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GRAMMAR REFERENCE
Unit 2 1
Module 1
Compound adjectives:
Comparative adjectives:
Superlative adjectives:
Spelling
Unit 2 2
Module 1
Beware
hurried(ly)
undoubted(ly)
loving(ly)
supposed(ly)
joking(ly)
Comparative adverbs
Superlative adverbs
Unit 2 3
Module 1
SELF-CHECK
?
The aim of the self-check exercises in this unit is to give you the opportunity to put the
theory explained in each chapter into practice. Some of the exercises are open-ended
and they can have multiple answers. These come without answer keys. Other
exercises do have correct answers. The answer keys to these are found at the end of
the unit. (Please note that our tutors do not comment on self-check exercises).
Unit 2 4
Module 1
ARTICLES
The indefinite article - a/an
an is used
a is used
a/an is used
omit a/an
Unit 2 5
Module 1
the is used
Unit 2 6
Module 1
USE OF CAPITALS
Whilst there are some rules for the employment of capitals, in many instances it is a
matter of taste; but in all instances consistency is important.
Initial capitals should be used for proper nouns eg The test will be held on the
last Saturday in July. They are going to live in North Yorkshire. We use a capital N
here because North Yorkshire is a specific place. If we are referring to an area in
general do not use capital letters eg Cornwall is in the south-west of England.
Personal titles need a capital letter. Mrs Jones, His Grace the Duke of Tesolshire.
Key words in titles of publications, stage productions and musical works etc. A
Place in the Sun, Much Ado about Nothing, The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba.
Unit 2 7
Module 1
PUNCTUATION
Full stops, commas, colons, semi-colons, dashes, brackets (round) and [square],
hyphens, question marks, exclamation marks, quotation marks (single and double).
Let's start with the easy ones
THE FULL STOP . (also known as 'period' or 'point').
It's used to
denote an abbreviation, though the trend now is to omit the full stop.
Old method
New method
4 a.m.
4 am
It is still used when abbreviating days and months eg Mon. 10 Sept. However,
unless space is limited, it is frowned upon to abbreviate in this way.
THE COMMA ,
Use
When listing three or more items in a sentence. eg She won medals for swimming,
riding and playing hockey.
When merging two sentences with a conjunction. eg You can gain an INTESOL
qualification not only by distance learning, but also by attending a two-week
residential course.
Unit 2 8
Module 1
THE COLON :
Use
To separate the result from that which precedes it. The trains were often late and
unreliable: he decided to look for a job nearer his home. The use of the colon
brings home to the reader the seriousness of the situation.
THE SEMI-COLON ;
Somewhere between a full stop and a comma. It is used
to indicate a slight break in a sentence. No one was able to complete the test; there
was a misprint on the paper.
when making lists such as invitees to an event. The guests included: Tom Smith,
General Secretary; James Brown, Accountant; etc
a pause, when the dash separates a part of the sentence which has a strong
connection with the other part of the sentence. It was not a daffodil - it was a
narcissus, dancing in the breeze.
Unit 2 9
Module 1
(round)
[square]
Unit 2 10
Module 1
THE APOSTROPHE
Who would believe that such a little mark could be so universally misunderstood.
Indeed it is probably the most misunderstood and frequently misused punctuation mark
in the English language.
It really is quite simple.
Providing it is well taught, students should rarely have a problem with its use. To
someone who knows how to use it, its misuse can prove to be cause for real irritation
and concern. So here goes, let's make sure that in future everyone who learns English
becomes an expert in the use of the apostrophe. Many people live in fear and dread of
the apostrophe and either pretend it doesn't exist, or liberally splatter the page with
apostrophes on every 's'. However, to use the apostrophe incorrectly is more of a crime
than not to use one at all.
If in doubt leave it out
When you know, let it show.
IT'S USED TO
show that something has been omitted
Hello, I'm Jack, what's your name? The 'a' in 'am' has been substituted by an
apostrophe, also the 'i' in 'is'.
I'd = I had
Mornin'
thro'
don't = do not
or
Phyllis's dog
Even though this is grammatically correct, it is more usual to omit the final 's' and
simply put the apostrophe at the end of the name; this automatically indicates
possession.
James' dog won ..
Unit 2 11
Module 1
or
One cake, ten cakes - it doesnt matter how many there are, an apostrophe is not
required. However as soon as something belongs to the cake an apostrophe is
required eg The cake's stand was almost a metre high.
NB Please note that its showing ownership does not follow the apostrophe rule.
eg The gate creaked on its hinges.
Unit 2 12
Module 1
SELF-CHECK
SELF-CHECK 2.
It is regarded as one of the finest diary farming areas in the country and
has more cows to the acre than anywhere else in the World.
From any vantage point, on the Peckforton and bickerton Hills, the
impression over the surrounding countryside is of an endless patchwork
quilt of hedges and fields with small copses and hedgerow trees. on a
Sunny day, hundreds of ponds (many of them old marl pits) glint and
shine, Well-managed hedges and ponds are excellent habitats for Wild
flowers and Birds.
Unit 2 13
Module 1
Unit 2 14
Module 1
Unit 2 15
Module 1
Proper nouns
Countable nouns
I bought a house.
Abstract nouns
SELF-CHECK
Put the following into the correct column: child, music, tennis, ice, money,
city, furniture, fear, knowledge, briefcase.
Countable
Singular
Plural
Unit 2 16
Module 1
Mass
Countable or Mass
THE GERUND
The ing form of the verb used rather like a noun, eg. jumping, walking, singing, speaking
etc.
Using the gerund
as the subject
of a sentence
Prohibitions
after prepositions
Verb + gerund
Some verbs can take the infinitive or gerund without the meaning
being altered.
eg begin/start.
to express fear,
sorrow or shame
Unit 2 17
Module 1
SELF-CHECK
Unit 2 18
Module 1
PREPOSITIONS
Words that help us to answer questions such as, when and where, and link elements
eg noun, pronoun or participles.
Position
Usually, but not always, written before (pre) the noun etc.
We are told to avoid ending a sentence with a preposition and whilst it is perhaps best
to conform in formal writing or speech, it is considered acceptable in informal language
to move the preposition to the end eg
Where is the shop from which you bought your dress? - Where's the shop you bought it
from?
With whom are you going? - Who are you going with?
Phrasal verbs
We frequently tag a preposition on to the end of a verb to convey a specific meaning eg
try out, add up, give up, cough up.
Prepositions and adjectives/participles
owing to
confident of
sorry for/about
Unit 2 19
Movement
at
in
by
on
into
onto
from
of
out
to
down
up
past
across
towards
along
Module 1
Place
above
below
beneath
over
under
inside
outside
between
in front of
opposite
around
across
along
among, amongst
amid
pleased with
SELF-CHECK
SELF-CHECK 5. PREPOSITIONS
break
take
believe
call
run
hope
come
put
prepare
die
think
get
turn
sit
Prepositions: for, off, across, away, over, of, up, after, down, along, out,
back, into, in, to, about, through, on, up.
Write sentences to show how make up can be used in six different ways.
Unit 2 20
Module 1
SPELLING RULES
DOUBLE OR SINGLE CONSONANT?
Remember, a double consonant softens the vowel:
file
fill
pile
pill
ei or ie?
We all know the rule i before e except after c
Pronounced ee
ie
field
grief
niece
relief
thief
ei after c
ceiling
conceive
deceive
perceive
receive
ei exceptions
counterfeit
seize
weir
weird
Pronounced ee
or eye
either
neither
Present
participle
occurring
cancelling
travelling
robbing
Noun
sailing
feeling
needing
sailor
feeling
occurrence
cancellation
travel
robber
sailed
Felt
needed
Module 1
single 'l'
crawl
trawl
Double 'l'
cull
crawled
trawled
crawling
trawling
crawl
trawl
culled
culling
cull
Past tense + d
elope
rule
decide
eloped
ruled
decided
cry
lobby
Past tense
played
Present participle
playing
panicking
PLURALS
Unit 2 22
Module 1
mimic
mimicking
flowers
plates
businesses
Singular
um
maximum
is
analysis
us
bacillus
Plural
A
maxima
Es
analyses
I
bacilli
Singular
a
formula
on
criterion
cactus
radius
cacti
radii
en
brethren
children
men
women
kisses
Exceptions
brother
child
man
woman
Plural
ae
formulae
a
criteria
cities
beauty
add 'es'
or 's'
beauties
potato(es)
radio(s)
tomato(es)
folio(s)
veto(es)
auto(s)
Nouns ending in 'f' or 'fe' are inconsistent. Some take 'fs' others 'ves'
Singular
chef
roof
Plural
chefs
roofs
Singular
half
knife
Plural
halves
knives
flashes
Unit 2 23
Module 1
masses
coxes
PROBLEM AREAS
The following are consistently mis-spelled or mis-used.
practise (verb)
practice (noun)
license (verb)
licence (noun)
accept (verb)
except (preposition)
affect (verb)
all right
aural, oral
biannual
biennial
twice a year
once every two years
compliment
complement
a courteous expression
something that goes well with something else
dependent (adjective)
dependant (noun)
disinterested
uninterested
unbiased, impartial
not interested
elicit
illicit
extract ie information
unlawful
ensure
insure
to make sure
to protect something against misfortune
its
it's
their
there
possessive pronoun
at or in that place - adverb
who's
whose
less
fewer
Unit 2 24
Module 1
TENSES
The word tense is a grammatical term for time. In all European languages we can
communicate in various forms of the Present, Past or Future Tense. We can say what
we do, what we did or what we will do.
1.
to be
are
is
am
gerund
speaking
listening
studying
Usually when the verb infinitive ends in -e this will be omitted before
adding -ing and often when the infinitive is monosyllabic and ending in a
consonant the latter is doubled.
eg
Unit 2 25
Module 1
verb infinitive
rise
hit
sip
gerund
rising
hitting
sipping
NB The Present Continuous/Progressive can also be used when talking about plans
for the future
eg Our neighbours are emigrating early next year
Were travelling to Italy by train in the summer
c) The Present Perfect (Simple) and Present Perfect
Continuous/Progressive
These are two tenses that join the past to the present
Present Perfect (Simple)
eg Ive lost my keys [therefore I cannot open the door now]
We have lived in Bath for ten years [and we still do]
With the Present Perfect Continuous/Progressive there is no sense of
the action being completely finished
eg A: Look at your hands! What have you been doing?
B: Ive been mending my bicycle [The job is not complete. B
is in the middle of doing it and hes probably taking a
break]
Contrast this with the Present Perfect Simple:
Ive mended my bicycle [ie the job is done and the bike is now
available for use].
NB When using verbs such as work or live there is no difference in meaning between
continuous and simple.
eg Dawn
I
Unit 2 26
Module 1
Both of the above are compound tenses. The Simple tense has two components: the
Present tense of the verb to have and the past participle of the main verb
eg He has walked the Pennine Way.
[completed]
The Continuous tense has three components:
the Present tense of to have
been (the present participle of to be)
the gerund of the main verb
eg He has been walking the Pennine Way.
[not necessarily completed]
The regular form of the Past Simple ends in -ed and this will be the same as the past
participle in such tenses as the Present Perfect and the Past Perfect. However with
irregular forms this is not always the case. Note a few common examples below.
verb infinitive
past simple
past participle
to begin
to swim
to bite
began
swam
bit
begun
swum
bitten
Module 1
The Past Continuous can also be used as a descriptive tense, particularly with people
and weather.
eg He was wearing short grey trousers.
The moon and stars were shining brightly.
c) The Past Perfect
This is a compound tense (Past Simple of to have plus past participle of
the main verb) which native speakers often avoid using.
eg He said he had forgotten his dinner money is the correct version of
He said he forgot his dinner money
Plainly the forgetting occurred before the saying. The Past Perfect is the
past tense you use to say what happened earlier than a certain point of
time in the past.
eg They asked me if I had seen the doctor on time.
By 11 oclock all the chocolate cake had disappeared.
The car we had paid for in cash proved to be unreliable.
d) The Past Perfect Continuous
This tense is had been plus the gerund of the main verb.
Imagine a continuous action leading up to a single event in the past.
eg Peter had been waiting for the bus for a good half hour when it
suddenly appeared.
Jean experienced blurred vision as she had been working on the
computer for most of the evening.
e) Used to (do)
Used to plus infinitive means that something happened on a regular
basis in the past.
eg We used to go to church on Sunday [but we dont go any more]
We normally use didnt use to in negatives
eg We didnt use to take calculators into examinations.
or We never used to take calculators into examinations.
We normally use did . . . use to in questions
eg Which medicine did she use to take?
Did you use to watch that awful situation comedy?
Unit 2 28
Module 1
Module 1
Will, however, tends to be the more versatile of the two. In addition it can
be used:
i. to predict
eg Itll rain tomorrow
(It will)
ii.to show determination
eg I will win that race even if I have to train day and night.
iii.
to make a promise
eg If you pass that examination Ill buy you a car.
(I will)
iv.
to express supposition and an instant decision
eg (Theres a knock at the door)
Thatll be the postman. Ill get it.
c) The Future Continuous
Will/shall and the verb to be plus the gerund are used to describe an
action over a period of time in the future.
eg This time next week we will be celebrating Dads birthday.
At noon I shall be enjoying this lovely weather in the garden.
Its difficult to imagine what Ill be doing in ten years time.
d) The
Future Perfect
This takes the form of will have plus the past participle of the main verb
and is used to express a completed action in the future.
eg By the time you arrive at the port the boat will have set sail.
Will he have completed his thesis before he goes abroad?
e) The
Unit 2 30
Module 1
Unit 2 31
Module 1
In the third type we find that the opposite really happened to what is expressed in the
if clause. It can be described as impossible because it has already taken place and
cannot be changed.
eg You would have passed your exams if you had devoted more
time to your studies.
[You didnt devote more time and you didnt pass]
If she hadnt fallen asleep she would have seen the lunar eclipse.
[She did fall asleep and she didnt see the eclipse]
Notice the sequences of tenses in each of the three types of Conditional:
If Clause
Main Clause
First Condition
Present Simple
Second Condition
Past Simple
would
Third Condition
Past Perfect
would have
SELF-CHECK
will
SELF-CHECK 6. TENSES
Construct three sentences of the type above with the following jumbled
words:
If the instructions follow on the tin
you get you results best the
Unit 2 32
Module 1
VERBS
When you use a verb you are focusing on the action that takes place within a
sentence. Without a verb you do not have a sentence.
STRUCTURE OF VERBS
In the section on tenses you will have observed there are simple and compound
tenses (ie composed of more than one part). In a simple tense you only have the
main verb)
For example:
In a compound tense you will find, as well as the main verb, an auxiliary (or helping)
verb
For example:
He has spoken
auxiliary
verb: present
tense of to
have
main verb:
past
participle of
to speak
auxiliary
verb: present
tense of to
be
main verb:
present
participle of
to arrive
Having studied the tenses of English already, can you say which other tenses make
use of the verb to have?
eg the past perfect (or pluperfect)
He had refused
auxiliary
verb: past
simple of to
have
main verb:
past
participle of
to refuse
Unit 2 33
main verb:
infinitive
without to
Module 1
auxiliary
verb: past
simple of to
do
main verb:
infinitive
without to
negative
auxiliary
verb
main verb:
infinitive
without to
All three of the above verbs (have, be and do) can also be used as main verbs.
eg
eg
main verb:
past
participle of
to have
auxiliary
verb: present
tense of to
be
main verb:
present
participle of
to do
He is being silly
auxiliary
verb: present
tense of to
be
main verb:
present
participle of
to be
There are occasions when you may have more than one auxiliary verb. This is
usually in a sentence where the passive voice is being used; here the subject of the
sentence is not responsible for the action described by the verb, but instead is on the
receiving end of that action.
eg
The boy is being questioned by the police The artefacts have been stolen
auxiliary
verb
Auxiliary
verb:
present
participle
of to be
Past
participle
of to
question
auxiliary
verb
main verb:
past
participle of
to be
main verb:
past
participle of
to steal
SELF-CHECK
SELF-CHECK 7. VERBS
Identify each of the underlined words saying whether they are main or
auxiliary verbs, giving any extra information necessary, as in the course
notes.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Unit 2 34
Module 1
SELF-CHECK
Exercise 1(a)
Identify the modal auxiliary verbs from the following:
1. must
8. could
2. should
9. shall
3. would
10. find
4. swim
11. will
5. may
12. can
6. read
13. write
7. ought
14. might
Unit 2 35
Module 1
Exercise 1(b)
Which four of the above are not modal verbs? Can you say why?
Exercise 2
Try placing another verb after each of the ten modal auxiliaries you have
identified above. Which modal is the exception to the rule given, and can
be followed by to?
Phrasal Verbs
There are thousands of phrasal verbs in the English language which for foreigners
can be quite difficult to learn and take some time getting used to.
These verbs consist of two or more parts: an ordinary verb (eg put, take, look) and
a small word or particle such as off, down, up, aside etc.
For example:
What phrasal verb can you use instead of the underlined word in
the following sentence?
They have postponed the meeting until Friday.
Answer:
put off
Some phrasal verbs have more than one particle, eg get on with, go through with,
snap out of
One final point to note about the particle is that it does not always come immediately
after the verb.
eg
Unit 2 36
Module 1
SELF-CHECK
?
Exercise 1
Find a phrasal verb from the list on the right for each of the single words
on the left.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
continue
reduce (prices)
extinguish
alight
depart
return
inspect
criticise (someone)
investigate (the matter)
retreat
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
look over
set off
look into
give back
put out
put down
carry on
back away
get off
bring down
Exercise 2
Think of a synonym in the form of a phrasal verb for each of the
following words. Each phrasal verb will end in one of the particles
listed.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
seek
wait
maintain (payments)
discover
inherit
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
demolish
ridicule
remove
withdraw (money)
enter
Particles
up
down
out
in
on
into
at
for
off
Unit 2 37
Module 1
Unit 2 38
Module 1
Self-check 3:
Countable
Singular
Plural
Child
Children
City
Cities
Briefcase
Briefcases
Mass
Music
Ice
Tennis
Money
Furniture
Fear
Knowledge
Self-check 4:
1. forcing
2. working, gaining
3. meeting
4. to put, going
5. to get/getting, to set
6. beginning to crack, to stop, drowning
Self-check 7:
1) Are auxiliary, having main
2) Sell main
3) Do auxiliary, take main
4) Have auxiliary, had main
5) Has auxiliary, been auxiliary, rejected main
6) Are auxiliary, being auxiliary, watched main
7) Have auxiliary, read main
8) Don't auxiliary, shoot main, do auxiliary
Self-check 8:
Unit 2 39
Module 1
Countable or Mass
1a)
must, should, would, may, ought, could, shall, will, can, might
1b)
swim, read, find, write these have tense forms and require another verb to form a
question or negative.
2)
ought
Self-check 9:
1)
1g
2j
3e
4i
5b
6d
7a
8f
9c
10 h
Unit 2 40
Module 1