English Composition PDF

English Composition
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English Composition
Course Instructions
Please read the instructions given below related to Course "English Composition"
There are 5 sections in this course. All sections are mandatory.
In Section 1 of this course you will cover these topics:
Introduction To English Language
Introduction To English Grammar
Introduction To Tenses

Introduction To Modal Verbs
Introduction To Idioms And Common Expressions
Written Communication In English Language

Creative Writing
Methods Of Approaching Creative Writing
Literary Writing

Academic Writing
Methods Of Approaching Academic Writing
Business Communication And Writing
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English Composition > Section 1

Section 1- Instructions

Introduction To English Language
Introduction To English Grammar
Introduction To Tenses
You may take as much time as you want to complete the topic coverd in section 1.
There is no time limit to finish any Section, However you must finish All Sections before semester end date.
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English Composition > Section 1 > Topic 1

Topic 1: Introduction To English Language
T opic Objective:
At the end of the topic student shall be able to understand the following:
1. The Importance of English Language
2. The History of English Language
3. Basics of Grammar, Vocabulary and Pronunciation.
T opic Introduction:
This topic will cover in detail an introduction to English as a global language focusing on its
history and basics of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation systems.
T opic Overview:
1. T he Importance of English Language
English is undoubtedly considered as the most spoken and used understood language in the
world. In more than 70 countries of the world English is used as the official language and
therefore is considered second largest native language of the world.
English is the language of mass media, cinemas, music, scholars and television. The spread of
English began through British colonization and was reinforced by the United States of America in
20 th century owing to its domination in world economic trends, trades and political interaction.
English being an easy language owing to its distinctive simplicity amongst all the natural
languages in the world has dominated the world, hence, making it truly a universal language.
2. T he History of English Language

The English language originated from the Indo European Languages more specifically from its
West Germanic branch. Scots and Frisians Language is the closest family member of English
Language.
The historians divide the evolution of the English language into three main periods: Old English
(450-1100 AD), Middle English (1100-circa 1500 AD) and Modern English (since 1500) periods.
Being a flexible language English has absorbed numerous influences from the other languages.
2.1 Old English (450-1100 AD)
The history of English is marked down from the advent of Saxons, Angles and Jutes: the three
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Germanic tribes that swept to British Isles from North West Germany and Denmark in 5th
century.
english-what-map
They conquered the lands and drove the inhabitants from England who spoke Celtic, towards
Cornwall, Wales and Scotland. The word English is derived from the Old English word "Englisc".
Engliscs is associated with the name of the Angles who were named after the land of their
origin Engle.
2.2 Middle English (1100-circa 1500 AD)
After the advent of W illiam the conqueror in 1066 AD who was the Duke of Normandy (who later
pronounced himself as the King of the newly conquered land) began the influence of Old French.
W illiam brought with him French nobles to construct the new government and therefore French
became the new language of court, government, culture and administration. English therefore
carried an inferior status and was considered vulgar. Also, Latin was used for church.
During 1200s England and Frances relationship faced a breach. Yet the influence on the
language sustained. The Old English usage reverted yet many Old French words were added to
the English vocabulary. This language was referred to as Middle English.
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2.3 Modern English (1500 AD to Present)

The onset of modern English was marked with the establishment of W illiam Caxtons printing
press in 1476. The press was already invented by Johann Gutenberg however Caxton is credited
for using it for the first time in English. The printing press made biblical books and precious
manuscripts recordable. Hence it made the books cheaper and affordable for general public,
encouraging more people to read and acquire knowledge.
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3. Basics of Grammar, Vocabulary and Pronunciation

There are three important aspects of any natural language that are its main components, they
are: Grammar, Vocabulary and Pronunciation.
3.1 Grammar
Grammar refers to the set of rules that governs the composition and formation of clauses,
sentences, words and phrases in a language.
3.2
Vocabulary
Vocabulary refers to the pool of words that make up English Language. As discussed earlier
there are several influences of other languages over that of English. The majority (estimates
range from roughly 50% to more than 80% of the thousand most common English words are
Germanic. However, the majority of more advanced words in subjects such as the sciences,
philosophy and mathematics come from Latin or Greek, with Arabic also providing many words in
astronomy, mathematics, and chemistry.
3.3 Phonology and Pronunciation

In linguistics the English phonology refers to the sound system (phonology) of the English
language, or to the study of that system. It refers to the system as to how words in English are
pronounced or read. For that purpose they are classified in categories of vowels (a, e, i, o, u)
consonants (non-vowel alphabets) and other sub categories. Like many languages, English has
wide variation in pronunciation, both historically and from dialect to dialect depending on the
influences of other languages and geographical setting. In general, however, the regional
dialects of English share a largely similar (though not identical) phonological system.
Phonological analysis of English often concentrates on, or uses as a reference point, one or more
of the prestige or standard accents, such as Received Pronunciation for England, General
American for the United States, and General Australian for Australia.
To conclude, having being acquainted with the above mentioned aspects of English Language
one can pursue learning it more easily.
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Topic 2: Introduction To English Grammar
T opic Objective:
1. Introduction to Grammar
2. Introduction to W ord Classes
3. Components of W ord Class
This topic will cover in detail an introduction to English grammar, the most important part in the
study of English language especially focusing on the element of word classes.
T opic Overview:
1. Introduction to Grammar
Grammar refers to the set of rules that governs the composition and formation of clauses,
sentences, words and phrases in a language.
2. Introduction to Word Classes:
All words belong to categories called word classes (or parts of speech) according to the part they
play in a sentence. The main components of word classes are: Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb,
Pronoun, Preposition, Conjunction, Determiner and Exclamation.
3. Components of Word Class:
3.1 Nouns
A noun is a word that identifies:
A person (woman, boy, doctor, neighbour)
A thing (dog, building, tree, country)
An idea, quality, or state (truth, danger, birth, happiness).
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There are two major types of nouns:

Common Noun
A common noun is a noun that refers to people or things in general, e.g. boy, country,
bridge, city, birth, day, happiness.
Proper Noun
A proper noun is a name that identifies a particular person, place, or thing, e.g. Steven,
Africa, Tower Bridge, London, and Monday. In written English, proper nouns begin with
capital letters.
3.2 Verbs
A verb describes what a person or thing does or what happens. For example, verbs describe:
An action run, hit, travel
An event rain, occur
A situation be, seem, have
A change become, grow, develop
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E.g. Molly decided to follow him.
3.3 Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes a noun, giving extra information about it. For example:
a sw eet taste
a red apple
an I talian woman
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3.4 Adverbs
An adverb is a word that is used to give information about a verb, adjective, or other adverb.
W hen used with a verb, adverbs can give information about:
How something happens or is done:
She stretched lazily.
He walked slow ly.
The town is easily accessible by road.
Where something happens:
I live here.
Shes travelling abroad.
The children tiptoed upstairs.
When something happens:
They visited us yesterday.
I have to leave soon.
He still lives in London.
3.5 Pronouns
Pronouns are used in place of a noun that has already been mentioned or that is already known,
often to avoid repeating the noun.
For example:
Kate was tired so she went to bed.
Michael took the children with him.
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Kierans face was close to mine.
T hat is a good idea.
3.6 Prepositions
Prepositions are words such as after, in, to, on, and with. Prepositions are usually used in front
of nouns or pronouns and they show the relationship between the noun or pronoun and other
words in a sentence. They describe, for example:
The position of something:
Her bag was under the chair.
The dog crawled betw een us and lay down at our feet.
His flat was over the shop.
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The time when something happens:
They arrived on Sunday.
The class starts at 9 a.m.
The way in which something is done:

W e went by train.
They stared at each other without speaking.
3.7 Conjunctions
A conjunction (also called a connective) is a word such as and, because, but, for, if, or, and
when. Conjunctions are used to connect phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Y ou can have ice cream or strawberries.
He plays football and cricket.
The weather was cold but clear.
3.8 Determiners
A determiner is a word that introduces a noun, such as a/an, the, every, this, those, or many (as
in a cat, the cat, this cat, those cats, every cat, many cats).
T he book on the table is torn.
Every dog has its day.
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Topic 3: Introduction To Tenses
T opic Objective:
1. Introduction to Tenses
2. Present Tense
3. Past Tense
4. Future Tense
This topic will cover in detail an introduction to Tenses: Present, Past, Future, their further
categories, rules of usage and examples.
T opic Overview:
1. Introduction to T enses
In English grammar, tenses refer to a class that characterizes a situation in time, to indicate
when a situation takes place. Tense is the grammatical reference to the time of action and
occurrence. There are basically three major kinds of tense: Action pertaining to now is present,
"before now is past; and "after now", is the future. Each of the past, present and future tenses
are further categorized into simple tenses, perfect and continuous tenses. There are certain laws
that govern each category.
2. Present T ense:
The present tense performs the role of identifying or locating a situation or event in present
time or now
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2.1 Present Simple

The present tense is the base form of the verb: I w ork in London.
I m nineteen years old.
He lives in London.
I m a student.
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But the third person (she/he/it) adds an -s:

She w orks in London
For something that is always true we say:
The human body contains 206 bones.
Light travels at almost 300,000 kilometers per second.
W ith the present tense we use do and does to make negatives. We use does not (doesnt) for
the third person (she/he/it) and we use do not (dont) for the others.
I like basketball, but I dont like football. (dont = do not)
I dont live in Paris now.
I dont play violin, but I play the guitar.
They dont work at the weekend.
John doesnt live in Manchester. (doesnt = does not)
Angela doesnt drive to work. She goes by bus.
2.2 Present Continuous

The present continuous tense is formed from the present tense of the verb be and the present
participle (-ing form) of a verb:
We use the present continuous tense to talk about the present-for something that is happening
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at the moment of speaking:
Im just leaving work. Ill be home in half an hour.
Please be quiet. The kids are sleeping.
For something which is happening before and after a given time:
At six oclock we are usually having breakfast.
W hen I get home the children are doing their project.
These days most people are using email instead of writing letters.
For something which happens again and again:
Its alw ays raining in Malaysia.
They are alw ays fighting.
Henry is great. Hes alw ays smiling.
2.3 Present Perfect

The present perfect is formed from the present tense of the verb have and the past participle of
a verb: It is formed with have/has been and the -ing form of the verb:
We can use the present perfect tense for something that started in the past and continues in
the present:
Theyve been married for nearly fifty years.
She has lived in Liverpool all her life.
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It is also put to use for something we have done several times in the past and will continue to
do:
Ive played the guitar ever since I was a teenager.
He has w ritten three books and he is working on another one.
Ive been w atching that program every week.
It is also used when we are talking about our experience up to the present (We often use the
adverb ever to talk about experience up to the present):
My last birthday was the worst day I have ever had.
2.4 Present Perfect Continuous

It is used to express a continued or ongoing action that started in past and is continued until
now. There will be a time reference, such as since 1980, for three hours etc from which the
action has been started. A sense of time reference is found in these sentences which gives an
idea that action has been continued from some time in past till now. Such time reference or
sense of time reference is the identity of present perfect continuous tense because it tells that
action has started from a particular time in past. For example, He has been working in this
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company since 2007.

Note: If there is not time reference or sense of time reference then it is not present perfect
continuous tense because there is no hint about the time of action when it started in past and it
seems just an ongoing action at present time which resembles present continuous tense. So
the reference of time differentiates between present perfect continuous tense and present
continuous tense.
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R ules: An auxiliary verb has been or have been is used in sentence. 1st form of verb (base
verb) +ing (present participle) is used as main verb in sentence. Since or for is used before
the time reference in sentence. If the time reference is exactly known such as 1995, 4 Oclock
then since is used before the time in sentence. If the time reference is not exactly known such
as three hours, six years, four days, then for is used before the time in sentence. Time
reference such as 3 hours or 5 days is not exactly known because we dont know that about
which three hours a day is told in sentence or about which 5 days in a month is told in sentence,
while the 1995 is exactly known time.
Structure of Sentence:
Subject + Auxiliary verb + main verb (Present participle) + Object + T ime reference
Subject + has been/have been + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + object + time
reference
If the subject is He, She, It, singular or proper name then auxiliary verb has been is
used after subject in sentence.
If subject is You, They or plural then auxiliary verb have been is used after subject in
sentence.
Examples:
He has been watering the plants for two hours.
I have been studying since 3 Oclock.
I have been living in America since 2003.
They have not been watching television since 6 Oclock.
Has he been playing cricket for two hours.
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3. Past T ense:
The past tense in English is used:
To talk about the past
To talk about hypotheses things that are imagined rather than true.
For politeness.
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W e use these forms:

To talk about the past:
Example:
He worked at McDonalds. He had worked there since July.
To talk about hypotheses:

Example:
I t might be dangerous. Suppose they got lost.
I w ould alw ays help someone w ho really needed help.
To talk in polite expressions:

Example:
Excuse me; I was wondering if this w as the train for Y ork.
I just hoped you would be able to help me.
3.1 Past Simple

Past simple sentences are formed by adding ed such as:
call >> called; like >> liked; want >> wanted; work >> worked
The past tense in English is used:
To talk about something that happened once in the past
Example:
I met my wife in 1983.
W e w ent to Spain for our holidays.
They got home very late last night.
Something that happened again and again in the past:

Example:
W hen I was a boy I walked a mile to school every day.
W e swam a lot while we were on holiday.
They always enjoyed visiting their friends.
3.2 Past Continuous

The past continuous is formed from the past tense of be with the -ing form of the verb:
W e use the past continuous to talk about the past:
For something which continued before and after another action:
Example:
The children were doing their homework when I got home.
For something which continued before and after another action:

Example:
T he other day I was waiting for a bus w hen.
Last w eek as I was driving to w ork
For something that happened before and after a particular time:

Example:
I t w as eight oclock. I w as w riting a letter
To show that something continued for some time:
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Example:
My head was aching.

Everyone was shouting.
3.3 Past Perfect

W e use the verb had and the past participle for the past perfect:
Example:
I had finished the work.

She had gone.
The past perfect continuous is formed with had been and the -ing form of the verb:
Example:
I had been finishing the work.
She had been going.
The past perfect is used in the same way as the present perfect, but it refers to a time in the
past, not the present. W e use the past perfect tense:
For something that started in the past and continued up to a given time in the past:
Example:
When George died he and Anne had been married for nearly fifty years.
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For something we had done several times up to a point in the past and continued to do
after that point:
Example:
He w as a w onderful guitarist. He had been playing ever since he w as a
teenager.
W hen we are reporting our experience and including up to the (then) present:
Example:
My eighteenth birthday w as the w orst day I had ever had.
I w as pleased to meet George. I hadnt met him before, even though I had
met his w ife several times.
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For something that happened in the past but is important at the time of reporting:
Example:
I couldnt get into the house. I had lost my keys.
3.4 Past Perfect Continuous

It is used to express a continued or ongoing action that started in past and continued until
sometime in past. (Remember, an ongoing action in past which continued till some time in past)
There will be a time reference, such as since 1980, for three hours etc from which the action
had started. A sense of time reference is found in these sentences which shows that action had
started in past and continued till some time in past. Such time reference or sense of reference is
the identity of present perfect continuous tense because it tells that action has started from a
particular time in past or for some time period. For example, He had been studying in this
school since 2005, so the it means that he had started his education in this school in 2005 and
he studied in this school till sometime in past.
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Note: If there is not time reference or sense of time reference, then it is not past perfect
continuous tense because there is no hint about the time of action when it started in past or
continued for some time period, so it seems just an ongoing action in past which resembles
past continuous tense. So the reference of time differentiates between Past perfect continuous
tense and past continuous tense.
Rules: An auxiliary verb had been is used in sentence. 1st form of verb (base verb) +ing
(present participle) is used as main verb in sentence. Since or for is used before the time
reference in sentence. If the time reference is exactly known such as 1995, 4 Oclock then
since is used before the time in sentence. If the time reference is not exactly known such as
three hours, six years, four days, then for is used before the time in sentence. Time reference
such as 3 hours or 5 days is not exactly known because we dont know that about which three
hours a day is told in sentence or about which 5 days in a month is told in sentence.
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Subject + had been + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + object + time reference
Examples:
I had not been waiting for him for one hour.
She had not been playing chess since 7 Oclock.
Had I been waiting for him for one hour?
Had she been playing chess 7 Oclock?
She had been working in this office since 2007.
It had not been raining for three days.
3. Future T ense:
The future tense in English is used to talk about an event that has not happened yet, but
expected to happen in the future.
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3.1 Future Simple

The future simple tense is often called will, because we make the future simple tense with the
modal auxiliary will.
We use the future simple tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before we
speak. W e make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look at these examples:
Hold on. I'll get a pen.
W e will see what we can do to help you.
Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.

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In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the time of
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speaking. W e often use the future simple tense with the verb to think before it:
I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.
I think I will have a holiday next year.
I don't think I'll buy that car.
Prediction
We often use the future simple tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no
firm plan. W e are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:
It will rain tomorrow.
People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
W ho do you think will get the job?
Be
W hen the main verb is be, we can use the future simple tense even if we have a firm plan or
decision before speaking. Examples:
I'll be in London tomorrow.
I'm going shopping. I won't be very long.
W ill you be at work tomorrow?
3.2 Future Continuous
It is used to express a continued or an ongoing action in future. For example, I will be waiting
for you tomorrow, it conveys ongoing nature of an action (waiting) which will occur in future.
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Rules: Auxiliary verb will be is used in sentence. 1st form of verb + ing (present participle) is
used as main verb in sentence.
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Subject + auxiliary verb + main verb (present participle) + object

Subject + w ill be+ 1st form of verb or base form+ ing (present participle) + object
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Examples
W e will be shifting to a new home next year.
She will be delivering a speech to people.
He will not be flying a kite.
It will not be raining tomorrow.
W ill he be expecting honesty from his employees?
3.3 Future Perfect

The future perfect tense is only used in a few situations. The future perfect is made with the
future simple of 'have' (will have) and the past participle. For regular past participles add 'ed' to
the verb-'play' becomes 'played'
Examples:
By six pm tonight:
I will have finished this book
Y ou will have studied the English tenses
It will have stopped raining
They will have left Japan
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He will have left by the time you get to his house.

Clarissa won't have finished getting her hair done by noon.
Will you have finished eating dinner by the time I arrive?
3.4 Future Perfect Continuous

It is used to express a continued or ongoing action that will start in future and is thought to be
continued till sometime in future. (Remember, an ongoing action in future which will continue till
some time in future). There will be a time reference, such as since 1980, for three hours from
which the action will start in future and will continue. A sense of time reference is found which
gives an idea that action will start at some time in future and will continue for some time. Such
time reference or sense of time reference is the identity of Future perfect continuous tense
because it tells that action will start at a particular time in future. For example, He will have
been studying in this school since 2005, so the it means that he will start studying in this
school in 2005 and will study in this school till sometime in future.
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Note: If there is not time reference or sense of time reference then it is not future perfect
continuous tense because there is no hint about the time of action when it will start in future
and it seems just an ongoing action in future which resembles future Continuous tense. So the
reference of time differentiates between Future perfect continuous tense between future
continuous tense.
Rules: An auxiliary verb will have been is used in sentence. 1st form of verb (base verb) +ing
(present participle) is used as main verb in sentence. Since or for is used before the time
reference in sentence. If the time reference is exactly known such as 1995, 4 Oclock then
since is used before the time in sentence. If the time reference is not exactly known such as
three hours, six years, four days, then for is used before the time in sentence. Time reference
such as 3 hours or 5 days is not exactly known because we dont know that about which three
hours a day is told in sentence or about which 5 days in a month is told in sentence. W hile the
1995 is exactly know time.
Structures of sentence shall be:

Subject + w ill have been + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + object + time
reference


Introduction To Further Elements Of Grammar
Introduction To Articles
Introduction To Phrasal Verbs
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Topic 4: Introduction To Further Elements Of Grammar
T opic Objective:
1. Homophones
2. Homonyms
3. Heterograph
4. Heteronym
5. Homographs
6. Synonyms
7. Differentiating between Heterograph, Heteronym, Homographs and Synonyms
8. Antonyms
This topic will cover in detail an introduction to Further Elements of Grammar focusing on
Homophones, Homonyms, Synonyms and Antonyms.
T opic Overview:
1. Homophones
Homophones, also known as sound-alike words, are words that are pronounced identically
although they have different spellings and meanings.
These words are a very common source of confusion when writing. Common examples of sets of
homophones include: to, too, and two; they're and their; bee and be; sun and son; which and
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witch; and plain and plane.
2. Homonyms
Homonyms are words that spelled like one another but have different meanings.
Some homonyms are spelled the same, like bark (the sound a dog makes) and bark (the outer
layer of a tree trunk).
Note: The Columbia Guide to Standard English defines homophones as words that are
pronounced alike and have different spellings (like flower and flour), and defines homonyms as a
more general term that includes both homophones and words that are spelled alike and have
different meanings (like bank [the edge of a river] and bank [a financial institution]).
However, the Random House Unabridged Dictionary (1993 edition) defines the terms homonym
and homophone in such a way that each term includes words that are pronounced alike and have
different spellings, and also words that are spelled alike and have different meanings.
3. Differentiating Between Homophones and Homonyms
Homophones are words that are pronounced same where as homonyms are spelled the same.
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3. Heterograph
Heterographs are words with different spelling and meaning but with the same sound and
pronunciation.
4. Heteronym
Heteronym is one of a group of words with identical spellings but different meanings and
pronunciations.
5. Homograph
Homograph is a word that shares the same written spelling and form as another word but has a
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different meaning.
pronunciations.
W hen
spoken,
the
meanings
may
be
distinguished
by
different
6. Synonyms
According to standard dictionary synonym is A word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the
same as another word or phrase in the same language
Synonym helps make writing rich. Also, a word might have multiple meaning but may not each a
particular situation.
It is also sometimes referred to as A person or thing so closely associated with a particular
quality or idea that the mention of their name calls it to mind.
7. Differentiating Between Heterograph, Heteronym, Homograph and Synonym.
8. Antonyms
Antonym is a word with opposite meaning to another word. They are also referred to as
opposites. For example:
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Topic 5: Introduction To Articles
T opic Objective:
1. Introduction to Articles
2. Usage of Articles
This topic will cover in detail an introduction to articles and their usage.
T opic Overview:
1. Introduction to Articles
An article is a word that modifies or describes the Noun. It is used before the noun to show whether
it refers to something specific or not. So, in a way, articles can
also be described as a type of
adjectives as they also tell us something about the nouns, like adjectives.
There are two types of Articles in the English language. They are as follows:
Definite article: Definite means to be clear, exact or obvious about something. It is called definite
because it is used in relation to a particular thing or person. The is the definite article in English, which is
used to refer to particular nouns, the identities of which are known. The definite article indicates that the
noun is specific. The speaker talks about a particular thing.
Indefinite articles: Indefinite means something which is not clear, obvious or exact. They are called
indefinite because the identity of the thing or person being spoken about is left unclear or indefinite.
The indefinite article indicates that the noun is not someone or something in particular. The speaker talks
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about any one of that type of things. The indefinite articles in English are "a" and "an"
2. Usage of Articles
2.1 Indefinite articles: Usage of A
A is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound. Consonant letters in the English
alphabet are B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M,N, P, Q, R, S, T, V,W , X,Y , Z.
For example: A boy, a cat, a dog, a fight, a gym, a horse, a joke, a kite, a lion, a mirror, a noise,
a pin, a quilt, etc.
2.2 Indefinite articles: Usage of An
The indefinite article An is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound. Vowel letters in
the English alphabet are A, E, I, O, U. For example: An apple, an elephant, an idiot, an orange,
an umbrella, etc.
2.3 Definite articles: Usage of T he

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or
particular. T he signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular
member of a group. For example:
"T he dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me.
"I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a
particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a
particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.
"I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one
elephant at the zoo.
2.4 Exceptions
Theyre not and the reason is that the usage is on the basis of sound. The words 'hour' and
'honest' both begin with a vowel sound, as the consonant 'h' is not pronounced. Similarly, the
word 'one' begins with the consonant sound of 'w' and hence is written as 'a one eyed dog', not
'an one eyed dog'. Also, remember that we use "a" and "an" only before a singular noun. We
can't use "a" and "an" before a plural noun. For example:
A book correct
A books incorrect
2.4 Rules
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a bag; a pen, etc.
an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an egg; an orphan, etc.
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a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e., gives a
'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a European, etc.
an + nouns starting with silent "h": an hour; an honest man, etc.
Also, An is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound. Vowel letters in the English
alphabet are A, E, I, O, U.
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Topic 6: Introduction To Phrasal Verbs
T opic Objective:
1. Phrasal Verbs
2. Usage of Phrasal Verbs
3. Kinds of Phrasal Verbs
4. List of Phrasal Verbs
This topic will cover in detail an introduction to phrasal verbs and their usage.
T opic Overview:
1. Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are usually two-word phrases consisting of verb + adverb or verb + preposition.
Think of them as you would any other English vocabulary. Phrasal verbs usually have different
meanings than the each originated word.
Phrasal verbs consist of a verb plus a particle (preposition, adverb). The particle can change the
meaning of the verb completely, for example:
look up consult a reference book (look a word up in a dictionary)
look for seek (look for her ring)
look forward anticipate with pleasure (look forward to meeting someone)
2. Usage of Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs are mainly used in spoken English and informal texts. (The more formal a
conversation or text, the less phrasal verbs are found.)
There are three ways in which Phrasal Verbs are formed:
Verb + preposition (prepositional phrasal verbs)
You should stand by your friend. by is a preposition that introduces the prepositional
phrase by your friend.
Verb + particle (particle phrasal verbs)
W here do they want to hang out? out is a particle, not a preposition.

Verb + particle + preposition (particle-prepositional phrasal verbs)
W ho can put up with that? up is a particle and w ith is a preposition.
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3. Kinds of Phrasal Verbs

Many English verbs consist of two parts: a base verb and a preposition or an adverb particle. W hen the
verb is used with the adverb particle, the combination is called a phrasal verb. There are a very large
number of these in English, and the particle that follows the verb changes the meaning of the phrasal
verb in idiomatic ways.
The meaning of the phrasal verbs is often very different from the meanings of the two words taken
separately. In order to understand the meaning of a phrasal verb, you may have to refer to the
dictionary.
At the same time, some particles can be separated from the verb so that a noun and pronoun can be
inserted, whereas other particles cannot be separated from the verb; in addition, still others can be
used in a separated form or as a unit. Moreover, phrasal verbs can be Intransitive -- not followed by a
direct object or transitive followed by a direct object. Therefore, phrasal verbs can be Separable,
Inseparable, transitive (add object) or Intransitive (no object).
3.1 Separable Phrasal Verbs
Separable phrasal verbs are those in which the adverb particles can be separated from the verb
so that a noun and pronoun can be inserted. For example: W e
added on another floor to our house. (W e added it on to our house.)
3.2 Inseparable Phrasal Verbs
Inseparable phrasal verbs are those in which the adverb particles cannot be separated from the
verb. For example:
The bills often add up to more money than she earns.
3.3 T ransitive Phrasal Verbs

Transitive phrasal verbs are those that are followed by a direct object.
3.4 Intransitive Phrasal Verbs
Intransitive phrasal verbs are not followed by a direct object. For example:
W hen Jim saw the dog, he backed away because he got scared.
4. List of Phrasal Verbs
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Here is a list of frequently used phrasal verbs with definitions and examples. In cases where the
phrasal verb can be either separated or used as a single unit, examples are given of both forms.
add on
(Separable) to increase
We added on another floor to our house. (We added it on to our house.)
add up
(Intransitive no object) to result in
Your story just doesnt add up. I think you are not telling the truth.
add up to
(Inseparable) to total
The bills often add up to more money than she earns.
ask for
(Inseparable) to deserve a negative consequence
Why are you asking for trouble?
ask out
(Separable) to ask for a date
Joe asked Mary out last night, and they went to see a movie.
back away
(Intransitive no object) to retreat
When Jim saw the dog, he backed away because he got scared.
back off
(Intransitive - no object) to abandon
The bank robber backed off when he noticed two police cars parked in front of the bank.
back up (1)
(Separable) to reverse
When he backed the car up in the driveway, he almost struck the cat.
back up (2)
(Separable) to support
My sister always backs me up when I have problems.
back up (3)
(Separable) to confirm
My brother will back me up if you dont believe what I told you.
back up (4)
(Separable) to make copies of computer files
You should back your data up at least once a week if you dont want to risk losing any information.
bail out (1)

(Intransitive -- no object) to quit
John bailed out of the competition when he found out that Sam was also competing.
bail out (2)

(Separable) to rescue
When you lent me some money last month, you bailed me out of a difficult situation.
bash in
(Separable) to break
Someone bashed in the side window of my car. (Someone bashed it in.)
beat up
(Separable) to hurt someone
He has a black eye; someone must have beaten him up last night.
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black out
(Intransitive - no object) to lose consciousness
Jack hasnt eaten anything for three days so he finally blacked out.
blend in
(Intransitive - no object) to match
When you move to a new neighborhood, youll blend in after awhile.
blow up (1)
(Separable) to inflate
Please blow up only the red balloons for Sallys birthday party. (Can you blow them up?)
boss around
(Separable) to order people what to do
The new supervisor likes to boss around the employees. (He likes to boss them around.)
break down (1)

(Separable) to separate into parts
He did not understand the sentence, so Mary broke it down into separate words, translating each
separately.
break down (2)

(Intransitive - no object) to stop functioning
When his computer breaks down, Peter can always fix it.
break down (3)

(Intransitive - no object) to lose control
Chrissie broke down in tears when she failed the exam.
break in (1)
(Intransitive - no object) to enter by using force
The thief broke in the apartment while the family was away on holidays.
break in (2)
(Separable) to wear something until it is comfortable
When I buy new shoes, first, I need to break them in, in order not to hurt myself.
break up
(Inseparable) to scatter
Last night, the gathering broke up around midnight.
break up (with)
(Inseparable) to end a relationship
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Lisa broke up with Jack when she met Joe.
bring down
(Separable) to cause to fail
Julia is very jealous of Jills success, so Julia would do anything to bring Jill down.
bring forth
(Inseparable) to produce
Your thoughtful remark will bring forth lots of discussion during the meeting later today.
bring in
(Separable) to earn money
Claudia has a very stressful job, but she brings more money in than her brother.
bring on
(Separable) to cause to start
When you bring the music on, the show will start.
bring up (1)
(Separable) to mention
Sara never brings Erics past up when they visit her grandparents.
burn down
(Inseparable) to destroy by fire
Sashas hometown in Central Europe burned down several times during the Middle Ages.
burn up
(Separable) to cause anger
The insurance agent burned Sam up when the agent did not want to discuss Sams options.
Sam got burned up when the insurance agent didnt want to discuss options for car insurance.
butter up
(Separable) to flatter
Billy has been buttering Jenny up all week hoping to get a pay raise at the end of the month.
call on
(Inseparable) to ask
Cynthia always calls on you when she needs help; she trusts you.
call off
(Separable) to cancel
There is nothing worse than calling a wedding off in the last moment.
call up
(Separable) to telephone
Can I call you up later today and chat about your latest trip?
calm down
(Inseparable) to relax
Kendra was very nervous but calmed down once she passed the driving test.
carry on
(Intransitive - no object) to continue
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Carry on, the teacher said when she entered the classroom, and the students continued checking their
homework.
catch on (1)
(Intransitive - no object) to become popular
Being bald and wearing tattoos have caught on fairly quickly in many countries.
catch on (2)
(Intransitive - no object) to learn
Children catch on very quickly when they learn languages.
catch up (with)
(Inseparable) to follow/reach
You can go ahead, insisted Andrea. Ill catch up with you later.
cheer on
(Separable) to support
Hockey fans always cheer their teams on loudly on sports nights.
cheer up
(Separable) to help someone feel better
When Lily is depressed, her brother cheers her up with jokes and cartoons.
chicken out
(Intransitive - no object) to give up
Vivian chickened out in the last moment when Sam asked her to go bungee jumping.
chip in
(Inseparable) to contribute
When we celebrate a birthday in the office, everyone chips in at least $5.
come along (1)

(Intransitive - no object) to progress
How is your new project coming along?
come along (2)

(Intransitive - no object) to appear
When Anna came along after class, Johnny became very quiet.
come around
(Intransitive - no object) to change ones opinion
When will you come around and finally agree with me?
come by
(Inseparable) to obtain
I came by many second hand sweaters since my older sister got rid of them very fast.
come down (with)

(Inseparable) to become sick
Every winter, I came down with the flu.
come into
(Inseparable) -- to acquire
George came into a fortune when his parents suddenly died.
come on
(Intransitive - no object) to reflect
Stacey comes on as a tough person, but in fact, she is very sensitive.
come on
(Intransitive - no object) to become available
The hot water came on very late last night since the plumber was fixing the pipes all day.
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come through
(Intransitive - no object) to do what is expected
William came through only after Wanda begged him for three days to get the tickets for the game.
come to
(Inseparable) to total
Our charges came to an even number after we added the taxes and the extra commission.
come up with
(Inseparable) to think of/invent
Mary always comes up with very creative ideas.
come upon
(Inseparable) to discover by accident
While cleaning the attic, I came upon a very rare and beautiful pearl necklace.
count on
(Inseparable) to depend on
I have always counted on my brother sine he helped me and kept his promise no matter what.
cut down on
(Inseparable) to reduce
Since gas is so expensive, Sheila decided to cut down on driving and walk instead.
die down
(Intransitive - no object) to decrease
After midnight, the music died down next door, and I finally fell asleep.
dig up
(Separable) to look for
The detective was unable to dig up any useful information on the suspect. (He couldnt dig it up.)
do in
(Separable) to make tired
Two games yesterday and one more today did the soccer player in. He slept through the whole weekend.
do over
(Separable) to redo
The assignment was so poorly organized that I had to do the entire paper over.
drink up
(Separable) to finish a drink
Drink up your milk and lets go. Well be late for school. (Drink it up!)
drop off
(Separable) to deliver
Mom drops the kids off for hockey practice, but dad picks them up and drives them home.
fall down
(Intransitive - no object) to fall to the ground
The toddler fell down many times while learning how to walk.
fall for
(Inseparable) to be attracted to something or someone
The deal was too good to refuse, so the buyer fell for the cheap offer only to find out it was a scam.
figure out
(Separable) to solve a problem
I have finally figured out how my new cell-phone works even though it has too many functions. (I figured
it out.)
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fill in
(Separable) to complete
The easiest part of the test was filling in the blanks. (I could fill them in easily.)
fill in for
(Inseparable) to substitute
Can you please fill in for me while I am away?
fill out
(Separable) to complete a form
First, you will need to fill out an application form, and then you can take the course. (You will need to fill it
out.)
fill up
(Separable) to fill completely
Before the road trip, we will need to fill up the tank. (We will need to fill it up.)
find out
(Inseparable) to get information
I have just found out that we have a test tomorrow.
fit in
(Intransitive - no object) to get along
When Mary moved to the new neighbourhood, she fit in right away since everybody liked gardening.
free up
(Separable) to make something available
Can you free up some space in the closet so that I can store my winter clothes? (Can you free it up?)
get across
(Separable) to communicate clearly
The girl was so stubborn that no one was able to get the message across and change her mind.
get ahead
(Intransitive - no object) to make progress
You need to work hard in this company if you wish to get ahead and get promoted.
get along
(Intransitive) to have a good relationship
Our team members have been getting along quite well before they lost the game.
get over
(Inseparable) to recover
After that rigorous football practice, it took Jimmy a whole day to get over his sore muscles.
get rid of
(Inseparable) dispose of something or dismiss someone
I cannot get rid of the unpleasant burning smell from my clothes; Ill have to dry clean them.
get through
(Inseparable) to finish
My new course is so challenging that I started doubting Ill ever get through it.
go away
(Intransitive - no object) to leave
Will you go away during the spring break? I heard there are good deals for one-week trips.
go out with
(Inseparable) to have a date
When will you finally go out with Sara? Shes been asking about you for a month now.
go through
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(Inseparable) to endure
When shipwrecked on a desert island, Jack had to go through lots of hardships in order to survive.
go with
(Intransitive - no object) to match
That blue shirt goes with both your eyes and your jeans.
hand in
(Separable) to submit work
When did you hand in your homework? I did not see you handing it in.
hand out
(Separable) to distribute
After the earthquake, the Red Cross handed out blankets and food to the survivors. Who handed the
water out?
hang around
(Intransitive) to spend time
Teenagers often hang around malls instead of libraries these days.
hold on
(Intransitive) to wait
Can you hold on a minute? I forgot my car keys in the office.
hunt down
(Separable) to find)
I finally hunted the landlord down and paid the rent. He was fixing the boilers in the basement.
hurry up
(Intransitive) to do faster
If you dont hurry up, well be late for the show.
look back on
(Inseparable) to reflect on something
When they looked back on their many travels, they realized they always had a good time.
look down on
(Inseparable) to consider inferior
The rich tycoon looked down on homeless people, so he didnt donate any money for the charity.
look forward to
(Inseparable) to anticipate pleasantly
We are really looking forward to our yoga classes.
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look into
(Inseparable) to investigate
The police are looking into the fraud charges laid last month. It is hard to believe all the allegations about
such a reputable company.
look like
(Inseparable) to resemble
You look like your mother when she was your age! exclaimed my uncle.
look out
(Intransitive) to be careful
Because of the big age difference, Jimmy always looked out for his little brother.
look over
(Separable) to check
Before submitting it, Id like to look the report over once more.
look up (1)
(Separable) to find information in a source
Can you look this up in your textbook? I am not sure what you are referring to here.
look up (2)
(Separable) to visit someone
Dont forget to look me up when you visit our town next time.
look up to
(Inseparable) to respect
In many cultures, younger people look up to their elders and seek their advice.
make fun of
(Inseparable) make jokes about
You should not make fun of anybody. It may upset them.
with each other before they got to work.
make out
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(Separable) to understand
The letters in the ad were so small that I couldnt make them out.
make for
(Inseparable) go to or toward
First thing in the morning, before even washing, my sister makes for the coffee machine.
mark up
(Separable) to increase the price for resale
Consignment stores usually mark prices up they buy items cheaper and sell them higher.
mess up
(Separable) to make something disorganized
If you use my desk, please try not to mess my books up. I have a test tomorrow.
mix up
(Separable) to become confused
The questions on the quiz were not clear, and I could not answer them. They mixed me up.
move on
(Intransitive) to progress
Once we complete chapter 2, we can move on to the next chapter. However, first, we should do the
exercises.
open up
(Intransitive) to talk openly
Jill is an introvert. She never opens up to anybody, and she mostly talks about the weather.
nod off
(Intransitive) to fall asleep
The lecture was so boring and the speakers voice so monotonous that 80% of the audience nodded off.
pan out
(Intransitive) to succeed
Because of the flu epidemic, out trip to Mexico didnt pan out. We went to Vancouver Island instead.
pass away
(Intransitive) to die
Tom didnt show up for practice today. His grandfather just passed away.
pay off
(Separable) to pay all the money owed
Jaime was finally able to pay her student loan off. It took her 10 years to pay it off.
perk up
(Separable) to cheer up
Why dont you visit your cousin in the hospital? I am sure it will perk her up.
pick out
(Separable) to choose
Prom is approaching fast. Have you picked out your dress yet? I picked mine out yesterday.
pull over
(Intransitive) to drive to the side of the road
The trucker was driving too fast, so the police officer pulled him over and fined him.
put across
(Separable) to communicate
The public speaker put the message across so clearly and effectively that he got a standing ovation from
the audience.
put back
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(Separable) to place something where it was before

If you use the hairdryer, could you please put it back to the second shelf in the right cupboard?
put off
(Separable) to postpone
We had to put the meeting off because too many people were ill with the flu.
put out
(Separable) to extinguish
Many brave firefighters perished while putting the forest fires out last summer.
put up with
(Inseparable) to tolerate
Zack couldnt put up with the cold any longer so he decided to move to Florida. Now he has to put up with
the hurricanes.
quiet down
(Inseparable) to be less noisy
Traffic quiets down in the busy city during the charity runs on Sunday mornings.
rack up
(Separable) to accumulate in number
Jimmy racked so many speeding tickets up that his license was finally suspended.
rip off
(Separable) to cheat or charge too much
Dont shop in that store any more! Theyll rip you off.
rip up
(Separable) to tear something in pieces
Mary got so upset when she read the terms of the contract that she ripped it up immediately.
run away
(Intransitive) to escape from guardians
More than ten teenagers from our neighbourhood ran away and started living on the streets. It is a very
alarming trend.
run into
(Inseparable) to meet unexpectedly
Guess who I ran into the other day? Do you remember Johnny from high school?
run out of
(Inseparable) to use the last of something
I ran out of gas last night, and there were no gas stations around so I had to take a cab.
set back
(Separable) to cause delay
We wanted to complete the construction early, but the weather set us back.
set up
(Separable) to organize
Ill need to set up a meeting for tomorrow morning. Can you assist me setting it up?
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settle down
(Intransitive) to start living a family life
After John and Jane got married, they settled down in a quiet neighbourhood and just had their first baby.
shout out
(Separable) to announce
The contestants shouted out the directions to their teammates. Who shouted the rules out?
show off
(Separable) to impress
Jack was showing off his new car, but Daisy was showing her new hairdo off.
show up
(Intransitive) to appear
Why did you show up so late? You missed most of the presentation.
shrug off
(Separable) to dismiss something
Why do you always shrug everything off? Isnt there something that is important for you?
speak up
(Intransitive) to speak more loudly
Can you please speak up? I cant hear you because of the noise from the traffic.
stand out
(Intransitive) to be prominent
Her performance in the show stood out, but not because she was good. She was completely unprepared.
stay in
(Intransitive) to not go out
We stayed in and studied all weekend. Anyway, it was raining.
stay out
(Intransitive) to not return home on time
Since Julia is still a minor, she should not stay out past 10pm on weeknights.
stop by
(Inseparable) to visit briefly
You could stop by for coffee before you go home tonight. Ill need to discuss something with you.
take apart
(Separable) to disassemble
Peter took his computer apart three times when he finally figured out what the problem was.
take out
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(Separable) to take someone on a date

Before they got married, Tim took Tina out for dinner at least once a week. Now they go out once a year.
take over
(Separable) to gain control
Who takes the company over once the president retires?
talk into
(Separable) to persuade
I didnt want to go kayaking, but my brother talked me into it. We had a blast!
talk out of
(Separable) to persuade not to do something
Even though my sister loves to eat raw oysters, I talked her out of eating them. The weather is too warm
and she might get ill.
tangle up
(Separable) to twist and mix
There are so many cords tangled up in the room that I dont know which one id the DVD players cord.
Who tangled these cords up?
tear off
(Separable) to remove something
Someone tore off the appendix from my textbook. Did you tear it off?
thaw out
(Intransitive) to change from frozen to non frozen state
When the rivers thaw out in the spring, there is always flooding danger.
think over
(Separable) to reflect
Let me think this over before I give you a final answer.
throw away
(Separable) to discard as trash
You should not throw the empty water bottles away. You should recycle them instead.
throw out
(Separable) to discard
Patricia had too many shoes so she threw all of them out except for the ones she bought this year.
throw up
(Separable) to vomit
Since the fishcakes were not very fresh, Toni threw them all up.
tick off
(Separable) to irritate someone
It ticks me off when someone plays with a pen and I try to concentrate.
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turn over
(Separable) to rotate
When one side of the fish is fried, turn it over and fry the other side.
use up
(Separable) to use all of
Where is the flour? I used it all up when I made pancakes yesterday morning.
wait on
(Inseparable) to serve
She doesnt like to wait on overly demanding customers.
wait for
(Inseparable) to wait until something is finished
Ill wait for you for 10 more minutes and then Ill leave.
walk out
(Intransitive) to leave as a sign of protest
Why do you think the workers walked out the construction site yesterday morning? I think they are
concerned about safety.
watch out for

(Inseparable) to be careful
Watch out for the dog! It is not on a leash and it might bite you.
wear down
(Separable) to cause to be weak
These long traffic jams are really wearing me down. Ill start walking or cycling to work.
wear off
(Inseparable) to no longer affect
The painkillers started to wear off, and I still have a toothache. Ill need to see the dentist tomorrow.
wear out
(Separable) to cause to be very tired
These long walks are wearing Ashley out. She will start going to the gym instead of walking for exercise.
write up
(Separable) to report
I have finished my research. Now Ill just have to write it up.
zip up
(Separable) to close with a zipper
Zip your jacket up! Its too windy!


Introduction To Modal Verbs
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Introduction To Idioms And Common Expressions

Written Communication In English Language
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Topic 7: Introduction To Modal Verbs
T opic Objective:
1. Modal Verbs
2. Application of Modal Verbs
This topic will cover in detail an introduction to articles, phrasal verbs, modal verbs and their
usage.
T opic Overview:
1. Introduction to Modal Verbs
Modal verb is an auxiliary verb that expresses necessity or possibility. Most commonly used English
modal verbs include can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, w ill, and w ould.
2. Usage of Modal Verbs

Modal Verbs are used to express the following:
Ability
Can is a modal verb used to show ability.
Possibility
Can and May are used to show present or future possibility.
Permission
Can and May are also use for permission.
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Obligation
must is often used to indicate obligation.
Expect ability
Should is often used to indicate what is regarded as reasonably expected.
Probability
Should is also used to indicate what is regarded as probable.
3. Exception in Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Modals express the mood
a verb, such as ability, possibility, necessity, or another condition. They are used with a main verb to
form a sentence or a question. Modals are not conjugated, have no tense, and cannot be used without a
main verb.
Here are some important differences:
3.1 Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person.
Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person.
Examples:
He can speak Chinese.
She should be here by 9:00.
3.2 "Not" is used to make modal verbs negative
Y ou use "not" to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present and Simple Past.
Examples:
He should not be late.
They might not come to the party.
3.3 Many have no tense and cannot be used in past or future tense.
Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.
Examples:
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He will can go with us. Not Correct

She musted study very hard. Not Correct
3.4
Modal Verbs are not conjugated and cannot be used without a main verb.
Modal verbs are not conjugated, have no tense, and cannot be used without a main verb.
W hen used with modal verbs (except ought), main verbs always remain in the infinitive without to.
In a statement the word order is subject + modal + main verb.
In questions, the word order changes to modal + subject + main verb.
4. Usage of Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Modals express
the mood a verb, such as ability, possibility, necessity, or another
condition. They are used with a main verb to form a sentence or a question. Modals are not
conjugated, have no tense, and cannot be used without a main verb.
4.1 Usage of Can

Can is used to show ability, possibility, inability, impossibility, asking for permission and request.
Example:
They can control their own budgets.
We cant fix it.
Can I smoke here?
Can you help me?
4.2
Usage of Could
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Could is used for asking for permission, request, suggestion, future possibility and ability in the past.
Example:
Could I borrow your dictionary?
Could you say it again more slowly?
We could try to fix it ourselves.
I think we could have another Gulf War.
He gave up his old job so he could work for us.
4.3 Usage of May
May is used for asking for permission and future possibility.
Example:
May I have another cup of coffee?
China may become a major economic power.
4.4 Usage of Might
Might is used to show future possibility.
Example:
Present possibility
Future possibility
We'd better phone tomorrow, they might be eating their dinner now.
They might give us a 10% discount.
4.5 Usage of Must
"Must" is most commonly used to express certainty. It can also be used to express necessity or
strong recommendation, although native speakers prefer the more
flexible form "have to."
"Must not" can be used to prohibit actions, but this sounds very severe; speakers prefer to use
softer modal verbs such as "should not" or
"ought not" to dissuade rather than prohibit. It is
used to show nnecessity, obligation and prohibition.
Example:
We must say good-bye now.
They mustnt disrupt the work more than necessary.
4.6 Usage of Ought to
"Must" is used for saying whats right or correct
Example:
We ought to employ a professional writer.
4.7 Usage of Shall (More common in the UK than the US)
"Shall" is used for an offer, suggestion and for asking what to do
Example:
Shall I help you with your luggage?
Shall we say 2.30 then?
Shall I do that or will you?
4.8 Usage of Should
"Should" is most commonly used to make recommendations or give advice. It can also be used to
express obligation as well as expectation for saying whats right or correct, for recommending action
and for uncertain prediction.
Example:
We should sort out this problem at once.

I think we should check everything again.
Profits should increase next year.
4.9 Usage of Will

"W ill" is most commonly used for showing instant decisions, for making offers, for promising and for
giving certain prediction.
Example:
I cant see any taxis so Ill walk.
I'll do that for you if you like.
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Ill get back to you first thing on Monday.

Profits will increase next year.
4.10 Usage of Would

"Would" is used for asking for permission, request, making arrangements, invitation and for showing
preferences.
Example:
Would you mind if I brought a colleague with me?
Would you pass the salt please?
Would you mind waiting a moment?
"Would three o`clock suit you?" - "Thatd be fine."
Would you like to play golf this Friday?
"Would you prefer tea or coffee?" - "Id like tea please."
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Topic 8: Introduction To Idioms And Common
Expressions
T opic Objective:
1. W hat is an Idiom?
2. Usage of Idioms
This topic will cover in detail an introduction to Idioms and their usage.
T opic Overview:
1. Idioms
Idioms are a set expression of two or more words that means something different than the literal
meanings of its individual words.
2. Functions of Idioms
"People use idioms to make their language richer and more colorful and to convey subtle shades of
meaning or intention. Idioms are used often to replace a literal
word or expression, and many times
the idiom better describes the full nuance of meaning. Idioms and idiomatic expressions can be more
precise than the literal words, often using fewer words but saying more. For example, the expression it
runs in the family is shorter and more succinct than saying that a physical or personality trait 'is fairly
common throughout one's extended family and over a number of generations. (Gail Brenner, Webster's
New World American I dioms Handbook. W ebster's New W orld, 2003)
3. Shakespearean Idioms
"Shakespeare is credited with coining more than 2,000 words, infusing thousands more existing ones
with electrifying new meanings and forging idioms that would last for centuries. 'A fool's paradise,' 'at
one fell swoop,' 'heart's content,' 'in a pickle,' 'send him packing,' 'too much of a good thing,' 'the game is
up,' 'good riddance,' 'love is blind,' and 'a sorry sight,' to name a few." (David Wolman, Righting the
Mother T ongue: From Olde English to Email, the T angled Story of English Spelling.
Harper, 2010)
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At the same time, some particles can be separated from the verb so that a noun and pronoun can be
inserted, whereas other particles cannot be separated from the verb; in addition, still others can be
used in a separated form or as a unit. Moreover, phrasal verbs can be Intransitive -- not followed by a
direct object or transitive followed by a direct object. Therefore, phrasal verbs can be Separable,
Inseparable, transitive (add object) or Intransitive (no object).
4. Modal Idioms
"Modal idioms are idiosyncratic verbal formations which consist of more than one word and which have
modal meanings that are not predictable from the constituent
parts (compare the non-modal idiom
kick the bucket). Under this heading we include have got [to], had better/best, w ould rather/sooner/as
soon, and be [to]."
(Bas Aarts, Oxford Modern English Grammar. Oxford University Press, 2011)
5. List of Idioms
The idioms and expressions below are some of the most common in English. The examplesentences
show how idioms are used in context:
As easy as pie: means "very easy" (same as "a piece of cake")

Example: He said it is a difficult problem, but I don't agree. Iteseems
ip sa ysae sa
to me!
fo der i t dnakc is eB
means "I hate" (also "can't stand")
Example: I'm sick and tired of doing nothing but work. Let's go out tonight and have fun.
Bend over backwards means "try very hard" (maybe too much!)
Example: He bent over backwards to please his new wife, but she never seemed satisfied.
Broke means "to have no money"

Example: I have to borrow some money from my Dad. I'm broke right now.
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htm
oes odot ediced" snam
ednm
i s'eno egnahC
tal krw
oot gninnalp sw
a I :elm
axE
p
Figure something out means "come to understand a problem"

Example: I don't understand how to do this problem. Take a look at it. Maybe you can figure it out
Fill in for someone means "do their works while they are away"
Example: While I was away from the store, my brother filled in for me
In ages means "for a very long time"

Example: Have you seen Joe recently? I haven't seen him in ages
Give someone a hand means "helps"

Example: I want to move this desk to the next room. Can you give me a hand?
Hit the hay means "go to bed" (also "hit the sack")
Example: It's after 12 o'clock. I think it's time to hit the hay
In the nick of time means "not too late, but very close!"
Example: I got to the drugstore just in the nick of time. It's a good thing, because I really need this medicine!
Keep one's chin up means "remain brave and keep on trying"

Example: I know things have been difficult for you recently, but keep your chin up. It will get better soon.
Sleep on it means "think about something before making a decision"

Example: That sounds like a good deal, but I'd like to sleep on it before I give you my final decision.
To get the ball rolling means "start something, especially something big"
Example: We need to get this project started as soon as possible. I'm hoping you will help me get the ball
rolling
Be all ears means "eager and ready to listen"

Example: Go ahead and speak. I'm all ears!
A cinch means something that is very easy to do

Example: I didn't think I could run five kilometers, but with the right preparation, it was a cinch.
Cost an arm and a leg means "very expensive"

Example: I'd really like a new car, but they all cost an arm and a leg.
Give someone a helping hand means "help someone"

Example: Could you give me a hand moving this table? It's quite heavy.
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Drive someone up a wall (or "drive someone crazy") means "to make someone very angry"
Example: My neighbor practices the piano every night, but he's terrible. It's driving me up the wall!
Hard headed means "stubborn" or "unwilling to change an opinion or idea

Example: I can't work with Joe any more. He's so hard headed!
Have a change of heart means "change a previous decision"

Example: I thought I would change jobs, but now that my boss is treating me with more respect, I've had a
change of heart
Have mixed feelings about something means "to be uncertain"

Example: I have mixed feelings about Joe. He's a very good teacher, but he has a very strange sense of
humor!
Head out for means "to start on a long trip" (but it could be within a big city)
Example: We're heading out for the countryside to pick some apples. Would you like to join us?
How come? means "Why?"

Example: How come we don't go to the movies any more? I guess we're too busy to enjoy yourselves these
days.
Look down on means "think someone or something is not good enough"

Example: We shouldn't look down on people just because they don't have as much money as we do.
Make ends meet (often used negatively) means "to have enough money to buy everything we need"
Example: Even though I make more money than last year, we just can't seem to make ends meet.
Next to nothing means "to cost very little"

Example: I went to the new discount store and bought these new shoes for only five dollars. That's next to
nothing!
6. Idioms of Colors
Beet red means dark red (usually to describe face)

Example: My sister's face turned beet red when I caught her singing in front of a mirror.
Black and blue means bruised and beaten.

Example: We found the poor guy black and blue near the train tracks.
Black and white means straight forward, very clear.

Example: The rules we gave the kids were black and white. No answering the phone or the door.
Black out means faint.

Example: I always black out at the sight of blood.
Black sheep means the odd or bad member of the group

Example: My oldest brother was the black sheep in our family. He dropped out of school at fifteen.
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Born with a silver spoon in one's mouth means born into a rich family Keiko hasn't worked a day in her life.
Example: She was born with a silver spoon in her mouth.
Catch red handed means catch someone in the act of doing something wrong or illegal
Example: The kids were caught red handed stealing chocolate bars.
Golden opportunity means the perfect chance

Example: The models' conference was a golden opportunity for me to sell my beauty products.
Grass is always greener on the other side means you always want what you don't have
Example: I always wanted to go to university, but now I wish I had time to get a job. Grass is always greener
on the other side.
Grey area, gray area means something without a clear rule or answer
Example: Writing personal email in the office is a grey area that needs to be discussed at the next meeting.
The green light means permission

Example: The builders were given the green light to begin the tower.
Green with envy means very jealous

Example: I am green with envy over Julio's new wardrobe.
(Have a) green thumb means be skillful in the garden

Example: You can tell by her flower garden that Sheila has a green thumb.
Have the blues means be sad or depressed

Example: I always have the the blues during the winter time.
In the dark means unaware

Example: Antoine left his wife in the dark about their honeymoon destination until they got to the airport.
Once in a blue moon means very rarely

Example: We only go out for dinner once in a blue moon.
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Out of the blue means unexpectedly

Example: I got a phone call from a long lost cousin out of the blue last week.
Red tape means official or bureaucratic tasks

Example: There is still some red tape to deal with in terms of the inheritance.
Red eye means an airplane flight that takes off after midnight
Example: I caught the red eye so that I would see the sunrise over the mountains.
Roll out the red carpet means treat someone like royalty
Example: When relatives come to town my grandmother rolls out the red carpet.
Rose colored glasses means unrealistic view

Example: Paula imagines Hollywood with rose colored glasses.
See red means be very angry

Example: I saw red when that guy grabbed my sister's purse.
Tickled pink means very pleased and appreciative

Example: My mom was tickled pink when my father brought roses home for her.
True colors means real self

Example: Suzanne doesn't show her true colors when we have guests over.
White lie means an innocent lie to protect another person's feelings

Example: We told Grandma that her cake was delicious, which was actually a white lie.
With flying colors means with distinction

Example: I passed my road test with flying colors.
7. Idioms of Animals
Busy as a bee This idiom means to be very busy and active.

Example: I have a lot of university homework and then I have to go to work Im as busy as a bee!
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Blind as a bat - This idiom means to be unable to see well at all : having very poor vision.
Example: Without her glasses, shes as blind as a bat
Raining cats and dogs - This idiom means that its raining very hard.
Example: Dont forget your umbrella! Its raining cats and dogs, youll get wet
Frog in the throat If you have a frog in your throat, it means you are unable to speak normally because
your throat is dry.
Example: She was so nervous to speak in front of class, she got a frog in her throat
Holy Cow This idiom is used as an interjection to express surprise or excitement.

Example: Holy Cow! I just won the lottery!
When pigs fly This idiom is used as a response to something that seems unlikely to happen.
Example: Im going to ask my parents to lend me $100 to go shopping, Sure, and pigs might fly!
Copycat A copycat is a person who does the same thing as someone else : a person who adopts the
behavior, style, etc., of someone else.
Example: That girl is such a copycat she always copies what Im wearing
Fishing for compliments This idiom means to to try to make someone praise you, often by criticizing
yourself to them.
Example: Do I look fat in this dress? No, you know you dont, are you fishing for compliments?
Pulling the wool over someones eyes This idiom means to trick or deceive someone : to hide the truth
from someone.
Example: We didnt want her to know about the surprise party, so we told her we all had to study. We pulled
the wool over her eyes
Ants in your pants Having ants in your pants means having a strong feeling of wanting to be active and not
wait for something : a feeling of excitement and impatience.
Example: On Christmas Eve, my 4 year old son had ants in his pants, he was so excited about his presents!
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Naked as a jaybird - This idiom means to be completely naked.

Example: When I walked into his bedroom he was as naked as a jaybird
Heard from a little bird - This idiom is used if you have heard a rumour and dont want to say who told you.
Example: Is it true youre dating John? Who told you? Oh, a little bird told me
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Topic 9: Written Communication In English Language
T opic Objective:
At the end of the topic student shall be able to comprehend and understanding the following:
1. W ritten communication
2. Kinds of W riting
This topic will cover in detail an introduction to written communication in English Language, the
components and elements of different kinds of writing and their usage.
T opic Overview:
1. Written Communication
Writing skills are an important part of communication. Good writing skills allow you to
communicate your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through face-to-face
or telephone conversations.
One might be called upon to write an exam essay or a book review or when at work to create a
report, plan or strategy at work; write a grant application or press release within a volunteering
role; or you may fancy communicating your ideas online via a blog. And, of course, a well written
CV with no spelling or grammatical mistakes is essential if you want a new job.
Today, when anyone can be their own publisher, we see more and more examples of poor writing
skills both in print and on the web. Poor writing skills create poor first impressions and many
readers will have an immediate negative reaction if they spot a spelling or grammatical mistake.
Written communication has great significance in todays business world. It is an innovative activity
of the mind. Effective written communication is essential for preparing worthy promotional
materials for business development. Speech came before writing. But writing is more unique and
formal than speech. Effective writing involves careful choice of words, their organization in correct
order in sentences formation as well as cohesive composition of sentences. Also, writing is more
valid and reliable than speech. But while speech is spontaneous, writing causes delay and takes
time as feedback is not immediate.
Written communication has great significance in todays business world. It is an innovative activity
of the mind. Effective written communication is essential for preparing worthy promotional
materials for business development. Speech came before writing. But writing is more unique and
formal than speech. Effective writing involves careful choice of words, their organization in correct
order in sentences formation as well as cohesive composition of sentences. Also, writing is more
valid and reliable than speech. But while speech is spontaneous, writing causes delay and takes
time as feedback is not immediate.
2. Kinds of Writing
There are various kinds of writing; each divided according to the purpose is serves and its
distinctive characteristics. There are basically four kinds of W riting:
Creative Writing
Literary Writing
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Academic Writing and

Business Writing
2.1 Creative Writing

The term creative writing is used broadly, but actually refers to the expression of feelings and emotions, often in
a metaphorical and highly descriptive way. And therefore, arguably, creative writing is perhaps the most difficult
of writing disciplines. I would even say more difficult that technical writing, for which, although you must be wellversed in a particular subject matter, you dont need to get in touch with your inner-self to do well.
Creative writing requires the writer to dig deep into the imagination, often connecting with fictional characters in
an alternative reality. Think of the marvelous creativity within JK Rowlings Harry Potter series, and the way in
which she builds an alternative world, and indeed a world for each character to live within that world. Creative
writing comes from somewhere deep inside, from a part of the mind and soul we all have the ability to access,
but seldom are capable of penetrating.
And therefore it isnt just solid writing skills you require to be a great creative writer, but also the ability to use
your life experiences, feelings, emotions, thoughts, opinions, imagination, inner-person and spirituality to create
vivid visuals and captivating stories for the reader.
Creative writing is most popularly understood to be writing that comes from the imagination, writing that is not
true. Creative writing is the very fine art of making things up, in the most attractive, apt and convincing way
possible. Its the telling of lies in order to reveal illuminating and dark truths about the world and our place in it.
We tend to think of Poetry, Fiction and Plays. Of course, we do know that some creative writing is partly based
inspired by real events or based (auto)biography, such as Jack Kerouacs On the Road or Sylvia Plaths The Bell
Jar, and we are all familiar with the extent to which real life and real people can sometimes directly or indirectly
inform creative work. Write about what you know is the writers maxim that has long since fallen into a
crashing clich - but its a clich for a good reason. Many writers do precisely that. Nonetheless, such creative
writing remains in essence a fiction and makes no actual claim to the facts.
In the 1970s, the term Creative Non-Fiction came to describe a type of factual writing that transcended the
boundaries of style and approach that we normally associate with that of the journalistic, technical or academic.
There are many inexhaustibly researched, extremely detailed and expertly written studies of everything from
astrophysics to yachting. But these could not be considered to be Creative Non-Fiction. What puts the Creative
into Non-Fiction has a great deal more to do with how a subject is treated rather than the actual nature of the
subject itself. The personal involvement of the narrator with its subject or subject matter is a common element,
and events are rarely recounted in the objective way which we tend to associate with journalism or other types
of factual writing. But the chief hallmark of Creative Non-Fiction is a higher, more stylised technique, closer to
that of the novel, say, and this immediately distinguishes it from other types of informative writing.
2.2 Literary Writing
When you read a novel or a poem, or when you watch a movie or a TV comedy, or when you listen to a song,
you are experiencing the literary purpose. When you tell a joke or write a love poem, you are using the literary
purpose. The literary purpose is used to entertain and to give aesthetic pleasure. The focus of the literary
purpose is on the words themselves and on a conscious and deliberate arrangement of the words to produce a
pleasing or enriching effect.
A writer often expresses a worldview when using the literary purpose. The writer might comment on human
nature or behavior. The reader gains insight to the human condition by understanding the writer's ideas. When
used as a secondary purpose, the literary purpose enhances the primary purpose through figurative or poetic or
playful language and often a sense of human struggle.
So perhaps an inventory of literary writers' motives should include the overflowing of their passions, their desire
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for self-expression, an abiding fascination with humanity in all its variety, the need to come to grips with
relationships as they really are in the world as it really is, the striving after an ideal world which can exist only in
the imagination, and, perhaps at the heart of it all, the need to form, shape, things of beauty.
The artist needs to resolve conflicts within himself, to reach an understanding, to search for some credible
meaning of to life, to death, to everything. He is always reaching, fumbling toward some sort of truth; an artistic
creative truth, a truth that resides in the individual artist and needs to be grasped, made real, made
understandable.
Perhaps in some cases the artist's motivation could be seen as a need to create other worlds, in the way that
Milton and Tolkien created other worlds, in order that they can project real conflicts onto another plane.
The many different genres of the novel constitute a particular challenge to the concept of 'literary writing'.
Detective novels, and science fiction novels, for example, are creative, imaginative, depictions of life. We might
question their seriousness as literature, or whether they can achieve the high ideals of art, but then we might
equally well question the meaning of 'seriousness', and 'the high ideals of art'. Popular novels may not deal with
life's great conflicts, or search for truth and beauty, and they may deal with the seamier side of life, or escape
into the fantastic, but can they still be considered 'literature'? Do they still make an important contribution to our
understanding of the world, as 'real' literature does?
Obviously 'literary' works such as Tolstoy's War and Peace and Proust's Remembrance of Things Past take as a
nucleus an event, an aspect of life and construct a world around that core. They are works about real people,
engaged in the real business of living. They convey knowledge, understanding, experience and are hence
considered important. Yet they have in common with the detective and science fiction novel that they are
books, consisting of words that have been used to express something, words that may or may not be read,
and may or may not succeed in conveying an understanding of the world they depict.
2.3 Academic Writing
Academic writing is the type of writing students are expected to produce in response to content they learn about
in an academic setting; i.e. school. Its how they formally join the scholarly conversation. And it can begin at a
very young age, when a child writes a report about a book he has read or a topic she has learned about. It is
not a personal experience, nor a story, nor merely a description. Academic writing tells us what the writer thinks
and what evidence has contributed to that thinking. The evidence can include the writers personal experiences,
information found in other books or sources, or information gleaned from talking with others (such as, a parent
or expert). The standard for good academic writing is how logical or reasonable the writers thinking is is the
authors opinion based in evidence that is credible and convincing? As such, academic writing is a window into
your childs intellectual lifeand thats why its such an important skill to focus on. Not only does writing show us
what a child is thinking; but the process of writing helps develop your childs thinking. We call it writing to learn
and learning to write.
As students mature in their writing skills, we expect them to back-up their thinking with credible evidence (e.g.
research) and we expect them to provide citations for where that research has come from (using the style
guide associated with the particular discipline; for instance, MLA formatting for the humanities or APA formatting
for the social sciences). Students should have some basic familiarity with academic writing that includes citations
in order to be college-ready by the end of high school. Further this is an important skill that is measured on the
SAT essay, all AP exam essays and the college application essay. In general, all of these writing prompts are
attempting to get a bead on your childs intellectual promise as a scholar.
In academic writing, the author covers the selected topic from an authoritative point of view. The writing is
'thesis-driven', meaning that the starting point is a particular perspective, idea or 'thesis' on the chosen topic,
e.g. establishing, proving or disproving 'answers' to the 'research questions' posed for the topic. In contrast,
simply describing a topic without the questions does NOT qualify as "academic writing."
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Defining a research question requires the student to first consult existing information on the topic. After this,
questions may arise, such as: Is it really this way? How or why did it get that way? Is it always this way? Does
'everyone' see it this way? Do newer sources agree with older ones on the topic? Or, to take another line of
inquiry: What influence did X have on Finland (or, of what significance was it to Finland)? Why was the influence
this great (or not greater)? What is uniquely 'Finnish' about this topic?
The foundation of the research paper is the documented review of what is currently known about the topic. On
this foundation the author constructs his/her perspective, e.g. how the topic may be understood more fully or
differently from what is "currently known." The author's perspective may come from the use of (a) more
extensive or (b) more up-to-date sources than had been available to previous scholars, or by (c) interpreting
the details of these sources differently from how other scholars have done. Totally new information may also be
created to 'test' or 'confirm' questions arising in the paper. For ENGA14 papers, the creation of such new
information would be via the (optional) independent research component.
In short, academic papers distinguish between what is known about a topic (via the review of existing sources
on the topic) with what new ideas may emerge, or be thought or questioned about the topic, via the explication
of the research question using the author's logically-developed, factually-based 'argumentation'. However, these
new ideas will only be established as "fact" in their own right thus joining the body of 'existing knowledge on
the topic' after the ideas have been published [in the paper] and subsequently validated by other 'scholars'.
Academic writing is 'structured research' written by 'scholars' for other scholars (with all university writers being
'scholars' in this context). Academic writing addresses topic-based 'research questions' of interest to anyone
who is seeking factually-based, objectively-presented information on a particular topic. The objective of
academic writing is the presentation of 'new knowledge' via (a) a review of what is currently known about a
given topic as (b) the foundation for the author's new views or perspectives on the topic.
2.4 Business Writing
The business writing is a conventional communication from an administration to its clients, the common public
for their selective information, a different Company or the agencies. They are frequently written in a normal
format, and in formal written communication, compared to a personal letter between 2 people who are familiar
to one another. This business writing will express matters like the name and address and best way to
communicate with the business - through return letter, email or telephone set. Generally, the letter will be
addressed to a particular person and be all but single matter.
Some of the times, the business writing will be looking for a reply, but may constitute to generate important
information about a future alteration of name and address or telephone number. This writing may give
information about fresh developing - afresh internet site; set in motion of afresh production. By allowing the
transmitter to manage any reaction more efficiently, the business writing may carry important information such
as an interior acknowledgment from the transmitter or related to the production in dispute.
The business writing is a written casual language, generally practiced when writing from one business
organization to another business organization, or for agreement between such organizations and their buyers,
customers and other outside companies.
From official communication and private letters to technical reports and business documents, writing skills can be
an important part of a business career.

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Creative Writing
Methods Of Approaching Creative Writing
Literary Writing
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Topic 10: Creative Writing
T opic Objective:
1. W hat is Creative W riting?
2. Genres of Creative W riting
This topic will cover in detail an introduction to the vast genre of creative writing, its subdivisions
and scope of each form of creative endeavor.
T opic Overview:
1. What is Creative Writing?
Creative writing is anything where the purpose is to express thoughts, feelings and emotions rather than to
simply convey information. Creative writing is any writing that goes outside the bounds of normal professional,
journalistic, academic, or technical forms of literature, typically identified by an emphasis on narrative craft,
character development, and the use of literary tropes. Due to the looseness of the definition, it is possible for
writing such as feature stories to be considered creative writing, even though they fall under journalism, because
the content of features is specifically focused on narrative and character development.
The term creative writing is bounded around with the presumption that everyday people, and us writers for that
matter, know what it is. However, it isnt simply about writing something interesting or outside the box.
2. Kinds of Creative Writing
There are various kinds of creative writing; each divided according to the purpose is serves and its
distinctive characteristics. There are basically four kinds of W riting:
Expository Writing - where the writing serves to explain, inform
Descriptive Writing - writing that serves to show, describe
Narrative Writing - tells a story
Persuasive Writing - arguing for or against an issue
2.1
Expository Writing
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Exposition is a type of oral or written discourse that is used to explain, describe, give information or
inform. The creator of an expository text cannot assume that the reader or listener has prior
knowledge or prior understanding of the topic that is being discussed. One important point to keep in
mind for the author is to try to use words that clearly show what they are talking about rather than
blatantly telling the reader what is being discussed. Since clarity requires strong organization, one of
the most important mechanisms that can be used to improve our skills in exposition is to provide
directions to improve the organization of the text.
As one of the four traditional modes of discourse, expository writing may include elements of
narration, description, and argumentation, but unlike creative writing or persuasive writing, its primary
goal is to deliver information about an issue, subject, method, or idea.
"Expository writing analyzes and explains information to inform or educate your reader. As we move to
expository writing, your knowledge of description and narration will help you provide the vividness and
interest essential to effective expository writing. W ith its emphasis on logic and organization,
expository writing is most likely the type of writing you will be doing in college and throughout your
career. W hen you enter the workforce, you will find that expository writing is necessary in almost any
profession and that your ability to write exposition requires the same skills necessary to succeed in
many careers: thinking critically, analyzing complex situations, and presenting information clearly to
coworkers."(Luis Nazario, Deborah Borchers, and W illiam Lewis, Bridges to Better Writing. Wadsworth,
2010)
The purpose of the expository essay is to explain a topic in a logical and straightforward manner.
W ithout bells and whistles, expository essays present a fair and balanced analysis of a subject based
on factswith no references to the writers opinions or emotions.
A typical expository writing prompt will use the words explain or define, such as in, Write an essay
explaining how the computer has changed the lives of students. Notice there is no instruction to form
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an opinion or argument on whether or not computers have changed students lives. The prompt asks
the writer to explain, plain and simple. However, that doesnt mean expository essay writing is easy.
Essay writing is a huge part of education today. Most students must learn to write various kinds of
essays during their academic careers, including different types of expository essay writing:
Definition essays explain the meaning of a word, term, or concept. The topic can be a concrete subject
such as an animal or tree, or it can be an abstract term, such as freedom or love. This type of essay should
discuss the words denotation (literal or dictionary definition), as well as its connotation or the associations
that a word usually brings to mind.
Classification essays break down a broad subject or idea into categories and groups. The writer organizes
the essay by starting with the most general category and then defines and gives examples of each specific
classification.
Compare and contrast essays describe the similarities and differences between two or more people,
places, or things. Comparison tells how things are alike and contrast shows how they are different.
Cause and effect essays explain how things affect each other and depend on each other. The writer
identifies a clear relationship between two subjects, focusing on why things happen (causes) and/or what
happens as a result (effects).
How to essays, sometimes called process essays, explain a procedure, step-by-step process, or how to
do something with the goal of instructing the reader.
2.2 Descriptive Writing

The primary purpose of descriptive writing is to describe a person, place or thing in such a way that a
picture is formed in the reader's mind. Capturing an event through descriptive writing involves paying
close attention to the details by using all of your five senses. Teaching students to write more
descriptively will improve their writing by making it more interesting and engaging to read. The
descriptive essay is a genre of essay that asks the student to describe somethingobject, person,
place, experience, emotion, situation, etc. This genre encourages the students ability to create a
written account of a particular experience. W hat is more, this genre allows for a great deal of artistic
freedom (the goal of which is to paint an image that is vivid and moving in the mind of the reader).
A writer's job is to evoke interest, emotion (negative or positive), and sense memory. Every writer has
a toolbox full of options to accomplish this task, and the best writing will use several tools at once.
Word choice is critical, but it's not the only thing. Grammar and punctuation can control the rhythm of
a sentence, which in turn will help guide the reader's emotional and mental responses. For example, if
you're writing a tense action sequence, short, sharp sentences will hold the reader's attention and
speed the plot forward. A meditative short story about a summer night might require meandering, slow
sentences to convey the lazy heat and drowsy peace of a long sunset. W hen it comes to word choice,
some parts of speech are better equipped for description than others. Adverbs, words that end in ly,
should be used sparingly. Focus on using strong adjectives, nouns, and verbs.
Your first task in writing a descriptive essay is to choose a topic that has many interesting parts or
qualities to talk about. Unless you have a really vivid imagination, you'll find it difficult to write much
about a simple object like a comb, for example. It's best to compare a few topics first to make sure
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they'll work. The next challenge is to figure out the best way to describe your chosen subject in such a
way as to relay a complete experience to the reader, so that he or she is able to see, hear, and feel
through your words. As in any writing, the drafting stage is key to writing a successful descriptive
essay. Since the purpose of the essay is to paint a mental image of a specific subject, it helps to
make a list of all the things you associate with your topic.
For example, if your subject is the farm where you visited your grandparents as a child you would list
all the things you associate with that place. Your list should include both general attributes associated
with a farm and the more personal and specific things that make it special to you and the reader.
Start with general details
Cornfields
Pigs
Cows
Garden
Farm house
Well
Then add the unique details:
That spot by the pig barn where you fell in the manure
Playing hide and seek in the cornfields
Picking wild greens for dinner with your grandmother
The stray dogs that always wandered onto the farm
Scary coyotes howling in the night
By tying these details together you can make the essay more relatable to the reader. Making these
lists will allow you to see how you can tie things from each list together.
It's a great creative exercise to sit down and simply describe what you observe. However, when writing
a descriptive essay, you often have a particular reason for writing your description. Getting in touch
with this reason can help you focus your description and imbue your language with a particular
perspective or emotion.
Example: Imagine that you want to write a descriptive essay about your grandfather. You've chosen to
write about your grandfather's physical appearance and the way that he interacts with people.
However, rather than providing a general description of these aspects, you want to convey your
admiration for his strength and kindness. This is your reason for writing the descriptive essay. To
achieve this, you might focus one of your paragraphs on describing the roughness of his hands,
roughness resulting from the labor of his work throughout his life, but you might also describe how he
would hold your hands so gently with his rough hands when having a conversation with you or when
taking a walk.
As you write your descriptive essay, the best way to create a vivid experience for your readers is to
focus on the five senses.
Sight
Sound
Smell
Touch
Taste
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W hen you focus your descriptions on the senses, you provide vivid and specific details that show your
readers rather than tell your readers what you are describing.
2.3
Narrative Writing
Narrative Writing tells story; it relates a clear sequence of events that occurs over time. Both what
happens and the order in which the events occur are communicated to the reader. Effective narration
requires a writer to give a clear sequence of events (fictional or non-fictional) and to provide
elaboration. A narrative (or story) is any account that presents connected events, and may be
organized into various categories: non-fiction; fictionalized accounts of historical events (e.g.
anecdotes, myths, and legends); and fiction proper (i.e. literature in prose, such as short stories and
novels, and sometimes in poetry and drama, although in drama the events are primarily being shown
instead of told). Narrative is found in all forms of human creativity and art, including speech, writing,
songs, film, television, video games, photography, theatre, and visual arts such as painting (with the
modern art movements refusing the narrative in favor of the abstract and conceptual) that describes a
sequence of events. The word derives from the Latin verb narrare, "to tell", and is related to the
adjective gnarus, "knowing" or "skilled".
The word "story" may be used as a synonym of "narrative". It can also be used to refer to the
sequence of events described in a narrative. Narratives may also be nested within other narratives,
such as narratives told by unreliable narrator (a character) typically found in noir fiction genre. An
important part of narration is the narrative mode, the set of methods used to communicate the
narrative through a process narration.
If you choose to write a narrative, it should be a story in which either you or someone you know well
was actually involved. You should avoid stories that simply recount accidents. W hat I mean is this: a
good story needs to have the element of choice in it. If you describe an accident, you need to show
that decisions led up to it. This story should be about people, about the decisions they make and the
consequences that follow.
A narrative is a moving picture. Like description, narratives need to have a rich texture of details so
that the reader is seeing, hearing, smelling, and touching. The reader should experience the story, not
simply hear it.
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Stories add the element of time to description. Often stories start at the beginning and then follow
the sequence of events chronologically. However, an effective variation on this pattern is to start in
the middle of things and then use flashbacks to fill in the background information. This method is
especailly effective in holding the reader's attention.
There are two extremes you want to avoid in writing a narrative. First, you can simply tell the story,
event by event, without giving it any texture because you leave out descriptive details and dialogue.
At the opposite extreme is a narrative that attempts to tell everything, painting detailed descriptions
of every scene, quoting everything that is said, even speculating about the thoughts of the characters.
A good narrative has texture, but it is suggestive rather than exhaustive. After all, the reader's
imagination needs some room to fill in details. Giving too many details not only overwhelms the
reader's imagination, it also slows the pace of the narrative.
Pacing is an important concept in narrative writing. Basically, pacing means that the writer sometimes
slows the pace by putting more detail in, but sometimes she also hurries over details. A good way to
know where to put in details and where to leave them out is to think of a narrative as consisting of
episodes (smaller scenes that are strung together to make up a longer story). If you divide your story
into a few short episodes, then you want suggestive detail within the episodes, but you want to hurry
over the transitions between them. Think of episodes as pearls on a string. Make the pearls full orbed;
keep the string stringy. The reader dwells in the episodes, but she needs to be oriented to them, and
that is the function of the transitions.
As with description, point of view is important. W hat position is the story being told from? Another
way of talking about this is to talk about the story's narrator. The narrator is not the writer, but the
consciousness through which the story is told. Sometimes the story is told in third person, which
means that every one is referred to as he, or she, or they. Sometimes, however, it is told in first
person, which means that the narrator refers to himself as "I" and is actually involved in the story. Not
all narrators are reliable.
The more sophisticated narratives become, the more problematic is the narrator. W hen the narrator
tells the story in first person, but details in the story lead the reader to suspect that the narrator is
not reliable, the result is irony. Irony is a narrative condition in which the reader and the writer share a
common judgmental attitude toward the narrator, or when the reader knows more than the narrator
and characters in the story.
2.4
Persuasive Writing
Persuasive writing intends to influence how someone thinks, feels, acts, and makes decisions in
relation to a particular issue, idea, or proposal. The writer is making a case and using language in a
deliberative manner. Persuasive writing can lead to decisions, clarification of issues or positions, and
consensus. It is an essential skill and consistent practice in political activism, community action,
participation in organizations and democracy, and in families, as well as credible academic discourse.
Persuasive writing is more dialogical than monological. Your sense of your audience and of who you
are in relation to the topic and to your audience is critical and should shape your argument and your
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writing. Writing a persuasive essay is like being a lawyer arguing a case before a jury. The writer takes
a stand on an issueeither for or againstand builds the strongest possible argument to win over
the reader.
In a persuasive essay, its the writers job to convince the reader to accept a particular point of view or
take a specific action. Persuasive essays require good research, awareness of the readers biases, and
a solid understanding of both sides of the issue. A good persuasive essay demonstrates not only why
the writers opinion is correct, but also why the opposing view is incorrect.
Persuasive writing is a fixture of modern lifefound in advertising, newspaper editorials, blogs, and
political speeches. Often persuasive writing assignments and test prompts concern contemporary
issues, for example: The school board is debating on whether or not to ban cell phone use in school.
Write an essay convincing the board to adopt your position. As shown in this persuasive writing
prompt, the main purpose is not to inform, but to persuade or convince an audience (the school
board) to think or act a certain way.
To persuade effectively you must:
Take an informed position
Know your audience and your purpose and choose your strategy appropriately
Consider differing viewpoint(s) and anticipate counter arguments
Use information accurately
Avoid over-generalizing
Avoid drawing conclusions that are unsupported by data, evidence
Choose your words and organize your ideas and your data in a way that will build and assert a meaningful
case to your audience
Clarify your beliefs and assumptions about your topic;
Frame several leading, centering questions and a working thesis (hypothesis);
Gather data and actively test your assumptions and beliefs;
Modify and add to your questions and working thesis;
Write exploratory throughout the process of researching (what are you thinking as a result of what you
have read? What did this piece add to your consideration? How does a particular source relate to your
previous knowledge, reading? What questions do you have? What assumptions are you making?
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Topic 11: Methods Of Approaching Creative Writing
T opic Objective:
1. Methods of approaching Creative W riting Task
2. How to write an Expository Essay?
3. How to W rite Descriptive Essay?
4. How to W rite Narrative Essay?
5. Elements of Narrative Essay
6. How to W rite Persuasive Essay?
This topic will cover in detail different techniques and methods of approaching creative writing
tasks especially narrative, expository, descriptive and persuasive essays.
T opic Overview:
1. Methods of Approaching Creative Writing Task
Creative writing is anything where the purpose is to express thoughts, feelings and emotions rather than to
simply convey information. The term creative writing is bounded around with the presumption that
everyday people, and us writers for that matter, know what it is. However, it isnt simply about writing
something interesting or outside the box.
The term creative writing is used broadly, but actually refers to the expression of feelings and emotions,
often in a metaphorical and highly descriptive way. And therefore, arguably, creative writing is perhaps the
most difficult of writing disciplines. Creative writing requires the writer to dig deep into the imagination,
often connecting with fictional characters in an alternative reality. Think of the marvelous creativity within JK
Rowlings Harry Potter series, and the way in which she builds an alternative world, and indeed a world for
each character to live within that world.
2. How to Write an Expository Essay?
Exposition is a type of oral or written discourse that is used to explain, describe, give information or inform.
The creator of an expository text cannot assume that the reader or listener has prior knowledge or prior
understanding of the topic that is being discussed. One important point to keep in mind for the author is to
try to use words that clearly show what they are talking about rather than blatantly telling the reader what
is being discussed.
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As one of the four traditional modes of discourse, expository writing may include elements of narration,
description, and argumentation, but unlike creative writing or persuasive writing, its primary goal is to
deliver information about an issue, subject, method, or idea.
2.1 Steps to Write an Expository Essay
An expository essay provides an explanation or information of something through the use of factual data.
Facts can be further explained by using clear and concise ideas. Towards the end of the expository essay,
the writer should be able to gradually build an argument out of the facts provided. This can be achieved by
using cause and effect analysis, comparison and contrast, as well as by giving definitions or further
examples of the central topic. Here are the steps in writing an expository essay.
Step 1. Identify the main topic.

Easy enough, but if you have the liberty to choose your topic, try not to choose those that are too
general or which have been written about countless of
times. Select a narrow topic that is interesting but has plenty of information at the same time.
Step 2. Gather facts and other information relevant to the topic.

Select facts and information that are from credible sources such as peer-reviewed journals, books,
and newspapers. Your facts may consist of statistical data, research findings, chronicles of previous
events and other historical facts and figures published in books and journals.
Step 3. Write your clear and concise thesis statement in your expository essay's first or
introductory paragraph.
You may write your thesis statement as either the first or the last sentence of your essay. If you
choose to put it in your first sentence, make sure that the succeeding sentences will tell more about
your first sentence. In doing so, provide brief supporting ideas. On the other hand, if you choose to
put in your last sentence, make sure that the sentences preceding it logically follow from one another
until your last sentence.
Step 4. Distribute your facts in your body paragraphs. Group your facts according to their
commonalities.
Each body paragraph should tackle one key idea. Support each of your ideas in every body paragraph
with relevant facts and figures. Avoid repeating facts in different paragraphs as it will make your essay
look as though it was not carefully planned. Place facts whenever needed.
Step 5. Provide logical and smooth transition sentences between paragraphs.

The way in which you make a transition from one body paragraph to another should be logical.
Otherwise, the whole structure of your expository essay will collapse.
Step 6. Conclude your essay.

Assess the topic in light of the evidence you provided. Your expository essay's conclusion is your last
chance to establish the argument that you have derived from the key facts you discussed.
Tip: in writing an Expository Essay, avoid using the first-person pronoun ("I"). Rather, use secondperson pronouns.
2.2 Kinds of Expository Essay

As discussed earlier: an expository essay can present information by using cause and effect analysis,
comparison and contrast, as well as by giving definitions or further examples of the central topic. There are
four ways of approaching expository writing:
Sequential Writing
In sequential writing the author defines a sequence or process. The author lists items or events in
numerical or chronological order.
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For Example:
Expository writing is intended to convey the writer's knowledge about a topic. While different
patterns may be employed to create the essay, every essay contains the same features: the
introduction, the thesis, the body paragraphs, and the conclusion. The introduction is the first
paragraph in the essay. The introduction contains the thesis statement, one sentence that
summarizes the main idea of the essay. The body paragraphs follow the introduction and explain
the main topics. Lastly, the conclusion is the final paragraph that restates the main topics and and
the thesis. Every expository essay contains these features, in this order.
Compare/Contrast Writing
In Compare and contrast writing the author explains how two or more things are alike and/or how
they are different. A comparison essay usually discusses the similarities between two things, while the
contrast essay discusses the differences.
For Example:
Expository writing has distinct features that distinguish it from creative writing. The content of an
expository essay is factual and straight-forward while the content of a creative story is
imaginative and symbolic. Expository essays are written for a general audience but creative
stories are designed for a specific audience. The writing style of an expository essay is formal,
standard and academic, while a creative story uses an informal and artistic style. The organization
of an expository essay is systematic and deliberate; on the other hand, the organization of a
creative story is more arbitrary and artistic. Finally, the most important difference between the
two types of writing is the purpose of the text. An expository essay is written to inform and
instruct, while a creative story is written to entertain and captivate.
Cause/Effect Writing
In cause and effect writing the author focuses on the relationship between two or more events or
experiences. The essay could discuss both causes and effects, or it could simply address one or the
other. A cause essay usually discusses the reasons why something happened. An effect essay
discusses what happens after a specific event or circumstance.
For Example:
There are several reasons why so many people attend the Olympic games or watch them on
television. One reason is tradition. The name Olympics and the torch and flame remind people of
the ancient games. People can escape the ordinariness of daily life by attending or watching the
Olympics. They like to identify with someone else's individual sacrifice and accomplishment.
National pride is another reason, and an athlete's or a team's hard earned victory becomes a
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nation's victory. There are national medal counts and people keep track of how many medals their
country's athletes have won.
Problem/Solution Writing
In problem solution writing the author states a problem and lists one or more solutions for the
problem. A variation of this pattern is the question- and-answer format in which the author poses a
question and then answers it.
For Example:
One problem with the modern Olympics is that it has become very big and expensive to operate.
The city or country that hosts the games often loses a lot of money. A stadium, pools, and
playing fields must be built for the athletic events and housing is needed for the athletes who
come from around the world. And all of these facilities are used for only 2 weeks! In 1984, Los
Angeles solved these problems by charging a fee for companies who wanted to be official
sponsors of the games. Companies like McDonald's paid a lot of money to be part of the
Olympics. Many buildings that were already built in the Los Angeles area were also used. The
Coliseum where the 1932 games were held was used again and many colleges and universities in
the area became playing and living sites.
3. How to Write a Descriptive Essay?
The descriptive essay is a genre of essay that asks the student to describe somethingobject person,
place, experience, emotion, situation, etc. This genre encourages the students ability to create a
written account of a particular experience. W hat is more, this genre allows for a great deal of artistic
freedom (the goal of which is to paint an image that is vivid and moving in the mind of the reader).
It's a great creative exercise to sit down and simply describe what you observe. However, when writing
a descriptive essay, you often have a particular reason for writing your description. Getting in touch
with this reason can help you focus your description and imbue your language with a particular
perspective or emotion.
Example: Imagine that you want to write a descriptive essay about your grandfather. You've chosen to
write about your grandfather's physical appearance and the way that he interacts with people. However,
rather than providing a general description of these aspects, you want to convey your admiration for his
strength and kindness. This is your reason for writing the descriptive essay. To achieve this, you might focus
one of your paragraphs on describing the roughness of his hands, roughness resulting from the labor of his
work throughout his life, but you might also describe how he would hold your hands so gently with his rough
hands when having a conversation with you or when taking a walk
It's a great creative exercise to sit down and simply describe what you observe. However, when writing a
descriptive essay, you often have a particular reason for writing your description. Getting in
Descriptive essay is one of the many types of writing styles that provides a detailed description for a particular
person, place and things. Descriptive essay is purposely created so readers can readily imagine its particular
subject matter.
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There are many different ways of making a descriptive essay really effective. Here are some of them:
Imaginative language this makes a descriptive essay really effective. The power of words is
immeasurable if it is appropriately used. The art of playing with the most appropriate adjectives is the key
for it.
Interesting comparisons although the subject matter in a descriptive essay is pretty simple, it somehow
becomes extraordinary using interesting comparisons. A classic example to this is the act of the writer to
compare a simple Ferris wheel to a horrible creature.
Varied vocabulary - in order to make a descriptive essay really effective it is essential to use varied
vocabulary. Although simple words will be suffice to get the message across, using varied vocabulary also
makes an essay even more interesting. It further actives the imagination of the reader for them to come up
with a vivid picture of the subject matter. Using a wide array of words in a descriptive essay is indeed
effective in the sense that it does not only drive away the readers burden but also ignites their curiosity. As
such this type of essay will definitely make the readers mind work to create a vision with its rich vocabulary.
Using the senses another key to making a descriptive essay really effective is the use of appropriate
adverb and adjectives that are pretty appealing to all the bodys senses. This is readily achieved if the writers
have the ability to play with adjectives that are appropriate for each particular subject matter. For instance,
instead of describing a simple smoking engine of the train, the writer can make it really appealing to the
senses using extraordinary adjective. It will be a lot appealing to the readers sense if with this line: the
trains engine is breathing line dragon. Although it is written in rather complicated manner, it remains
attractive for readers to reckon with as it is one better way of igniting their interest to become more focus
on the subject matter of the descriptive essay.
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Use Sensory Imagery - Imagery is the verbal representation of sensory experience (sight, sound, touch,
taste, and smell). Visual imagery is most common, but good writers experiment with a variety of images
and even purposefully inter mingle the senses (giving smells a color, for example). Imagery depends on
both diction and detail: an images success in producing a sensory experience results from the specificity of
the authors diction and choice of detail. Imagery contributes to voice by evoking vivid experience,
conveying specific emotion, and suggesting a particular idea.
Being organized one of the most essential manner of making a descriptive essay really effective is to
ensure that it is well organized. A descriptive essay should be well organized in order for it to be fully
understood by the readers. It must have a concise introduction to provide the readers some sort of birds
eye view on the subject matter. The body of a descriptive essay should therefore be composed of well
written and detailed information on the subject matter of the descriptive essay.
4. How to Write a Narrative Essay?

When writing a narrative essay, one might think of it as telling a story. These essays are often anecdotal,
experiential, and personalallowing the student to express themselves in a creative and, quite often,
moving way. Narrative writing is based on the authors imagination and creativity. The narrative or the
story can be fiction or non-fiction (unreal or real). All the elements in fiction narrative writing, whether
character; setting and plot; are imaginary. The fiction story might have little or no association with a real life
person. However a nonfiction story is associated with real life of either the author or biographical details of
characters and time shown.
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There's nothing like reading a great narrative. Whether in novel or essay form, a narrative piece of writing
transports readers into the time and space of the world portrayed by the writing. There's also nothing like
writing a great narrative. Through reflecting upon an event, and through recreating the experience for other
readers, writing a narrative essay can enable you to develop new, subtle, and rewarding perspectives. A
narrative essay is a piece of writing that recreates an experience through time.
A narrative essay can be based on one of your own experiences, either past or present, or it can be based
on the experiences of someone else.
Using your outline, describe each part of your narrative.
Rather than telling your readers what happened, use vivid details and descriptions to actually recreate the
experience for your readers. Think like your readers. Try to remember that the information you present is
the only information your readers have about the experiences. Always keep in mind that all of the small and
seemingly unimportant details known to you are not necessarily known to your readers.
5. Elements of a Narrative Essay
5.1 Plot
Plot is the story outline or the series of events a story would follow. It is expected of a storys
plot to have a beginning, middle and the end. Plot is as one can say the design intention of the
story. A short story may cover only a place in time and not necessarily complete story of a
person from the beginning till the end. The events in the story must have a cause and effect
relation or must add to character or theme development. For example if the story covers an
accident in a characters life then the details of his breakfast might not necessarily be included
unless he might have eaten something in the breakfast that may have caused him dizziness and
added to the event of the accident. There are three major parts of a storys plot i.e. rising action
and exposition, climax, falling action and denouement.
Rising Action: Rising Action refers to the initial part of the story where the events of the story or
the action in the story gains momentum. Misunderstandings are created and complications are
developed. Initial part of the rising action is referred to as exposition. An exposition is the initial
prelude of the story whereby the narrator or any character introduces us the main settings,
characters and theme of the story. It develops the mood and prepares the audience for the expected
outcomes by employing foreshadowing.
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outcomes by employing foreshadowing.
Climax: Climax is often referred to the highest point of action in the story. It is perhaps where the
opposing forces clash or the conflict comes to the surface or at its peak. The climax might not
necessarily come symmetrically in the exact middle of the story it may be perhaps in the later end. In
Shakespeares plays, which consist of five acts, the climax usually comes in the third act. Similarly, in
novels such as E.M. Foresters A Passage to India which consists of three parts: Mosque, Caves
and Temples the climax comes in the middle of second part: the Caves.
Falling Action: The falling action, as the name suggests is the series of incidents that resolve the
conflicts or misunderstandings or the complications that develop in the rising action part.
Denouement: Denouement is a word of French origin which means unraveling or resolving.

Denouement is the point where resolution is reached in the story.
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5.2 Character
Characterization is a very important part of the story. A character
metaphysical or symbolic animated object around which the story is
However, there are no set defined characteristics as to what may define a
Every author and dramatist takes liberties with the character creation.
general categories in which they can be divided into:
is a person, animal,
woven or structured.
character in literature.
Though there are few
Protagonist: Protagonist is the term which is used for main character of the story. For example
Buzz Lightyear and Woody in Toy Story.
Antagonist: Antagonist is the person or force that acts against the main character or the
Protagonist. It could be another person or the villain or it can be the circumstances, nature or fate.
Flat characters: Flat characters are kind of stereotypical characters that are usually either all good
or all bad and therefore are not realistic and true to life. The characters of Cinderella and the evil step
mother are flat characters since Cinderella is all good and the evil step mother was all bad.
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Realistic Characters: Realistic characters are like real life people since they are neither all good nor
all bad. Even the protagonists or the hero will have some innate flaws or would make error in
judgment and even the villain or the antagonist will have some element of good in him which could
make the audience sympathize with him some times. For example the protagonist Portia in
Shakespeares Play Merchant of Venice is the heroine and the main character of the play. She is
witty, smart and very confident. However we see a streak of racial prejudice in her when she gives a
cold shoulder to Jessica, since, Jessica is a Jew. Similarly, Shylock who is the villain seems to evoke
sympathy from the audience despite being malicious. The audience notices how often he is ridicule for
being a Jew and often referred to as cur (dog).
Major and Minor Characters: Major characters are those characters that play an important part in
the story and add to the plot development and affect the series of events. Whereas, the minor
characters are insignificant characters that only appear in the story to provide news about the
protagonists and antagonist, or, to comment on the main characters action. They also appear to
provide comic relief and create comedy and to sing songs (such as in Shakespeares play or like
chorus in Greek drama)
Foil Characters: Foil characters are those characters that either reflect the same qualities as the
main character or serve as a stark contrast to the protagonist just to highlight the good or one
aspect of the other in comparison.
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5.3
T heme
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In any work of literature, Theme is a central idea, concept or subject matter that a work of
literature deals with. The theme of a literary work may focus on any human emotion such as love
and agony or a human flaw such as envy, indecisiveness and lust. It can also be a human
condition such as helplessness, loss or famine.
5.4 Narrative or Point of View
Narration means to tell a story. There are different ways of telling stories that any literary genre such as
short story, play, film or novel may adopt. The narration usually is the strongest point of a literary work and
often the author experiment with in. There are countless ways of narrating; however, these are the few
that are commonly adopted:
First Person Narrative: In first person narration the story is told by the main character himself.
Usually autobiographies are written in first person narration and Bildungsroman novels employ first
person narration. The narrator speaks in I and talks to the audience as if in a conversation. David
Copperfield written by Charles Dickens is told in first person narration where in David recollects his
child hood memories and explains how he feels at the turn of each important event in his life.
Second Person Narrative: In the second person narrative the narrator speaks to the audience as
You as if the addressed reader in itself is a character of the story involved in the action. This form of
narrative view point is used very seldom.
Third person Narrative: Third person narrative is very vast in its approach. In third person
narrative, every character is referred to as he, she, it and they by the narrator. Thus the
narrator might be an insignificant character in the story that is not part of the action or is observing
the characters from the outside perspective. Also, the observation of a third person narrative could
be partial or biased if he is a human character. Most commonly used narrative style is Omniscient
narration. An Omniscient (all-Knowing) narrator is a god-like narrator who is aware of all the events
of the characters life much like god (as if he can see everything from above) and therefore can easily
understand their motives, feelings and predict their response or future action. Thus, the audience
does not doubt the information they provide. Omniscient narrator may also present limited or partial
omniscient information whereby he is aware of only one characters motives, thoughts and feelings.
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6. How to Write a Persuasive Essay?

The persuasive or argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a
topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise
manner. A persuasive essay is written to convince others of your opinion and point of view.
Persuasive essay assignments generally call for extensive research of literature or previously published
material. Perusaive assignments may also require empirical research where the student collects data
through interviews, surveys, observations, or experiments. Detailed research allows the student to
learn about the topic and to understand different points of view regarding the topic so that she/he
may choose a position and support it with the evidence collected during research. Regardless of the
amount or type of research involved, argumentative essays must establish a clear thesis and follow
sound reasoning.
Writing a persuasive essay is like being a lawyer arguing a case before a jury. The writer takes a stand
on an issueeither for or againstand builds the strongest possible argument to win over the
reader.
Persuasive writing is a fixture of modern lifefound in advertising, newspaper editorials, blogs, and
political speeches. Often persuasive writing assignments and test prompts concern contemporary
issues, for example: The school board is debating on whether or not to ban cell phone use in school.
Write an essay convincing the board to adopt your position. As shown in this persuasive writing
prompt, the main purpose is not to inform, but to persuade or convince an audience (the school
board) to think or act a certain way.
The prewriting phase of writing a persuasive essay is extremely important. During this phase, students
should plan every aspect of the essay:
Choose a position. Students should think about the issue and pick the side they wish to advocate.
Understand the audience. In order to write an effective persuasive essay, the writer must understand the
readers perspective. Is the reader undecided or inclined to favor one side or the other?
Do the research. A persuasive essay depends upon solid, convincing evidence. Dont rely on a single
source. Go to the library and enlist the help of the librarian. Speak with community experts and teachers.
Read and take notes. There is no substitute for knowledge of both sides of the issue.
Identify the most convincing evidence, as well as the key points for the opposing view.
6.1
Outline
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The introductory paragraph should have a strong hook that grabs the readers attention. Open with
an unusual fact or statistic, a question or quotation, or an emphatic statement. For example: Driving
while talking on a cell phone, even hands-free, is the equivalent of driving drunk.
The thesis statement should leave no doubts about the writers position.
Each body paragraph should cover a separate point, and the sentences of each paragraph should offer
strong evidence in the form of facts, statistics, and quotes from experts, and real-life examples.
Consider various ways to make the argument, including using an analogy, drawing comparisons, or
illustrating with hypothetical situation (e.g., what if, suppose that).
Dont assume the audience has in-depth knowledge of the issue. Define terms and give background
information.
The concluding paragraph should summarize the most important evidence and encourage the reader to
adopt the position or take action. The closing sentence can be a dramatic plea, a prediction that
implies urgent action is needed, a question that provokes readers to think seriously about the issue,
or a recommendation that gives readers specific ideas on what they can do. In the revision phase,
students review, modify, and reorganize their work with the goal of making it the best it can be.
6.2
Questions to be asked:
Does the essay present a firm position on the issue, supported by relevant facts, statistics, quotes, and
examples?
Does the essay open with an effective hook that intrigues readers and keeps them reading?
Does each paragraph offer compelling evidence focused on a single supporting point?
Is the opposing point of view presented and convincingly refuted?
Is the sentence structure varied? Is the word choice precise? Do the transitions between sentences and
paragraphs help the readers understanding?
Does the concluding paragraph convey the value of the writers position and urge the reader to think and
act?
If the essay is still missing the mark, take another look the thesis. Does it present the strongest argument?
Test it by writing a thesis statement for the opposing viewpoint. In comparison, does the original thesis need
strengthening? Once the thesis presents a well-built argument with a clear adversarial viewpoint, the rest of
the essay should fall into place more easily.
It is important to remember that in a persuasive essay, its the writers job to convince the reader to
accept a particular point of view or take a specific action. Persuasive essays require good research,
awareness of the readers biases, and a solid understanding of both sides of the issue. A good
persuasive essay demonstrates not only why the writers opinion is correct, but also why the opposing
view is incorrect.
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Topic 12: Literary Writing
T opic Objective:
1. W hat is Literary W riting?
2. Genres of Literary W riting
This topic will cover in detail an introduction to literary writing as a genre, different forms of
literary writing, their characteristics and scope.
T opic Overview:
1. What is Literary Writing?
Literary writing is usually fictional, and it makes use of figurative or symbolic language. When literary purpose is
the primary purpose, the writing should be fictional. As a secondary purpose, literary writing can be found in
combination with the expressive or persuasive purpose. Because literary writing is figurative, it is seldom found in
combination with referential writing, which is literal.
The term 'literary writing' calls to mind works by writers such as Shakespeare, Milton, or Wordsworth; definitive
examples of all that the term implies. We instinctively associate the term with characteristics such as artistic
merit, creative genius, and the expression of mankind's noblest qualities. In this essay I will explore some of the
characteristics of this kind of writing.
Literary works are primarily distinguishable from other pieces of writing by their creative or artistic intent.
A piece of literature differs from a specialized treatises on astronomy, political economy, philosophy, or even
history, in part because it appeals, not to a particular class of readers only, but to men and women; and in part
because, while the object of the treatise is simply to impart knowledge, one ideal end of the piece of literature,
whether it also imparts knowledge or not, is to yield aesthetic satisfaction by the manner of which it handles its
theme.
So literary writing, having creative and artistic intent, is more carefully structured and uses words for the
rhetorical effect of their flow, their sound, and their emotive and descriptive qualities. Literary writers can also
employ tone, rhyme, rhythm, irony, dialogue and its variations such as dialects and slang, and a host of other
devices in the construction of a particular prose work, poem, or play.
2. Kinds of Literary Writing
There are various kinds of literary writing; each divided according to the purpose is serves and its
distinctive characteristics. There are basically five kinds of literary writing:
Fiction
Poetry
Drama
Screenwriting
Autobiographies and more.
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2.1 Fiction
The word, fiction, comes from the Latin word fictum. Essentially, this word means "created." Fiction is
a name for a form of narrative - stories - not entirely factual. W hile it is true that in some fiction (the
historical novel, for example), the author draws on factual information and presents some scenes,
events, and even characters that are not imagined or invented. However, the facts that one might find
in a historical novel are secondary to the narrative content of the story. This is what differentiates the
historical novel from history itself.
Fiction differs from the historical novel in that the facts may or may not be true. However, the story
itself is none the worse if the author invents or imagines the details of the story. As readers, we
expect that fiction will have imagined or invented details. We don't expect a chronology of events that
one might find in a history book. W hile the facts of a work of fiction may or may not be true, as
readers, we are able to suspend our disbelief because the author was able to tap into what we might
call "universal human experience." This "universal human experience" is especially important in science
fiction because it is, more often than not, the universal human experience that allows us to suspend
disbelief about technological worlds very different from our own. Essentially, the masters of the art of
fiction have the power to make us believe what he or she has invented or imagined.
For the most part, lengthy discussions of the art of fiction tend to revolve around what we call "literary
fiction." Literary fiction differs from the genre fiction like spy novels, detective stories, Westerns, or
romance novels. In these genres of commercial fiction, we, as readers, are primarily motivated by the
entertaining qualities of the fiction. We do not read literary fiction merely to find out what happens
next. We must read literary fiction more actively than that - reading literary fiction is not a passive
activity. W hen we read literary fiction, we have to think critically, we have to ask questions of the
text, we must engage in a dialogue with the author, the characters, and the story itself. Literary
fiction is that important - it demands both our full attention and our personal insights and
participation. W hen we read literary fiction, we must not merely be an interloper in the world we
discover, but must be a participant observer.
2.2
Poetry
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Poetry (ancient Greek: (poieo) = I create) is an art form in which human language is used for its aesthetic
qualities in addition to, or instead of, its notional and semantic content. It consists largely of oral or literary
works in which language is used in a manner that is felt by its user and audience to differ from ordinary prose.
It may use condensed or compressed form to convey emotion or ideas to the reader's or listener's mind or ear;
it may also use devices such as assonance and repetition to achieve musical or incantatory effects. Poems
frequently rely for their effect on imagery, word association, and the musical qualities of the language used. The
interactive layering of all these effects to generate meaning is what marks poetry.
Because of its nature of emphasizing linguistic form rather than using language purely for its content, poetry is
notoriously difficult to translate from one language into another: a possible exception to this might be the
Hebrew Psalms, where the beauty is found more in the balance of ideas than in specific vocabulary. In most
poetry, it is the connotations and the "baggage" that words carry (the weight of words) that are most
important; these shades and nuances of meaning can be difficult to interpret and can cause different readers to
"hear" a particular piece of poetry differently. While there are reasonable interpretations, there can never be a
definitive interpretation.
Poetry can be differentiated most of the time from prose, which is language meant to convey meaning in a
more expansive and less condensed way, frequently using more complete logical or narrative structures than
poetry does. This does not necessarily imply that poetry is illogical, but rather that poetry is often created from
the need to escape the logical, as well as expressing feelings and other expressions in a tight, condensed
manner. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability. A further
complication is that prose poetry combines the characteristics of poetry with the superficial appearance of
prose, such as in Robert Frost's poem, "Home Burial." Other forms include narrative poetry and dramatic
poetry, both of which are used to tell stories and so resemble novels and plays. However, both these forms of
poetry use the specific features of verse composition to make these stories more memorable or to enhance
them in some way.
What is generally accepted as "great" poetry is debatable in many cases. "Great" poetry usually follows the
characteristics listed above, but it is also set apart by its complexity and sophistication. "Great" poetry generally
captures images vividly and in an original, refreshing way, while weaving together an intricate combination of
elements like theme tension, complex emotion, and profound reflective thought. For examples of what is
considered "great" poetry, visit the Pulitzer prize and Nobel prize sections for poetry.
There are as many definitions of poetry as there are poets. Wordsworth defined poetry as "the spontaneous
overflow of powerful feelings;" Emily Dickinson said, "If I read a book and it makes my body so cold no fire ever
can warm me, I know that is poetry;" and Dylan Thomas defined poetry this way: "Poetry is what makes me
laugh or cry or yawn, what makes my toenails twinkle, what makes me want to do this or that or nothing."
Poetry is a lot of things to a lot of people. Homer's epic, The Odyssey, described the wanderings of the
adventurer, Odysseus, and has been called the greatest story ever told. During the English Renaissance,
dramatic poets like John Milton, Christopher Marlowe, and of course Shakespeare gave us enough to fill
textbooks, lecture halls, and universities. Poems from the romantic period include Goethe's Faust (1808),
Coleridge's "Kubla Khan" and John Keats' "Ode on a Grecian Urn."
2.3 Drama
Aristotle argued that actors in a drama aim to mimic actions rather than perform real actions. While his view has
been influential, exploring how the concept of imitation relates to drama is crucial to an understanding of
dramatic activity. Dramatic acting involves more than simply copying actions that are described by playwrights
or performed by people in everyday life. For example, someone who performs a murder in a drama is unlikely to
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produce an exact replica of a murder that has really occurred. Since those acting dramas probably wish to avoid
causing trauma to others or being dragged off to prison, it is likely that an actor would try to find an action that
can suggest the action of murder. Actors may still choose to perform actions that are copies of real or
imagined actions but they always need to be mindful of the consequences and impact of their actions on
themselves and on their audiences. Since those acting dramas are also really performing actions, those who
are performing actions need to consider how their actions will impact upon the different views and values in
different audiences.
Drama is a unique tool to explore and express human feeling. Drama is an essential form of behavior in all
cultures; it is a fundamental human activity. It is a discrete skill in itself (acting, theatre, refined skill), and
therefore it is offered as a 'subject' in secondary school. However Drama is also a tool which is flexible, versatile
and applicable among all areas of the curriculum. Through its application as a tool in the primary classroom and
can be experienced by all children.
Drama is an Ancient Greek word meaning act or deed. The Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle used this term
in a very influential treatise called the Poetics. In this text, Aristotle classified different forms of poetry according
to basic features he thought could be commonly recognized in their composition. He used the term drama to
describe poetic compositions that were acted in front of audiences in a theatron.
While Aristotle offered drama as a general term to describe forms of poetry that were acted, he identified
different types of composition within this category, including comedy and tragedy. He regarded comedy as a
form of drama because it represented acts that made audiences laugh and he considered tragedy a form of
drama because it represented acts that made audiences feel pity or fear. The Roman theorist Horace introduced
another view of these poetic forms when he suggested that their purpose was to either delight or instruct.
Although various definitions and developments in drama must be considered in addition to Aristotles original
assessment of dramas, many of the terms of classification he introduced are still used or debated today.
2.4 Screen Writing
Screenwriting is a subset of script writing. Script writing is the art of writing for video, television, film,
commercials or video games. It is writing the words that will be said on camera. Screenwriting refers to script
writing for film, television or video games. When writing for training videos, infomercials and other nonentertainment video products, screenwriting is generally not used.
Screenwriting is basically the art of putting together a visualized idea in an acceptable format for film, television
and or video game production. People confusingly refer to screenwriting as scriptwriting but there is a difference
(slight) between screenwriting and script writing. Scriptwriting is the general name given to the art of writing for
any visual medium and these visual media can be movies, documentaries, radio and or television commercials,
video games, etc. Screenwriting on the other hand is a subset name mostly given to the art of writing
infomercial and entertainment film/video products and these can be feature film/movies, television and video
games.
Screenwriting is a freelance profession which is opened to everyone who seeks to work from the comfort of
their own home. You can also work at any time you want unless the contract comes with a strict and short
dead line, which is mostly the case.
It also gives individuals opportunity to make the world know their vision and what they think of the world. This is
why you realize that all successful screenwriter are people who speak with a lot of passion in the tone.
Screenwriting is a profession of passion and if you are not passionate about it, I advise you step away and find
something else you are passionate about.
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Screenwriting is creation. It gives ordinary people the opportunity to dig into the deepest region of their
imagination and find interesting things to share with the world.
2.5 Autobiographies and Other Forms
An autobiography is a self-written account of the life of a person. The word 'autobiography' was first
used deprecatingly by W illiam Taylor in 1797 in the English periodical the Monthly Review, when he
suggested the word as a hybrid but condemned it as 'pedantic'; but its next recorded use was in its
present sense by Robert Southey in 1809. The form of autobiography however goes back to antiquity.
Biographers generally rely on a wide variety of documents and viewpoints; an autobiography, however,
may be based entirely on the writer's memory. Closely associated with autobiography (and sometimes
difficult to precisely distinguish from it) is the form of memoir.
An autobiography should contain the basic framework that any essay should have, like an introductory
paragraph with a thesis statement, a body containing several paragraphs, and a conclusion. But the
trick is to make your life story an interesting narrative with a theme.
There are many kinds of Autobiographical writing:
A memoir puts a frame onto life by limiting what is included. A memoir may be publishable if it focuses on
a topic of significant popular interest or if it is so well written that it can be considered literature. The limiting
frame may be determined by a particular period in your life, for example, your childhood, your adolescence,
or your fabulous fifties.
Willie Morris New York Days is restricted to the period when he was editor of Harpers.
Lillian Hellmans Scoundrel Time is about the McCarthy era of the 1950s.
The coming of age memoir, restricted to childhood, has become a distinct literary genre in its own right.
Memoirs of place from a multitude of regional voices have become very popular in contemporary
American literature. A memoirs frame may also be limited by a particular setting as with:
Annie Dillards Pilgrim at Tinker Creek
Isak Dinesens Out of Africa
The Ecological Memoir combines a sense of place with a spiritual theme which dissolves distinctions
between the self and the earth. The American tradition descends from Henry David Thoreaus Walden. The
new Ecological Memoir carries the sense that there is a place on the planet which is right for each person
and expresses ones true self. Like Georgia OKeeffe whose style as a painter was tied to the New Mexican
landscape, some memoirists are transplants who find their voice only when they find their spot. Memoirist
Terry Tempest Williams, though, realizes she was born to the land she loves. In Refuge, an Unnatural History
of Family and Place, Tempest Williams writes that she does not crave travel because she finds greater
depths to explore within Salt Lake City, where her Mormon family has lived and died for a hundred and fifty
years.
A memoir can also be limited by the authors relationship with an individual or group. Colettes Sido is
about the authors relationship with her beloved mother. Simone de Beauvoirs Adieux, A Farewell to Sartre
is about her affair and friendship with the Existentialist philosopher. Ernest Hemingways A Moveable Feast is
restricted by place (Paris), period (1920s-30s ), and his social relationships with an interrelated group of
American expatriate artists and writers.
The Portrait closely resembles a thematic memoir which focuses on a relationship, except that the portrait
emphasizes the subject rather than the author. In Patrick OHiggins Madame: An Intimate Biography of
Helena Rubinstein, OHiggins is present as protg to the cosmetics queen, but his concentration is on
Rubinsteins life rather than his own. Geoffrey Wolffs, The Duke of Deception, is simultaneously a coming of
age memoir and a portrait of his father, a con artist par excellence. Depending on popular interest in your
subject or your ability to tell the story of a fascinating character, portraits may be publishable.
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The Historical Memoir is the one form of thematic autobiographic writing in which the importance of
factual accuracy and chronology supersedes the creative imperatives of inner truth. Heavily influenced by
journalism and reportage, historical memoirs are often authenticated by quotes from newspapers, letters
and other verifiable, external records. The historical memoir is written not only to tell the subjects own
story, but also to document the story of his or her times. Yet even with the most conscious commitment to
objectivity the historical memoir is really a settling of accounts, a selective statement of how the author
wishes to be remembered in history. Examples include:
The Education of Henry Adams

The Autobiography of W.E.B. Du Bois
The Confession: The spiritual confession begun by Augustine follows a clear plan: the recounting of ones
sins followed by the mending of ones ways. The key is to detail for a readers enjoyment all your
naughtiness (this should be the bulk of the work) and then tell why you arent that way anymore. There are
many secular examples of the form, among them:
Thomas De Quincys Confessions of an English Opium Eater

Julia Phillipss Youll Never Eat Lunch in this Town Again, a confession of crack cocaine addiction


Academic Writing
Methods Of Approaching Academic Writing
Business Communication And Writing
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Topic 13: Academic Writing
T opic Objective:
1. W hat is Academic W riting?
2. Genres of Academic W riting
This topic will cover in detail an introduction to different kinds of academic writing and the
characteristics that differentiates it from all the other forms of writing.
T opic Overview:
1. What is Academic Writing?
Academic writing is the type of writing students are expected to produce in response to content they learn about
in an academic setting; i.e. school. Its how they formally join the scholarly conversation. And it can begin at a
very young age, when a child writes a report about a book he has read or a topic she has learned about. It is
not a personal experience, nor a story, nor merely a description. Academic writing tells us what the writer thinks
and what evidence has contributed to that thinking. The evidence can include the writers personal experiences,
information found in other books or sources, or information gleaned from talking with others (such as, a parent
or expert). The standard for good academic writing is how logical or reasonable the writers thinking is is the
authors opinion based in evidence that is credible and convincing? As such, academic writing is a window into
your childs intellectual lifeand thats why its such an important skill to focus on. Not only does writing show us
what a child is thinking; but the process of writing helps develop your childs thinking. We call it writing to learn
and learning to write.
As students mature in their writing skills, we expect them to back-up their thinking with credible evidence (e.g.
research) and we expect them to provide citations for where that research has come from (using the style
guide associated with the particular discipline; for instance, MLA formatting for the humanities or APA formatting
for the social sciences). Students should have some basic familiarity with academic writing that includes citations
in order to be college-ready by the end of high school. Further this is an important skill that is measured on the
SAT essay, all AP exam essays and the college application essay. In general, all of these writing prompts are
attempting to get a bead on your childs intellectual promise as a scholar.
n brief, academic writing is 'structured research' written by 'scholars' for other scholars (with all
university writers being 'scholars' in this context). Academic writing addresses topic-based
'research questions' of interest to anyone who is seeking factually-based, objectively-presented
information on a particular topic. The objective of academic writing is the presentation of 'new
knowledge' via (a) a review of what is currently known about a given topic as (b) the foundation
for the author's new views or perspectives on the topic.
The key points, which are common to any unambiguous formal writing for an international Englishlanguage audience, include:
Writing in the third person. Academic writing must be objective; the focus is not on the writer, but
on the topic and ideas of the paper;
Avoiding abbreviations and slang, both of which may be highly culture-specific. The focus is clear,
formal-register language which will be unambiguous regardless of the variety of English used by the
paper's international readership. Similarly, one should also write out numbers, currency designators,
units of measurement, etc., in full.
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An additional characteristic of academic writing is the use of relatively cautious or 'qualified'

language, especially when documenting claims of new knowledge. Inasmuch as the evidence of the
paper can only be based on what is currently known about the topic, this evidence may well
change as new knowledge emerges (indeed, the "new knowledge" proposed by your paper will
change what has been known about the topic before you wrote your paper. Thus, since the
'knowledge' will never be completely certain, it is useful to express claims with language such as:
This report appears to show that . . .
But on page 357, Virtanen seems to feel differently . . .
In this context, Heiskanen apparently disagrees with Virtanen . . .
2. Kinds of Academic Writing
There are various kinds of academic writing; each divided according to the purpose is serves and
its distinctive characteristics. There are basically four kinds of literary writing:
Essay
Research Essay
Research Paper
Book Review
Summary or Reaction Paper
2.1 Essay
An essay is an art that features the elements of the writer's thinking and the writer's voice. Unless you
write honestly, with the conviction that comes from using your own voice, you are not writing an
essay. There are two basic sub divisions:
Thesis Support Essay:
The essay most commonly assigned in college writing is the thesis-support essay, which addresses a central
question or issue and offers a supporting thesis.
Sometimes you explain or defend your thesis with reasons and evidence gained from your personal
experience.
Often, you are expected to include new thinking and evidence gained from your reading or other kinds of
research.
Generally, you will be assigned, or will need to settle on, a specific method or form, almost always
including an introduction, body and conclusion.
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Informal Essay:
In the humanities or the arts (and sometimes in math and science), you might be asked to write an informal
essay, one more exploratory and reflective, developing not 'top down,' by supporting a thesis with reasons
and examples, but rather 'bottom up,' by starting with experiences and finding some storyline or trail of
explanation.
2.2 Research Essay

Ordinarily this assignment is really to write an essay, but a Research Essay, which just means an essay that has
been expanded by your research. This assignment gets some students in trouble because they think a research
paper is just a matter of following a procedure: go to the library, find sources, make notes on note cards, put
your notes in order, and write a paper with footnotes and bibliography. A real research paper must start with
your own interests and thinking, with subjects and questions you think are important. It's wise to begin the
research paper process by writing down your own initial thinking and knowledge around your subject and the
kinds of questions you think might be important to ask. But a research paper must also involve a real, often
time-consuming search of any sources that might provide information and ideas once you have identified a
tentative research question: People, a computer data base, books and journals in your neighborhood and
university libraries, the internet, even your own surveys or experiments. Your research essay must document
where you got all the information and ideas you didn't have before your started your research--your sources-especially your sources for anything that readers might question or disagree with. Usually you document by intext citations of all research information and by a list of works cited at the close of the paper.
2.3 Research Paper

A research paper is the culmination and final product of an involved process of research, critical
thinking, source evaluation, organization, and composition. It is, perhaps, helpful to think of the
research paper as a living thing, which grows and changes as the student explores, interprets, and
evaluates sources related to a specific topic. Primary and secondary sources are the heart of a research
paper, and provide its nourishment; without the support of and interaction with these sources, the
research paper would morph into a different genre of writing (e.g., an encyclopedic article). The
research paper serves not only to further the field in which it is written, but also to provide the
student with an exceptional opportunity to increase her knowledge in that field. It is also possible to
identify a research paper by what it is not.
There are two basic sub divisions:
Argumentative Research Paper:
The argumentative research paper consists of an introduction in which the writer clearly introduces the topic
and informs his audience exactly which stance he intends to take; this stance is often identified as the thesis
statement. An important goal of the argumentative research paper is persuasion, which means the topic
chosen should be debatable or controversial. For example, it would be difficult for a student to successfully
argue in favor of the following stance:
Cigarette smoking poses medical dangers and may lead to cancer for both the smoker and those who
experience secondhand smoke.
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Perhaps 25 years ago this topic would have been debatable; however, today, it is assumed that
smoking cigarettes is, indeed, harmful to one's health. A better thesis would be the following:
Although it has been proven that cigarette smoking may lead to sundry health problems in the smoker, the
social acceptance of smoking in public places demonstrates that many still do not consider secondhand
smoke as dangerous to one's health as firsthand smoke.
In this sentence, the writer is not challenging the current accepted stance that both firsthand and
secondhand cigarette smoke is dangerous; rather, she is positing that the social acceptance of the latter
over the former is indicative of a cultural double-standard of sorts. The student would support this thesis
throughout her paper by means of both primary and secondary sources, with the intent to persuade her
audience that her particular interpretation of the situation is viable.
Analytical Research Paper:

The analytical research paper often begins with the student asking a question (a.k.a. a research question) on
which he has taken no stance. Such a paper is often an exercise in exploration and evaluation. For example,
perhaps one is interested in the Old English poem Beowulf. He has read the poem intently and desires to
offer a fresh reading of the poem to the academic community. His question may be as follows:
How should one interpret the poem Beowulf?
His research may lead him to the following conclusion:
Beow ulf is a poem w hose purpose it w as to serve as an exemplum of heterodoxy for tenth- and
eleventh-century monastic communities.
Though his topic may be debatable and controversial, it is not the student's intent to persuade
the audience that his ideas are right while those of others are wrong. Instead, his goal is to
offer a critical interpretation of primary and secondary sources throughout the paper--sources
that should, ultimately, buttress his particular analysis of the topic. The following is an example
of what his thesis statement may look like once he has completed his research.
T hough Beow ulf is often read as a poem that recounts the heroism and supernatural exploits of
the protagonist Beow ulf, it may also be read as a poem that served as an exemplum of
heterodoxy for tenth- and eleventh-century monastic communities found in the Danelaw .
This statement does not negate the traditional readings of Beowulf; instead, it offers a fresh
and detailed reading of the poem that will be supported by the student's research. It is typically
not until the student has begun the writing process that his thesis statement begins to take
solid form. In fact, the thesis statement in an analytical paper is often more fluid than the thesis
in an argumentative paper. Such is one of the benefits of approaching the topic without a
predetermined stance.
2.4 Book Review

A book review is a form of literary criticism in which a book is analyzed based on content, style, and merit. A
book review can be a primary source opinion piece, summary review or scholarly review.
A book review is a real form of writing real writers use to write real things about real books that really matter to
them. A book report is a made up form of writing, used only in school that some teachers ask kids to write in
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order to prove that they have read a particular book. A book report most often involves reciting information
from a text and answering someone elses questions about it. A book review most often involves creating new
and original information about a text and answering ones own questions about it. Book reviews can contain just
about any type of information related to the text, to the reader, or to the world of books and readers in general.
The organization of a book review is straightforward. It consists of three basic portions which are the following:
1) a summary of the book read, 2) an interpretation by the reviewer of the author's argument, 3) a conclusion
by the reviewer concerning the significance or meaning of this argument for a wider audience. You should think
of your review as divided into these three basic portions, and even consider arbitrarily dividing your paper into
three equal portions to include them. For a 6-page review, this would mean two pages for each portion.
The summary of your paper ought to capture the main features of the book, stated as neutrally and clearly as
possible. At this point in your review, you do not take sides. You are simply presenting to the reader of your
essay the facts, events, ideas and outcome of the book being discussed. You may choose to focus more on
one aspect of the book as more important than the others to describe. For example, the plot or main
characters may be more interesting than the setting. But stick to conveying the main issues and point of the
book. This is all the background your reader will have to use in following your arguments about the book.
The interpretive portion of your paper ought to begin to analyze how and why the author has put his/her book
together in the way he/she has. What are the relationships between the facts, ideas, characters, and events in
the book? How did you react to this combination, and why? Did something the author say anger or please you?
How was this effect achieved? Once you begin to figure these things out and present them to your reader, you
will find you have a "slant" or an "angle" on the book which is yours alone. It is this interpretation that you are
after in this section.
Finally, you will write a conclusion that in a sense brings together the first two portions of your essay. In your
conclusion you are trying to compare carefully what the author had to say (your summary) with your own
reaction (interpretation). You are doing this in order to be able to generalize about the meaning of this book for
people other than yourself. You have had your own reaction, and now you want to step back and say, "Yes, but
is that really all there is to it?" You are reflecting on the meaning of your own reaction at this point. This is what
you could call the "So what?" section of your essay, for it asks you to tell your reader what the relevance or
validity of the book is for them. Relevance means the meaning it will have for persons concerned with other or
similar problems; validity means its objectivity or accuracy.
This set of directions is a recipe. Like any other recipe, it will produce the best results when followed carefully.
Once you have the format in hand, however, like any good cook you will begin to experiment. The best cooks
also rely on their own imaginations.
2.5 Summary or Reaction Paper
Ordinarily, if your instructor asks you to write a summary of something you've read, it is to help you to clarify
what you read and to enable the instructor to determine whether you've understood it. Because this kind of
assignment is limited to presenting others' ideas, an instructor will often combine it with a reaction assignment,
to find out what your opinion is. In a reaction paper, usually after you have stated the author's main ideas and
main supporting evidence, you state your own responses to those ideas, backing them up with your own
evidence and thinking. In many cases your instructor is expecting a particular kind of reaction, for example, a
statement of whether you agree or disagree with the text and your reasons.
The following is a reading-writing process that works for many students when summarizing thesis-support
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articles. You can adapt it for longer and different kinds of texts and to your own process, with guidance from
your professor.
Clarify the assignment - Know what process of thought is typically expected in summary papers. If they
are not provided, ask for a model of what is expected and/or for guidelines, especially how long the
summary should be in relation to the original.
Read the article all the way through without marking it, looking for the question the author is addressing
and the answer the author is developing in response to the question (the thesis or main point).
After you finish, write down one sentence that captures the main point of the article. Ordinarily you
should be able to begin it with, "It is true that...." If you have trouble with this, write down the central
question or issue the article addresses. It is usually easier to see the thesis after you do this.
Look back at the article to see if you can find the thesis stated explicitly. Does this correspond to what
you wrote? If not, look at the article again or reread if necessary until you feel fairly certain about the main
point.
Now read the article again, marking the main points supporting the thesis and noting how the main points
are tied together logically. The basic argument of thesis-support writing might be described as something
like "This is true because and because and because and .... But another argument will be functioning as
well. Look for the bare bones of this argument (such patterns as 'and/and/and/and' or
'and/but/but/nevertheless/so' or 'since/since/since/therefore' or 'based on this evidence/this evidence/this
evidence'...and so on).
Write: Begin by citing the title, author, and source of the article.
State the thesis in your own words and then, in your own words, as succinctly as possible describe each
major point that supports the thesis, explaining the bare bones of the argument. Do not insert your own
opinion anywhere.
Read your first draft outloud. Check for important omissions and unnecessary information and details.
Check to see if it all makes sense. Check for length. If you did not follow the first step, you can use the
general guideline that a summary should be no longer than one-fourth the length of the original. Cross out
unnecessary words and note loosely constructed sentences.
Revise in response to your notes on the first draft, tightening your writing.
Once you believe your summary is pretty much together, ask someone to read it critically. See if your
reader understands the basic points of the article after reading your summary.
After making changes based on your reader's critique, edit and proofread.
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Topic 14: Methods Of Approaching Academic Writing
T opic Objective:
1. Approaching Academic W riting
2. How to W rite a Research Essay?
3. How to W rite a Research Paper?
4. How to W rite a Book Review?
5. How to W rite a Summary or Reaction Paper?
This topic will cover in detail different techniques and methods of approaching academic writing
tasks especially research essay, research paper, book reviews and summary or reaction papers.
T opic Overview:
1. Approaching Academic Writing
Academic writing is 'structured research' written by 'scholars' for other scholars (with all university
writers being 'scholars' in this context). Academic writing addresses topic-based 'research
questions' of interest to anyone who is seeking factually-based, objectively-presented information
on a particular topic. The objective of academic writing is the presentation of 'new knowledge' via
(a) a review of what is currently known about a given topic as (b) the foundation for the author's
new views or perspectives on the topic.
The key points, which are common to any unambiguous formal writing for an international Englishlanguage audience, include:
Writing in the third person. Academic writing must be objective; the focus is not on the writer, but
on the topic and ideas of the paper;
Avoiding abbreviations and slang, both of which may be highly culture-specific. The focus is clear,
formal-register language which will be unambiguous regardless of the variety of English used by the
paper's international readership. Similarly, one should also write out numbers, currency designators,
units of measurement, etc., in full.
2. How to Write a Research Essay?
As discussed earlier a research essay requires students not to write just an essay, but rather a Research essay,
which means an essay that, has been expanded by your research.
It's wise to begin the research paper process by writing down your own initial thinking and knowledge around
your subject and the kinds of questions you think might be important to ask.
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Your research essay must document where you got all the information and ideas you didn't have before your
started your research--your sources--especially your sources for anything that readers might question or
disagree with. Usually you document by in-text citations of all research information and by a list of works cited
at the close of the paper.
3. How to Write a Research Paper?
A research paper is the culmination and final product of an involved process of research, critical
thinking, source evaluation, organization, and composition.
Most university courses involve some sort of extended writing assignment, usually in the form of a
research paper. Papers normally require that a student identify a broad area of research related to the
course, focus the topic through some general background reading, identify a clear research question,
marshal primary and secondary resources to answer the question, and present the argument in a clear
and creative manner, with proper citations.
That is the theory, at least. But how do you go about doing it all? This brief guide provides some
answers.
From the outset, keep in mind one important point: Writing a research paper is in part about learning
how to teach yourself. Long after you leave college, you will continue learning about the world and its
vast complexities. There is no better way to hone the skills of life-long learning than by writing
individual research papers. The process forces you to ask good questions, find the sources to answer
them, present your answers to an audience, and defend your answers against detractors. Those are
skills that you will use in any profession you might eventually pursue.
2.1 Conduct Background Research
At the beginning of a course, you will probably not know enough about the major scholarly topics that
are of most importance in the field, the topics that are most well-covered in the secondary literature or
the topics that have already had the life beaten out of them by successive generations of writers. You
should begin by doing some general reading in the field. If nothing else, begin with the Encyclopedia
Britannica, a wonderful but sadly neglected resource. Read a few books or articles on topics you find of
interest. Follow up the suggested reading on the course syllabus or the footnotes or bibliographies of
the texts you are reading for the course. After that, speak with the professor about some of your
general ideas and the possible research directions you are thinking about pursuing. And you should do
all this as early in the course as possible.
2.2 Clarify Research Question
A research question is a clear, focused, concise, complex and arguable question around which
you center your research. You should ask a question about an issue that you are genuinely
curious about. Research questions help writers focus their research by providing a path through
the research and writing process.
A research question, at least in the social sciences, begins with the word why or how. Think
of it as a puzzle: W hy did a particular political or social event turn out as it did and not some
other way? W hy does a particular pattern exist in social life? W hy does a specific aspect of
politics work as it does? How has a social or political phenomenon changed from one period to
another? The question can be general or particular. W hy have some countries been more
successful in the transition from Communism than others? W hy did the Labour Party win the last
British general election? How have conceptions of race changed in the US since the 1960s? How
do different electoral systems affect the behavior of political parties?
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The specificity of a well-developed research question helps writers avoid the all-about paper
and work toward supporting a specific, arguable thesis. It is very important to keep your
research question clear for example:
An unclear research question would be: Why are social networking sites harmful?
The above statement can be reframed more clearly as: How are online users experiencing or
addressing privacy issues on such social networking sites as MySpace and Facebook?
The point is that you should attempt to identify either:
novel trends, developments or outcomes in social life that are not readily apparent (the how
questions), or
The causes of a particular event or general trend (the why questions).
Professional social scientistshistorians, political scientists, sociologists, international affairs expertswork

on both these kinds of questions. In the best published social science writing you will be able to identify a
clear how or why question at the heart of the research.
How and why questions are essential because they require the author to make an argument. Research
questions that do not require an argument are just bad questions. For example, a paper on What
happened during the Mexican revolution? requires the author to do no more than list facts and datesa
good encyclopedia entry, maybe, but not a good research paper. What and when questions are only the
starting point for writing research papers. Obviously, you need to have a firm grasp of the facts of the case,
but you must then move on to answer a serious and important why or how question in the paper itself.
2.3 Conducting Specific Research
Real research means something other than reading secondary sources in English or pulling
information off the Internet. Real research means using primary sources. W hat counts as a
primary source, though, depends on what kind of question you are trying to answer.
Say you want to write a paper on the causes of Communisms demise in eastern Europe. You
would begin by reading some general secondary sources on the collapse of Communism, from
which you might surmise that two factors were predominant: economic problems of Communist
central planning and Mikhail Gorbachevs reforms in the Soviet Union. Primary sources in this
case might include economic statistics, memoirs of politicians from the period or reportage in
east European newspapers (available in English or other languages). Bring all your skills to bear
on the topic. Use works in foreign languages. Use software packages to analyze statistical
data.
Or say you want to write about how conceptions of national identity have changed in Britain
since the 1980s. In this case, you might examine the speeches of British political leaders,
editorials in major British newspapers, and voting support for the Scottish National Party or
other regional parties. You might also arrange an interview with an expert in the field: a noted
scholar, a British government representative, a prominent journalist.
The point about primary sources is that they take you as close as possible to where the action is
the real, on-the-ground, rubber-meets-the-road facts from which you will construct your
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interpretive argument. There are, however, gradations of primary evidence. The best sources are
those in original languages that are linked to persons directly involved in the event or
development that you are researching. Next are the same sources translated into other
languages. Then come sources that are studies of or otherwise refer to direct experience. In your
research, you should endeavor to get as close as possible to the events or phenomena you are
studying. But, of course, no one can speak every language and interview every participant in a
political or social event. Part of being a creative scholar is figuring out how to assemble enough
evidence using the skills and resources that you possess in order to make a clear and
sustainable argument based on powerful and credible sources.
One other note for Georgetown students: In a city that contains one of the worlds great
research libraries, representations from nearly every country on the planet, the headquarters of
countless international organizations, numerous research institutes, and scores of other
political, economic, cultural, and non-governmental associations and institutions, both domestic
and international, there is absolutely no excuse for the complaint that I cant find anything on
my topic in Lauinger.
2.4 Developing an Argument:
Unfortunately, many undergraduate research papers are really no more than glorified book
reports. You know the drill: Check out ten books (in English) from the library, skim through three
of them, note down a few facts or mark some pages, combine the information in your own
words, and there you have it.
This will not do. Your paper must not only assemble evidencefacts about the worldbut it
must weave together these facts so that they form an argument that answers the research
question. There are no once-and-for-all answers in any scholarly field, but there are better and
worse arguments. The better ones have powerful evidence based on reliable sources, are ordered
and logical in the presentation of evidence, and reach a clear and focused conclusion that
answers the question posed at the beginning of the paper.
In addition, good arguments also consider competing claims: W hat other counter-arguments
have been put forward (or could be put forward) to counter your points? How would you respond
to them? In fact, consideration of counter-arguments is often a good way to begin your paper.
How have scholars normally accounted for a particular event or trend? W hat are the weaknesses
of their accounts? W hat evidence might be marshaled to suggest an alternative explanation?
How does your account differ from the conventional wisdom?
2.5
T he Writing Process:
Writing well means presenting your argument and evidence in a clear, logical, and creative way. An
interesting argument cloaked in impenetrable prose is of no use to anyone. Sources must be accurately and
adequately cited in footnotes, endnotes or in-text notes using a recognized citation style. The writing style
must be formal and serious. Tables, graphs or other illustrations should be included if they support your
overall thesis.
These are only a few guidelines on how to write research papers. You will no doubt develop your own
styles, rules, and techniques for doing research, making arguments, and presenting the results of your
work. But if you follow the commandments above, you will be well on your way to writing good research
papersand hopefully learn something about an important political or social topic along the way.
2.6 Structure of Research Paper
An objective of organizing a research paper is to allow people to read your work selectively.
W hen I research a topic, I may be interested in just the methods, a specific result, the
interpretation, or perhaps I just want to see a summary of the paper to determine if it is
relevant to my study.
For most studies, a proper research report includes the following sections, submitted in the order
listed, each section to start on a new page. Some journals request a summary to be placed at
the end of the discussion. Some techniques articles include an appendix with equations,
formulas, calculations, etc. Some journals deviate from the format, such as by combining results
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and discussion, or combining everything but the title, abstract, and literature as is done in the
journal Science. Y our reports will adhere to the standard format.
Title page
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
Literature Cited
Examples
Style
In all sections of your paper, use paragraphs to separate each important point (except for the
abstract), and present your points in logical order. Use present tense to report background that is
already established. For example, 'the grass is green.' Always use past tense to describe results of a
specific experiment, especially your own. For example, 'When weed killer was applied, the grass was
brown.' Remember - present tense for background, and past tense for results.
Title Page
Select an informative title, such as "Role of temperature in determination of the rate of development
of Xenopus larvae." A title such as "Biology lab #1" is not informative. Include the name(s) and
address(es) of all authors, and date submitted.
Abstract
Summarize the study, focusing on the results and major conclusions, including relevant quantitative
data. It must be a single paragraph, and concise. It should stand on its own, therefore do not refer to
any other part of the report, such as a figure or table. Avoid long sections of introductory or
explanatory material. As a summary of work done, it is written in past tense.
Introduction
Introduce the rationale behind the study, including
The overall question and its relevance to science
Suitability of the experimental model to the overall question
Experimental design and specific hypothesis or objective
Significance of the anticipated results to the overall question
Include appropriate background information (but please do not write everything you know about
the subject).
Methods and Materials

The purpose of this section is to document all of your procedures so that another scientist could
reproduce all or part of your work. It is not designed to be a set of instructions. As awkward as it
may seem, it is standard practice to report methods and materials in past tense, third person
passive. Your laboratory notebook should contain all of the details of everything you do in lab, plus
any additional information needed in order to complete this section.
While it is tempting to report methods in chronological order in a narrative form, it is usually more
effective to present them under headings devoted to specific procedures or groups of procedures.
Some examples of separate headings are "sources of materials," "assay procedures,"cell
fractionation protocol," and "statistical methods." Try to be succinct without sacrificing essential
information. Omit any background information or comments. If you must explain why a particular
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procedure was chosen, do so in the discussion.

Omit information that is irrelevant to a third party. For example, no third party cares what color ice
bucket you used, or which individual logged in the data. You need not report sources of basic
chemicals that would be found in any supply cabinet, such as sodium chloride or potassium
phosphate. Report how procedures were done, not how they were specifically performed on a
particular day. For example, report "samples were diluted to a final concentration of 2 mg/ml
protein;" don't report that '135 microliters of sample one was diluted with 330 microliters of buffer to
make the proteins concentration 2 mg/ml."
Results
Raw data are never included in a research paper. Analyze your data, then present the analyzed
(converted) data in the form of a figure (graph), table, or in narrative form. Present the same data
only once, in the most effective manner. By presenting converted data, you make your point
succinctly and clearly.
Figures are preferable to tables, and tables are preferable to straight text. However, many times a
figure is inappropriate, or the data come across more clearly if described in narrative form.
To give your results continuity, describe the relationship of each section of converted data to the
overall study. For example, rather than just putting a table in the paper and going on to the
discussion, write, 'In order to test the null hypothesis that dust particles are responsible for the blue
color of the sky, we observed the results of filtering air through materials of decreasing pore size.
Table 1 lists the spectrum of transmitted light at right angles to the light path through air filtered
through different pore sizes.' Then present your table, complete with title and headings.
All converted data go into the body of the report, after the methods and before the discussion. Do
not stick graphs or other data onto the back of the report just because you printed or prepared them
separately.
Do not draw conclusions in the results section. Reserve data interpretation for the discussion.
Discussion
Interpret your data in the discussion. Decide if each hypothesis is supported, rejected, or if you
cannot make a decision with confidence. Do not simply dismiss a study or part of a study as
"inconclusive." Make what conclusions you can, then suggest how the experiment must be modified
in order to properly test the hypothesis(es).
Explain all of your observations as much as possible, focusing on mechanisms. When you refer to
information, distinguish data generated by your own studies from published information or from
information obtained from other students. Refer to work done by specific individuals (including
yourself) in past tense. Refer to generally accepted facts and principles in present tense. For example,
"Doofus, in a 1989 survey, found that anemia in basset hounds was correlated with advanced age.
Anemia is a condition in which there is insufficient hemoglobin in the blood."
Decide if the experimental design adequately addressed the hypothesis, and whether or not it was
properly controlled. One experiment will not answer an overall question, so keeping the big picture in
mind, where do you go next? The best studies open up new avenues of research. What questions
remain? Did the study lead you to any new questions? Try to think up a new hypothesis and briefly
suggest new experiments to further address the main question. Be creative, and don't be afraid to
speculate.
Literature Cited
List all literature cited in your report, in alphabetical order, by first author. In a proper research paper,
only primary literature is used (original research articles authored by the original investigators). Some
of your reports may not require references, and if that is the case simply state "no references were
consulted."
3. How to Write a Book Review?

A book review is a form of literary criticism in which a book is analyzed based on content, style, and merit. A
book review can be a primary source opinion piece, summary review or scholarly review. A book review is a real
form of writing real writers use to write real things about real books that really matter to them.
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A review is a critical evaluation of a text, event, object, or phenomenon. Reviews can consider
books, articles, entire genres or fields of literature, architecture, art, fashion, restaurants,
policies, exhibitions, performances, and many other forms. Above all, a review makes an
argument. The most important element of a review is that it is a commentary, not merely a
summary. It allows you to enter into dialogue and discussion with the works creator and with
other audiences. You can offer agreement or disagreement and identify where you find the work
exemplary or deficient in its knowledge, judgments, or organization. You should clearly state
your opinion of the work in question, and that statement will probably resemble other types of
academic writing, with a thesis statement, supporting body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
Typically, reviews are brief. In newspapers and academic journals, they rarely exceed 1000
words, although you may encounter lengthier assignments and extended commentaries. In either
case, reviews need to be succinct. W hile they vary in tone, subject, and style, they share some
common features: First, a review gives the reader a concise summary of the content. This
includes a relevant description of the topic as well as its overall perspective, argument, or
purpose. Second, and more importantly, a review offers a critical assessment of the content.
This involves your reactions to the work under review: what strikes you as noteworthy, whether
or not it was effective or persuasive, and how it enhanced your understanding of the issues at
hand. Finally, in addition to analyzing the work, a review often suggests whether or not the
audience would appreciate it.
A book review is a description, critical analysis, and an evaluation on the quality, meaning, and
significance of a book, not a retelling. It should focus on the book's purpose, content, and
authority. A critical book review is not a book report or a summary. It is a reaction paper in
which strengths and weaknesses of the material are analyzed.
3.1 Pre-reading Analysis
There are few things you need to know about the book before you start reading and analyzing it. Before you
begin to read, consider the elements you will need to be included in your review. The following items may help:
Author: Who is the author? What else has s/he written? Has this author won any awards? What is the
authors typical style?
Genre: What type of book is this: fiction, nonfiction, romance, poetry, youth fiction, etc.? Who is the
intended audience for this work? What is the purpose of the work?
Title: Where does the title fit in? How is it applied in the work? Does it adequately encapsulate the
message of the text? Is it interesting? Uninteresting?
Preface/Introduction/Table of Contents: Does the author provide any revealing information about the
text in the preface/introduction? Does a guest author provide the introduction? What judgments or
preconceptions do the author and/or guest author provide? How is the book arranged: sections,
chapters?
Book Jacket/Cover/Printing: Book jackets are like mini-reviews. Does the book jacket provide any
interesting details or spark your interest in some way? Are there pictures, maps, or graphs? Do the
binding, page cut, or typescript contribute or take away from the work?
3.2 During the Reading Process

There are few elements to notice when reading through the book you are to review. As you read, determine
how you will structure the summary portion or background structure of your review. Be ready to take notes on
the books key points, characters, and/or themes.
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Characters: Are there characters in the work? Who are the principal characters? How do they affect the
story? Do you empathize with them?
Themes/Motifs/Style: What themes or motifs stand out? How do they contribute to the work? Are they
effective or not? How would you describe this authors particular style? Is it accessible to all readers or
just some?
Argument: How is the works argument set up? What support does the author give for her/findings?
Does the work fulfill its purpose/support its argument?
Key Ideas: What is the main idea of the work? What makes it good, different, or groundbreaking?
Quotes: What quotes stand out? How can you demonstrate the authors talent or the feel of the book
through a quote?
3.3 Writing the Review

Begin with a short summary or background of the work, but do not give too much away. Many reviews
limit themselves only to the first couple of chapters or lead the reader up to the rising action of the
work. Reviewers of nonfiction texts will provide the basic idea of the books argument without too
much detailed.
The final portion of your review will detail your opinion of the work. W hen you are ready to begin your
review, consider the following:
Establish a Background, Remember your Audience: Remember that your audience has not read the work;
with this in mind, be sure to introduce characters and principals carefully and deliberately. What kind of
summary can you provide of the main points or main characters that will help your readers gauge their
interest? Does the authors text adequately reach the intended audience? Will some readers be lost or find
the text too easy?
Minor principals/characters: Deal only with the most pressing issues in the book. You will not be able to
cover every character or idea. What principals/characters did you agree or disagree with? What other things
might the author have researched or considered?
Organize: The purpose of the review is to critically evaluate the text, not just inform the readers about it.
Leave plenty room for your evaluation by ensuring that your summary is brief. Determine what kind of
balance to strike between your summary information and your evaluation. If you are writing your review for
a class, ask your instructor. Often the ratio is half and half.
Your Evaluation: Choose one or a few points to discuss about the book. What worked well for you? How
does this work compare with others by the same author or other books in the same genre? What major
themes, motifs, or terms does the book introduce, and how effective are they? Did the book appeal to you
on an emotional or logical way?
Publisher/Price: Most book reviews include the publisher and price of the book at the end of the article.
Some reviews also include the year published and ISBN.
Finally, you will write a conclusion that in a sense brings together the first two portions of your essay. In your
conclusion you are trying to compare carefully what the author had to say (your summary) with your own
reaction (interpretation). You are doing this in order to be able to generalize about the meaning of this book for
people other than yourself. You have had your own reaction, and now you want to step back and say, "Yes, but
is that really all there is to it?" You are reflecting on the meaning of your own reaction at this point. This is what
you could call the "So what?" section of your essay, for it asks you to tell your reader what the relevance or
validity of the book is for them. Relevance means the meaning it will have for persons concerned with other or
similar problems; validity means its objectivity or accuracy.
4. How to Write a Summary or Reaction Paper?
Reaction or response papers are usually requested by teachers so that you'll consider carefully what you think
or feel about something you've read.
In a reaction or response paper, writers respond to one or more texts they have read. A popular
assignment with instructors in the social sciences and humanities, such papers require students
to understand each text individually and evaluate how well each accomplishes its own
objectives. If you are responding to multiple texts, you must also discover how the texts relate
to one another. (If responding to just one text, you might need to situate it within the larger
context of class discussions, readings, etc., depending on the prompt.) A reaction paper may
include a discussion of interesting questions that the readings raise for the student, but such a
discussion is not sufficient by itself.
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Writing good response papers is more demanding than it might appear at first. It is not simply a
matter of reading the text, understanding it, and expressing an opinion about it. You must allow
yourself enough time to be clear about what each text says and how the texts all relate to one
another. In other words, response papers require you to synthesize the intellectual work of
othersthat is, bring it together into an integrated whole. In preparing to write response
papers, therefore, it is crucial that you allow yourself not just enough time to do the readings
but enough to digest what you have read and to put the results together into a unified account.
A response or reaction paper is a bit of a twist on a formal review of a book, artwork, or article,
because response papers are written from the first person point of view, which simply means that you
can and should use phrases like I thought and I believe when reviewing.
In a response paper, you do assess the item youve been assigned to observe, but you add your
personal reaction and impressions to the report.
4.1 Questions to Ask
Consider texts individually:
What is the main problem or issue that the author is addressing?
What is the authors central claim, argument, or point?
What assumptions does the author make?
What evidence does the author present?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the text?
What are possible counterarguments to the texts claims?
Why are the problem(s) and the argument(s) interesting or important?
Consider texts collectively:
How do they relate to one another? Do the authors agree? Disagree? Address different aspects of
an issue? Formulate a problem in different ways?
In what way (if any) does the information or argument of one text strengthen or weaken the
argument of others? Does integrating the claims in two or more of the texts advance your
understanding of a larger issue?
4.2 Actions to T ake
Pay attention to the instructions your instructor provides for the assignment. He or she may
have specific expectations, which you should be careful to take into account. The prompt may
also give you clues that will help you to understand what you should be getting out of the texts.
Explain the key terms, main arguments, and assumptions of each text.
Do your best to characterize each texts arguments fairly and accurately.
Evaluate the evidence that each text presents: point out strengths and weaknesses, both internal to
the text and in relation to the others. For example, if one text makes an argument based on an
assumption that another text either confirms or refutes, then you can use the latter text to evaluate
the plausibility of the claim made by the former.
Explain how the texts relate to and speak to one another. Synthesize them if you can, and if you
cannot, explain what the barriers preventing such a synthesis are.
Consider both sides of issues at stake. If all the texts are on one side of an issue, consider the other
side. If the texts fall on both sides of an issue, consider where agreements and disagreements lie and
what each sides strengths and weaknesses are.
Include your own voice by weighing arguments, evaluating evidence, and raising critical questions. If
there seems to be something important that none of the authors addresses, point it out and state
what you think its significance is. Try to be as specific as possible.
Be careful to do all parts of the assignment. Accord each text the weight it deserves. Dont forget to
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synthesize your account by showing how the texts relate to one another. The authors are in a
figurative, if not literal, conversation with one another, and you must be able to recognize and
explain what is going on in that conversation.
Keep an eye out for authors omissions, and raise counterarguments when you detect authors
arguments are weak.
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Topic 15: Business Communication And Writing
T opic Objective:
1. W hat is Business W riting?
2. Kinds of Business W riting
This topic will cover in detail an introduction to business communication and writing; how
importance different forms of communication and writing are in the business world and how to
approach each effectively.
T opic Overview:
1. What is Business Writing?
Written communication has great significance in todays business world. It is an innovative activity of the mind.
Effective written communication is essential for preparing worthy promotional materials for business
development. Speech came before writing. But writing is more unique and formal than speech. Effective writing
involves careful choice of words, their organization in correct order in sentences formation as well as cohesive
composition of sentences. Also, writing is more valid and reliable than speech. But while speech is spontaneous,
writing causes delay and takes time as feedback is not immediate.
2. Kinds of Business Writing
There are various kinds of business writing; each divided according to the purpose is serves and its
distinctive characteristics. These are some basic subdivisions:
Email
Memos
Proposal
Reports
Business Letters
2.1 Writing Email Messages

Organizations use email for informal and some formal, internal and external communications. As a
medium, email is changing the way people write. Email messages range from being short and direct to
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chatty and conversational. Often, email systems will not include spellcheckers or grammar checkers, so
informal email writers and readers often overlook errors more than they would in printed documents. It
is very important to remember, however, that issues of clarity and correctness are just as important in
formal email messages as they are in printed materials. The illusion of privacy on email is just that
an illusion. W henever you write email messages, and certainly whenever you write email messages in
the workplace, remember that any number of people may have access to your texts.
E-mail Format:
Email systems provide their own format, which resembles the format for a memorandum:
Return-path: <rseverso@OREGON.UOREGON.EDU>
Date: Tue, 30 Sep 1997 09:57:28 -0700
From: ron severson <rseverso@OREGON.UOREGON.EDU>
Subject: formatting email messages
X-Sender: rseverso@educators.edu
To: ddusseau@educators.EDU
CC: rseverso@educators.EDU
Attachment Converted: "c:\program files\eudora\attach\199F97.toc"
Things to remember when drafting an Email:

Use the format your email system provides.
Make sure your name, in addition to your email address, appears in the heading.
Write the name of the assignment after "Subject."
Develop an address list for your group and type the list name after "TO:" or after the "CC:" to
send copies, when required, to other group members.
Simply begin to type your message immediately under the heading. There is no need to include a
salutation ("Dear so and so:") in formal email messages or memoranda, as you would in a letter
although you may choose to do so in less formal email messages.
Use subheadings to make the structure of your email message visible to your readers.
Do not add a closing ("Sincerely,") as you would in a letter.
Do not write your name at the end of your message unless the signature option on your email
system automatically does this for you.
2.2 Writing Memos

The memorandum is the genre of choice for daily, internal, office communications. Email correspondence, as
described earlier, uses a memorandum format and, to a certain degree, is replacing the hard copy memorandum
in organizations today. Still, the more important the document, the more likely it will be printed and sent to its
readers as a hard copy memorandum. For all of its advantages, email technology still fails, at times, to deliver.
Moreover, lengthier documents that require closer scrutiny may be sent as memos because it is difficult to read
lengthy email messages. Finally, people can take memos to meetings as an aid to discussion, while email
messages, until printed, stay on the screen.
2.3 Writing Proposals
Business writers write proposals of various kinds to solve problems and provide direction for their
companies. Business proposals often go by other names, such as "business plans," "marketing plans,"
"white papers," "financial plans," "strategic plans," and "project proposals" but they share a common
logic or superstructure outlined below:
Problem: Define a particular business problem, need, or opportunity.

Objectives: State the objectives that a solution to this problem must achieve.
Solution: Describe the services or products you or the company will deliver to fulfill these objectives.
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Methods: Outline the methods you or the company will use to deliver this service or product to your client,
including:
Steps needed to complete this project.
The timeline you propose.
Your qualifications as individual and as a team to complete this project.
The division of labor among team members.
The management structure of your team.
The resources you have at your disposal.
Costs: State, in real terms, what this project will cost your client.
Writing proposals can be difficult because proposals, by nature, are anticipatory. Writers begin by
defining a clear problem, need, or opportunity that currently exists within an organization, but then
anticipate the best solution to this problem and the methods of solving this problem. The process of
anticipating, of planning something that does not yet exist, requires both analytical and imaginative
skills. Plans rarely turn out exactly as anticipated, although to maintain your credibility as a company,
the product or services you deliver must closely resemble what you originally proposed to deliver.
2.4
Writing Reports
Report writing in an essential skill at all levels of business. Writing clear, concise reports is a key skill
for effective business communication. An effective, well-written report can drive sales, create more
cohesive and better-functioning teams, streamline processes, and improve financial operations.
Reports can alert management to opportunities for business growth, identify areas where greater
efficiency can be realized and establish cohesive business procedures. Because it is so essential to the
functioning of most businesses, report writing is considered one of the most important forms of
business communication.
Report writing, because it is such an important part of business communication, must be well planned.
Important considerations include knowing the audience for whom the report is being written, the
reasons for writing the report, the end purpose for which the report is intended and the specific
staffers needed to contribute information that is essential to the completion of the report. It is vital to
determine the number of business resources that will go in to the writing of the report and to compare
the value of these resources to the net return expected from the creation of the report. If many
valuable resources are needed for writing a report, but the report will only produce a small benefit,
then it is not an effective project. A less time-consuming form of business communication, such as a
memorandum, may be what is needed.
Once all considerations have been examined and documented, the writer of the report--or the project
head if several writers are creating the report--constructs a plan. Planning is essential to effective
business communication, nowhere more so than in report writing. A comprehensive plan for writing a
report includes the timeline for creation of the report, needed materials, a list of all contributors and
all necessary collateral supplies and materials, such as artwork.
Production is the major step in all business communication projects. In report writing, production can
take as little as a day or as long as several months, depending on the scope of the project. It is
important to consult the plan periodically during long report-writing projects to ensure that the project
is on track for timely completion.
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A report is normally reviewed by at least the writer before it is delivered to its final recipients. Good
grammar and style are needed for all business communication, so the review should include--at a
minimum--a review of spelling and punctuation. If time permits, a more extensive review of content
should be performed. If possible, the proofreader should be someone who is seeing the material anew;
"fresh eyes" are apt to spot typos or grammatical problems that someone who has been closely
involved in creating the report may not catch.
Delivering a report can take several forms: A report may be presented as a slide show and discussion,
printed and emailed in whole to recipients or divided into several sections and delivered over several
weeks to different recipients. A shorter version of a long report may be presented, while the full
version is provided in print. Delivery methods are dictated by the length of the report, the availability
of the writer to present the findings, and the geographic locations of the recipients.
2.4
Writing Business Letters
A business letter is usually used when writing from one company to another, or for correspondence
between such organizations and their customers, clients and other external parties. The overall style
of letter will depend on the relationship between the parties concerned. There are many reasons to
write a business letter. It could be to request direct information or action from another party, to order
supplies from a supplier, to identify a mistake that was committed, to reply directly to a request, to
apologize for a wrong or simply to convey goodwill. Even today, the business letter is still very useful
because it produces a permanent record, is confidential, formal and delivers persuasive, wellconsidered messages.
Writing for a business audience is usually quite different than writing in the humanities, social
sciences, or other academic disciplines. Business writing strives to be crisp and succinct rather than
evocative or creative; it stresses specificity and accuracy. This distinction does not make business
writing superior or inferior to other styles. Rather, it reflects the unique purpose and considerations
involved when writing in a business context.
W hen you write a business document, you must assume that your audience has limited time in which
to read it and is likely to skim. Your readers have an interest in what you say insofar as it affects their
working world. They want to know the bottom line the point you are making about a situation or
problem and how they should respond.
Business writing varies from the conversational style often found in email messages to the more
formal, legalistic style found in contracts. A style between these two extremes is appropriate for the
majority of memos, emails, and letters. Writing that is too formal can alienate readers, and an
attempt to be overly casual may come across as insincere or unprofessional. In business writing, as in
all writing, you must know your audience.
In most cases, the business letter will be the first impression that you make on someone. Though
business writing has become less formal over time, you should still take great care that your letters
content is clear and that you have proofread it carefully.
Personal pronouns (like I, we, and you) are important in letters and memos. In such documents, it is
perfectly appropriate to refer to yourself as I and to the reader asyou. Be careful, however, when you
use the pronoun we in a business letter that is written on company stationery, since it commits your
company to what you have written. W hen stating your opinion, use I; when presenting company policy,
use we.
The best writers strive to achieve a style that is so clear that their messages cannot be
misunderstood. One way to achieve a clear style is to minimize your use of the passive voice.
Although the passive voice is sometimes necessary, often it not only makes your writing dull but also
can be ambiguous or overly impersonal.
Heres an example of the same point stated in passive voice and in the active voice:
PASSIVE: The net benefits of subsidiary divestiture were grossly overestimated.
[Who did the overestimating?]
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ACTIVE: The Global Finance Team grossly overestimated the net benefits of subsidiary divestiture.
The second version is clearer and thus preferable.
Of course, there are exceptions to every rule. W hat if you are the head of the Global Finance Team?
You may want to get your message across without calling excessive attention to the fact that the error
was your teams fault. The passive voice allows you to gloss over an unflattering pointbut you should
use it sparingly.
Business writing should be clear and concise. Take care, however, that your document does not turn
out as an endless series of short, choppy sentences. Keep in mind also that concise does not have to
mean bluntyou still need to think about your tone and the audience for whom you are writing.
Consider the following examples:
After carefully reviewing this proposal, we have decided to prioritize other projects this quarter.
Nobody liked your project idea, so we are not going to give you any funding.
The first version is a weaker statement, emphasizing facts not directly relevant to its point. The
second version provides the information in a simple and direct manner. But you dont need to be an
expert on style to know that the first phrasing is diplomatic and respectful (even though its less
concise) as compared with the second version, which is unnecessarily harsh and likely to provoke a
negative reaction.
Reread the description of your task (for example, the advertisement of a job opening, instructions for a
proposal submission, or assignment prompt for a course). Think about your purpose and what
requirements are mentioned or implied in the description of the task. List these requirements. This list
can serve as an outline to govern your writing and help you stay focused, so try to make it thorough.
Next, identify qualifications, attributes, objectives, or answers that match the requirements you have
just listed. Strive to be exact and specific, avoiding vagueness, ambiguity, and platitudes. If there are
industry- or field-specific concepts or terminology that is relevant to the task at hand, use them in a
manner that will convey your competence and experience. Avoid any language that your audience may
not understand. Your finished piece of writing should indicate how you meet the requirements youve
listed and answer any questions raised in the description or prompt.
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English Composition

In Section 2 of this course you will cover these topics:

In Section 3 of this course you will cover these topics:

In Section 4 of this course you will cover these topics:

In Section 5 of this course you will cover these topics:

English Composition > Section 1

In Section 1 of this course you will cover these topics:

English Composition > Section 1 > Topic 1

2. T he History of English Language

2.3 Modern English (1500 AD to Present)

3. Basics of Grammar, Vocabulary and Pronunciation

3.3 Phonology and Pronunciation

English Composition > Section 1 > Topic 2

A person (woman, boy, doctor, neighbour)

A thing (dog, building, tree, country)

An idea, quality, or state (truth, danger, birth, happiness).

There are two major types of nouns:

An action run, hit, travel

An event rain, occur

A situation be, seem, have

A change become, grow, develop

E.g. Molly decided to follow him.

How something happens or is done:

She stretched lazily.

He walked slow ly.

The town is easily accessible by road.

Where something happens:

Shes travelling abroad.

The children tiptoed upstairs.

When something happens:

They visited us yesterday.

I have to leave soon.

He still lives in London.

Kate was tired so she went to bed.

Michael took the children with him.

Kierans face was close to mine.

T hat is a good idea.

The position of something:

Her bag was under the chair.

His flat was over the shop.

The time when something happens:

They arrived on Sunday.

The class starts at 9 a.m.

The way in which something is done:

Y ou can have ice cream or strawberries.

He plays football and cricket.

The weather was cold but clear.

T he book on the table is torn.

Every dog has its day.

English Composition > Section 1 > Topic 3

2.1 Present Simple

I m nineteen years old.

But the third person (she/he/it) adds an -s:

The human body contains 206 bones.

Light travels at almost 300,000 kilometers per second.

I like basketball, but I dont like football. (dont = do not)

I dont live in Paris now.

I dont play violin, but I play the guitar.

They dont work at the weekend.

John doesnt live in Manchester. (doesnt = does not)

Angela doesnt drive to work. She goes by bus.

2.2 Present Continuous

at the moment of speaking: