Running Head: FOCUS ON THE RACIAL ACHIEVEMENT GAP

Student Success Initiatives: Focus on the Racial Achievement Gap

Theresa Bashiri-Remetio
Northern Illinois University

FOCUS ON THE RACIAL ACHIEVEMENT GAP

Table of Contents
Introductory section
Title Page..1
Table of Contents.2
Abstract....3
Main Body
I.

Race & Racial Achievement Gaps

A. Definition of Terms..3
B. Desegregation: The Birth of Racial Achievement Gaps..4

II.

Review of Key Literature

A. Students of Color.....5

III.

Discussion
A. Through the Authors Lens..8
B. The State of Student Success Initiatives..........9
C. What Can Be Done?................................................................................................9

IV.

Conclusion.12

V.

References..14

FOCUS ON THE RACIAL ACHIEVEMENT GAP

Abstract
This praxis paper aims to bring light to the current state of institutional racism and the
perpetuation of racial achievement gaps as seen in the American higher education system.
Through the review of peer reviewed and other published works, as well as online sources, we
reflect on the outcomes of research conducted, best practices, and gaps identified when
addressing racism and student success in the pursuit of closing the racial achievement gap in
order to achieve true student success.
Race & Racial Achievement Gaps
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this praxis paper, the following terms are defined operationally:
Race: As a social construct, race identifies individuals who share a distinct set of features
which affect economic and sociopolitical factors.
Students of Color: The term students of color will be used to discuss students from nonWhite heritages; specifically discussed here-in are African & African American, Hispanic,
Asian, and Native American.
Racism: Racism is the belief that one race is superior in comparison to others; or the
practice of treating individuals differently based on their race.
Institutional or Systemic Racism: Best defined by racismnoway.com.au, institutional or
systemic racism describes forms of racism which are structured into political and social
institutions. It occurs when organizations, institutions or governments discriminate, either
deliberately or indirectly, against certain groups of people to limit their rights(About
Racism,n.d.).

FOCUS ON THE RACIAL ACHIEVEMENT GAP

Racial Achievement Gap: Racial Achievement Gap refers to the difference in academic
achievement experienced or attained by those of color compared to their White counterparts.
Desegregation: The Birth of Racial Achievement Gaps
Brown v. Board of Education. Section one of the 14th amendment to the United States
Constitution states that:
All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction
thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state
shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens
of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property,
without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal
protection of the laws (14th Amendment, n.d).
In the case of Brown v. Board of Education, the plaintiffs contended that the racial segregation of
schools, as it came to pupil admission and public schools was in violation of the citizens
constitutional rights. Although the ruling was contested several times, the ruling held that the
segregation of White and Negro was violating the Equal Protection Clause of the United States
Constitution. Although this ruling may have included everyone into the educational system,
public education remains largely unequal (Mu. Jost,Whitfield, & Ma. Jost, 2005).
Institutional Racism Lives On. Over 60 years has passed since the Brown v. Board of
Education ruling and yes children continue to be segregated. Although defended as the natural
result of innate differences in the aptitudes of children or the result of inadequate experiences in
the home (Mu. Jost et al, 2005), studies have shown classrooms continue to be segregated into
the gifted and talented mostly White population and the inadequate, disadvantaged students of

FOCUS ON THE RACIAL ACHIEVEMENT GAP

color. Many teachers today, especially those of White heritage, are blind to the issues and
struggles students of color face.
Review of Key Literature
There has long been a documented gap in achievement among the socio-economic
affluent and those of low socio-economic status. This paper aims to look at educational
achievement gaps through a racial lens. One literature posed that the issue stems from the
assumption that our educational systems are just fine and that the students are the ones that are
deficient (Burciaga, 2015, p. 4).
Students of Color. Throughout the literature reviewed, students of color have been
discussed to include minority students as a whole and not just African or African-American.
Students of color primarily identify students of Black, Hispanic, Asian, Native American, and
Biracial or Multi-Racial heritage.
Factors Affecting Students of Color
The struggles faced by students of color tend to vary by race. Although this may be the
case, it is a consensus that these struggles stem for the institutions inability to meet the
educational, social, and emotional needs of students (Creighton, 2007, p. 1).
Educational Needs. Educational needs encompass both academic challenges and
institutional factors. Students of color have been subject to deficit thinking; which is the belief
that people of color carry inadequacies (Burciaga, 2015, p. 4). Struggles start well before
admission into an institution of higher education and can be attributed to a students pre-entry
academic experience. Students of color, who academically performed well, were more likely to

FOCUS ON THE RACIAL ACHIEVEMENT GAP

pursue an education after high school. This also played a role in the students sense of academic
self-concept. Mexican American students were more likely to achieve higher grades if they had
greater confidence in their academic abilities (Creighton, 2007, p. 2). Mentorship also played a
big role in how students adapted and coped to their institution of higher education. Because
mentoring addresses both the academic and social aspect of a student, mentoring programs can
be an effective tool in helping minorities succeed in unfamiliar settings (Creighton, 2007, p. 3).
The Institution plays an exceedingly important role in the success of a student once a
student decides to pursue a degree post high school. A couple factors may discourage students of
color, even before the transition is made. A students perception of an institutions ability to
support students of color can impact their choice to attend an institution, or even pursue further
education. African American students felt an increased level of commitment when their goals
and interests were in-line with an institutions philosophy and mission (Creighton, 2007, p. 1).
Upon transitioning into an institution, there are several factors that can affect retention
and student success among students of color. This can all be summarized under an institutions
readiness to work with students of color. An institutions cultural climate and faculty/student
interaction can also contribute to how a student of color adapts, persists, thrives, or even falls
short. Much of an institutions culture is attributed to the experienced racial discrimination,
marginalization, and alienation towards students of color. Whether or not these occur
deliberately or unintentionally, matters little; the impact is detrimental to the student, their
confidence, their persistence, and their attitude towards education and others. Asian Americans
who came to the United States in their infancy as a refugee have known no other home than
America, but they are often asked where they are from or what their nationality is. (Creighton,
2007, p. 4) The normalization of Black and Hispanic students as at risk has a similar affect.

FOCUS ON THE RACIAL ACHIEVEMENT GAP

(Burciaga, 2015, p. 5) Although positive in its intentions, the negative undertones of these
assumptions (which borderline accusations) can derail even the most studious, academically
successful of students (Stengel, 2008, p.67).
Social & Emotional Needs. One of the most influential factors to ones quality of life is
the socio-economic structure their lives operate in. This is not limited to the socio-economic
status of the student. This encompasses the socio-economic that surround them. One result of
Brown vs. The Board of Education was redlining which segregated the Whites with resources
from the low socio-economic status colored people (Gaynor, 2012, p. 28). One article compared
this concept to a Monopoly game wherein Whites had the upper hand as they entered the game
a couple rounds early. Although the verdict of Brown vs. The Board of Education made the rules
fair, the game itself was not changed to mirror the same fairness. The verdict resulted in the
closing of non-White schools and the dismissal of teachers of color because they were deemed
socially unacceptable to teach White children (Kohli, 2008, p. 180)
Aside from institutional socio-economic inequalities, students of color are often faced
with the financial disparities that can further distract them from focusing on their studies. The
lack of access to financial resources has deterred many from even considering education past the
high school level. Many students from low income families are forced to work as soon as they hit
legal age in order to help support the family. In the event that they are not required to work
outside the home, these students typically carry many responsibilities inside the home, in the
form of chores or taking care of younger or elderly family members.
Research shows that there is a certain comfort level that exists among those of the same
or similar race or culture. The same holds true for students of color. Social support varies by

FOCUS ON THE RACIAL ACHIEVEMENT GAP

race. Social support can be identified as actual or perceived, but both are important. One
common theme across races was the increasing role the sense of belonging plays. Factors such as
immigrant status, first language or language spoken at home, social support systems inside and
outside of the institution, ethnic identity, first generation status, and community (or lack thereof)
are just some of the complexities students of color need to deal with. Without the proper support
in any of these areas, students can be easily distracted from their academics, making persistence
and completion a struggle.
Discussion
Through the Authors Lens
As a bi-racial student, coming from a Persian father and Filipino mother, I never really
knew where I fit in. I attended an inner-city Catholic private school and a suburban public school
up until middle-school where my teachers were not educated in multi-culturalism. I was often
associated with the Latin American students as my features closely resembled theirs. Although I
appreciated the Latin culture, it was not mine to grasp as my own.
As an Asian American I have experienced first-hand, the impact of institutional racism in
the United States school system. Although Asians have been coined by some as the model
minority, this does not take away from the challenges posed to Asians based on their perceived
strengths and weaknesses. As an Asian student, I was always expected to be strong in the Maths
and Sciences, and expectations were adjusted as such. Throughout my educational journey
through the American School System, teacher expectations were never the same across the
classroom and many times they varied based on the color of our skin.

FOCUS ON THE RACIAL ACHIEVEMENT GAP

In addition to expectations varying, one thing that I never understood growing up was the
lack of culture and the complete dismissal of my own culture when it came to school. We always
recognized government holidays, as well as some Christian holidays wherein some seemed
more pagan-istic in nature. Never was my language or heritage acknowledged; let alone
celebrated.
The State of Student Success Initiatives
At current, student success initiatives have heavily focused on a generic, although more
commonly coined as a holistic or an all-encompassing, approach to student success. As the
literature states and the research supports, this is simply not enough for students of color. Student
demographics and graduation rates have been front and center as institutions fight for program
and institution funding. Institutions currently struggle to attract students of color, but more
importantly, they struggle to keep these students and successfully support them in the pursuit of a
college degree.
What can be done?
Race is a social construct which has been historically used to create hierarchies of power
and dominance (Tatum, 2013, p.66). Racism may be a noun, descriptive in nature but its reality
is felt across all people of color. Its existence and perpetuation simply cannot be ignored, nor its
reality be denied.
It Starts Well Before College. One of the biggest barriers for students of color,
especially those whose parents did not pursue an education past high school, is college readiness.
This comes in many forms, including academic readiness, social and emotional readiness, and
financial literacy to name a few. High Schools and Colleges alike need to do a better job of
preparing their students for an education after high school. Also, for many of these students, their

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educational journey is a family affair. By involving parents and educating the family as a whole
of the resources available to them will help families and students make better or at least more
educated decisions. Many first generation students are not aware of aid and scholarships
available to them based on their status or different identifiers. By engaging high school students
early and often, the better off they will be in securing funds and being admitted to an institution
of higher education.
Focus on the Issue. Institutions of higher education need to make deliberate efforts
towards bringing awareness to the realities of the racial achievement gap. Many White
instructors especially are in denial that racism lives on, and that a racial achievement gap exists.
Since White culture supremacy has arguably penetrated the worldview and popular culture, it can
be difficult to separate the stereotypes and prejudices from reality/actuality. The perpetuation of
inequality is evident in the curriculum and culturally irrelevant teaching styles non-conducive to
the methods of learning students of color are accustomed to.
Institutional Culture of Inclusion. The schooling experience encompasses many aspects
of education. For students of color, the inequities experienced have been manifested in the
crowding of classrooms, less access to rigorous curriculum, lack of support from school
counselors, and school discipline (Bertrand, Perez & Rogers, 2015, p.3). In higher education,
additional components must be taken into consideration. This includes the culture of inclusion as
impacted by college administrators, faculty, staff, and other students. Everyone has a hand in
influencing the institutional culture. The college leadership establishes culture through the
institutions vision and mission, as well as through the policies and procedures they set forth.
Students of color tend to gravitate towards those who resemble them, or carry a sense of
familiarity. The issue that arises from this is that the demographics that make up the college

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community, made up of all of those employed by the institution, typically does not resemble the
demographics of the student population, and community it serves.
Students may interact with many people on campus, but for most, the consistent variable
is the educator(s) in the classroom. Much of the culture the students observe or perceive will be
derived from their experiences in the classroom. Educators need to make sure to incorporate
culture into their curriculum. Doing such may result in topics covered outside of the students
comfort zone so it will also be up to the instructor to foster a safe, respectful, non-judgmental
environment where students can speak freely and discuss difficult concepts through open
dialogue.
Educate the Educators. In order to combat institutionalized racism, the issue will need
to be confronted head-on. This is easier said than done. Many try but have been faced with
strong resistance; defined as close-mindedness in the face of doubt. By attempting to educate
others of antiracist pedagogy, one may infer that they themselves are accused of being racist
themselves. This resistance stems from an individuals immaturity, emotionally and
intellectually, to wrestle with the inequity and injustice that surrounds them (Stengel, 2008,
p.67). By requiring those who come in contact with students to be educated on the topics of race,
gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, social class, religion, and other differences, this will help
individuals come to a self-realization of their lived realities, personal privileges or disadvantages,
and personal prejudices. The mere consciousness of personal realities will go far in supporting
all students, not just those of color.
Look Beyond the Numbers. Institutions have tried to gather a lot of data on their
students. Although there is value in looking at the numbers, I challenge institutions to shift from
the quantitative approach they have been accustomed to, to a more qualitative approach.

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Research shows that students of color require a diverse set of support services. Without
conducting meaningful qualitative research, the unique needs of these students will not be
identified; causing the need to never be met.
Support Services. The most important thing to note about support services is that for
students of color, support can vary greatly by the population it aims to serve. Institutions need to
create programs that are conducive to the student population it serves. For students from innercity schools, students may need help in identifying remedial courses or tutoring. Immigrant
students regardless of race may need additional assistance with the English language if English
was not their first language. First generation students may need additional help in navigating the
institution. All students at some point in time or another will need help identifying resources
available to them. It is up to the college community to be sensitive to the needs and be able
experienced or knowledgeable enough to offer the right kind of support to the student in need.
Students also play a huge role in influencing and welcoming other students. By
showcasing student clubs and organizations, students can find other students to which they can
relate to. Since many students of color place value on their culture and native language, this can
help in the creation or enhancing of communities within the student body.
Conclusion
Institutional racism evidently lives on in our neighborhoods, government, and school
systems, to name a few. It is only through intentional action that this can be addressed in hopes
of breaking down the barriers, and erasing the lines that divide those of color from those of
White decent. Although it starts with the adaptation of inclusive policies, procedures, and
practices, the ultimate goal should be to achieve equality for all students, regardless of skin color.
This daunting task can only be achieved through deliberately devoting time and resources to

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combat this issue. Actions include, but are not limited to educating and supporting students well
before they finish high school, fostering an environment of inclusion, requiring multi-cultural
education or training for those who come in contact with students, gather data to better address
the needs of underserved student populations, and providing those support services deemed
relevant based on the data gathered.

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References
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Bertrand, M., Perez, W. Y., & Rogers, J. (2015). The Covert Mechanisms of Education Policy Discourse:
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Brown v. Board of Education (Tech.). (2011, February 9). Retrieved April 30, 2016, from
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Burciaga, R. (2015). Presuming Incompetence from Preschool to the Professoriate: How
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Teachers of Color.Teacher Education Quarterly, 35(4), 177-188.
Stengel, B. (2008). Facing Fear, Releasing Resistance, Enabling Education. Philosophical Studies In
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Tatum, B. D. (2013). Can We Talk? In Readings for Diversity and Social Justice (p. 66). New York, NY:
Routledge.

14th Amendment. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxiv