the
and emphasizes Brahman as a nonpersonal,
metaphysical concept, free from any mythological content.
In spite of its high philosophical and intellectual level, however,
the Vedantist way of liberation is very different from any school
of Western philosophy, involving as it does daily meditation
and other spiritual exercises to bring about the union with
Brahman.
Another important and influential method of liberation is
known as yoga, a word which means to yoke, to join, and
which refers to the joining of the individual soul to Brahman.
There are several schools, or paths of yoga involving some
basic physical training and various mental disciplines designed
for people of different types and at different spiritual levels.
For the common Hindu, the most popular way of approaching
the Divine is to worship it in the form of a personal god or
goddess, The fertile Indian imagination has created literally
thousands of deities which appear in innumerable manifestations. The three most worshipped divinities in India today
are
Vishnu and the Divine Mother.
is one of the


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oldest Indian gods who can assume many forms. He is called

Mahesvara, the Great Lord, when he is represented as the
personification of the fullness of
and he can also
impersonate many single aspects of the Divine, his most
celebrated appearance being the one as
the King of
is the god of creation
Dancers. As the Cosmic Dancer,
and destruction who sustains through his dance the endless
rhythm of the universe.
Vishnu, too, appears under many guises, one of them being
the god Krishna of the Bhagavad
In general, Vishnus role
is that of the preserver of the universe. The third divinity of this
triad is Shakti, the Divine Mother, the archetypal goddess
representing in her many forms the female energy of the
universe.
Shakti also appears as
wife and the two are often
shown in passionate embraces in magnificent temple sculptures
which radiate an extraordinary sensuousness of a degree
completely unknown in any Western religious art. Contrary WR
most Western religions, sensuous pleasure has never been
suppressed in Hinduism, because the body has always been
considered to be an integral part of the human being and not
separated from the spirit. The Hindu, therefore, does not try
to control the desires of the body by the conscious will, but
aims at realizing himself with his whole being, body and mind.
Hinduism has even developed a branch, the medieval Tantrism,
where enlightenment is sought through a profound experience
of sensual love in which each is both, in accordance with the
words of the
As a man, when in the embrace of a beloved wife, knows
nothing within or without, so this person, when in the
embrace of the intelligent Soul, knows nothing within or

was closely associated with this medieval form of

erotic mysticism, and so were Shaktiand numerous other female
deities which exist in great numbers in Hindu mythology. This
abundance of goddesses shows again that in Hinduism the
physical and sensuous side of human nature, which has always
been associated with the female, is a fully integrated part of
the Divine. Hindu goddesses are not shown as holy virgins,


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Suzuki has called the two pillars supporting the great edifice
of Buddhism. They are prajna, which is transcendental wisdom,
or intuitive intelligence, and
which is love or cornpassion.
Accordingly, the essential nature of all things is described
in Mahayana Buddhism not only by the abstract metaphysical
terms
and Void, but also by the term Dharmakaya,
the Body of Being, which describes reality as it appears to the
Buddhists religious consciousness. The Dharmakaya is similar
to the
in Hinduism. It pervades all material things in
the universe and is also reflected in the human mind as
the enlightened wisdom. It is thus spiritual and material at the
same time.
The emphasis on love and compassion as essential parts of
wisdom has found its strongest expression in the ideal of the
Bodhisattva, one of the characteristic developments of
Mahayana Buddhism. A Bodhisattva is a highly evolved human
being on the way to becoming a Buddha, who is not seeking enlightenment for himself alone, but has vowed to help all other
beings achieve Buddhahood before he enters into nirvana. The
origin of this idea lies in the decision of the Buddha-presented
in Buddhist tradition as a conscious and not at all easy
not simply to enter nirvana, but to return to the world in order
to show the path to salvation to his fellow human beings. The
Bodhisattva ideal is also consistent with the Buddhist doctrine
of non-ego, because if there is no separate individual self, the
idea of one individual entering nirvana alone obviously does
not make much sense.
The element of faith, finally, is emphasized in the so-called
Pure Land school of Mahayana Buddhism. The basis of this
school is the Buddhist doctrine that the original nature of all
human beings is that of a Buddha, and it holds that in order
to enter nirvana, or the Pure Land, all one has to do is to
have faith in ones original Buddha nature.
The culmination of Buddhist thought has been reached, according to many authors, in the so-called Avatamsaka school which
is based on the sutra of the same name. This sutra is regarded
as the core of Mahayana Buddhism and is praised by Suzuki
in the most enthusiastic words:

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When the Eastern mystics tell us that they experience all
things and events as manifestations of a basic oneness, this
does not mean that they pronounce all things to be equal.
They recognize the individuality of things, but at the same
time they are aware that all differences and contrasts are
relative within an all-embracing unity. Since in our normal state
of consciousness, this unity of all contrasts-and especially
the unity of opposites-is extremely hard to accept, it constitutes one of the most puzzling features of Eastern philosophy.
It is, however, an insight which lies at the very root of the
Eastern world view.
Opposites are abstract concepts belonging to the realm of
thought, and as such they are relative. By the very act of
focusing our attention on any one concept we create its
opposite. As Lao Tzu says, When all in the world understand
beauty to be beautiful, then ugliness exists; when all understand goodness to be good, then evil exists. The mystic
transcends this realm of intellectual concepts, and in transcending it he becomes aware of the relativity and polar relationship of all opposites. He realizes that good and bad,
pleasure and pain, life and death, are not absolute experiences
belonging to different categories, but are merely two sides of
the same reality; extreme parts of a single whole. The awareness
that all opposites are polar, and thus a unity, is seen as one of
the highest aims of man in the spiritual traditions of the East.
Be in truth eternal, beyond earthly opposites! is Krishnas
advice in the
and the same advice is given to
the followers of Buddhism. Thus D. T. Suzuki writes,


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worlds would
and
the Cosmic Dancer, is
perhaps the most perfect personification of the dynamic
universe. Through his dance,
sustains the manifold
phenomena in the world, unifying all things by immersing
them in his rhythm and making them participate in the
a magnificent image of the dynamic unity of the universe.
The general picture-emerging from Hinduism is one of an
organic, growing and rhythmically moving cosmos; of a
universe in which everything is fluid and ever-changing, all
static forms being
 that is, existing only as illusory concepts. This last idea-the impermanence of all forms-is the
starting point of Buddhism. The Buddha taught that all compounded things are impermanent, and that all suffering in the
world arises from our trying to cling to fixed forms-objects,
people or ideas-instead of accepting the world as it moves
and changes. The dynamic world view lies thus at the very
root of Buddhism. In the words of S. Radhakrishnan:
A wonderful philosophy of dynamism was formulated by
Buddha 2,500 years ago . . . Impressed with the transitoriness of objects, the ceaseless mutation and transformation
of things, Buddha formulated a philosophy of change. He
reduces substances, souls, monads, things to forces,
movements, sequences and processes, and adopts a
dynamic conception of reality.
Buddhists call this world of ceaseless change
which means, literally, incessantly in motion; and they affirm
that there is nothing in it which is worth clinging to. So for the
Buddhists, an enlightened being is one who does not resist
the flow of life, but keeps moving with it. When the Chan
monk
was asked, What is the 7DR" he answered
simply, Walk on! Accordingly, Buddhists also call the Buddha
the
 or the one who comes and goes thus. In
Chinese philosophy, the flowing and ever-changing reality is
called the 7DR and is seen as a cosmic process in which all
things are involved. Like the Buddhists, the Taoists say that one
should not resist the flow, but should adapt ones actions to it.
This, again, is characteristic of the sage-the enlightened
being. If the Buddha is one who comes and goes thus, the


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thing. Taking a more constructive example, electrical energy

or chemical energy can be transformed into heat energy and
used for domestic purposes. In physics, energy is always
associated with some process, or some kind of activity, and its
fundamental importance lies in the fact that the total energy
involved in a process is always conserved. It may change its
form in the most complicated way, but none of it can get lost.
The conservation of energy is one of the most fundamental
laws of physics. It governs all known natural phenomena and
no violation of the law has so far been observed.
The mass of a body, on the other hand, is a measure of its
weight, i.e. of the pull of gravity on the body. Besides that, mass
measures the inertia of an object, i.e. its resistance against
being accelerated. Heavy objects are harder to accelerate
than light objects, a fact which is well known to anybody who
has ever pushed a car. In classical physics, mass was furthermore associated with an indestructible material substance,
i.e. with the stuff of which all things were thought to be made.
Like energy, it was believed to be rigorously conserved, so that
no mass could ever get lost.
Now, relativity theory tells us that mass is nothing but a
form of energy. Energy can not only take the various forms
known in classical physics, but can also be locked up in the
mass of an object. The amount of energy contained, for
example, in a particle is equal to the particles mass, m, times
the square of the speed of light; thus

Once it is seen to be a form of energy, mass is no longer

required to be indestructible, but can be transformed into other
forms of energy. This can happen when subatomic particles
collide with one another. In such collisions, particles can be
destroyed and the energy contained in their masses can be
transformed into kinetic energy, and distributed among the
other particles participating in the collision. Conversely, when
particles collide with very high velocities, their kinetic energy
can be used to form the masses of new particles. The photo-


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their properties and interactions is the principal aim of modern

fundamental physics. We know today over two hundred
particles, most of them being created artificially in collision
processes and living only an extremely short time; far less than
a millionth of a second! It is thus quite obvious that these
short-lived particles represent merely transitory patterns of
dynamic processes. The main questions with regard to these
patterns, or particles, are the following. What are their distinguishing features? Are they composite and, if so, what do
they consist of or-better-what other patterns do they
involve? How do they interact with one another, i.e. what are
the forces between them? Lastly, if the particles themselves
are processes, what kind of processes are they?
We have become aware that in particle physics all these
questions are inseparably connected. Because of the relativistic
nature of subatomic particles, we cannot understand their
properties without understanding their mutual interactions,
and because of the
interconnectedness of the subatomic
world we shall not understand any one particle before understanding all the others. The following chapters will show how
far we have come in understanding the particles properties
and interactions. Although we are still lacking a complete
quantum-relativistic theory of the subatomic world, several
partial theories and models have been developed which
describe some aspects of this world very successfully. A discussion of the most important of these models and theories
will show that they all involve philosophical conceptions which
are in striking agreement with those in Eastern mysticism.

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over the surface.* It is interesting to note that physicists have

used the same analogy in the context of field theory to point
out the illusion of a material substance created by a moving
particle. Thus
Weyl writes:
According to the Field theory of matter1 a material particle
such as an electron is merely a small domain of the electrical
field within which the field strength assumes enormously
high values, indicating that a comparatively huge field
energy is concentrated in a very small space. Such an
energy knot, which by no means is clearly delineated
against the remaining field, propagates through empty
space like a water wave across the surface of a lake; there
is no such thing as one and the same substance of which
the electron consists at all
In Chinese philosophy, the field idea is not only implicit in
the notion of the Tao as being empty and formless, and yet
producing all forms, but is also expressed explicitly in the
concept of chi. This term played an important role in almost
every Chinese school of natural philosophy and was particularly
important in Neo-Confucianism; the school which attempted
a synthesis of Confucianism, Buddhism and
word
chi literally means gas or ether, and was used in ancient
China to denote the vital breath or energy animating the
cosmos. In the human body, the pathways of
are the
basis of traditional Chinese medicine. The aim of acupuncture
is to stimulate the flow of chi through these channels. The
flow of chi is also the basis of the flowing movements of
the Taoist dance of the warrior.
The Neo-Confucians developed a notion of chi which bears
the most striking resemblance to the concept of the quantum
field in modern physics. Like the quantum field, chi is conceived
as a tenuous and non-perceptible form of matter which is
present throughout space and can condense into solid
objects. In the words of Chang Tsai:
6HH SDJH 
6HH 


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A New Koan?
The subatomic world is one of rhythm, movement and continual change. It is not, however, arbitrary and chaotic, but
follows very definite and clear patterns. To begin with, all
particles of a given kind are completely identical; they have
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properties. Furthermore, all charged particles carry electric
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charges of exactly twicethat amount. The same is true of other
quantities that are characteristic attributes of the particles;
they do not take arbitrary values but are restricted to a limited
number, which allows us to arrange the particles into a few
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these definite patterns arise in the dynamic and ever-changing
particle world,
The emergence of clear patterns in the structure of matter
is not a new phenomenon, but was already observed in the
world of atoms. Like subatomic particles, atoms of a given
kind are completely identical and the different kinds of atoms,
of chemical elements, have been arranged into several groups
in the periodic table. This classification is now well understood;
it is based on the number of protons and neutrons present in
the atomic nuclei and on the distribution of the electrons in
spherical orbits, or shells, around the nuclei. As discussed
previously,* the wave nature of the electrons restricts the
mutual distance of their orbits and the amount of rotation an
electron can have in a given orbit to a few
values
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common case of symmetry is associated with mirror reflection;

a figure is said to be symmetric when you can draw a line
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exhibited by patterns which allow several lines of symmetry
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symbolism.

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symmetry. A figure is also said to be symmetric if it looks the


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It is surprising that most of these regularities can be represented in a very simple way if one assumes that all hadrons are
made of a small number of elementary entities which have so
far eluded direct observation. These entities have been given
the fanciful name quarks by Murray Cell-Mann who referred
his fellow physicists to the line in James Joyces Finnegans
Wake, Three quarks for Muster Mark, when he postulated
their existence. Cell-Mann succeeded in accounting for a
large number of
patterns, such as the octets and the
decuplet discussed above, by assigning appropriate quantum
numbers to his three quarks and their antiquarks, and then
putting these building blocks together in various combinations
to form baryons and mesons whose quantum numbers are
obtained simply by adding those of their constituent quarks.
In this sense, baryons can be said to consist of three quarks,
their antiparticles of the corresponding antiquarks, and
mesons of a quark plus an antiquark.
The simplicity and efficiency of this model is striking, but it
leads to severe difficulties if quarks are taken seriously as actual
physical constituents of hadrons. So far, no hadrons have ever
been broken up into their constituent quarks, in spite of
bombarding them with the highest energies available, which
means that quarks
have to be held together by extremely
strong binding forces. According to our present understanding
of particles and their interactions, these forces can only manifest
themselves through the exchange of other particles, and
consequently these other particles, too, would be present
inside each
If this were so, however, they would also
contribute to the
properties and thus destroy the
simple additive scheme of the quark model.
In other words, if quarks are held together by strong interaction forces, these must involve other particles and the quarks
must consequently show some kind of structure, just like all
the other strongly interacting particles. For the quark model,
however, it is essential to have pointlike, structureless quarks.
Because of this fundamental difficulty, it has so far not been
possible to formulate the quark model in a consistent dynamic
way which accounts for the symmetries and for the binding
forces.
On the experimental side, there has been a fierce but, so


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far, unsuccessful hunt for the quark over the past decade.
If single quarks exist, they should be quite conspicuous because
Cell-Manns model requires them to possess some very unusual
properties, like electric charges of
and
of that of the
electron, which do not appear anywhere in the particle world.
So far, no particles with these properties have been observed
in spite of the most intensive search. This persistent failure to
detect them experimentally, plus the serious theoretical objections to their existence, have made the reality of quarks
extremely doubtful.
On the other hand, the quark model continues to be very
successful in accounting for the regularities found in the
particle world, although it is no longer used in its original
simple form. In Cell-Manns original model, all hadrons could
be built from three kinds of quarks and their antiquarks, but in
the mean time physicists have had to postulate additional
quarks to account for the great variety of
patterns.
Cell-Mann himself recently proposed that each quark can
appear in three different varieties which he called-most
appropriately in a lecture in Paris-red, white, and blue quarks.
This increased the total number of quarks to nine, and since
then three more quarks have been postulated,* which allowed
one of the speakers at a recent physics conference to refer to
them facetiously as the twelve observed quarks.
The great number of regularities that can be successfully
described in terms of these twelve quarks is truly impressive.
There can be no doubt that hadrons exhibit quark symmetries,
even though our present understanding of particles and interactions precludes the existence of physical quarks. At present,
in the summer of 1974, the paradoxes surrounding the quark
model are becoming increasingly sharp. A great deal of experimental data support the quark model; others contradict it
violently. No one has ever seen a quark, and according to our
basic ideas about particle interactions quarks cannot exist. Yet,
hadrons very often behave exactly as if they consisted of
pointlike elementary constituents. This situation is strongly
reminiscent of the early days of atomic physics when equally
striking paradoxes led the physicists to a major breakthrough
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particle reactions, are essential features of the strong interactions and have to be accounted for in a quantum-relativistic
model of hadrons.
The framework which seems to be most appropriate for the
description of hadrons and their interactions is called S-matrix
theory. Its key concept, the S matrix, was originally proposed
by Heisenberg in 1943 and has been developed, over the past
two decades, into a complex mathematical structure which
seems to be ideally suited to describe the strong interactions.
The S matrix is a collection of probabilities for all possible
reactions involving hadrons. It derives its name from the fact
that one can imagine the whole assemblage of possible
reactions arranged in an infinite array of the kind mathematicians call a matrix. The letter S is a remainder of the
original name scattering matrix which refers to collision-or
scattering-processes, the majority of particle reactions.
In practice, of course, one is never interested in the entire
collection of
processes, but always in a few specific
reactions. Therefore, one never deals with the whole S matrix,
&

'

but only with those of its parts, or elements, which refer to the
processes under consideration. These are represented symbolically by diagrams like the one above which pictures one of
the simplest and most general particle reactions: two particles,
A DQG B, undergo a collision to emerge as two different particles,
C and D. More complicated processes involve a greater number
of particles and are represented by diagrams like the following.

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experimental facts. Whenever hadrons are broken up in
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combinations of other hadrons; thus they can be said to consist
potentially of these
combinations. Each of the particles
emerging from such a collision will, in turn, undergo various
reactions, thus building up a whole network of events which
can be photographed in the bubble chamber. The picture on


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forces are associated with particles, but the concept of virtual
particles is not used. Instead, the relation between forces and
particles is based on a special property of the S matrix known
as crossing. To illustrate this property, consider the following
diagram picturing the interaction between a proton and a II -.

3
If this diagram is rotated through
and if we keep the
convention adopted previously,* that arrows pointing

P
wards indicate antiparticles, the new diagram will represent a
reaction between an antiproton
and a proton
which
emerge from it as a pair of pions, the
being the antiparticle of
in the original reaction.
the
The crossing property of the S matrix, now, refers to the
fact that both these processes are described by the same
S-matrix element. This means that the two diagrams represent
merely two different aspects, or channels, of the same
reaction.** Particle physicists are used to switching from one
channel to the other in their calculations, and instead of rotating
the diagrams they just read them upwards or across from the
*See

181

fact, the diagram can be

further, and individual lines can be crossed
to obtain different processes which are still described by the same
element. Each element represents altogether six different processes, but only
the two mentioned above are relevant for our discussion of interaction forces.

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221.


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the words of Geoffrey Chew, one of the principal architects of

S-matrix theory, A truly elementary particle-completely
devoid of internal structure-could not be subject to any
forces that would allow us to detect its existence. The mere
knowledge of a particles existence, that is to say, implies that
the particle possesses internal
A particular advantage of the S-matrix formalism is the fact
that it is able to describe the exchange of a whole family of
hadrons. As mentioned in the previous chapter, all hadrons
seem to fall into sequences whose members have identical
properties except for their masses and spins. A formalism
proposed originally by Tullio Regge makes it possible to treat
each of these sequences as a single
existing in various
excited states. In recent years, it has been possible to incorporate
the Regge formalism into the S-matrix framework where it has
been used very successfully for the description of
reactions. This has been one of the most important developments in S-matrix theory and can be seen as a first step towards
a dynamic explanation of particle patterns.
The framework of the S matrix, then, is able to describe the
structure of hadrons, the forces through which they mutually
interact, and some of the patterns they form, in a thoroughly
dynamic way in which each
is understood as an
integral part of an inseparable network of reactions. The main
challenge, and so far unsolved problem, in S-matrix theory is
to use this dynamic
to account for the symmetries
which give rise to the
patterns and conservation laws
discussed in the previous chapter. In such a theory, the
symmetries would be reflected in the mathematical structure
of the S matrix in such a way that it contains only elements
which correspond to reactions allowed by the conservation
laws. These laws would then no longer have the status of
empirical regularities but would be a consequence of the
S-matrix structure, and thus a consequence of the dynamic
nature of hadrons.
At present, physicists are trying to achieve this ambitious
aim by postulating several general principles which restrict the
mathematical possibilities of constructing S-matrix elements
and thus give the S matrix a definite structure. So far, three of

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*See p. 167


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particles becomes possible. At those values, the mathematical

structure of the S matrix changes abruptly; it encounters what
mathematicians call a singularity. Each reaction channel
contains several of these singularities, that is, there are several
values of energy and momentum in each channel at which
new particles can be created. The resonance energies mentioned before are examples of such values.
The fact that the S matrix exhibits singularities is a consequence of the causality principle, but the location of the
singularities is not determined by it. The values of energy and
momentum at which particles can be created are different for
different reaction channels and depend on the masses and
other properties of the created particles. The locations of the
singularities thus reflect the properties of these particles, and
since all hadrons can be created in particle reactions, the
singularities of the S matrix mirror all the patterns and symmetries of hadrons.
The central aim of S-matrix theory is, therefore, to derive the
singularity structure of the S matrix from the general principles.
Up to now, it has not been possible to construct a mathematical
model which satisfies all three principles, and it may well be
that they are sufficient to determine all the properties of the S
matrix-and thus all the properties of hadrons-uniquely.*
If this turns out to be the case, the philosophical implications
of such a theory would be very profound. All three of the
general principles are related to our methods of observation
and measurement, that is, to the scientific framework. If they
are
to determine the structure of hadrons, this would
mean that the basic structures of the physical world are
determined, ultimately, by the way in which we look at this
world. Any fundamental change in our observational methods
would imply a modification of the general principles which
would lead to a different structure of the S matrix, and would
thus imply a different structure of hadrons.
Such a theory of subatomic particles reflects the impossibility
of separating the scientific observer from the observed
*This conjecture, known as the bootstrap hypothesis, will be discussed in
more detail in the subsequent chapter.

which has already been discussed in connection with

quantum theory,* in its most extreme form. It implies, ultimately,
that the structures and phenomena we observe in nature are
nothing but creations of our measuring and categorizing
mind.
That this is so is one of the fundamental tenets of Eastern
philosophy. The Eastern mystics tell us again and again that all
things and events we perceive are creations of the mind,
arising from a particular state of consciousness and dissolving
again if this state is transcended. Hinduism holds that all shapes
and structures around us are created by a mind under the
spell of
and it regards our tendency to attach deep
significance to them as the basic human illusion. Buddhists call
this illusion avidya, or ignorance, and see it as the state of a
defiled mind. In the words of Ashvaghosha,
When the oneness of the totality of things is not
then ignorance as well as
arises, and all
phases of the defiled mind are thus developed . . . All
phenomena in the world are nothing but the illusory
manifestation of the mind and have no reality on their
This is also the recurring theme of the Buddhist Yogacara
school which holds that all forms we perceive are mind only;
projections, or shadows, of the mind:
Out of mind spring innumerable things, conditioned by
discrimination . . . These things people accept as an
external world . . . What appears to be external does not
exist in reality; it is indeed mind that is seen as multiplicity;
the body, property, and above-all these, I say, are
nothing but
In particle physics, the derivation of the
patterns from
the general principles of S-matrix theory is a long and arduous
task, and so far only a few small steps have been taken towards
achieving it. Furthermore, the theory in its present form
cannot be applied to the electromagnetic interactions that
*Seep.140
--


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278
The

Tao of
Physics

give rise to the atomic structures and dominate the world of

chemistry and biology. Nevertheless, the possibility that the
patterns will some day be derived from the general
principles, and thus be seen to depend on our scientific
framework, must be taken seriously. It is an exciting conjecture that this may be a general feature of particle physics
which will also appear in future theories of electromagnetic,
weak, and gravitational interactions. If this turns out to be
true, modern physics will have come a long way towards
agreeing with the Eastern sages that the structures of the
physical world are
or mind only.
S-matrix theory comes very close to Eastern thought not
only in its ultimate conclusion, but also in its general view of
matter. It describes the world of subatomic particles as a
dynamic network of events DQG emphasizes change and transformation rather than fundamental structures or entities. In
the East, such an emphasis is particularly strong in Buddhist
thought where all things are seen as dynamic, impermanent
and illusory. Thus S. Radhakrishnan writes:
How do we come to think of things, rather than of processes in this absolute flux? By shutting our eyes to the
successive events. It is an artificial attitude that makes
sections in the stream of change, and calls them things . . .
When we shall know the truth of things, we shall realise
how absurd it is for us to worship isolated products of the
incessant series of transformations as though they were
eternal and real. Life is no thing or state of thing, bu a
continuous movement or
Both the modern physicist and the Eastern mystic
realized that all phenomena in this world of change and
transformation are dynamically interrelated. Hindus
Buddhists see this interrelation as a cosmic law, the law of
karma, but they are generally not concerned with any specific
patterns in the universal network of events. Chinese philosophy,
on the other hand, which also emphasizes movement and
change, has developed the notion of dynamic patterns which
are continually formed and dissolved again in the cosmic flow
of the Tao. In the I
or Book of Changes, these patterns
have been elaborated into a system of archetypal symbols,
the so-called hexagrams.

The basic ordering principle of the patterns in the

is the interplay of the polar opposites yin and yang. The yang
is represented by a solid line I
, the yin by a broken line
and the whole system of hexagrams is built up
naturally from these two lines. By combining them in pairs,
four configurations are obtained,

and by adding a third line to each of these, eight trigrams

are generated :

In ancient China, the

were considered to represent
all possible cosmic and human situations. They were given
names reflecting their basic characteristics-such as The
Creative, The Receptive, The Arousing, etc.-and they were
associated with many images taken from nature and from social
life. They represented, for example, heaven, earth, thunder,
water, etc., as well as a family consisting of father, mother,
three sons and three daughters. They were, furthermore,
associated with the cardinal points and with the seasons of the
year, and were often arranged as follows:
summer

spring

autumn
w

N
winter
*See p. 108

279

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In this arrangement, the eight

are grouped around
a circle in the natural order in which they were generated,
starting from the top (where the Chinese always place the
south) and placing the first four
on the left side of the
circle, the second four on the right side. This arrangement
shows a high degree of symmetry, opposite
having
yin and yang lines interchanged.

WZRUHJXODUDUUDQJHPHQWVRIWKH

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In order to increase the number of possible combinations

further, the eight
were combined in pairs by placing
one above the other. In this way, sixty-four hexagrams were
obtained, each consisting of six solid or broken lines. The
hexagrams were arranged in several regular patterns, among
which the two illustrated on the opposite page were the most
common; a square of eight times eight hexagrams, and a
circular sequence showing the same symmetry as the circular
arrangement of the trigrams.
The sixty-four hexagrams are the cosmic archetypes on
which the use of the
as an oracle book is based.
For the interpretation of any hexagram, the various meanings

of its two
have to be taken into account. For example,
when the
The Arousing is situated above the
The Receptive the hexagram is interpreted as movement
meeting with devotion and thus inspiring enthusiasm, which
is the name given to it.

the Arousing

the Receptive

Enthusiasm

The hexagram for Progress, to give another example, represents

The Clinging above The Receptive which is interpreted as
the sun rising over the earth and thus as a symbol of rapid,
easy progress.

the Clinging

the Receptive

Progress

In the Ching, the

and hexagrams represent the
patterns of the Tao which are generated by the dynamic interplay of the yin and the yang, and are reflected in all cosmic and
human situations. These situations, therefore, are not seen as
static, but rather as stages in a continuous flow and change.
This is the basic idea of the Book of Changes which is expressed
in its very title. All things and situations in the world are subject
to change and transformation, and so are their images, the
and hexagrams. They are in a state of continual
transition; one changing into another, solid lines pushing
outwards and breaking in two, broken lines pushing inwards
and growing together.
Because of its notion of dynamic patterns, generated by
change and transformation, the Ching is perhaps the closest
analogy to S-matrix theory in Eastern thought. In both systems,
the emphasis is on processes rather than objects. In S-matrix
theory, these processes are the particle reactions that give rise
to all the phenomena in the world of hadrons. In the Ching,
the basic processes are called the changes and are seen as
essential for an understanding of all natural phenomena:



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The changes are what has enabled the holy sages to

reach all depths and to grasp the seeds of all
These changes are not regarded as fundamental laws imposed
on the physical world, but rather-in the words of Hellmut
Wilhelm-as an inner tendency according to which development takes place naturally and
The same can
be said of the changes in the particle world. They, too, reflect
the inner tendencies of the particles which are expressed, in
S-matrix theory, in terms of reaction probabilities.
The changes in the world of hadrons give rise to structures
and symmetric patterns which are represented symbolically
by the reaction channels. Neither the structures nor the
symmetries are regarded as fundamental features of the
world, but are seen as consequences of the particles
dynamic nature, that is, of their tendencies for change and
transformation.
In the I
too, the changes give rise to structures-the
and hexagrams. Like the channels of particle reactions,
these are symbolic representations of patterns of change. As
the energy flows through the reaction channels, the changes
flow through the lines of the hexagrams:
Alteration, movement without rest,
Flowing through the six empty places,
Rising and sinking without fixed law,
It is only change that is at work here!
In the Chinese view, all things and phenomena around us
arise out of the patterns of change and are represented by the
various lines of the
and hexagrams. Thus the things in
the physical world are not seen as static, independent objects,
but merely as transitional stages in the cosmic process which
is the Tao:
The Tao has changes and movements. Therefore the lines
are called changing lines. The lines have gradations, therefore they represent things.9
As in the world of particles, the structures generated by the

changes can be arranged in various symmetric patterns, such

as the octagonal pattern formed by the eight trigrams, in
which opposite
have yin and yang lines interchanged.
This pattern is even vaguely similar to the meson octet discussed in the previous chapter, in which particles and antiparticles occupy opposite places. The important point,
ever, is not this accidental similarity, but the fact that both
modern physics and ancient Chinese thought consider change
and transformation as the primary aspect of nature, and see
the structures and symmetries generated by the changes as
secondary. As he explains in the introduction to his translation
of the
Richard Wilhelm regards this idea as the fundamental concept of the Book of Changes:

The eight
. . . were held to be in a state of continual
transition, one changing into another, just as transition
from one phenomenon to another is continually taking
place in the physical world. Here we have the fundamental
concept of the Book of Changes. The eight
are
symbols standing for changing transitional states; they are
images that are constantly undergoing change. Attention
centers not on things in their state of being-as is chiefly
the case in the Occident-but upon their movements in
change. The eight
therefore are not representations of things as such but of their tendencies in

In modern physics, we have come to see the things of the

subatomic world in very much the same way, laying stress
upon movement, change and transformation and regarding
the particles as transient stages in an ongoing cosmic process.


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its self-consistency, with its components being consistent both

with one another and with themselves. This idea has arisen in
the context of S-matrix theory and is known as the bootstrap
hypothesis. Its originator and main advocate is Geoffrey Chew
who, on the one hand, has developed the idea into a general
bootstrap philosophy of nature and, on the other, has used
it (in collaboration with other physicists) to construct specific
models of particles formulated in S-matrix language. Chew has
described the bootstrap hypothesis in several articles which
provide the basis for the following presentation.
The bootstrap philosophy constitutes the final rejection of
the mechanistic world view in modern physics. Newtons
universe was constructed from a set of basic entities with
certain fundamental properties, which had been created by
God and thus were not amenable to further analysis. In one
way or another, this notion was implicit in all theories of
natural science until the bootstrap hypothesis stated explicitly
that the world cannot be understood as an assemblage of
entities which cannot be analysed further. In the new world
view, the universe is seen as a dynamic web of interrelated
events. None of the properties of any part of this web is fundamental; they all follow from the properties of the other parts,
and the overall consistency of their mutual interrelations
determines the structure of the entire web.
Thus, the bootstrap philosophy represents the culmination
of a view of nature that arose in quantum theory with the
realization of an essential and universal interrelationship,
acquired its dynamic content in relativity theory, and was
formulated in terms of reaction probabilities in S-matrix theory.
At the same time, this view of nature came ever closer to the
Eastern world view and is now in harmony with Eastern thought,
both in its general philosophy and in its specific picture of
matter.
The bootstrap hypothesis not only denies the existence of
fundamental constituents of matter, but accepts no fundamental entities whatsoever-no fundamental laws, equations
or principles-and thus abandons another idea which has
been an essential part of natural science for hundreds of years.
The notion of fundamental laws of nature was derived from
the belief in a divine lawgiver which was deeply rooted in the

Judaeo-Christian tradition. In the words of Thomas Aquinas:

There is a certain Eternal Law, to wit, Reason, existing in
the mind of Cod and governing the whole universe.*
This notion of an eternal, divine law of nature greatly influenced
Western philosophy and science. Descartes wrote about the
laws which Cod has put into nature, and Newton believed
that the highest aim of his scientific work was to give evidence
of the laws impressed upon nature by Cod. To discover the
ultimate fundamental laws of nature remained the aim of
natural
the three centuries following Newton.
In modern physics, a very different attitude has now developed.
Physicists have come to see that all their theories of natural
phenomena, including the laws they describe, are creations
of the human mind; properties of our conceptual map of
reality, rather than of reality itself. This conceptual scheme is
necessarily limited and approximate,* as are all the scientific
theories and laws of nature it contains. All natural phenomena
are ultimately interconnected, and in order to explain any one
of them we need to understand all the others, which is obviously
impossible. What makes science so successful is the discovery
that approximations are possible. If one is satisfied with an
approximate understanding of nature, one can describe
selected groups of phenomena in this way, neglecting other
phenomena which are less relevant. Thus one can explain
many phenomena in terms of a few, and consequently understand different aspects of nature in an approximate way without
having to understand everything at once. This is the scientific
method; all scientific theories and models are approximations
to the true nature of things, but the error involved in the
approximation is often small enough to make such an approach
meaningful. In particle physics, for example, the gravitational
interaction forces between particles are usually ignored, as
they are many orders of magnitude weaker than those of the
other interactions. Although the error caused by this omission
is exceedingly small, it is clear that the gravitational interactions
will have to be included in future, more accurate theories of
particles.
Thus physicists construct a sequence of partial and
See pp.


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is law implicit in it, but this law is the law to which parts
of wholes have to conform by virtue of their very existence
as parts of wholes . . . The most important thing about
parts is that they have to fit precisely into place with the
other parts in the whole organism which they
It is easy to see how such a view led the Chinese thinkers to
the idea which has only recently been developed in modern
physics, that self-consistency is the essence of all laws of
nature. The following passage by Chen Shun, an immediate
pupil of Chu Hsi who lived around A.D. 1200, gives a very
clear account of this idea in words which could be taken as
a perfect explanation of the notion of self-consistency in the
bootstrap philosophy:
is a natural and unescapable law of affairs and things . . .
The meaning of natural and unescapable is that (human)
affairs and (natural) things are made just exactly to fit into
place. The meaning of law is that the fitting into place
occurs without the slightest excess or deficiency . . . The
men of old, investigating things to the utmost, and searching
out
wanted to elucidate the natural unescapableness
of (human) affairs and (natural) things, and this simply
means that what they were looking for was all the exact
places where things precisely fit together. Just
In the Eastern view then, as in the view of modern physics,
everything in the universe is connected to everything else and
no part of it is fundamental. The properties of any part are
determined, not by some fundamental law, but by the properties
of all the other parts. Both physicists and mystics realize the
resulting impossibility of fully explaining any phenomenon, but
then they take different attitudes. Physicists, as discussed before,
are satisfied with an approximate understanding of nature. The
Eastern mystics, on the other hand, are not interested in
approximate, or relative knowledge. They are concerned with
absolute knowledge involving an understanding of the totality
of Life. Being well aware of the essential interrelationship of the
universe, they realize that to explain something means, ultimately, to show how it is connected to everything else. As this
is impossible, the Eastern mystics insist that no single phenomenon can be explained. Thus Ashvaghosha:

All things in their fundamental nature are not namable

or explicable. They cannot be adequately expresssed in
any form of
The Eastern sages, therefore, are generally not interested in
explaining things, but rather in obtaining a direct non-intellectual
experience of the unity of all things. This was the attitude of
the Buddha who answered all questions about lifes meaning,
the origin of the world, or the nature of nirvana, with a noble
silence. The nonsensical answers of Zen masters, when asked
to explain something, seem to have the same purpose; to make
the student realize that everything is a consequence of all the
rest; that explaining nature just means to show its unity;
that, ultimately, there is nothing to explain. When a monk
asked Tozan, who was weighing some flax, What is Buddha?
Tozan said, This flax weighs three
and when
was asked why Bodhidharma came to China, he replied, An
oak tree in the garden.
To free the human mind from words and explanations is one
of the main aims of Eastern mysticism. Both Buddhists and
Taoists speak of a network of words, or a net of concepts,
thus extending the idea of the interconnected web to the
realm of the intellect. As long as we try to explain things, we
are bound by karma: trapped in our conceptual network. To
transcend words and explanations means to break the bonds
of karma and attain liberation.
The world view of the Eastern mystics shares with the bootstrap
philosophy of modern physics not only an emphasis on the
mutual interrelation and self-consistency of all phenomena,
but also the denial of fundamental constituents of matter. In a
universe which is an inseparable whole and where all forms
are fluid and ever-changing, there is no room for any fixed
fundamental entity. The notion of basic building blocks of
matter is therefore generally not encountered in Eastern
thought. Atomic theories of matter have never been developed
in Chinese thought, and although they have arisen in some
schools of Indian philosophy, they are rather peripheral to
Indian mysticism. In Hinduism, the notion of atoms is prominent
in the
system (which is regarded as unorthodox since it
does not accept the authority of the
In Buddhist


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sophy, atomic theories have arisen in two schools of Hinayana

Buddhism, but are treated as illusory products of avidya by the
more important Mahayana branch. Thus Ashvaghosha states:
When we divide some gross (or composite) matter, we can
reduce it to atoms. But as the atom will also be subject to
further division, all forms of material existence, whether
gross or fine, are nothing but the shadow of
and we cannot ascribe any degree of (absolute or independent) reality to
The principal schools of Eastern mysticism thus agree with
the view of the bootstrap philosophy that the universe is an
interconnected whole in which no part is any more fundamental
than the other, so that the properties of any one part are
determined by those of all the others. In that sense, one might
say that every part contains all the others and, indeed, a
vision of mutual embodiment seems to be characteristic of
the mystical experience of nature. In the words of Sri Aurobindo,
Nothing to the supramental sense is really finite; it is
founded on a feeling of all in each and of each in
This notion of all in each and each in all has found its most
extensive elaboration in the Avatamsaka school of Mahayana
Buddhism* which is often considered to be the final culmination
of Buddhist thought. It is based on the Avatamsaka
traditionally believed to have been delivered by the Buddha
while he was in deep meditation after his Awakening. This
voluminous
which has so far not been translated into
any Western language, describes in great detail how the world
is perceived in the enlightened state of consciousness, when
the solid outlines of individuality melt away and the feeling
of finiteness no longer oppresses
In its last part, called
the
it tells the story of a young pilgrim, Sudhana,
and gives the most vivid account of his mystical experience of
the universe, which appears to him as a perfect network of
mutual relations, where all things and events interact with
each other in such a way that each of them contains, in itself,
*See

98.

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scientific bootstrap theory. Nevertheless, there are models of

subatomic particles in modern physics, based on the bootstrap
hypothesis, which show the most striking parallels to the views
of Mahayana Buddhism.
When the bootstrap idea is formulated in a scientific context,
it has to be limited and approximate, and its main approximation
consists in neglecting all but the strong interactions. Since these
interaction forces are about a hundred times stronger than
the electromagnetic ones, and many more orders of magnitude
stronger than weak and gravitational interactions, such an
approximation seems reasonable. The scientific bootstrap,
then, deals exclusively with strongly interacting particles, or
hadrons, and is therefore often called the
bootstrap.
It is formulated in the framework of S-matrix theory and its
aim is to derive all properties of hadrons and their interactions
uniquely from the requirement of self-consistency. The only
fundamental laws accepted are the general S-matrix principles
discussed in the previous chapter, which are required by our
methods of observation and measurement and thus constitute
the unquestioned framework necessary for all science. Other
properties of the S matrix may have to be postulated temporarily
as fundamental principles, but will be expected to emerge as
a necessary consequence of self-consistency in the complete
theory. The postulate that all hadrons form sequences described
by the
formalism* may he of that kind.
In the language of S-matrix theory, then, the bootstrap
hypothesis suggests that the full S matrix, and thus all the
properties of hadrons, can be determined uniquely from the
general principles because there is only one possible S matrix
consistent with all three of them. This conjecture receives
support from the fact that physicists have never come close
to constructing a mathematical model which satisfies the
three general principles. If the only consistent S matrix is the
one describing
properties and interactions of hadrons, as
the bootstrap hypothesis assumes, the physicists failure to
construct a-consistent partial S matrix becomes understandable.
The phenomena involving hadrons are so complex that it is
4

by no means certain whether the complete self-consistent S

matrix will ever be constructed, but one can envisage a series
of partially successful models of smaller scope. Each of them
would be intended to cover only a part of
physics and
would therefore contain some unexplained parameters representing its limitations, but the parameters of one model may
be explained by another. Thus more and more
phenomena may gradually be covered with ever-increasing accuracy
by a mosaic of interlocking models whose net number of
unexplained parameters will keep decreasing. The adjective
bootstrap is thus never appropriate for any individual model,
but can only be applied to a combination of mutually consistent
models, none of which is any more fundamental than the
others. As Chew has put it, A physicist who is able to view any
number of different partially successful models without
favoritism is automatically a
A number of partial models of that kind already exist,
formulated in S-matrix language and describing certain aspects
of
phenomena. The most successful of them are the
so-called dual models which make extensive use of the dual
description of
reactions in terms of direct and cross
channels.* These models incorporate, for the first time, two of
the three general principles** plus the crossing property of the
matrix and the
formalism. They constitute so far the
most promising attempts at carrying out the bootstrap
programme.
The picture of hadrons which emerges from these bootstrap
models is often summed up in the provocative phrase, every
particle consists of all other particles. It must not be imagined,
however, that each
contains all the others in a classical,
static sense. Rather than containing one another, hadrons
involve one another in the dynamic and probabilistic sense
of S-matrix theory, each
being a potential bound state
of all sets of particles which may interact with one another
to form the
under consideration.*** In that sense, all
hadrons are composite structures whose components are
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again hadrons, and none of them is any more elementary than

the others. The binding forces holding the structures together
manifest themselves through the exchange of particles, and
these exchanged particles are again hadrons. Each
therefore, plays three roles: it is a composite structure, it may
be a constituent of another
and it may be exchanged
between constituents and thus constitute part of the forces
holding a structure together. The concept of crossing is crucial
for this picture. Each
is held together by forces associated
with the exchange of other hadrons in the cross channel, each
of which is, in turn, held together by forces to which the first
makes a contribution. Thus, each particle helps to
generate other particles, which in turn generate
The whole
set of hadrons generates itself in this way or pulls itself up, so to
say, by its bootstraps. The idea, then, is that this extremely
complex bootstrap mechanism is self-determining, that is, that
there is only one way in which it can be achieved. In other
words, there is only one possible self-consistent set of hadronsthe one found in nature.
In the
bootstrap, all particles are dynamically composed
of one another in a self-consistent way, and in that sense can
be said to contain one another. In Mahayana Buddhism, a
very similar notion is applied to the whole universe. This cosmic
network of interpenetrating things and events is illustrated in
the
by the metaphor of Indras net, a vast
network of precious gems hanging over the palace of the god
Indra. In the words of Sir Charles Eliot:
In the heaven of Indra, there is said to be a network of
pearls, so arranged that if you look at one you see all the
others reflected in it. In the same way each object in the
world is not merely itself but involves every other object
and in fact is everything else. In every particle of dust,
there are present Buddhas without
The similarity of this image with that of the
bootstrap
is indeed striking. The metaphor of Indras net may justly be
called the first bootstrap model, created by the Eastern sages
some 2,500 years before the beginning of particle physics.
.

Buddhists insist that the concept of interpenetration is not

comprehensible intellectually, but is to be experienced by an
enlightened mind in the state of meditation. Thus D. T. Suzuki
writes :
The Buddha [in the
 is no more the one who
is living in the world conceivable in space and time. His
consciousness is not that of an ordinary mind which must
be regulated according to the senses and logic . . . The
Buddha of the
 lives in a spiritual world which
has its own rules.19
In modern physics, the situation is quite similar. The idea of
every particle containing all the others is inconceivable in
like the
ordinary space and time. It describes a reality
one of the Buddha, has its own rules. In the case of the
bootstrap, they are the rules of quantum theory and relativity
theory, the key concept being that the forces holding particles
together are themselves particles exchanged in the cross
channels. This concept can be given a precise mathematical
meaning, but is almost impossible to visualize. It is a specifically
relativistic feature of the bootstrap, and since we have no
direct experience of the four-dimensional world of space-time,
it is extremely difficult to imagine how a single particle can
contain all other particles and at the same time be part of
each of them. This, however, is exactly the view of the
Mahayana:
When the one is set against all the others, the one is seen
as pervading them all and at the same time embracing
them all in itself.
The idea of each particle containing all the others has not
only arisen in Eastern mysticism, but also in Western mystical
thought. It is implicit, for example, in William Blakes famous
lines :
To see a world in a grain of sand
And a heaven in a wild flower,
Hold infinity in the palm of your hand,
And eternity in an hour.


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Here again, a mystical vision has led to an image of the

strap type; if the poet sees the world in a grain of sand, the
modern physicist sees the world in a
A similar image appears in the philosophy of Leibniz who
considered the world as being made of fundamental substances
called monads, each of which mirrored the whole universe.
This led him to a view of matter which shows similarities to
that of Mahayana Buddhism and to the
bootstrap.*
In his Monadology, Leibniz writes :
Each portion of matter may be conceived of as a garden
full of plants, and as a pond full of fishes. But each branch
of the plant, each member of the animal, each drop of
humors, is also such a garden or such a
It is interesting that the similarity of these lines to the
passages of the Avatamsaka
mentioned before may stem
from an actual Buddhist influence on Leibniz. Joseph
has argued
that Leibniz was well acquainted with Chinese
thought and culture through translations he received from
Jesuit monks, and that his philosophy might very well have
been inspired by the Neo-Confucian school of Chu Hsi with
which he was familiar. This school, however, has one of its
roots in Mahayana Buddhism, and in particular in the Avatamsaka
(Chinese:
school of the Mahayana branch.
in fact, mentions the parable of Indras net of pearls explicitly
in connection with the Leibnizian monads.
A more detailed comparison of Leibniz notion of mirroring
relations between monads with the idea of interpenetration in
the Mahayana seems to show,. however, that the two are
rather different, and that the Buddhist conception of matter
comes much closer to the spirit of modern physics than that
of Leibniz. The principal difference between the Monadology
and the Buddhist view seems to be that the Leibnizian monads
are fundamental substances which are seen as the ultimate
constituents of matter. Leibniz begins the Monadology with
the words, The monad of which we shall here speak is merely
*The parallels between Leibniz view of matter and the
bootstrap have
recently been discussed; see C. Gale, Chews Monadology, journal of History
pp. 339-48.
of Ideas, vol. 35 (April-June

a simple substance, which enters into composites; simple,

that is to say, without parts. He goes on to say, And these
monads are the true atoms of nature, and, in a word, the
Such a fundamentalist view is in
elements of all
striking contrast to the bootstrap philosophy, and is also totally
different from the view of Mahayana Buddhism which rejects
all fundamental entities or substances. Leibniz fundamentalist
way of thinking is also reflected in his view of forces which he
regards as laws imprinted by divine decree and essentially
different from matter. Forces and activity, he writes, cannot
be states of a merely passive thing like matter. Again, this
is contrary to the views of modern physics and of Eastern
mysticism.
As far as the actual interrelation between the monads is
concerned, the main difference to the
bootstrap seems
to be that monads do not interact with each other; they have
no windows, as Leibniz says, and merely mirror one another.
In the
bootstrap, on the other hand, as in the Mahayana,
the emphasis is on the interaction, or interpenetration, of all
particles. Furthermore, the bootstrap and the Mahayana views
of matter are both space-time views which see objects as
events whose mutual interpenetration can only be understood
if one realizes that space and time, too, are interpenetrating.
The bootstrap hypothesis is not yet firmly established and the
technical difficulties involved in its implementation are considerable. Nevertheless, physicists already speculate about
extending the self-consistent approach beyond the description
of hadrons. In the present context of S-matrix theory, such an
extension is not possible. The framework of the S matrix has
been developed specifically to describe the strong interactions
and cannot beapplied to the rest of particle physics, the principal
reason being that it cannot accommodate the
particles
which are characteristic of all the other interactions. To enlarge
the
bootstrap, therefore, a more general framework
will have to be found, and in this new framework some of the
concepts which are at present accepted without explanation
will have to be bootstrapped; they will have to be derived,
that is, from the overall self-consistency. According to Geoffrey
Chew, these might include our conception of macroscopic


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space-time and, perhaps, even that of human consciousness:

Carried to its logical extreme, the bootstrap conjecture
implies that the existence of consciousness, along with
all other aspects of nature, is necessary for self-consistency
of the
This view, again, is in perfect harmony with the views of the
Eastern mystical traditions which have always regarded consciousness as an integral part of the universe. In the Eastern
view, human beings, like all other life forms, are parts of an
inseparable organic whole. Their intelligence, therefore, implies
that the whole, too, is intelligent. Man is seen as the living
proof of cosmic intelligence; in us, the universe repeats over
and over again its ability to produce forms through which it
becomes consciously aware of itself.
In modern physics, the question of consciousness has arisen
in connection with the observation of atomic phenomena.
Quantum theory has made it clear that these phenomena
can only be understood as links in a chain of processes, the
end of which lies in the consciousness of the human observer.*
In the words of Eugene Wigner, It was not possible to formulate
the laws of [quantum theory1 in a fully consistent way without
reference to
The pragmatic formulation of
quantum theory used by the scientists in their work does not
refer to their consciousness explicitly. Wigner and other
physicists have argued, however, that the explicit inclusion of
human consciousness may be an essential aspect of future
theories of matter.
Such a development would open exciting possibilities for a
direct interaction between physics and Eastern mysticism.
The understanding of ones consciousness and of its relation
to the rest of the universe is the starting point of all mystical
experience. The Eastern mystics have explored various modes
of consciousness throughout centuries, and the conclusions
they have reached are often radically different from the ideas
held in the West. If physicists really want to include the nature
of human consciousness in their realm of research, a study of
Eastern ideas may well provide them with stimulating new
viewpoints.
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