A LOOK AT THE CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
CERTIFICATE
INTRODUCTION
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PCB LAYOUT
PARTS LIST
FUNCTION OF EACH ELECTRONICS COMPONENT
WORKING OF CIRCUITS
PCB DESIGNING
PRECAUTIONS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction, which comes on completion of any task/ work/ project,

would be great, but it is unmeaning without thanking those people who
gave us constant guidance, knowledge and technical information about
our project.
So, this is to thanks those people who helped us at every stage and
every difficulty which we faced in completion of our Project so our first
thanks goes to our project guides ----------their guidance and personal
supervision through out this project, who helped us and provide us
every facility to have this pleasure that today we submitted this project.
We also want to thanks all the staff members of ELECTRICAL &
ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT OF SPCET for their co-operation.

CERTIFICATE
This is certified that RITESH KUMAR, ENAMUL HASAN, ALOK
KUMAR, HIRA LAL MAHTO, RAHUL KUMAR MANDAL students
of ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING have been
completed this project with my knowledge. All the information provides
in the project is absolutely true. I here by declare that project on
THERMAL OVERLOAD PROTECTOR

has been tested and found up

to the mark by me.

(PROJECT GUIDE)

INTRODUCTION
The transformer is one of the simplest of electrical devices, yet
transformer designs and materials continue to be improved.
Transformer is essential for high voltage power transmission, which
makes long distance transmission economically practical.
The importance of effective transformer and control transformer
protection cannot be over emphasized. After motors, transformers are
typically the second most common application where proper overload
protection is required and utilized to provide the necessary protection to
facilities, electrical systems, equipment, and most importantly electrical
workers and other involved personnel. As a result, it is important that
transformers must be protected properly from the thermal overload.
Block Diagram
Fig shows the flow of design in the form of blocks. Temperature sensor
LM35 is placed on the transformer for sensing the temperature. If
temperature at transformer increases then it gives output to ADC
module in analog form and ADC module convert it into the form
compatible to kick start board. The kick starts board having
microcontroller which is programmed for protecting transformer from
the overheating. The microcontroller output feeds into the relay driver
module to drive relay. Relay breaks the supply to transformer and
protects it from thermal overload.
An LCD is used to display the operation performed by the system.
+12V supply provided by the adaptor to start the kick start board and
relay driver module.

LCD
display

Power
supply

ADC module

Kick start board

Temperature
sensor LM325

(assembled
microcontroller 8051 and
other components)

Relay driver
module

Relay

Transformer

Fig: Block diagram of Thermal overload protection for Transformer

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (Main board)

PCB LAYOUT FOR MAIN BOARD

COMPONENET LAYOUT FOR MAIN BOARD

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF ADC Module

COMPONENTS LAYOUT FOR ADC MODULE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR RELAY DRIVER BOARD

COMPONENET LAYOUT FOR RELAY DRIVER BOARD

PARTS LIST FOR MAIN BOARD (KICK START BOARD)

SEMICONDUCTOR
IC1

Microcontroller P89V51RD2

IC2

LM 7805

IC3

MAX232N

D1

1N4007

LED

3mm RED LED

LCD1

Liquid crystal display

RESISTORS (- WATT, 5% CARBON)

R1

10 KILO-OHM

R10

220-OHM

RN2

10 KILO-OHM RESISTOR NETWORK(8

PIN)

CAPACITORS
MISCELLANEOUS
C1,C2
33 pf CERMIC
C3, C4, C6, C7, C8
10F/25V Electrolyte
XTAL = 11.0592 MHZ
C10
100F/25V Electrolyte
X9 = DB9 CONNECTOR
J1 = DC JACK
S1 = PUSH TO ON SWITCH
S2= TACTILE SWITCH
IC BASE 40 PIN= 01NO
IC BASE 14 PIN= 01NO
PCB

PARTS LIST FOR ADC MODULE

SEMICONDUCTOR

IC1

ADC0801

LM35

Temperature sensor

LED

Light Emitting diode

RESISTORS (- WATT, 5% CARBON)

R34

20 K Potentiometer

R35, R37, 38

10 KILO-OHM

R36

01 KILO-OHM

R40

220-OHM

CAPACITORS
C5

10F electrolyte

C9

150 pf F CERMIC DISK

MISCELLANEOUS

IC BASE 8 PIN= 01NO.

PCB

PARTS LIST FOR RELAY BOARD

SEMICONDUCTOR

D1-D8

1N4007 DIODE

T1-T4

BC547

LED

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

RESISTORS (- WATT, 5% CARBON)

R2,R3, R4, R5

10 KILO-OHM

R10-R13, R41

01 KILO-OHM

MISCELLANEOUS

IC BASE 8 PIN= 01NO.

Relay 1 = 12 V 1/C
PCB

FUNCTION OF EACH COMPONENT

RESISTORS
The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current. This
symbol

is used to indicate a resistor in a circuit diagram, known as

a schematic Resistance value is designated in units called the "Ohm." A

1000-Ohm resistor is typically shown as 1K-Ohm (kilo Ohm), and 1000
K-Ohms is written as 1M-Ohm (meg-ohm).
There are two classes of resistors fixed resistors and the variable
resistors. They are also classified according to the material from which
they are made. The typical resistor is made of either carbon film or

metal film. There are other types as well, but these are the most
common. The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to
consider when selecting a resistor for use in a circuit. The "tolerance"
and the electric power ratings of the resistor are also important. The
tolerance of a resistor denotes how close it is to the actual rated
resistance value. For example, a 5% tolerance would indicate a
resistor that is within 5% of the specified resistance value. The power
rating indicates how much power the resistor can safely tolerate. Just
like you wouldn't use a 6-volt flashlight lamp to replace a burned out
light in your house, you wouldn't use a 1/8-watt resistor when you
should be using a 1/2-watt resistor. The maximum rated power of the
resistor is specified in Watts. Power is calculated using the square of the
current (I2) x the resistance value (R) of the resistor. If the maximum
rating of the resistor is exceeded, it will become extremely hot and even
burn.
Resistors in electronic circuits are typically rated 1/8W, 1/4W, and
1/2W. 1/8W is almost always used in signal circuit applications. When
powering a light emitting diode, comparatively large current flows
through the resistor, so you need to consider the power rating of the
resistor you choose
Resistor values - the resistor colour code
Resistance is measured in ohms; the symbol for ohm is an omega .
1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M .
1 k = 1000
1 M = 1000000 .

Resistor values are normally shown using

coloured bands.
Each colour represents a number as shown in the
table.
Most resistors have 4 bands:

The first band gives the first digit.

The second band gives the second digit.
The third band indicates the number of zeros.
The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance
(precision) of the resistor, this may be ignored
for almost all circuits.

The Resistor
Colour Code
Colour

Number

Black

Brown

Red

Orange

Yellow

Green

Blue

Violet

Grey

White

Presets
Preset Symbol

These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are
designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted
only when the circuit is built. For example to set the frequency of an
alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive circuit. A small
screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust presets. Presets are
much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes
used in projects where a standard variable resistor would normally be
used.

Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be

made. The screw must be turned many times (10+) to move the slider
from one end of the track to the other, giving very fine control.

RESISTOR NETWORK
This resistor is called a Single-In-Line (SIL) resistor network. It is
made with many resistors of the same value, all in one package. One
side of each resistor is connected with one side of all the other resistors
inside. One example of its use would be to control the current in a
circuit powering many light emitting diodes (LEDs). In the photograph
on the left, 8 resistors are housed in the package. Each of the leads on
the package is one resistor. The ninth lead on the left side is the
common lead. The face value of the resistance is printed. (It depends on
the supplier.) Some resistor networks have a "4S" printed on the top of
the resistor network. The 4S indicates that the package contains 4
independent resistors that are not wired together inside. The housing
has eight leads instead of nine. The internal wiring of these typical
resistor networks has been illustrated below. The size (black part) of the
resistor network, which we have, is as follows: For the type with 9
leads, the thickness is 1.8 mm, the height 5mm, and the width 23 mm.

For the types with 8 component leads, the thickness is 1.8 mm, the
height 5 mm, and the width 20 mm.

CAPACITOR
A capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by a dielectric
material. It has the ability to hold charge. When a voltage is applied
across the plates, the capacitor gets charged. The capacitance of the
capacitor is the ratio of the charge acquired to the applied voltage

C = Q/V
Where C = Capacitance in farads
Q = Charge in coulombs
V = voltage in volts
In electronics many types of capacitors are used but in this project
following type of capacitor are used
1. Ceramic Capacitor

2. Electrolyte capacitor
3. CERAMIC CAPACITOR:
These capacitor uses ceramic as dielectric material.

4. ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR
In electrolytic capacitors, instead of using plates separated by a dielectric,
the capacitors have a metallic anode with oxide film grown over it & this
oxide layer acts as a dielectric. It is surrounded by electrolyte.

FUNCTION OF CAPACITOR
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in
timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge.
They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir
of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily
pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.
DIODE
Example:

Circuit symbol:

Function
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the
circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow.
Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were
actually called valves. Forward Voltage Drop
Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode,
rather like a person pushing through a door with a spring. This means
that there is a small voltage across a conducting diode, it is called the
forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which
are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost
constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a
very steep characteristic (current-voltage graph). Reverse Voltage
When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but
all real diodes leak a very tiny current of a few A or less. This can be
ignored in most circuits because it will be very much smaller than the
current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a
maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is
exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse
direction, this is called breakdown.
Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass
small currents of 100mA or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass
large currents. In addition there are LEDs (which have their own page)
and Zener diodes (at the bottom of this page).
Connecting and soldering
Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be
labeled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c,
for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a line painted on the body.

Diodes are labeled with their code in small print; you may need a
magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes!
Small signal diodes can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the
risk is small unless you are using a germanium diode (codes beginning
OA...) in which case you should use a heat sink clipped to the lead
between the joint and the diode body. A standard crocodile clip can be
used as a heat sink.
Rectifier diodes are quite robust and no special precautions are needed
for soldering them.
Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies
to convert alternating current (AC) to direct Diode
current (DC), a process called rectification.

Maximum
Maximum
Reverse
Current
Voltage

They are also used elsewhere in circuits 1N4001 1A

50V

where a large current must pass through the 1N4002 1A

diode. All rectifier diodes are made from
1N4007 1A
silicon and therefore have a forward voltage
1N5401 3A
drop of 0.7V. The table shows maximum
1N5408 3A
current and maximum reverse voltage for

100V
1000V
100V
1000V

some popular rectifier diodes. The 1N4001 is suitable for most low
voltage

circuits

with

current

of

less

than

1A.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR (7805)

Voltage regulator IC unit contain the circuitry for reference source,
error amplifier, control device, and overload protection all in single
chip. A power supply can be built very simply using transformer
connected to ac supply to step the voltage to a desired level, then
rectifying with a half- or full-wave circuit, filtering the voltage using a
simple capacitor filter, and finally regulating the DC voltage using an
IC voltage regulator. The voltage regulator can be classified as

Positive voltage regulator

Negative voltage regulator
Voltage regulators that provide a positive fixed regulated voltage over a
range of load currents are schematically represented in diagram. The
fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated voltage, Vin, applied to one
terminal, delivers a regulated output voltage, Vo, from a second
terminal, with the third terminal connected to the ground. An output
input voltage difference must be maintained for the IC to operate,
which means that the varying input voltage must be always be kept
large enough to maintain a voltage drop across the IC to permit proper
operation of the internal circuit. A group of fixed- positive voltage
regulators is the series 78, which provide fixed voltages from 5V to
24V.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

Light Emitting Diodes or LEDs, are among the most widely used of all
the different types of semiconductor diodes available today. They are
the most visible type of diode that emit a fairly narrow bandwidth of
either visible light at different coloured wavelengths, invisible infra-red
light for remote controls or laser type light when a forward current is
passed through them. A "Light Emitting Diode" or LED as it is more
commonly called, is basically just a specialized type of PN junction
diode, made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped
semiconductor material. When the diode is forward biased, electrons
from the semiconductors conduction band recombine with holes from
the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons which
emit a monochromatic (single colour) of light. Because of this thin
layer a reasonable number of these photons can leave the junction and
radiate away producing a coloured light output. Then we can say that
when operated in a forward biased direction Light Emitting Diodes are
semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into light energy.
The construction of a light emitting diode is very different from that of
a normal signal diode. The PN junction of an LED is surrounded by a
transparent, hard plastic epoxy resin hemispherical shaped shell or body
which protects the LED from both vibration and shock. Surprisingly, an

LED junction does not actually emit that much light so the epoxy resin
body is constructed in such a way that the photons of light emitted by
the junction are reflected away from the surrounding substrate base to
which the diode is attached and are focused upwards through the domed
top of the LED, which itself acts like a lens concentrating the amount of
light. This is why the emitted light appears to be brightest at the top of
the LED.
However, not all LEDs are made with a hemispherical shaped dome for
their epoxy shell. Some LEDs have a rectangular or cylindrical shaped
construction that has a flat surface on top. Also, nearly all LEDs have
their cathode, (K) terminal identified by either a notch or flat spot on
the body, or by one of the leads being shorter than the other, (the
Anode, A)
Unlike normal incandescent lamps and bulbs which generate large
amounts of heat when illuminated, the light emitting diode produces a
"cold" generation of light which leads to high efficiencies than the
normal "light bulb" because most of the generated energy radiates away
within the visible spectrum. Because LEDs are solid-state devices, they
can be extremely small and durable and provide much longer lamp life
than normal light sources.

Before a light emitting diode can "emit" any form of light it needs a
current to flow through it, as it is a current dependant device with their
light output intensity being directly proportional to the forward current
flowing through the LED. As the LED is to be connected in a forward
bias condition across a power supply it should be current limited using
a series resistor to protect it from excessive current flow. Never connect
an LED directly to a battery or power supply as it will be destroyed
almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it
out.

LIQUID-CRSTAL DISPLAY
The liquid crystal display (LCD) has the distinct advantage of having a
lower power requirement than the LED. It is typically in the order of
microwatts for the display, as compared to same order of milliwatt of
LED. It does, however, require an external or internal light source, is
limited to a temperature range 0 to 60 centigrade. A liquid crystal is a
material that will flow like a liquid but whose molecular structure has
some properties normally associated with solids. For the light

scattering units are generally made of nematic crystal structure as

shown in fig.

The individual molecules have a rod like appearance as shown in the

fig.

When no voltage applied across the LCD then incident light will simply
pass through and the liquid crystal structure will appear clear. If voltage
is applied across the conducting surface as shown in fig the molecules
arrangement is disturbed, will the result that regions will be established
with the different indices of light refraction. The incident light will be
reflected in different directions at the interface between regions of
different indices of refraction with the result that the scattered light has
a frosted glass appearance. The frosted look occurs only where the
conducting surface are opposite each other and remaining area remain
translucent. A digit on an LCD display may have the segment

appearance shown in fig. The black area is actually a clear conducting

surface connected to the terminal below for external control. Two
similar masks are placed on opposite sides of a sealed thick layer of
liquid crystal material. If the number 2 were required, the terminal 8,
7,6,3,4 and 5 would be energized.

Pin connection of LCD

Microcontroller IC (89V51RD2)
The P89V51RD2 is an 80C51 microcontroller with 64 kB Flash and
1024 bytes of data RAM. A key feature of the P89V51RD2 is its X2
mode option. The design engineer can choose to run the application
with the conventional 80C51 clock rate (12 clocks per machine cycle)
or select the X2 mode (6 clocks per machine cycle) to achieve twice the
throughput at the same clock frequency. Another way to benefit from
this feature is to keep the same performance by reducing the clock
frequency by half, thus dramatically reducing the EMI. The Flash

program memory supports both parallel programming and in serial InSystem Programming (ISP). Parallel programming mode offers gangprogramming at high speed, reducing programming costs and time to
market. ISP allows a device to be reprogrammed in the end product
under software control. The capability to field/update the application
firmware makes a wide range of applications possible. The
P89V51RD2 is also In-Application Programmable (IAP), allowing the
Flash program memory to be reconfigured even while the application is
running.
80C51 Central Processing Unit
5 V Operating voltage from 0 to 40 MHz
64 kB of on-chip Flash program memory with ISP (In-System
Programming) and IAP (In-Application Programming)
Supports 12-clock (default) or 6-clock mode selection via software or
ISP
SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) and enhanced UART
PCA (Programmable Counter Array) with PWM and Capture/Compare
functions
Four 8-bit I/O ports with three high-current Port 1 pins (16 mA each)
Three 16-bit timers/counters
Programmable Watchdog timer (WDT)

Eight interrupt sources with four priority levels

Second DPTR register

Low EMI mode (ALE inhibit)
TTL- and CMOS-compatible logic levels
Brown-out detection
Low power modes

Power-down mode with external interrupt wake-up

Idle mode
Block diagram

Pin Configuration

CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical
resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an
electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is
commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to
provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to
stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most
common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so
oscillator circuits designed around them were called "crystal
oscillators".
Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of
kilohertz to tens of megahertz. More than two billion (210 9) crystals
are manufactured annually. Most are small devices for consumer
devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell

phones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement
equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.
A crystal oscillator is basically a tuned oscillator. It uses a piezoelectric
crystal as a resonant tank circuit. The crystal (usually quartz) provides a
high degree of frequency stability. Therefore, the crystal oscillators are
used whenever great stability is required. In this project a crystal is used
which has the value 4.0 MHz.

ON/OFF-switch
An electrical switch is any device used to interrupt the flow of electrons
in a circuit. Switches are essentially binary devices: they are either
completely on ("closed") or completely off ("open").

Tactile switch
Tactile switches (a specific type of momentary switch) are everywhere
and they are especially popular on DIY electronics and microcontroller

boards. Particularly, momentary switches are switches that don't save

their state when you depress the switch. That is, when you push the
switch (and while you have the switch depressed) the circuit is ON, but
once you let off the switch it reverts back to OFF.

IC Base
Instead of soldering components directly to a printed circuit board, its
common to fit ICs using a socket. Use of such sockets simplifies the
replacement of ICs by removing the need for soldering equipment that
would otherwise be required. Sockets are therefore often used for ICs
which are expected at some time to be replaced or upgraded, such as
ROMs or CPUs. IC sockets are also used to protect parts from the heat
used during soldering it is better to melt a cheap IC socket than ruin a
possibly rare or expensive chip! Many technicians prefer to install
sockets when replacing soldered ICs in order to make subsequent
repairs easier. Should future replacement prove necessary, the circuit
board need not be exposed to potentially damaging heat generated
during de-soldering?

However, IC sockets can bring problems of their own. Parts can work
themselves loose due to mechanical influences such as shock or
vibration. The interface between socket and IC pin is also susceptible to
corrosion (oxidation) which can give rise to poor connections. For these
reasons, some technicians prefer to solder replacement parts directly to
the circuit board. From a manufacturing standpoint, it is also of course
cheaper to install components directly on the circuit board, eliminating
the extra cost of the sockets themselves. In some cases where there are
close-fitting boards or other parts, there may not be enough clearance to
allow the use of sockets (i.e. in laptops, etc). Special, so-called 'lowprofile' sockets are available which may or not help in such situations.
Be sure to check clearance above the chip/socket before installing one.
Another consideration when using sockets is that they are not all
created equal. Some sockets have machined holes/pins, while others
utilize simple clips to hold the chip in place. The sockets in the picture
above are machined. The machined types are considered by many to be
better quality, although they usually cost a little more. The machined
holes can help to alleviate somewhat the problems outlined above.
When the squared-off pins of most chips are seated into the round
holes, the corners dig in a little (a type of cold weld), providing a airand gas-tight fit which is more resistant to corrosion as well as
vibration, although still not equal to directly soldering the chip in place.

MAX232N
RS232 is an asynchronous serial communication protocol widely used
in computers and digital systems. It is called asynchronous because
there is no separate synchronizing clock signal as there are in other
serial protocols like SPI and I2C. The protocol is such that it
automatically synchronizes itself. We can use RS232 to easily create a
data link between our MCU based projects and standard PC
Basics of Serial Communication
In serial communication the whole data unit, say a byte is transmitted
one bit at a time. While in parallel transmission the whole data unit, say
a byte (8bits) are transmitted at once. Obviously serial transmission
requires a single wire while parallel transfer requires as many wires as
there are in our data unit. Parallel transfer is used to transfer data within
short range (e.g. inside the computer between graphic card and CPU)
while serial transfer is preferable in long range. As in serial
transmission only one wire is used for data transfer. Its logic level
changes according to bit being transmitted (0 or 1). But a serial
communication needs some way of synchronization. If you don't
understand what I mean by "synchronization" then don't worry just read
on it will become clear.
RS232
In RS232 there are two data lines RX and TX. TX is the wire in which
data is sent out to other device. RX is the line in which other device put
the data it needs to send to the device.

Fig- RS232 transmission

The arrows indicate the direction of data transfer. In addition to RX/TX
lines there is a third line i.e. Ground (GND) or Common. We know that
a HIGH =+5v and LOW=0v in TTL / MCU circuits but in RS232 a
HIGH=-12V and LOW=+12V. This is bit weird but it increases the
range and reliability of data transfer. Now you must be wondering how
to interface this to MCUs who understand only 0 and 5v? But you will
be very happy to know that there is a very popular IC which can do this
for you! It is MAX232 from Maxim Semiconductors. I will show you
how to make a level converter using MAX232 in next tutorial. As there
is no "clock" line so for synchronization accurate timing is required so
transmissions are carried out with certain standard speeds. The speeds
are measured in bits per second. Number of bits transmitted is also
known as baud rate. Some standard baud rates are 1200, 2400, 4800,
9600, 19200, 38400, 57600, 115200. Etc
For our example for discussion of protocol we chose the speed as
9600bps (bits per second). As we are sending 9600 bits per second one
bits takes 1/9600 seconds or 0.000104 sec or 104 uS (microsecond=
10^-6 sec). To transmit a single byte we need to extra bits they are
START BIT AND STOP BIT (more about them latter). Thus to send a
byte a total of ten bits are required so we are sending 960 bytes per
second.
Note: The number of stop bits can be one or two (for simplicity we will
be using single stop bit)
There is one more bit the parity bit but again for simplicity we would
not be using it)

A port, or interface, which can be used for serial communication and in

which only 1 bit is transmitted at a time. Most serial ports on personal
computers or laptops conform to the RS-232C or RS-422 standards. A
serial port is actually a general-purpose interface that can be used for
almost any type of device, including mice, modems and printers
(although most printers now-a-days are connected to a parallel port).
The serial port is a type of connection on PCs. It is sometimes called a
COM port or an RS-232 port, which is its technical name. If that's not
enough to confuse you, there are two types of serial ports: DB9 is a 9pin connection DB25 is, you guessed it, a 25-pin connection. A serial
port can only transmit one bit of data at a time, whereas a parallel port
can transmit many bits at once. The serial port is typically the slowest
port you'll find on a PC, if you find one at all. Most new computers
have replaced serial ports with much faster and more compatible USB
ports.

Serial Port is a most commonly used port on computer as its very easy
to access. In the previous post I have told you guys what is Serial Port?
and also the Pin Configuration for Serial Port Now we will check the
logic which serial port uses for sending data and also how to utilize it.
Most of the micro controllers have the ability to attach with the serial
port sending data from computer to your micro controller or vice versa
using serial port. Before explaining us going to show you the logic on
which serial port works.
Working of MAX232
MAX232 is used to convert TTL logic into 0/1 logic and vice versa. So
it is placed between Microcontroller and Serial Port to do the
conversion. Its a very simple circuit and you can easily make it .It uses

four capacitors and +5V source .The below diagram will help you to
understand it.

We have checked that we need a Serial Port Logic Converter -MAX232

for the interfacing of Microcontroller with serial port of PC.
Microcontroller Pins
Microcontroller uses its two pins while interfacing with serial port .In
our case, we are using P89V51RD2BN .In this microcontroller, and two
pins are used for the interfacing with serial port. Pin # 11 is used as Tx
this pin is used for transmitting the data from microcontroller to serial
port. Pin # 10 is used as Rx; this pin is used for receiving data from
serial port to micro controller. So while dealing with microcontroller,
Tx is used as output pin for sending data and Rx is used as input pin for
receiving data.
Serial Port Pins
In simple data sending again we just use two pins for receiving and
sending data and another pin is used as a ground. Lets see pin

configuration for Rs - 232 which is a 9 pin serial port : Pin # 2 is used

as RD i.e receiving data , so this pin of serial port must connected with
the Pin # 25 .So whenever microcontroller transmit the data from pin #
25 it is received by serial port from Pin # 2. Pin # 3 is used as TD i.e
Transmitting data , so this pin of serial port must connected with the Pin
# 26 .So whenever serial port transmits the data from pin # 3 it is
received by microcontroller from Pin # 26. Pin # 5 of serial port is
simple ground.
MAX232 Pins
So now we are done with PIC and Serial port, now what about
MAX232. So, MAX232 is used in between serial port and PIC and the
whole circuit is shown in the figure below:

As shown in the above figure, Pins of PIC are coming to MAX232 and
then from MAX 232 pins are going to Serial Port. Four capacitors are
used which are actually the basic circuit of MAX 232, nothing else.
LM35 (Precision Centigrade Temperature Sensors)
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors,
whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius
(Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 thus has an advantage over linear
temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to
subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient
Centigrade scaling. The LM35 does not require any external calibration
or trimming to provide typical accuracies of 14C at room
temperature and 34C over a full 55 to +150C temperature range.
Low cost is assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level. The
LM35s low output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent
calibration make interfacing to readout or control circuitry especially
easy. It can be used with single power supplies, or with plus and minus
supplies. As it draws only 60 A from its supply, it has very low self-

heating, less than 0.1C in still air. The LM35 is rated to operate over a
55 to +150C temperature range, while the
LM35C is rated for a 40 to +110C range (10 with improved
accuracy). The LM35 series is available packaged in hermetic TO-46
transistor packages, while the LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D are also
available in the plastic TO-92 transistor package. The LM35D is also
available in an 8-lead surface mount small outline package and a plastic
TO-220 package.
Features
Calibrated directly in Celsius (Centigrade)
Linear + 10.0 mV/C scale factor
0.5C accuracy guarantee able (at +25C)
Rated for full 55 to +150C range
Suitable for remote applications
Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
Operates from 4 to 30 volts
Less than 60 A current drain
Low self-heating, 0.08C in still air
Nonlinearity only 14C typical
Low impedance output, 0.1 W for 1 mA load

RELAY
Whenever power is used, the current flows in the circuit. However, it is
not required that power should be consumed all the time. Under this
condition, there should be a device, which is capable of closing/opening
the current path in the circuit. These devices are known as switch.
These are available in various shapes and sizes. Various shapes and
sizes can activate switches; switches can be activated by various
methods as given below
1. Manual operation
2. Pressure operated switches
3. Electro-magnetically operated switches
The relay comes under the category of electro-magnetically operated
switch. The relay switch works automatically due to its property of
electromagnetism. Relay has a coil in side it that is known as relay coil.
D.C voltage is given to relay coil. Then it becomes the electromagnet, it
attracts the moving arm on which the contacts are mounted and these
contacts move with the arm and make contact with the lower fixed
contact. On switching off the D.C supply, the arm is restored by the

tension of the spring. In the market these relay are available as 12 v, 60

ohm, 12 volt 100 ohms, and 12 v 150 ohms.

Working of Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. It allows one circuit to switch
a second circuit which is completely separated from the first. For
example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V
AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay
between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and mechanical.

In the above figure, when controlling switch is closed, current flows

through the coil and thus, magnetic field is produced. The resulting
magnetic field attracts an armature that is mechanically linked to a set
of contacts. The movement makes a connection with a fixed contact and
circuit gets completed. When the current to the coil is switched off, the
armature is returned by a force approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force to its relaxed position and the connection is broken.
The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, N/C and N/O:
COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the
switch.
N/C = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay
coil is off.
N/O = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil
is on.
Connect to COM and N/O if you want the switched circuit to be on
when the relay coil is on. Connect to COM and N/C if you want the
switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.

8-Bit P Compatible A/D Converters (ADC0801)

The ADC0801, ADC0802, ADC0803, ADC0804 and ADC0805 are
CMOS 8-bit successive approximation A/D converters that use a
differential potentio metric laddersimilar to the 256R products. These

converters are designed to allow operation with the NSC800 and

INS8080A derivative control bus with TRI-STATE output latches
directly driving the data bus. These A/Ds appear like memory locations
or I/O ports to the microprocessor and no interfacing logic is needed.
Differential analog voltage inputs allow increasing the common-mode
rejection and offsetting the analog zero input voltage value. In addition,
the voltage reference input can be adjusted to allow encoding any
smaller analog voltage span to the full 8 bits of resolution.
Features
1. Compatible with 8080 P derivativesno interfacing logic needed access time - 135 ns
2. Easy interface to all microprocessors, or operates standalone
Differential analog voltage inputs
3. Logic inputs and outputs meet both MOS and TTL voltage level
specifications
4. Works with 2.5V (LM336) voltage reference
5. On-chip clock generator
6. 0V to 5V analog input voltage range with single 5V supply
7. No zero adjust required
8. 0.3" standard width 20-pin DIP package
9. 20-pin molded chip carrier or small outline package
10.Operates ratio metrically or with 5 VDC, 2.5 VDC, or analog span
adjusted voltage reference
Key Specifications
1. Resolution 8 bits
2. Total error 14 LSB, 12 LSB and 1 LSB
3. Conversion time 100 s

WORKING OF CIRCUIT
For understanding the working of the project it can be divided into
following blocks:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
1)

ADC module
Kick start board (Microcontroller 89V51RD2)
Relay driver module
Power supply
Working of main board
ADC module with lm35
Analog signals are very common inputs to embedded systems .Most
transducers and sensors such as temperature, pressure, velocity, humidity
are analog. In many applications it is required to convert the output of the
sensor, which is analogue in nature to a digital form. The data in digital
format can then be utilized for further processing by the digital processors.

Typical applications include sound processing, temperature processing etc.

Commonly used ADC device is ADC0804.
ADC0804 is a single channel analog to digital convertor i.e., it can take
only one analog signal. An ADC has n bit resolution (binary form) where n
can be 8,10,12,16 or even 24 bits. ADC 0804 has 8 bit resolution. The
higher resolution ADC gives smaller step size. Step size is smallest change
that can be measured by an ADC. For an ADC with resolution of 8 bits, the
step size is 19.53mV (5V/255). The 8-bit output of ADC is obtained at
DB0-DB7 pins of ADC module. The time taken by the ADC to convert
analog data into digital form is dependent on the frequency of clock
source. ADC0804 can be given clock from external source. It also has an
internal clock. However the conversion time cannot be more than110us. To
use the internal clock a capacitor and resistor is connected to pin 19 and 4.
The frequency is given by the relation f= 1/ (1.1RC). The circuit uses a
resistance of 10k and a capacitor of 150pF to generate clock for ADC0804.
Vin, which is the input pin, is connected to a preset to provide analog
input.
2) Kick start board (Microcontroller 89V51RD2)
Fig above shows the circuit of kick starts board. The 1st circuit is +5V
power supply section. This circuit will provide a regulated voltage to
microcontroller. The circuit comprises of mainly 7805 voltage regulator
IC (IC4). +12V supply given as input to 7805IC through dc jack. The
capacitor C10 must have high voltage rating to safely handle the input
voltage feed to circuit. +5V output of 7805IC results the red LED to
glow which refers as a Power ON Indication.
MAX232 IC (IC3) is used as logic convertor to make the serial
communication signal; received through db9 connector; compatible
with microcontroller. Its pin no 13 & 14 is connected to the pin 3 & 2 of

db9 connector respectively to receive the signal. Similarly its pin no 11

& 12 are connected to 11 & 12 of microcontroller to transmit the
converted signal. It requires 4 capacitors i.e. C4, C6, C7 & C8 of 10uf.
The heart of the kick start board is microcontroller P89V51RD2. It is a
40 pin 8051-based microcontroller with 64K+8K kB Flash and 1024
bytes of data RAM32 I/O lines, 3 Timers/Counters, 9 Interrupts/4
priority levels, SPI, Dual Data Pointers, WDT, 5-channel PCA. 4
jumpers of 10 pins JP1 to JP4 are used to connect the ports of
microcontroller and remaining two pins of jumpers are assigned as +5V
and gnd. Resistor array is used at port 0. The reset circuit connected at
pin9 and crystal oscillator at pin18 & 19. +12V supply is given to the
Push-to-on switch JP7 to start the board.

3) Relay driver module

The circuit of relay driver module is shown in circuit diagram. It is
build around the PNP transistors which works in the saturation mode.
The input pins 4 through 1 are connected to the bases of the transistor
T1 through T4, respectively. Input pin4 of JP1 goes high to drive
transistor T1 into saturation and drives the relay1 and LED1 connected
to it. Similarly pin3 through pin1 goes high to drive transistor T2
through T4 into saturation respectively and drive the connected relay
and LED. Depending on the logic, the relay gets through transistors; the
relay circuit becomes short or open to ON or OFF the connected load
respectively.
Diode D1 to D4 and resistor R10 to R13 maintains the LED from
burning. Diode D5 to D8 blocks the back EMF from transistor if
occurs and Resistors R2 to R5 limits the current to maintain the

transistor from any damage. The supply of +12V for the circuit is
provided.
4) LCD
The LCD is used as output display device. LCD use in four wire mode.
It shows the temperature read by the LM35. The LCD pin 4 to 6 are
connected to the microcontroller pins 25, 26 to 27 respectively (these
are Port 2 pins) For interfacing an LCD to the kick start board, use port
0 for connecting data pins of LCD i.e. pin 7 to 14. Pin5 is grounded for
write operation. Connect pin4 & pin6 to microcontroller port P2.7 &
P2.6 respectively. +5V supply and ground is given by the kick start
board. +12v supply provided by adaptor to kick start board.
4 Power supply
There are many type of power supply. Most are designed to
convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage
supply for electronics circuit and other devices. A power supply
can be divided into series of blocks, each of which performs a
particular function. For example a 5V regulated supply

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

Transformer - Steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage

AC.
Rectifier - Converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying
Smoothing - Smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small
ripple.
Regulator - Eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed
voltage.

Working/description of main project

Fig given below shows the connection diagram of Thermal overload
protection for Transformer System which comprises a transformer
having temperature sensor LM35 on the top, ADC module, kick start
board, relay driver module and LCD. Here only one relay is soldered on
the relay driver module because we have to protect only a single
transformer due to overloading.
LM35 is a precision IC temperature sensor that will be mounted on the
transformer. Whenever the load increases, LM35 measures the
temperature and provide output to ADC module in analog form.
Therefore the output pin of LM35 is connected to the IN of ADC
module. ADC module converts the analog input to the 8-bit digital
output through ADC0804 IC which is compatible to kick start board as
microcontroller assembled on it takes the digital input. Port3 is used as
input port for connecting DB0-DB7 pins of ADC module to P3.0 to
P3.7 of kick start board.
The P89V51RD2 microcontroller act as the heart of the system as it
receives the signal, programmed it and then gives the output to Relay
driver module to operate the relay for protecting the transformer. The

kick start board output at port P2.0, P2.1, P2.2, P2.3 is connected to the
input pins IN4, IN3, IN2, IN1 of relay driver module as Port2 of
microcontroller is bidirectional port. Here it is used as output port for
microcontroller.

Adaptor provides the +12v supply to kick start board for 7805IC
assembled on it and also to Relay driver module to drive relays. Input
on Relay driver module also drives relay through transistor. Now how
to connect the transformer with the system to break the power supply at
the time of overheating? Relay is used as switching device in the path
of appliance to AC Mains. Rather than connecting transformer directly
to ac main power, connect its one terminal to relay and other one to
supply. Similarly one end of relay to power supply. Thus relay is
connected between the main supply and transformer. Switching action
of relay is responsible for protecting the transformer by breaking the
connection of it from the power supply when thermal load increases on
it. Also an LCD is interfaced with microcontroller to display the output
of microcontroller. For interfacing, port1 is used to give output to data
pins of LCD i.e. pin7-14. Pin5 is grounded for write operation. Connect

pin4 & pin6 to microcontroller port P2.4 & P2.6 respectively. +5V
supply is given by the kick start board.
Working
The project Thermal overload Protection for Transformer is a project
that monitors the temperature increase or decreases of the transformer
and protects it from overloading. The transformer is connected to AC
supply through Relay as switching device. The LM35 is an integrated
circuit sensor that can be used to measure temperature with an electrical
output proportional to the temperature (in oC). This temperature sensor
watches on the increase and decrease of the temperature and provide an
analog output to ADC module. As LM35 has analog output, we have to
use a device to convert the signals from analog to digital form because
microcontroller works on the digital data. So ADC module is used
which can convert the analog output of LM35 into 8-bit digital form
and provide it to microcontroller. Microcontroller assembled on kick
start board is programmed for controlling the On/OFF of Relay.
Whenever temperature rises the microcontroller provide output to relay
driver module to cut-off that relay which is connected to the
transformer. An LCD also interfaced for giving the display of
temperature measured by LM35 i.e. Temperature sensor and operations
performed by the system.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Mount the components at the appropriate places before soldering.
Follow the circuit description and components details, leads
identification etc. Do not start before making it confirm that all the
components are mounted at the right place.
2. Do not use a spread solder on the board, it may cause short circuit.
3. Do not sit under the fan while soldering.
4. Position the board so that gravity tends to keep the solder where you
want it.
5. Do not over heat the components at the board. Excess heat may damage
the components or board.
6. The board should not vibrate while soldering otherwise you have a dry
or cold joint

7. Do not put the Kit under or over voltage source. Be sure about the
voltage either D.C or A.C. while operating the gadget.
8. Do not spare the bare ends of the components leads otherwise it may
short circuit with the other components. To prevent this use sleeves at
the components leads or use sleeved wire for connection
9. Does not use old dark color solder? It may give dry joint. Be sure that
all the joints are clean and well shiny.

Software:
The software is written in Embedded C language. Compile it to obtain
hex code. Burn the generated hex code into the microcontroller. The
software is well commented and easy to understand.
/////////// Code for Thermal overload Protection for Transformer ///////////
/*
Connections : P0 to Data port &
P1 to control port of LCD display module
P2 to ADC control port
P3 to ADC data port
*/
//Header file inclusion
#include<reg52.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>

//Data and Command port Selection

#define LCDdata P0
sbit LCDrs = P1^0;
sbit LCDrw = P1^1;
sbit LCDen = P1^2;
sbit Rd = P3^3;
sbit Wr = P3^4;
sbit INTR = P3^5;

//The Read signal

//The Write Signal
//The Interrupt Signal

sbit relay = P3^6;

//relay pin

/*
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Prototype: int ADC(void);
|
| Return Type: int
|
| Arguments: None
|
| Description: Drive ADC chip & collect converted
|
|
digital data
|
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------+
*/
int ADC(void)
{
Wr = 0;
//Send WR pulse
Wr = 1;
//L to H (start of conversion
while(INTR==1)
{
Rd = 1;
Rd = 0;
}

//wait for End of conversion

//send RD pulse
//Read data

return P2;
}

/*
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Prototype: void MSdelay(unsigned int);
|
| Return Type: void
|
| Arguments: unsigned int
|
| Description: Generates time delay in milliseconds |

+--------------------------------------------------------------------------+
*/
void MSdelay(unsigned int rtime)
{
unsigned int r,s;
for(r = 0;r<rtime;r++)
for(s = 0;s<1275;s++);
}
/*
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Prototype: void lcdcmd (unsigned char);
|
| Return Type: void
|
| Arguments: unsigned char
|
| Description: Issue commands to LCD
|
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
*/
void lcdcmd (unsigned char DATA)
{
LCDrs = 0;
LCDrw = 0;
LCDen = 1;
//Strobe the enable pin
LCDdata = DATA;

//Put the value on the pins

LCDrs = 0;
LCDrw = 0;
LCDen = 0;
}
/*
+-----------------------------------------------------------+
| Prototype: void delay(unsigned int);
|
| Return Type: void
|
| Arguments: unsigned int
|
| Description: Generates time delay
|
+-----------------------------------------------------------+
*/
void delay (unsigned int a )
{
unsigned int k; unsigned char l;
for (k=0;k<a;k++)

{
for (l=0;l<10;l++)
{
}
}
}
/*
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Prototype: void initialize (void);
|
| Return Type: void
|
| Arguments: None
|
| Description: Initialize LCD
|
+----------------------------------------------------------+
*/
void initialize (void)
{
lcdcmd(0x30);
delay(30);

//1 line and 5x7 matrix

lcdcmd(0x38);
delay(30);

//2 line and 5x7 matrix

lcdcmd(0x0c);
delay(30);

//Display on, cursor off

lcdcmd(0x01);
delay(30);

//Clear display Screen

lcdcmd(0x06);
delay(30);

//shift cursor to right

/*
+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Prototype: void lcddat (unsigned int)
|
| Return Type: void
|
| Arguments: unsigned int
|
| Description: Display data on LCD
|
+-------------------------------------------------------------+

*/
void lcddat (unsigned int DATA)
{
LCDrs=1;
LCDrw = 0;
LCDen = 1;
//Strobe the enable pin
LCDdata = DATA;

//Put the value on the pins

LCDrs = 1;
LCDrw = 0;
LCDen = 0;
}

/*
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Prototype: void display_lcd (unsigned char,unsigned char)
|
| Return Type: void
|
| Arguments: unsigned char & unsigned char*
|
| Description: Diplay the argument character string on
|
|
given location using lcddat(unsigned int)
|
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
*/
void display_lcd (unsigned char location, unsigned char *d)
{
lcdcmd(0x80 | location);
delay(1);
while(*d)
{
lcddat(*d++);
//delay(1);
}
}
//Main function
void main()
{
unsigned int temp,volt;
unsigned char abc[16];

initialize();
relay =0;
while(1)
{
temp = ADC();
volt = temp;

//Aquire ADC data

sprintf(abc," %d Degrees ",volt);

//Send data to serial

port
if(volt>40)
{
relay =1;
display_lcd(0x00," Temperature is: ");
display_lcd(0xc0,abc);
//display adc data
MSdelay(1);
}
}
}
PCB DESIGNING
A printed circuit board popularly known, as PCB does a special
photoengraving process print a complete layout diagram of an
electronic circuit consisting of conducting path in? on the other side of
the PCB are mounted electronics component like Resistor, Capacitor,
Coils, Transformers, Transistors, Diodes and ICs. Suitable holes are
punched in the PCB for mounting the components, which are connected
to the connecting paths by soldering. The PCB board is made of a
translucent material and with a bright light on one side. The circuit on
the opposite side can be easily traced. Printed circuit boards are
extensively used for assembling electronic circuits particularly those
using semiconductor devices like transistor and ICs. Use of PCBs
makes the circuit assembly more compact, uniform and stable than the
one using hand wiring PCB assembly also lends itself efficiently to

mass production methods. The different processes that take place in the
fabrication of a PCB are as follows
1.

Layout designing

2.

Art work designing

3.

Transfer of conductor pattern on copper clad sheet.

4.

Printing of ETCH resist material on conductor pattern

5.

Drying & etching

6.

stripping

7.

Drilling

8.

Surface cleaning

9.

Final inspection of PCB

1) LAYOUT DESIGNING:
First of all the layout design of the circuit, which is to be traced on the
PCB, is prepared. The layout of PCB has to incorporate all the
information on the Board before one can go on to the art work
preparation. The detailed circuit diagram is very important for the
layout designer but he must familiar with design concept and the
philosophy behind the equipment. In this process the layout designer,
tracing the circuit on a graph paper. By this process he marks where the
hole should be. Thus the circuit which to be traced on the PCB is firstly
traced on the graph paper or its layout is designed. In layout designing
the distance between the copper tracks and lengths, size etc. of
components are also taken consideration.
2) ART WORK DESIGNING:
From the layout design of the circuit, the art work design is prepared.
Art work the drawing, showing conductor pattern on the PCB. After
testing the prototype a rough layout is prepared on the millimeter graph
paper. Artwork of the circuit is prepared on transparent paper with

sticking tapes and Pads. Tapes serve as conductor paths while pads
serve as areas for mounting component leads.
3) TRANSFER OF CONDUCTOR PATTERN ON COPPER CLAD
After designing the art work on the graph paper, we transfer it on to the
trace paper. The conductor pattern is then transferred on to the copper
clad laminate with the help of a carbon paper. This transfers the pattern
on the copper clad laminate.
4) PRINTING OF ETCH RESIST MATERIAL ON CONDUCTOR
PATTERN
The conductor pattern on the copper clad laminate can be printed by
paint which are etch resist material. This resist material is painted on
the track so that we can obtain the conductor parts at the desired places
and rest of the copper removed after etching. After painting the PCB,
the entire PCB is inspected so that there are no short circuit between the
two different tracks and open circuit within the same track.
5) DRYING & ETCHING
After drying, etching is done to remove all unwanted copper, which is
present on the portion other than the pattern on PCB. For the PCB is
kept dipped in solution of ferrous chloride and two or three drops of
HCL. Chemical react with the copper and dissolve it. After some hours
we get the PCB left only copper tracks on it.
6) STRIPPING:
After the resist has performed its duty, it has to be completely removed
from the board. It is done by scrubbing or with the help of a solvent or a
commercially available stripping solution.
7) DRILLING:
Drilling of component mounting holes into the PCB is by far most
important mechanical machining operation in PCB production
processes. Holes are made by drilling whenever superior hole finish is

required. There fore drilling is done by all the professional grades PCB
manufacturers and generally in all small PCB production plants and
laboratories. The importance of hole drilling into PCB has further gone
up with its need for smaller hole diameter and higher package density
where hole punching is practically ruled out.
8) SURFACE CLEANING:
After drilling the surface of the board is cleaned so that the scraps may
be removed which is settled on the board during drilling? Surface
cleaning has to be necessarily done.
9) FINAL INSPECTION OF PCB:
After complete fabrication the PCB inspected for any defect such as
short circuit or open circuit. This inspection is very useful because if
there is any fault in PCB, it is detected at the earlier stage so that the
defected PCB may not cause any problem in the production of the
equipment.

SOLDERING TECHNIQUES
Knowing how to solder the components properly on the PCB is a
prerequisite if we want to complete any electronics project. Learning
soldering techniques enables one to construct, test and trouble shoot
electronics circuits properly. Soldering is the process of joining two
metals by using solder or we can state in this way that soldering is the
alloying process between two metals.
Solder is a metal alloy, made by combining tin and lead in different
proportion. It is used to join electrically conducting parts. When

soldering the parts on the PCB, the parts are first mechanically secured
and then the joint is heated with a soldering iron.
The solder is applied to the heated mating surface and is allowed to
melt and wet the surface. The soldering iron is then removed from the
joint. The finished solder joint forms conducting electrical connection
and a strong mechanical joint between the component and the PCB.
The soldering process involves
1. Melting of the flux, which in turn removes the oxide film on the
metal to be soldered
2. Melting of the solder which makes the lighter flux and the impurities
suspended in to the surface.
3. The solder partially dissolves some of the metal in the connection
4. The solder cools and fuses with the metal.
The soldering techniques includes understanding of
Soldering Tools
Soldering material
Component preparation
Good and bad soldering joints
De-soldering Techniques

SOLDERING TOOLS:
To facilitate soldering work, various tools are necessary. The most
essential tools in the soldering practice are
1. SOLDERING IRON:

Soldering iron is lightweight soldering tools, which generate 25 watt of

heat. Which is best suited for light duty work as soldering various
electronics component on PCB. A soldering iron supply sufficient heat

to melt solder by heat transfer when the iron tip is applied to a

connection to be soldered.
2. STRIPPERS
Strippers are used to remove insulation from the wire as well as for
cutting the wire according to the requirement. These strippers are so
designed that they can accommodate various sizes of wire normally
used in electronics circuits. To prevent damage to the wire by nicking, it
should be ensured that the specific wire size gauge could be set through
the screw provided on the one leg for the gauge setting.
3. BENDING TOOLS
Bending tools are pliers having smooth bending surfaces so that they
do not cause any damage to the component.

SOLDERING MATERIAL:
1. SOLDER
The soldering material or solder usually employed for the purpose of
joining together two or more metals at temperatures below their melting
point is a fusible alloy consisting essentially of Lead and Tin. Most
common type of solder used in electronics work is an alloy consisting
of 60% tin and 40% lead. The alloy is drawn into a hollow wire whose
center is filled with an organic paste called rosin. The resulting product
is called 60/ 40rosin- core solder. Its melting temperature is 190 C and
solidifies as it cools. This alloy is available in wire form in several
gauges. Thinner gauges are preferred over thicker ones. For general
purpose soldering, 18-gauge wire solder is used. For close printed
circuit work 22 or 20 gauge wire solder is used. Finer solder is easy to
position on the joint and requires less heat for the formation of the joint.
2. FLUX

To aid the soldering process, another substance known as flux is

used. It is made of zinc chloride, hydrochloric acid, and phosphoric acid
and rosin. Flux is needed to scrub away the microscopic film of oxides
on the surfaces of metals to be soldered and it forms a protective film
that prevents re-oxidation while the connection is heated to the point at
which the solder melts.
The solder used in most of the electronic work contains this flux as a
center core, which has a lower melting point than solder itself. When
the molten flux clears the metal, it accomplishes two things.

It allows the solder to wet the metal.

It holds the oxides suspended in the solution.
Metals, particularly copper when heated tend to oxidize and prevent
the alloying or good electrical bond between the copper and the solder.
Flux flowing over the leads, prevent this oxidization process and as the
solder flows the flux is displaced allowing the solder to form an atomic
bonding with the items being soldered together. The molten solder can
then make contact with the cleaned and the solvent action of solder on
metal can take place. A good flux helps to keep the surfaces clean.

COMPONENT PREPARATION:
Before any component lead, wire or terminal is soldered in a circuit; it
is essential to clean it with isopropyl alcohol with the help of non- static
Bristol brush for cleaning. The surface is dried with paper or lint free
muslin cloth. The component fit properly in to the PCB, they must be
properly formed. Forming of the component has two main functions

1. To secure the lead to the circuit.

2. To provide proper stress relief. The relief is necessary to prevent
rupture of the component lead from the component or in case of wire, to
prevent a stress pull on the solder joint and rupture of the wire strands.
The following steps are taken to properly bend the lead of the
components
1. The bend should be attempted not closer than 3-5mm from the
component body.
2. The radius of the bend should be equal to twice the thickness of
the lead wire.
3. Center the component between its solder connections.
4. Bend the protruding lead 45-degree after insertion into the circuit
board & with the help of a bending tool.
5. Cut the lead so that no portion when bent exceeds the perimeter of
the board with the help of a bending tool.
Forming is not necessary in the case of integrated circuits. They are
simply soldered to the board without cutting their leads. Lead bending
is the most important factor in forming. A few sharp back and forth
bends in a component lead can easily because it to break close to the
component encapsulation may result in excessive stress at the lead
entrance, and cause cracks in the encapsulation. Such cracks allow
moisture to enter inside of the component and result in gradual
degradation of the component resulting in premature failure.

GOOD AND BAD SOLDERING JOINTS:

It is with experience that one learns the difference between a good or
bad soldered joint. However, the following points should be kept in
view

1. The solder should be uniformly distributed over the elements

and

base metal.
2. The quantity of the solder should be only so much that it does not
obscure the shape of the element.
3. No residue such as flux or oxide is left on the surfaces.
4. No solder should reach the shield of the wire

DESOLDERING TECHNIQUE:
De-soldering means removal of solder from a previously soldered joint.
A very important consideration, which must be kept in mind while desoldering, is that the heat required may damage the base material and
adjoining components. Appropriate tolls will be used for de-soldering.
So that minimum amount of heat is used during the de-soldering
process. Do not use sharp metal object, such as a twist drill for
removing solder from component mounting holes. Sharp objects may
damage plated through conductor. Two techniques are common in desoldering
1. Wicking
2. Sniffing

Wicking:

A wicking solder remover may consist of a braided shield wire with the
core removed or it may be a piece of multi-strand wire. Wicks are
available commercially, which are suitable for de-soldering work. The
de-soldering technique using wicking process is as flows

1. Place the wick on top of the solder joint to be soldered joint to be desoldered.
2. Position the iron tip on top of the wick. The heat from the iron will melt
the solder. The solder will readily flow into the wick.
3. Cut off the wick containing the removed solder. Repeat the process
until all the solder is removed from the joint.

SNIFFING:
Vacuum type sniffer (solder sucker) uses a spring-loaded plunger. It is
commonly known as de-solder pump. It uses a spring-loaded
mechanism. To use the device the spring is cocked and tip of the
vacuum pump is held against the solder joint. When the solder melts,
the trigger is operated which releases the spring, creating a powerful
vacuum action.