Base Station Subsystem

Base Station Subsystem
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A typical GSM Base Station

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) is the section of a traditional cellular telephone
network which is responsible for handling traffic and signaling between a mobile phone
and the Network Switching Subsystem. The BSS carries out transcoding of speech
channels, allocation of radio channels to mobile phones, paging, quality management of
transmission and reception over the Air interface and many other tasks related to the
radio network.
Contents
[hide]
1 Base Transceiver Station

2 Sectorisation
3 Base Station Controller
4 Transcoder
5 Packet Control Unit
6 BSS interfaces
7 See also
[edit] Base Transceiver Station
Base Transceiver Station Antenna in Paris

The Base Transceiver Station, or BTS, contains the equipment for transmitting and
receiving of radio signals (transceivers), antennas, and equipment for encrypting and
decrypting communications with the Base Station Controller (BSC). Typically a BTS for
anything other than a picocell will have several transceivers (TRXs) which allow it to
serve several different frequencies and different sectors of the cell (in the case of
sectorised base stations). A BTS is controlled by a parent BSC via the Base Station
Control Function (BCF). The BCF is implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated
in a TRX in compact base stations. The BCF provides an Operations and Maintenance
(O&M) connection to the Network Management System (NMS), and manages
operational states of each TRX, as well as software handling and alarm collection.
The functions of a BTS vary depending on the cellular technology used and the cellular
telephone provider. There are vendors in which the BTS is a plain transceiver which
receives information from the MS (Mobile Station) through the Um (Air Interface) and
then converts it to a TDM ("PCM") based interface, the Abis, and sends it towards the
BSC. There are vendors which build their BTSs so the information is preprocessed, target
cell lists are generated and even intracell handover (HO) can be fully handled. The
advantage in this case is less load on the expensive Abis interface.
The BTSs are equipped with radios that are able to modulate layer 1 of interface Um; for
GSM 2G+ the modulation type is GMSK, while for EDGE-enabled networks it is GMSK
and 8-PSK.
Antenna combiners are implemented to use the same antenna for several TRXs (carriers),
the more TRXs are combined the greater the combiner loss will be. Up to 8:1 combiners
are found in micro and pico cells only.
Frequency hopping is often used to increase overall BTS performance; this involves the
rapid switching of voice traffic between TRXs in a sector. A hopping sequence is
followed by the TRXs and handsets using the sector. Several hopping sequences are
available, and the sequence in use for a particular cell is continually broadcast by that cell
so that it is known to the handsets.
A TRX transmits and receives according to the GSM standards, which specify eight
TDMA timeslots per radio frequency. A TRX may lose some of this capacity as some
information is required to be broadcast to handsets in the area that the BTS serves. This
information allows the handsets to identify the network and gain access to it. This
signalling makes use of a channel known as the BCCH (Broadcast Control Channel).
[edit] Sectorisation
By using directional antennas on a base station, each pointing in different directions, it is
possible to sectorise the base station so that several different cells are served from the
same location. Typically these directional antennas have a beamwidth of 65 to 85
degrees. This increases the traffic capacity of the base station (each frequency can carry
eight voice channels) whilst not greatly increasing the interference caused to neighboring
cells (in any given direction, only a small number of frequencies are being broadcast).
Typically two antennas are used per sector, at spacing of ten or more wavelengths apart.
This allows the operator to overcome the effects of fading due to physical phenomena
such as multipath reception. Some amplification of the received signal as it leaves the
antenna is often used to preserve the balance between uplink and downlink signal.
[edit] Base Station Controller

The Base Station Controller (BSC) provides, classically, the intelligence behind the
BTSs. Typically a BSC has 10s or even 100s of BTSs under its control. The BSC handles
allocation of radio channels, receives measurements from the mobile phones, controls
handovers from BTS to BTS (except in the case of an inter-BSC handover in which case
control is in part the responsibility of the Anchor MSC). A key function of the BSC is to
act as a concentrator where many different low capacity connections to BTSs (with
relatively low utilisation) become reduced to a smaller number of connections towards
the Mobile Switching Center (MSC) (with a high level of utilisation). Overall, this means
that networks are often structured to have many BSCs distributed into regions near their
BTSs which are then connected to large centralised MSC sites.
The BSC is undoubtedly the most robust element in the BSS as it is not only a BTS
controller but, for some vendors, a full switching center, as well as an SS7 node with
connections to the MSC and SGSN (when using GPRS). It also provides all the required
data to the Operation Support Subsystem (OSS) as well as to the performance measuring
centers.
A BSC is often based on a distributed computing architecture, with redundancy applied to
critical functional units to ensure availability in the event of fault conditions. Redundancy
often extends beyond the BSC equipment itself and is commonly used in the power
supplies and in the transmission equipment providing the A-ter interface to PCU.
The databases for all the sites, including information such as carrier frequencies,
frequency hopping lists, power reduction levels, receiving levels for cell border
calculation, are stored in the BSC. This data is obtained directly from radio planning
engineering which involves modelling of the signal propagation as well as traffic
projections.
[edit] Transcoder
Two GSM base station antennas disguised as trees in Dublin, Ireland.

Although the Transcoding (compressing/decompressing) function is as standard defined
as a BSC function, there are several vendors which have implemented the solution in a
stand-alone rack using a proprietary interface. This subsystem is also referred to as the
TRAU (Transcoder and Rate Adaptation Unit). The transcoding function converts the
voice channel coding between the GSM (Regular Pulse Excited-Long Term Prediction,
also known as RPE-LPC) coder and the CCITT standard PCM (G.711 A-law or u-law).
Since the PCM coding is 64 kbit/s and the GSM coding is 13 kbit/s, this also involves a
buffering function so that PCM 8-bit words can be recoded to construct GSM 20 ms
traffic blocks, to compress voice channels from the 64 kbit/s PCM standard to the 13
kbit/s rate used on the air interface. Some networks use 32 kbit/s ADPCM on the
terrestrial side of the network instead of 64 kbit/s PCM and the TRAU converts
accordingly. When the traffic is not voice but data such as fax or email, the TRAU
enables its Rate Adaptation Unit function to give compatibility between the BSS data
rates and the MSC capability.
However, at least in Siemens' and Nokia's architecture, the Transcoder is an identifiable
separate sub-system which will normally be co-located with the MSC. In some of
Ericsson's systems it is integrated to the MSC rather than the BSC. The reason for these
designs is that if the compression of voice channels is done at the site of the MSC, fixed
transmission link costs can be reduced.
[edit] Packet Control Unit

The Packet Control Unit (PCU) is a late addition to the GSM standard. It performs some
of the processing tasks of the BSC, but for packet data. The allocation of channels
between voice and data is controlled by the base station, but once a channel is allocated
to the PCU, the PCU takes full control over that channel.
The PCU can be built into the base station, built into the BSC or even, in some proposed
architectures, it can be at the SGSN site.
[edit] BSS interfaces

This short section requires expansion.
Image of the GSM network, showing the BSS interfaces to the MS, NSS and GPRS Core
Network
Um - The air interface between the MS (Mobile Station) and the BTS. This
interface uses LAPDm protocol for signaling, to conduct call control,
measurement reporting, Handover, Power control, Authentication, Authorization,
Location Update and so on. Traffic and Signaling are sent in bursts of 0.577 ms at
intervals of 4.615 ms, to form data blocks each 20 ms.
Abis - The interface between the Base Transceiver Station and Base Station
Controller. Generally carried by a DS-1, ES-1, or E1 TDM circuit. Uses TDM
subchannels for traffic (TCH), LAPD protocol for BTS supervision and telecom
signaling, and carries synchronization from the BSC to the BTS and MS.
A - The interface between the BSC and Mobile Switching Center. It is used for
carrying Traffic channels and the BSSAP user part of the SS7 stack. Although
there are usually transcoding units between BSC and MSC, the signaling
communication takes place between these two ending points and the transcoder
unit doesn't touch the SS7 information, only the voice or CS data are transcoded
or rate adapted.
Ater - The interface between the Base Station Controller and Transcoder. It is a
proprietary interface whose name depends on the vendor (for example Ater by
Nokia), it carries the A interface information from the BSC leaving it untouched.
Gb - Connects the BSS to the Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) in the GPRS
Core Network.
Penjelasan :
A cellular network is a radio network made up of a number of radio cells (or just cells)
each served by a fixed transmitter, known as a cell site or base station. These cells are
used to cover different areas in order to provide radio coverage over a wider area than the
area of one cell. Cellular networks are inherently asymmetric with a set of fixed main
transceivers each serving a cell and a set of distributed (generally, but not always, mobile)
transceivers which provide services to the network's users.
Cellular networks offer a number of advantages over alternative solutions:
increased capacity
reduced power usage
better coverage
A good (and simple) example of a cellular system is an old taxi driver's radio system
where the taxi company will have several transmitters based around a city each operated
by an individual operator.
Contents
[hide]
1 General characteristics
2 Broadcast messages and paging
3 Frequency reuse
4 Movement from cell to cell and handover
5 Cellular telephony
6 See also
7 External Links
[edit] General characteristics

The primary requirement for a network to be succeed as a cellular network is for it to
have developed a standardised method for each distributed station to distinguish the
signal emanating from its own transmitter from the signals received from other
transmitters. Presently, there are two standardised solutions to this issue: frequency
division multiple access (FDMA) and; code division multiple access (CDMA).
FDMA works by using varying frequencies for each neighbouring cell. By tuning to the
frequency of a chosen cell the distributed stations can avoid the signal from other cells.
The principle of CDMA is more complex, but achieves the same result; the distributed
transceivers can select one cell and listen to it. Other available methods of multiplexing
such as polarization division multiple access (PDMA) and time division multiple access
(TDMA) cannot be used to separate signals from one cell to the next since the effects of
both vary with position and this would make signal separation practically impossible.
Time division multiple access, however, is used in combination with either FDMA or
CDMA in a number of systems to give multiple channels within the coverage area of a
single cell.
In the case of the aforementioned taxi company, each radio has a knob. The knob acts as a
channel selector and allows the radio to tune to different frequencies. As the drivers move
around, they change from channel to channel. The drivers know which frequency covers
approximately what area, when they don't get a signal from the transmitter, they also try
other channels until they find one which works. The taxi drivers only speak one at a time,
as invited by the operator (in a sense TDMA).
[edit] Broadcast messages and paging

Practically every cellular system has some kind of broadcast mechanism. This can be
used directly for distributing information to multiple mobiles, commonly, for example in
mobile telephony systems, the most important use of broadcast information is to set up
channels for one to one communication between the mobile transreceiver and the base
station. This is called paging.
The details of the process of paging vary somewhat from network to network, but
normally we know a limited number of cells where the phone is located (this group of
cells is called a Location Area in the GSM or UMTS system, or Routing Area if a data
packet session is involved). Paging takes place by sending the broadcast message to all of
those cells. Paging messages can be used for information transfer. This happens in pagers,
in CDMA systems for sending SMS messages, and in the UMTS system where it allows
for low downlink latency in packet-based connections.
Our taxi network is a very good example here. The broadcast capability is often used to
tell about road conditions and also to tell about work which is available to anybody. On
the other hand, typically there is a list of taxis waiting for work. When a particular taxi
comes up for work, the operator will call their number over the air. The taxi driver
acknowledges that they are listening, then the operator reads out the address where the
taxi driver has to go.
[edit] Frequency reuse
Example of frequency reuse factor or pattern 1/4

The increased capacity in a cellular network, compared with a network with a single
transmitter, comes from the fact that the same radio frequency can be reused in a different
area for a completely different transmission. If there is a single plain transmitter, only one
transmission can be used on any given frequency. Unfortunately, there is inevitably some
level of interference from the signal from the other cells which use the same frequency.
This means that, in a standard FDMA system, there must be at least a one cell gap
between cells which reuse the same frequency.
The frequency reuse factor is the rate at which the same frequency can be used in the
network. It is 1/K (or K according to some books) where K is the number of cells which
cannot use the same frequencies for transmission. Common values for the frequency
reuse factor are 1/3, 1/4, 1/7, 1/9 and 1/12 (or 3, 4, 7, 9 and 12 depending on notation).
In case of N sector antennas on the same base station site, each with different direction,
the base station site can serve N different cells. N is typically 3. A reuse pattern of N/K
denotes N sector antennas per site. Common reuse patterns are 3/3, 3/9 and 3/12.
If the total available bandwidth is B, each cell can only utilize a number of frequency
channels correspodning to a bandwidth of B/K, and each base station site can use a
bandwidth of BN/K.
Code division multiple access-based systems use a wider frequency band to achieve the
same rate of transmission as FDMA, but this is compensated for by the ability to use a
frequency reuse factor of 1, for example using a reuse pattern of 3/3. In other words,
adjacent base station sites use the same frequencies, and the different base stations and
users are separated by codes rather than frequencies. Frequency division is in this case
typically only used to separate cells (sector antennas) at the same base station site.
Depending on the size of the city, a taxi system may not have any frequency-reuse in its
own city, but certainly in other nearby cities, the same frequency can be used. In a big
city, on the other hand, frequency-reuse could certainly be in use.
[edit] Movement from cell to cell and handover

The use of multiple cells means that, if the distributed transceivers are mobile and
moving from place to place, they also have to change from cell to cell. The mechanism
for this differs depending on the type of network and the circumstances of the change.
For example, if there is an ongoing continuous communication and we don't want to
interrupt it, then great care must be taken to avoid interruption. In this case there must be
clear coordination between the base station and the mobile station. Typically such
systems use some kind of multiple access independently in each cell, so an early stage of
such a handover (handoff) is to reserve a new channel for the mobile station on the new
base station which will serve it. The mobile then moves from the channel on its current
base station to the new channel and from that point on communication takes place. The
exact details of the mobile system's move from one base station to the other varies
considerably from system to system. For example, in all GSM handovers and W-CDMA
inter-frequency handovers the mobile station will measure the channel it is meant to start
using before moving over. Once the channel is confirmed okay, the network will
command the mobile station to move to the new channel and at the same time start bidirectional communication there, meaning there is no break in communication. In
CDMA2000 and W-CDMA same-frequency handovers, both channels will actually be in
use at the same time (this is called a soft handover or soft handoff). In IS-95 interfrequency handovers and older analog systems such as NMT it will typically be
impossible to measure the target channel directly whilst communicating. In this case
other techniques have to be used such as pilot beacons in IS-95. This means that there is
almost always a brief break in the communication whilst searching for the new channel
followed by the risk of an unexpected return to the old channel.
If there is no ongoing communication or the communication can be interrupted, it is
possible for the mobile station to spontaneously move from one cell to another and then
notify the network if needed.
In the case of the primitive taxi system that we are studying, handovers won't really be
implemented. The taxi driver just moves from one frequency to another as needed. If a
specific communication gets interrupted due to a loss of a signal then the taxi driver asks
the controller to repeat the message. If one single taxi driver misses a particular broadcast
message (e.g. a request for drivers in a particular area), the others will respond instead. If
nobody responds, the operator keeps repeating the request.
The effect of frequency on cell coverage means that different frequencies serve better for
different uses. Low frequencies, such as 450 MHz NMT, serve very well for countryside
coverage. GSM 900 (900 MHz) is a suitable solution for light urban coverage. GSM 1800
(1.8 GHz) starts to be limited by structural walls. This is a disadvantage when it comes to
coverage, but it is a decided advantage when it comes to capacity. Pico cells, covering
e.g. one floor of a building, become possible, and the same frequency can be used for
cells which are practically neighbours. UMTS, at 2.1 GHz is quite similar in coverage to
GSM 1800. At 5 GHz, 802.11a Wireless LANs already have very limited ability to
penetrate walls and may be limited to a single room in some buildings. At the same time,
5 GHz can easily penetrate windows and goes through thin walls so corporate WLAN
systems often give coverage to areas well beyond that which is intended.
Moving beyond these ranges, network capacity generally increases (more bandwidth is
available) but the coverage becomes limited to line of sight. Infra-red links have been
considered for cellular network usage, but as of 2004 they remain restricted to limited
point-to-point applications.
Cell service area may also vary due to interference from transmitting systems, both
within and around that cell. This is true especially in CDMA based systems. The receiver
requires a certain signal-to-noise ratio. As the receiver moves away from the transmitter,
the power transmitted is reduced. As the interference (noise) rises above the received
power from the transmitter, and the power of the transmitter cannot be increased any
more, the signal becomes corrupted and eventually unusable. In CDMA-based systems,
the effect of interference from other mobile transmitters in the same cell on coverage area
is very marked and has a special name, cell breathing.
Old fashioned taxi radio systems, such as the one we have been studying, generally use
low frequencies and high sited transmitters, probably based where the local radio station
has its mast. This gives a very wide area coverage in a roughly circular area surrounding
each mast. Since only one user can talk at any given time, coverage area doesn't change
with number of users. The reduced signal to noise ratio at the edge of the cell is heard by
the user as crackling and hissing on the radio.
To see real examples of cell coverage look at some of the coverage maps provided by real
operators on their web sites; in certain cases they may mark the site of the transmitter, in
others it can be located by working out the point of strongest coverage.
[edit] Cellular telephony
Cell site
The most common example of a cellular network is a mobile phone (cell phone) network.
A mobile phone is a portable telephone which receives or makes calls through a cell site
(base station), or transmitting tower. Radio waves are used to transfer signals to and from
the cell phone. Large geographic areas (representing the coverage range of a service
provider) are split up into smaller cells to deal with line-of-sight signal loss and the large
number of active phones in an area. In cities, each cell site has a range of up to
approximately mile, while in rural areas, the range is approximately 5 miles. Many
times in clear open areas, a user may receive signal from a cell 25 miles away. Each cell
overlaps other cell sites. All of the cell sites are connected to cellular telephone
exchanges "switches", which in turn connect to the public telephone network or another
switch of the cellular company.
As the phone user moves from one cell area to another, the switch automatically
commands the handset and a cell site with a stronger signal (reported by the handset) to
go to a new radio channel (frequency). When the handset responds through the new cell
site, the exchange switches the connection to the new cell site.
With CDMA, multiple CDMA handsets share a specific radio channel; the signals are
separated by using a pseudonoise code (PN code) specific to each phone. As the user
moves from one cell to another, the handset sets up radio links with multiple cell sites (or
sectors of the same site) simultaneously. This is known as "soft handoff" because, unlike
with traditional cellular technology, there is no one defined point where the phone
switches to the new cell.
Modern mobile phones use cells because radio frequencies are a limited, shared resource.
Cell-sites and handsets change frequency under computer control and use low power
transmitters so that a limited number of radio frequencies can be reused by many callers
with less interference. CDMA handsets, in particular, must have strict power controls to
avoid interference with each other. An incidental benefit is that the batteries in the
handsets need less power.
Since almost all mobile phones use cellular technology, including GSM, CDMA, and
AMPS (analog), the term "cell phone" is used interchangeably with "mobile phone";
however, an exception of mobile phones not using cellular technology is satellite phones.
Old systems predating the cellular principle may still be in use in places. The most
notable real hold-out is used by many amateur radio operators who maintain phone
patches in their clubs' VHF repeaters.
There are a number of different digital cellular technologies, including: Global System
for Mobile Communications (GSM), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), Enhanced Data
Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), 3GSM, Digital Enhanced Cordless
Telecommunications (DECT), Digital AMPS (IS-136/TDMA), and Integrated Digital
Enhanced Network (iDEN).
Penjelasan :
Mobile phone

Cell Phone redirects here. For the 2003 Chinese film, see Cell Phone (film).
Several mobile phones of the "candy bar" variety (non-folding)

A mobile telephone or cellular telephone (commonly "mobile phone" or "cell phone")
is a long-range, portable electronic device used for mobile communication. In addition to
the standard voice function of a telephone, current mobile phones can support many
additional services such as SMS for text messaging, email, packet switching for access to
the Internet, and MMS for sending and receiving photos and video. Most current mobile
phones connect to a cellular network of base stations (cell sites), which is in turn
interconnected to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) (the exception is
satellite phones).
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Manufacturers
3 Subscriptions
4 Culture and customs
o 4.1 Etiquette
o 4.2 Use in disaster response
o 4.3 Use by drivers
o 4.4 Applications
5 Power
6 Features
7 Forensics and evidence
8 Human health impacts
9 Environmental impacts
10 Technology
11 Books about mobile communication
12 Terminology
o 12.1 Related non-mobile-phone systems
o 12.2 Terms in various countries
13 See also
14 References
15 External links
[edit] History
Main article: History of mobile phones
Various cell phones from the past 1015 years.

Legend:
1. NEC Cellstar 500 series (Early 1990s)
2. Nokia 2110 series (1994)

3. Nokia 5120 (1998)
4. Kyocera 2135 (2002)
5. Audiovox CDM8300 (2002)
6. Samsung SCH-A650 (2004)
There is one U.S. Patent Number 887357 for a wireless telephone, issued 1908 to Nathan
B. Stubblefield of Murray, Kentucky. He applied this to "cave radio" phones and not
directly to cellular telephony as we know it today.[1] However, the introduction of cells for
mobile phone base stations, invented in 1947 by Bell Labs engineers at AT&T, was
further developed by Bell Labs during the 1960s. Radiophones have a long and varied
history going back to Reginald Fessenden's invention and shore-to-ship demonstration of
radio telephony, through the Second World War with military use of radio telephony links
and civil services in the 1950s, while hand-held cellular radio devices have been available
since 1983. Due to their low establishment costs and rapid deployment, mobile phone
networks have since spread rapidly throughout the world, outstripping the growth of
fixed telephony.[citation needed]
In 1945, the zero generation (0G) of mobile telephones was introduced. 0G mobile
telephones, such as Mobile Telephone Service, were not officially categorized as mobile
phones, since they did not support the automatic change of channel frequency during
calls, which allows the user to move from one cell (the base station coverage area) to
another cell, a feature called "handover".[citation needed]
In 1970, Bell Labs invented such a "call handoff" feature, which allowed mobile-phone
users to travel through several cells during the same conversation. Motorola is widely
considered to be the inventor of the first practical mobile phone for handheld use in a
non-vehicle setting. Using a modern, if somewhat heavy portable handset, Motorola
manager Martin Cooper made the first call on a handheld mobile phone on April 3, 1973.
[2]
The first commercial cellular network was launched in Japan by NTT in 1979. Fully
automatic cellular networks were first introduced in the early to mid 1980s (the 1G
generation) with the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system in 1981. This was followed
by a boom in mobile telephone usage, particularly in Northern Europe.[citation needed]
The first "modern" network technology on digital 2G (second generation) cellular
technology was launched by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Group) in 1991 in Finland on
the GSM standard which also marked the introduction of competition in mobile telecoms
when Radiolinja challenged incumbent Telecom Finland (now part of TeliaSonera) who
ran a 1G NMT network. A decade later, the first commercial launch of 3G (Third
Generation) was again in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard.[citation needed]
Until the early 1990s, most mobile phones were too large to be carried in a jacket pocket,
so they were typically installed in vehicles as car phones. With the miniaturization of
digital components, mobile phones have become increasingly handy over the years.[citation
needed]
[edit] Manufacturers
The mobile phone manufacturers can be grouped into two. The top five are available in
practically all countries and comprise about 75% of all phones sold. A second tier of
small manufacturers exists with phones mostly sold only in specific regions or for niche
markets. The top five in order of market share are Nokia, Motorola, Samsung,
SonyEricsson and LG.
Nokia Corporation is currently the world's largest manufacturer of mobile telephones,
with a global device market share of approximately 36% in Q1 of 2007.[3] Other mobile
phone manufacturers include Apple Inc., Audiovox (now UT Starcom), Benefon, BenQSiemens, High Tech Computer Corporation (HTC), Fujitsu, Kyocera, LG Mobile,
Mitsubishi, Motorola, NEC, Neonode, Panasonic (Matsushita Electric), Pantech Curitel,
Philips, Research In Motion, Sagem, Samsung, Sanyo, Sharp, Siemens, Sierra Wireless,
SK Teletech, Sonim Technologies, Sony Ericsson, T&A Alcatel,Toshiba, and Verizon.
There are also specialist communication systems related to (but distinct from) mobile
phones, such as Professional Mobile Radio.[citation needed]
[edit] Subscriptions
This Railfone found on some Amtrak trains uses cellular technology.

See also: List of mobile network operators
Several countries, including the UK, now have more mobile phones than people.[4] There
are over five hundred million active mobile phone accounts in China, as of 2007.[5]
Luxembourg has the highest mobile phone penetration rate in the world, at 164% in
December 2001. In Hong Kong the penetration rate reached 117% of the population in
September 2004.[6] The total number of mobile phone subscribers in the world was
estimated at 2.14 billion in 2005.[7] The subscriber count reached 2.7 billion by end of
2006 according to Informa.[citation needed] Around 80% of the world's population enjoys
mobile phone coverage as of 2006. This figure is expected to increase to 90% by the year
2010.[8]
At present, Africa has the largest growth rate of cellular subscribers in the world,[9] its
markets expanding nearly twice as fast as Asian markets.[10] The availability of prepaid or
'pay as you go' services, where the subscriber is not committed to a long term contract,
has helped fuel this growth to a monumental scale in Africa as well as in other continents.
On a numerical basis, India is the largest growth market, adding about 6 million cell
phones every month.[11] With 156.31 million cell phones, market penetration in the
country is still low at 17.45% India expects to reach 500 million subscribers by end of
2010.
There are three major technical standards for the current generation of mobile phones and
networks, and two major standards for the next generation 3G phones and networks. All
European countries and African countries and many Asian countries have adopted a
single system, GSM, which is the only technology available on all continents and in most
countries and covers over 74% of all subscribers on mobile networks. In many countries,
such as the United States, Australia, Brazil, India, Japan, and South Korea GSM co-exists
with other internationally adopted standards such as CDMA and TDMA, as well as
national standards such as iDEN in the USA and PDC in Japan. Over the past five years
several dozen mobile operators (carriers) have abandoned networks on TDMA and
CDMA technologies switching over to GSM. None have switched away from GSM.
With third generation (3G) networks which are also known as IMT-2000 networks, about
three out of four networks are on WCDMA (also known as UMTS) standard, usually seen
as the natural evolution path for GSM and TDMA networks. One in four 3G networks is
on the CDMA2000 1x EV-DO technology. Some analysts count a previous stage in
CDMA evolution, CDMA2000 1x RTT, as a 3G technology whereas most standardization
experts count only CDMA2000 1x EV-DO as a true 3G technology. Because of this
difference in interpreting what is 3G, there is a wide variety in subscriber counts. As of
June 2007, on the narrow definition there are 200 million subscribers on 3G networks. By
using the more broad definition, the total subscriber count of 3G phone users is 475
million.
While some systems of payment are 'pay as you go' where conversation time is purchased
and added to a phone unit via an Internet account or in shops or ATMs, other systems are
more traditional ones where bills are paid by regular intervals.[citation needed] Pay as you go
(also known as "pre-pay") accounts were invented simultaneously in Portugal and Italy
and today form more than half of all mobile phone subscriptions. USA, Canada, Japan
and Finland are among the rare countries left where most phones are still contract-based.
[edit] Culture and customs

In less than twenty years, mobile phones have gone from being rare and expensive pieces
of equipment used primarily by the business elite to a pervasive low-cost personal item.
In many countries, mobile phones now outnumber land-line telephones, with most adults
and many children using mobile phones. In the United States, 50% of children are using
mobile phones.[12] In many young adults' households the mobile phone has supplanted
land-line telephones. In some areas in developing countries with scarce fixed-line
infrastructure, the mobile phone has introduced telephony as such. It has given poor
people in isolated communities access to services such as medical and legal advice.
However, the mobile phone is also banned in some countries like North Korea.[13]
With high levels of mobile telephone penetration, mobile culture has evolved where the
phone is a key social tool with people relying on their mobile phone address book to keep
in touch with friends, not least by SMS, and a whole culture of "texting" has developed
from this.[citation needed] Since the first person-to-person SMS text message was sent in
Finland in December 1993, today "texting" has become the most widely used data service
on the planet, with 1.8 billion people as active users of SMS texting and the service
generated 80 billion dollars of service revenues in 2006 (source ITU). Many phones offer
Instant Messenger services to increase the simplicity and ease of texting on phones.
Mobile phones in Japan, offering Internet capabilities such as NTT DoCoMo's i-mode,
offer text messaging via standard e-mail. In several countries internet access from mobile
phones has become used by more internet users than access from PCs. Japan was first,
followed by South Korea, China and India. In Europe several countries have proportions
of 30%40% of all internet users now accessing via mobile phones. Most mobile internet
access is significantly different from PC based internet access, with services such as
alerts, weather information, e-mail, search, IM and downloads of games and music
favored over classic "web browsing". Most mobile internet use is of short duration and in
a hurry.
The mobile phone itself has also become a fashion object of totemic value, with users
decorating, customizing, and accessorizing their mobile phones to reflect their
personality. This has emerged as its own industry. The sale of commercial ringtones
exceeded 5 billion in 2006 according to Informa.[citation needed]
[edit] Etiquette
The use of a mobile phone is prohibited in some train company carriages

Mobile phone etiquette has become an important issue with phones ringing at funerals,
weddings,toilets,cinemas, and plays. Users often speak at increased volume which has led
to places like book shops, libraries, bathrooms, movie theaters, doctors' offices, and
houses of worship posting signs prohibiting the use of mobile phones, and in some places
installing signal-jamming equipment to prevent usage (although in many countries
including the United States, such equipment is currently illegal). Some new buildings
such as auditoriums have installed wire mesh in the walls (turning the building into a
Faraday cage) which prevents any signal getting through, but does not contravene the
jamming laws.
Trains, particularly those involving long-distance services, often offer a "quiet car" where
phone use is prohibited, much like the designated non-smoking car in the past. However
many users tend to ignore this as it is rarely enforced, especially if the other cars are
crowded and they have no choice but to go in the "quiet car". Mobile phone use on
aircraft is also prohibited and many airlines claim in their in-plane announcements that
this prohibition is due to possible interference with aircraft radio communications even
though this has been proven to be completely untrue.[citation needed] There is no interference
from mobile phones that remain turned to aircraft avionics, as the airline safety staff well
know as a typical airliner has dozens of phones that were forgotten to be turned off, on
every flight. The real nuisance of phones that are on while planes take off and land, is that
they disrupt the mobile phone networks on the ground.[citation needed] With busy airports
landing jumbo jets every few minutes, the ground based mobile phone networks would
experience continuous peaks in brief traffic overloads as hundreds of passenger phones
would attempt to connect to the ground base stations.
As customers want to be connected on planes, now several airlines are experimenting
with tiny base stations and antenna systems installed into the cabin of the airplane,
allowing low power short range connection of any phones onboard to maintain a
connection to the base station in the plane.[citation needed] In this way they would not attempt
to find connection to the ground base stations as the planes take off and land.[citation needed] At
the same time the airlines could offer phone services to their travelling passengers either
as full voice and data servies, or initially only as SMS text messaging and similar
services. Qantas the Australian airline is the first airline to run a test airplane in this
configuration in the Autumn of 2007.[citation needed] Emirates have announced plans to allow
limited mobile phone usage on some flights.[citation needed]
In any case, there are inconsistencies between practices allowed by different airlines and
even on the same airline in different countries. For example, Northwest Airlines may
allow the use of mobile phones immediately after landing on a domestic flight within the
US, whereas they may state "not until the doors are open" on an international flight
arriving in the Netherlands. In April 2007 the US Federal Communications Commission
officially grounded the idea of allowing passengers to use phones during a flight.[14]
In a similar vein signs are put up in UK petrol stations prohibiting the use of mobile
phones due to possible safety issues. Most schools in the United States have prohibited
mobile phones in the classroom due to the large number of class disruptions that result
from their use, the potential for cheating via text messaging, and the possibility of
photographing someone without consent.[citation needed] In the UK, possession of a mobile
phone in an examination can result in immediate disqualification from that subject or

from all their subjects.[15]
[edit] Use in disaster response

The Finnish government decided in 2005 that the fastest way to warn citizens of disasters
was the mobile phone network. In Japan, mobile phone companies provide immediate
notification of earthquakes and other natural disasters to their customers free of charge.
[citation needed]
In the event of an emergency, disaster response crews can locate trapped or
injured people using the signals from their mobile phones or the small detonator of flare
in the battery of every cellphone; an interactive menu accessible through the phone's
Internet browser notifies the company if the user is safe or in distress.[citation needed] In
Finland rescue services suggest hikers carry mobile phones in case of emergency even
when deep in the forests beyond cellular coverage, as the radio signal of a cellphone
attempting to connect to a base station can be detected by overflying rescue aircraft with
special detection gear. Also, users in the United States can sign up through their provider
for free text messages when an Amber Alert goes out for a missing person in their area.
[edit] Use by drivers
One phone in each hand

Main article: Mobile phones and driving safety
Mobile-phone use while driving is common but controversial. While few jurisdictions
have banned motorists from using mobile phones while driving outright, some have
banned or restricted drivers from using hand-held mobile phones while exempting
phones operated in a hands-free fashion. It is generally agreed that using a hand-held
mobile phone while driving is a distraction that brings risk of road traffic accidents.
However, some studies have found similarly elevated accident rates among drivers using
hands-free phones, suggesting that the distraction of a telephone conversation itself is the
main safety problem.[citation needed]
Use of handheld mobile phones by drivers is illegal in many European countries and a
number of Asian and South American countries and Australia. Use of hands-free mobiles
is permitted, although the Australian states of New South Wales and Victoria have banned
hands free for learner and first year provisional/probationary licence holders. In Greece
the use of mobile phone and hands free has been banned, while the use of bluetooth
technology is permitted. However some countries like Japan ban mobile phone use while
driving completely. Similar laws exist in six U.S. states with legislation proposed in 40
other states. The United States Department of Defense has outlawed the use of all mobile
phones while driving on any DOD installation, unless a hands-free device is used. In
Israel, it is common practice to pull over to the side of the road where possible to answer
a mobile phone. In Croatia law prohibits usage of mobile phones while crossing the road
as a pedestrian.
[edit] Applications
Mobile news services are expanding with many organizations providing "on-demand"
news services by SMS. Some also provide "instant" news pushed out by SMS. Mobile
telephony also facilitates activism and public journalism being explored by Reuters and
Yahoo[16] and small independent news companies such as Jasmine News in Sri Lanka.
Also companies like Monster[17] are starting to offer mobile services such as job search
and career advice.
The total value of mobile data services exceeds the value of paid services on the internet,
and was worth 31 billion dollars in 2006 (source Informa).[citation needed] The largest
categories of mobile services are music, picture downloads, videogaming, adult
entertainment, gambling, video/TV.
[edit] Power
Mobile phones generally obtain power from batteries which can be recharged from mains
power, a USB port or a cigarette lighter socket in a car. Formerly, the most common form
of cell phone batteries were nickel metal-hydride, as they have a low size and weight.
Lithium-Ion batteries are sometimes used, as they are lighter and do not have the voltage
depression that nickel metal-hydride batteries do. Many mobile phone manufacturers
have now switched to using lithium-Polymer batteries as opposed to the older LithiumIon, the main advantages of this being even lower weight and the possibility to make the
battery a shape other than strict cuboid. Cell phone manufacturers have been
experimenting with alternate power sources.
[edit] Features
Main article: Mobile phone features
There are significant questions as to who first invented the camera phone, as numerous
other people received patents filed in the early 1990s for the device, including David M.
Britz of AT&T Research in March of 1994 and Phillipe Kahn, who claims to have first
invented it in 1997.[citation needed] The camera phone now holds 85% of the mobile phone
market[citation needed]. Mobile phones often have features beyond sending text messages and
making voice calls, including Internet browsing, music (MP3) playback, memo
recording, personal organizer functions, e-mail, instant messaging, built-in cameras and
camcorders, ringtones, games, radio, Push-to-Talk (PTT), infrared and Bluetooth
connectivity, call registers, ability to watch streaming video or download video for later
viewing, video calling and serve as a wireless modem for a PC, and soon will also serve
as a console of sorts to online games and other high quality games (e.g. Final Fantasy
Agito).[citation needed]
When cellular telecoms services were launched, phones and calls were very expensive
and early mobile operators (carriers) decided to charge for all air time consumed by the
mobile phone user. This resulted in the concept of charging callers for outbound calls and
also for receiving calls. As mobile phone call charges diminished and phone adoption
rates skyrocketed, more modern operators decided not to charge for incoming calls. Thus
some markets have "Receiving Party Pays" models, in which both outbound and received
calls are charged, and other markets have "Calling Party Pays" models, by which only
making calls produces costs, and receiving calls is free. An exception to this is
international roaming, by which also receiving calls is normally also charged.[citation needed]
The European market adopted a "Calling Party Pays" model throughout the GSM
environment and soon various other GSM markets also started to emulate this model. As
Receiving Party Pays systems have the undesired effect of phone owners keeping their
phones turned off to avoid receiving unwanted calls, the total voice usage rates (and
profits) in Calling Party Pays countries outperform those in Receiving Party Pays
countries. Consequently, most countries previously with Receiving Party Pays models
have either abandoned them or employed alternative marketing methods, such as massive
voice call buckets, to avoid the problem of phone users keeping phones turned off.[citation
needed]
In most countries today, including European nations, Kazakhstan, Romania, Turkey, New
Zealand, Korea, Japan, Pakistan, Australia, Bulgaria, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, India,[18]
Maldives, Peru, South Africa, Israel, Lebanon and Jordan the person receiving a mobile
phone call pays nothing. However, in Hong Kong, Canada, and the United States, one can
be charged per minute. In the United States, a few carriers are beginning to offer
unlimited received phone calls. For the Chinese mainland, it was reported that both of its
two operators will adopt the caller-pays approach as early as January 2007.[18]
[edit] Forensics and evidence

Law enforcement globally rely heavily upon mobile telephone evidence, to the extent that
in the EU the "communications of every mobile telephone user are recorded"[19]. The
concerns over terrorism and terrorist use of technology prompted an inquiry by the
British House of Commons Home Affairs Select Committee into the use of evidence from
mobile telephone devices, prompting leading mobile telephone forensic specialists to
identify forensic techniques available in this area.[20] NIST have published guidelines and
procedures for the preservation, acquisition, examination, analysis, and reporting of
digital information present on cell phones can be found under the NIST Publication
SP800-101.[21]
An example of criminal investigations using mobile phones is the initial location and
ultimate identification of the terrorists of the 2004 Madrid train bombings. In the attacks,
mobile phones had been used to detonate the bombs. However, one of the bombs failed to
detonate, and the SIM card in the corresponding mobile phone gave the first serious lead
about the terrorists to investigators. By tracking the whereabouts of the SIM card and
correlating other mobile phones that had been registered in those areas, police were able
to locate the terrorists.[citation needed]
[edit] Human health impacts

Main article: Mobile phone radiation and health
Since the introduction of mobile phones, concerns have been raised about the potential
health impacts from regular use.[22] As mobile phone penetrations grew past fixed landline
penetration levels in 1998 in Finland and from 1999 in Sweden, Denmark and Norway,
the Scandinavian health authorities have run continuous long term studies of effects of
mobile phone radiation effects to humans, and in particular children. Numerous studies
have reported and most studies consistently report no significant relationship between
mobile phone use and health. Studies from the Institute of Cancer Research, National
Cancer Institute and researchers at the Danish Institute of Cancer Epidemiology in
Copenhagen for example showed any link between mobile phone use and cancer.[23][24]
The Danish study only covered analog mobile phone usage up through 1995, and subjects
who started mobile phone usage after 1995 were counted as non-users in the study.[25] The
health concerns have grown as mobile phone penetration rates throughout Europe
reached 80%90% levels earlier in this decade and prolonged exposure studies have been
carried out in almost all European countries again most reporting no effect, and the most
alarming studies only reporting a possible effect. However, a study by the International
Agency for Research on Cancer of 4,500 users found a statistically significant link
between tumor frequency and mobile phone use.[26]
[edit] Environmental impacts

The typical hysteria around mobile phones and mobile networks is seen in the widely
reported and immediately totally discredited claim that mobile phone masts are
associated with the "Colony Collapse Disorder" (CCD) which has reduced bee hive
numbers by up to 75% in many areas, especially near cities in the US. The Independent
newspaper cited a scientific study claiming it provided evidence for the theory that
mobile phone masts are a major cause in the collapse of bee populations, with controlled
experiments demonstrating a rapid and catastrophic effect on individual hives near masts.
[27]
Mobile phones were in fact not covered in the study, and the original researchers have
since emphatically disavowed any connection between their research, mobile phones, and
CCD, specifically indicating that the Independent article had misinterpreted their results
and created "a horror story".[28][29][30] It should be pointed out that if this CCD would be
caused by mobile phones, then beekeepers in countries with advanced use of mobile
phones such as those in Scandinavia, Italy, Portugal, Austria etc should have seen these
effects years earlier than the USA. But this finding was uniformly and globally dismissed
by all from the telecoms industry to animal safety experts and even beekeepers
worldwide. While the initial claim of damage to bees was widely reported, the corrections
to the story were almost non-existent in the media.
[edit] Technology
See also: Cellular frequencies
Mobile phone tower
Cell Phone tower located in Lynnwood, WA.

Mobile phones and the network they operate under vary significantly from provider to
provider, and country to country. However, all of them communicate through
electromagnetic radio waves with a cell site base station, the antennas of which are
usually mounted on a tower, pole or building.
The phones have a low-power transceiver that transmits voice and data to the nearest cell
sites, usually not more than 5 to 8 miles (approximately 8 to 13 kilometers) away. When
the mobile phone or data device is turned on, it registers with the mobile telephone
exchange, or switch, with its unique identifiers, and will then be alerted by the mobile
switch when there is an incoming telephone call. The handset constantly listens for the
strongest signal being received from the surrounding base stations. As the user moves
around the network, the mobile device will "handoff" to various cell sites during calls, or
while waiting (idle) between calls it will reselect cell sites.
Cell sites have relatively low-power (often only one or two watts) radio transmitters
which broadcast their presence and relay communications between the mobile handsets
and the switch. The switch in turn connects the call to another subscriber of the same
wireless service provider or to the public telephone network, which includes the networks
of other wireless carriers. Many of these sites are camouflaged to blend with existing
environments, particularly in scenic areas.
The dialogue between the handset and the cell site is a stream of digital data that includes
digitized audio (except for the first generation analog networks). The technology that
achieves this depends on the system which the mobile phone operator has adopted. The
technologies are grouped by generation. The first generation systems started in 1979 with
Japan, are all analog and include AMPS and NMT. Second generation systems started in
1991 in Finland are all digital and include GSM, CDMA and TDMA. Third generation
networks are still being deployed, started with Japan in 2001, are all digital and offer high
speed data access in addition to voice services and include WCDMA known also as
UMTS, and CDMA2000 EV-DO. China will launch a third 3G technlogy on the TDSCDMA standard. Each network operator has a unique radio frequency band.[citation needed]
Penjelasan :
Network Switching Subsystem, or NSS, is the component of a GSM system that carries
out switching functions and manages the communications between mobile phones and
the Public Switched Telephone Network. It is owned and deployed by mobile phone
operators and allows mobile phones to communicate with each other and telephones in
the wider telecommunications network. The architecture closely resembles a telephone
exchange, but there are additional functions which are needed because the phones are not
fixed in one location. Each of these functions handle different aspects of mobility
management and are described in more detail below.
The Network Switching Subsystem, also referred to as the GSM core network, usually
refers to the circuit-switched core network, used for traditional GSM services such as
voice calls, SMS, and Circuit Switched Data calls.
There is also an overlay architecture on the GSM core network to provide packetswitched data services and is known as the GPRS core network. This allows mobile
phones to have access to services such as WAP, MMS, and Internet access.
All mobile phones manufactured today have both circuit and packet based services, so
most operators have a GPRS network in addition to the standard GSM core network.
Penjelasan :
For terminal pagers, see more (Unix) or less (Unix).
It has been suggested that Radio paging be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
A pager (sometimes referred as a Beeper) is a personal telecommunications device used
to request a phone call from a pager subscriber and/or receive simple text
communications in the form of e-mail and SMS. Pagers exist as one-way numeric and
alphanumeric models that only receive incoming communications and two-way
alphanumeric models capable of sending e-mails and SMS messaging.
Until the popular adoption of mobile phones in the late 1990s, pagers fulfilled the role of
common personal and mobile communications. As of 2007, pagers have fallen into
obsolescence and preserved only by niche markets of emergency service personnel and
information technology support.
Penjelasan :
In telecommunications, transmission is the forwarding of signal traffic over distances
that are too great to be simply connected by a twisted pair wires. Techniques available
now may be microwave link, satellite link, coaxial cable or fibre optic cable. All modern
transmission is digital.
In general information theory transmission is taken to mean the complete process of
communication of information via a channel.
Penjelasan :
Telecommunication
(Redirected from Telecommunications)

Copy of the original phone of Alexander Graham Bell at the Muse des Arts et Mtiers in
Paris
Telecommunication is the transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of
communication. In modern times, this process typically involves the sending of
electromagnetic waves by electronic transmitters, but in earlier times telecommunication
may have involved the use of smoke signals, drums or semaphore. Today,
telecommunication is widespread and devices that assist the process, such as the
television, radio and telephone, are common in many parts of the world. There are also
many networks that connect these devices, including computer networks, public
telephone networks, radio networks and television networks. Computer communication
across the Internet is one of many examples of telecommunication.
Telecommunication systems are generally designed by telecommunication engineers.
Early inventors in the field include Alexander Graham Bell, Guglielmo Marconi and John
Logie Baird. Telecommunication is an important part of the world economy with the
telecommunication industry's revenue being placed at just under 3 percent of the gross
world product.
Penjelasan :
In mobile communication, the air interface is the radio-based communication link
between the mobile station and the active base station. In GSM/UMTS, the various
UTRA standards are air interfaces, and are also (but not exclusively) referred to as
"access modes".[1]
In the OSI model, the air interface comprises layers 1 and 2 of the mobile
communications system, establishing a point-to-point link between the mobile station and
the base station.
[edit] References
1. ^ Vocabulary for 3GPP Specifications, ETSI TR 21.905 V7.2.0
This article related to telecommunications is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by
expanding it.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_interface"
Base Transceiver Station
A typical BTS tower which holds the antenna. The tower is quite widely misinterpreted as
the BTS itself. The shelter which houses the actual BTS can also be seen.
Base Transceiver Station (BTS) is the equipment which facilitates the wireless
communication between user equipments and the network. User equipments are devices
like mobile phones (handsets), WLL phones, computers with wireless internet
connectivity, WiFi and WiMAX gadgets etc. The network can be that of any of the
wireless communication technologies like GSM, CDMA, WLL , WAN, WiFi, WiMAX
etc. BTS is also referred to as RBS (Radio Base Station), Node B (in 3G Networks) or
simply BS (Base Station).
[edit] BTS in Mobile Communication

Though the term BTS can be applicable to any of the wireless communication standards,
it is generally and commonly associated with mobile communication technologies like
GSM and CDMA. In this regard, a BTS forms part of the Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
and has the equipments (transceivers) for transmitting and receiving of radio signals,
signal processors, signal paths, signal amplifiers, and equipments for system
management. It may also have equipments for encrypting and decrypting
communications, spectrum filtering tools (band pass filters) etc. Antennas may also be
considered as components of BTS in general sense as they facilitate the functioning of
BTS. Typically a BTS will have several transceivers (TRXs) which allow it to serve
several different frequencies and different sectors of the cell (in the case of sectorised
base stations). A BTS is controlled by a parent Base Station Controller via the Base
station Control Function (BCF). The BCF is implemented as a discrete unit or even
incorporated in a TRX in compact base stations. The BCF provides an Operations and
Maintenance (O&M) connection to the Network management system (NMS), and
manages operational states of each TRX, as well as software handling and alarm
collection. The basic structure and functions of the BTS remains the same regardless of
the wireless technologies.
[edit] Important terms regarding a Mobile BTS

Diversity Techniques
Antenna positioning to implement horizontal space diversity

In order to improve the quality of received signal, often two receiving antennas are used,
placed at an equal distance to an uneven multiple of a quarter of wavelength (For 900
MHz the wavelength is 30 cm). This technique, famous as Antenna diversity or diversity
in the space, concurs to resolve the problems connected to the fading. The antennas can
be spaced horizontally or vertically ; in the first case though a greater facility of
installation is required, advanced performance is obtained.
Other than antenna or space diversity, there are other diversity techniques like
frequency/time diversity, antenna pattern diversity, polarization diversity etc.
Splitting
The process of creating more coverage and capacity in a wireless system by having more
than one cell site cover a particular amount of geography. Each cell site covers a smaller
area, with lower power MHz and thus offers the ability to reuse frequencies more times in
a larger geographic coverage area, such as a city or MTA.
Sectoring
A cell is subdivided to a sure number of fields, every one of which is illuminated from
an antenna directive (or panel), that is an antenna that does not illuminate in all the
directions, but concentrates the flow of power within a particular area of the cell, known
as sector. Every field can therefore be considered like one new cell. By using directional
antennas, the co-channel interference is reduced. A typical structure is the trisector, also
known as clover, in which there are 3 sectors, each one served by separate antennas.
Every sector has a separate direction of tracking of 120 with respect to the adjacent ones.
If not sectorised, the cell will be served by a unidirectional antenna, which radiates in all
directions. Bisectored cells are also implemented with the antennas serving sectors of
180 separation to one another. This is the base of a BTS.
[edit] General Architecture

A BTS in general has the following units:
TRX : Transceiver
- Quite widely referred to as DRX (Driver Receiver)

- Basically does transmission and reception of signals
- Also does sending and reception of signals to/from higher network entities (like Base
Station Controller in mobile telephony)
PA : Power Amplifier
- Amplifies the signal from DRX for transmission through antenna

- May be integrated with DRX
Combiner
- Combines feeds from several DRXs so that they could be sent out through a single
antenna
- For reduction of number of antenna used
Duplexer
- For separating sending and receiving signals to/from antenna

- Does sending and receiving signals through the same antenna ports (cables to antenna)
Antenna
- Antenna also considered as not a part of BTS
Alarm Extension System
- Collects working status alarms of various units in BTS and extends them to Operations
and Maintenance (O&M) monitoring stations
Control Function
- Does the control of BTS

- Manages the various units of BTS
- Has the software for functioning of BTS
- On-the-spot configurations, status changes, software upgrades etc. done through the
control function
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_Transceiver_Station"
Category: GSM Standard
Penjelasan :
A transceiver is a device that has both a transmitter and a receiver which are combined
and share common circuitry or a single housing. If no circuitry is common between
transmit and receive functions, the device is a transmitter-receiver. The term originated in
the early 1920s. Technically, transceivers must combine a significant amount of the
transmitter and receiver handling circuitry. Similar devices include transponders,
transverters, and repeaters.
Transceivers are called Medium Attachment Units (MAUs) in IEEE 802.3 documents.
Contents
[hide]
1 Computer networks
2 Radio technology
3 Telephony
4 Sources
5 External articles
[edit] Computer networks

Transceivers known as Medium Attachment Units were widely used in 10base2 and
10base5 Ethernet networks. Fibre-optic gigabit and 10 gigabit Ethernet utilize
transceivers known as GBIC, SFP, XFP and XAUI.
[edit] Radio technology

Main article: Two-way radio
In radio terminology, a transceiver means a unit which contains both a receiver and a
transmitter. It was quite common to have these units separated. Ham radio operators can
build their own equipment and it is always easier to design and build a simple unit having
one of the functions, transmitting or receiving. Almost every modern amateur radio
equipment is now a transceiver but there is an active market for pure radio receivers,
mainly for Shortwave listening operators. An example of a transceiver would be a walkietalkie, or a CB radio.
[edit] Telephony
On a wired telephone, the handset contains the transmitter and receiver for the audio.
The whole unit is colloquially referred to as a "receiver." On a mobile telephone or other
radiotelephone, the entire unit is a transceiver, for both audio and radio.
A cordless telephone uses an audio and radio transceiver for the handset, and a radio
transceiver for the base station. If a speakerphone is included in a wired telephone base or
in a cordless base station (less common), the base also becomes an audio transceiver in
addition to the handset.
Penjelasan :
Encrypt redirects here. For the film, see Encrypt (film).
Cipher redirects here. For other uses, see Cipher (disambiguation).
This article is about algorithms for encryption and decryption. For an overview of
cryptographic technology in general, see Cryptography.
In cryptography, encryption is the process of transforming information (referred to as
plaintext) to make it unreadable to anyone except those possessing special knowledge,
usually referred to as a key. The result of the process is encrypted information (in
cryptography, referred to as ciphertext). In many contexts, the word encryption also
implicitly refers to the reverse process, decryption (e.g. software for encryption can
typically also perform decryption), to make the encrypted information readable again (i.e.
to make it unencrypted).
Encryption has long been used by militaries and governments to facilitate secret
communication. Encryption is now used in protecting information within many kinds of
civilian systems, such as computers, networks (e.g. the Internet e-commerce), mobile
telephones, and bank automatic teller machines. Encryption is also used in digital rights
management to restrict the use of copyrighted material and in software copy protection to
protect against reverse engineering and software piracy.
Encryption, by itself, can protect the confidentiality of messages, but other techniques are
still needed to verify the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, a message
authentication code (MAC) or digital signatures. Standards and cryptographic software
and hardware to perform encryption are widely available, but successfully using
encryption to ensure security is a challenging problem. A single slip-up in system design
or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain
unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption. See traffic analysis,
TEMPEST.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Ciphers
o 2.1 Etymology of Cipher
3 Ciphers versus codes
4 Types of Cipher
5 Key Size and Vulnerability
6 References
7 See also
8 External links
[edit] History
Main article: History of cryptography
Encryption has been used to protect communications since ancient times, but only
organizations and individuals with extraordinary need for confidentiality had bothered to
exert the effort required to implement it. Encryption, and successful attacks on it, played
a vital role in World War II. Many of the encryption techniques developed then were
closely-guarded secrets (Kahn). In the mid-1970s, with the introduction of the U.S. Data
Encryption Standard and public key cryptography, strong encryption emerged from the
preserve of secretive government agencies into the public domain.
[edit] Ciphers
In cryptography, a cipher (or cypher) is an algorithm for performing encryption and
decryption a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An
alternative term is encipherment. In non-technical usage, a cipher is the same thing as
a code; however, the concepts are distinct in cryptography. In classical cryptography,
ciphers were distinguished from codes. Codes operated by substituting according to a
large codebook which linked a random string of characters or numbers to a word or
phrase. For example, UQJHSE could be the code for Proceed to the following
coordinates.
The original information is known as plaintext, and the encrypted form as ciphertext.
The ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but is not in
a format readable by a human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it; it
should resemble random gibberish to those not intended to read it.
The operation of a cipher usually depends on a piece of auxiliary information, called a
key or, in traditional NSA parlance, a cryptovariable. The encrypting procedure is varied
depending on the key, which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm. A key must
be selected before using a cipher to encrypt a message. Without knowledge of the key, it
should be difficult, if not impossible, to decrypt the resulting cipher into readable
plaintext.
Most modern ciphers can be categorized in several ways:
By whether they work on blocks of symbols usually of a fixed size (block

ciphers), or on a continuous stream of symbols (stream ciphers).
By whether the same key is used for both encryption and decryption (symmetric
key algorithms), or if a different key is used for each (asymmetric key
algorithms). If the algorithm is symmetric, the key must be known to the recipient
and to no one else. If the algorithm is an asymmetric one, the encyphering key is
different from, but closely related to, the decyphering key. If one key cannot be
deduced from the other, the asymmetric key algorithm has the public/private key
property and one of the keys may be made public without loss of confidentiality.
The Feistel cipher uses a combination of substitution and transposition
techniques. Most (block ciphers) algorithms are based on this structure.
[edit] Etymology of Cipher

Cipher is alternatively spelled cypher (however, this variant is now uncommon and
therefore often incorrectly considered an error by native speakers); similarly ciphertext
and cyphertext, and so forth. It also got into Middle French as cifre and Medieval Latin
as cifra, from the Arabic sifr (zero).
The word cipher in former times meant zero and had the same origin (see Zero
Etymology), and later was used for any decimal digit, even any number. There are these
theories about how the word cipher may have come to mean encoding:
Encoding often involved numbers.

Conservative Catholic opponents of the Arabic numerals equated it with any
dark secret.[citation needed]
The Roman number system was very cumbersome because there was no concept
of zero (or empty space). The concept of zero (which was also called cipher),
which we all now think of as natural, was very alien in medieval Europe, so
confusing and ambiguous to common Europeans that in arguments people would
say talk clearly and not so far fetched as a cipher. Cipher came to mean
concealment of clear messages or encryption.
o
o
o
The French formed the word chiffre and adopted the Italian word
zero.
The English used zero for 0, and cipher from the word ciphering
as a means of computing.
The Germans used the words Ziffer (number, Zahl) and Chiffre.
Dr. Al-Kadi (ref-3) concluded that the Arabic word sifr, for the digit zero, developed into
the European technical term for encryption.
[edit] Ciphers versus codes

Main article: Code (cryptography)
In non-technical usage, a (secret) code typically means a cipher. Within technical
discussions, however, the words code and cipher refer to two different concepts.
Codes work at the level of meaning that is, words or phrases are converted into
something else and this chunking generally shortens the message. Ciphers, on the other
hand, work at a lower level: the level of individual letters, small groups of letters, or, in
modern schemes, individual bits. Some systems used both codes and ciphers in one
system, using superencipherment to increase the security. In some cases the terms codes
and ciphers are also used synonym to substitution and transposition.
Historically, cryptography was split into a dichotomy of codes and ciphers, and coding
had its own terminology, analogous to that for ciphers: encoding, codetext, decoding
and so on.
However, codes have a variety of drawbacks, including susceptibility to cryptanalysis and
the difficulty of managing a cumbersome codebook. Because of this, codes have fallen
into disuse in modern cryptography, and ciphers are the dominant technique.
[edit] Types of Cipher

There are a variety of different types of encryption. Algorithms used earlier in the history
of cryptography are substantially different from modern methods, and modern ciphers
can be classified according to how they operate and whether they use one or two keys.
Historical pen and paper ciphers used in the past are sometimes known as classical
ciphers. They include simple substitution ciphers and transposition ciphers. For example
GOOD DOG can be encrypted as PLLX XLP where L substitutes for O, P for
G, and X for D in the message. Transposition of the letters GOOD DOG can
result in DGOGDOO. These simple ciphers and examples are easy to crack, even
without plaintext-ciphertext pairs.
Simple ciphers were replaced by polyalphabetic substitution ciphers which changed the
substitution alphabet for every letter. For example GOOD DOG can be encrypted as
PLSX TWF where L, S, and W substitute for O. With even a small amount of
known or estimated plaintext, simple polyalphabetic substitution ciphers and letter
transposition ciphers designed for pen and paper encryption are easy to crack.
During the early twentieth century, electro-mechanical machines were invented to do
encryption and decryption using transposition, polyalphabetic substitution, and a kind of
additive substitution. In rotor machines, several rotor disks provided polyalphabetic
substitution, while plug boards provided another substitution. Keys were easily changed
by changing the rotor disks and the plugboard wires. Although these encryption methods
were more complex than previous schemes and required machines to encrypt and
decrypt, other machines such as the British Bombe were invented to crack these
encryption methods.
Modern encryption methods can be divided into symmetric key algorithms (Private-key
cryptography) and asymmetric key algorithms (Public-key cryptography). In a symmetric
key algorithm (e.g., DES and AES), the sender and receiver must have a shared key set
up in advance and kept secret from all other parties; the sender uses this key for
encryption, and the receiver uses the same key for decryption. In an asymmetric key
algorithm (e.g., RSA), there are two separate keys: a public key is published and enables
any sender to perform encryption, while a private key is kept secret by the receiver and
enables only him to perform correct decryption.
Symmetric key ciphers can be distinguished into two types, depending on whether they
work on blocks of symbols of fixed size (block ciphers), or on a continuous stream of
symbols (stream ciphers).
[edit] Key Size and Vulnerability
In a pure mathematical attack (i.e., lacking any other information to help break a cypher),
three factors above all, count:
Mathematical advances that allow new attacks or weaknesses to be discovered

and exploited.
Computational power available, i.e. the computing power which can be brought to
bear on the problem. It is important to note that average performance/capacity of a
single computer is not the only factor to consider. An adversary can use multiple
computers at once, for instance, to increase the speed of exhaustive search for a
key (i.e. brute force attack) substantially.
Key size, i.e., the size of key used to encrypt a message. As the key size increases,
so does the complexity of exhaustive search to the point where it becomes
infeasible to crack encryption directly.
Since the desired effect is computational difficulty, in theory one would choose an
algorithm and desired difficulty level, thus decide the key length accordingly.
An example of this process can be found at Key Length which uses multiple reports to
suggest that a symmetric cypher with 128 bits, an asymmetric cypher with 3072 bit keys,
and an elliptic curve cypher with 512 bits, all have similar difficulty at present.
Claude Shannon proved, using information theory considerations, that any theoretically
unbreakable cipher must have keys which are at least as long as the plaintext, and used
only once: one-time pad.
[edit] References
Helen Fouch Gaines, Cryptanalysis, 1939, Dover. ISBN 0-486-20097-3

Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi, The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions,
Cryptologia, 16(2) (April 1992) pp. 97126.
Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi, Cryptography and Data Security: Cryptographic Properties
of Arabic, proceedings of the Third Saudi Engineering Conference. Riyadh,
Saudi Arabia: Nov 24-27, Vol 2:910-921., 1991.
David Kahn, The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing (ISBN 0-684-831309) (1967)
Abraham Sinkov, Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach,
Mathematical Association of America, 1966. ISBN 0-88385-622-0
Penjelasan :
Picocell
Ten things you didn't know about Wikipedia

A Picocell is wireless communication system typically covering a small area, such as inbuilding (offices, shopping malls, train stations, etc.), or more recently in-aircraft. A
picocell is analogous to a WiFi Access Point.
In cellular wireless networks, such as GSM, the picocell base station is typically a low
cost, small (typically A4 paper size, and about 2-3cm thick), reasonably simple unit that
connects to a Base Station Controller (BSC). Multiple picocell 'heads' connect to each
BSC: the BSC performs radio resource management and hand-over functions, and
aggregates data to be passed to the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC) and/or the GPRS
Support Node (GSN).
Connectivity between the picocell heads and the BSC typically consists of in-building
wiring. Although originally deployed systems (1990s) utilised PDH links such as E1/T1
links, more recent systems utilise Ethernet cabling.
More recent work has developed the concept towards a head unit containing not only a
picocell, but also many of the functions of the BSC and some of the MSC. This form of
picocell is called an Access point base station or Femtocell. In this case, the unit contains
all the capability required to connect directly to the Internet, without the need for the
BSC/MSC infrastructure. This is potentially a more cost effective approach.
In cellular networks, picocells are typically used to extend coverage to indoor areas
where outdoor signals do not reach well, or to add network capacity in areas with very
dense phone usage, such as train stations.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picocell"
Category: Mobile telephony
Penjelasan :
Frequency
Have questions? Find out how to ask questions and get answers.

For other uses, see Frequency (disambiguation).
Sine waves of various frequencies; the bottom waves have higher frequencies than those
above.
Frequency is the measurement of the number of occurrences of a repeated event per unit
of time. It is also defined as the rate of change of phase of a sinusoidal waveform.
Contents
[hide]
1 Measurement
2 Frequency of waves
3 Examples
4 See also
5 External links
[edit] Measurement
To calculate the frequency of the event, the number of occurrences of the event within a
fixed time interval are counted, and then divided by the length of the time interval.
To calculate the frequency of an event in experimental work however (for example,
calculating the frequency of an oscillating pendulum) it is crucial that the time taken for a
fixed number of occurrences is recorded, rather than the number of occurrences within a
fixed time. This is because your random error is significantly increased performing the
experiment the other way around. It [the frequency] is still calculated by dividing the
number of occurrences by the time interval, however, the number of occurrences is fixed,
not the time interval.
In SI units, the result is measured in hertz (Hz), named after the German physicist
Heinrich Hertz. 1 Hz means that an event repeats once per second, 2 Hz is twice per
second, and so on. This unit was originally called a cycle per second (cps), which is still
sometimes used. Other units that are used to measure frequency include revolutions per
minute (rpm). Heart rate and musical tempo are measured in beats per minute (BPM).
Often, angular frequency is used instead of frequency, measured in radians per second
(rad/s).
An alternative method to calculate frequency is to measure the time between two

consecutive occurrences of the event (the period) and then compute the frequency f as the
reciprocal of this time:
where
T is the period.
A more accurate measurement takes many cycles into account and averages the period
between each.
[edit] Frequency of waves

Frequency has an inverse relationship to the concept of wavelength. The frequency f is
equal to the speed v of the wave divided by the wavelength (lambda) of the wave:
In the special case of electromagnetic waves moving through a vacuum, then v = c, where
c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and this expression becomes:
When waves travel from one medium to another, their frequency remains exactly the
same only their wavelength and speed change.
Apart from being modified by the Doppler effect or any other nonlinear process,
frequency is an invariant quantity in the universe. That is, it cannot be changed by any
linearly physical process unlike velocity of propagation or wavelength.
[edit] Examples
The frequency of the standard pitch A above middle C is usually defined as 440
Hz, that is, 440 cycles per second (Listen (helpinfo)) and known as concert pitch,
to which an orchestra tunes.
A baby can hear tones with oscillations up to approximately 20,000 Hz, but these
frequencies become more difficult to hear as people age.
In Europe, the frequency of the alternating current in mains is 50 Hz (close to the
tone G), however, in North America, the frequency of the alternating current is 60
Hz (close to the tone B flat that is, a minor third above the European
frequency). The frequency of the 'hum' in an audio recording can show where the
recording was made in Europe, or in America.
Penjelasan :
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum

(Redirected from Frequency hopping)

Ten things you didn't know about images on Wikipedia

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals
by rapidly switching a carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom
sequence known to both transmitter and receiver.
A spread-spectrum transmission offers three main advantages over a fixed-frequency
transmission:
1. Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to narrowband interference. The
process of re-collecting a spread signal spreads out the interfering signal, causing
it to recede into the background.
2. Spread-spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. A frequency-hop spreadspectrum signal simply sounds like an increase in the background noise to a
narrowband receiver.
3. Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many types of
conventional transmissions with minimal interference. The spread-spectrum
signals add minimal noise to the narrow-frequency communications, and vice
versa. As a result, bandwidth can be utilized more efficiently.
Contents
[hide]
1 Military use
2 Technical considerations
3 Multiple Inventions
4 Variations
5 See also
6 External links
[edit] Military use
If the sequence of channel changes is not known to potential adversaries, spreadspectrum signals are highly resistant to deliberate jamming. Military radios use
cryptographic techniques to generate the channel sequence under the control of a secret
Transmission Security Key (TRANSEC) that the sender and receiver share. By itself,
frequency hopping provides only limited protection against eavesdropping, so military
frequency hopping radios often employ separate encryption devices such as the KY-57.
U.S. military radios that use frequency hopping include HAVE QUICK and SINCGARS.
[edit] Technical considerations

The overall bandwidth required for frequency hopping is much wider than that required
to transmit the same information using only one carrier frequency. However, because
transmission occurs only on a small portion of this bandwidth at any given time, the
effective interference bandwidth is really the same. Whilst providing no extra protection
against wideband thermal noise, the frequency-hopping approach does reduce the
degradation caused by narrowband interferers.
One of the challenges of frequency-hopping systems is to synchronize the transmitter and
receiver. One approach is to have a guarantee that the transmitter will use all the channels
in a fixed period of time. The receiver can then find the transmitter by picking a random
channel and listening for valid data on that channel. The transmitter's data is identified by
a special sequence of data that is unlikely to occur over the segment of data for this
channel and the segment can have a checksum for integrity and further identification. The
transmitter and receiver can use fixed tables of channel sequences so that once
synchronized they can maintain communication by following the table. On each channel
segment, the transmitter can send its current location in the table.
In the US, FCC part 15 on unlicensed system in the 900MHz and 2.4GHz bands permits
more power than non-hopping systems. The limit is increased from 1 milliwatt to 1 watt
or a thousand times increase. The FCC prescribes a minimum number of channels and a
maximum dwell time for each channel.
In a real multipoint radio system, space allows multiple transmissions on the same
frequency to be possible using multiple radios in a geographic area. This creates the
possibility of system data rates that are higher than the Shannon limit for a single
channel. This property is also seen in MIMO and DSSS systems. Beam steering and
directional antennas also facilitate increased system performance by providing isolation
between remote radios.
[edit] Multiple Inventions

Perhaps the earliest mention of frequency hopping in the open literature is in radio
pioneer Johannes Zenneck's book Wireless Telegraphy (German, 1908, English
translation McGraw Hill, 1915), although Zenneck himself states that Telefunken had
already tried it. A Polish army officer, Leonard Danielewicz, came up with the idea in
1929. Several other patents were taken out in the 1930s, including one by Willem
Broertjes (Germany 1929, U.S. Patent No. 1,869,659 (issued Aug. 2, 1932)). During
WWII, the US Army Signal Corp was inventing a communication system called
SIGSALY, which incorporated spread spectrum, but as it was top secret, its existence did
not become known until the 1980s. The most celebrated invention of frequency hopping
was that of actress Hedy Lamarr and composer George Antheil, who in 1942 received
patent number 2,292,387 for their "Secret Communications System." This early version
of frequency hopping used a piano-roll to change between 88 frequencies, and was
intended to make radio-guided torpedoes harder for enemies to detect or to jam. The
patent was rediscovered in the 1950s during patent searches when private companies
independently developed Code Division Multiple Access, a civilian form of spreadspectrum.
[edit] Variations
Adaptive Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH) (as used in Bluetooth) improves
resistance to radio frequency interference by avoiding using crowded frequencies in the
hopping sequence. This sort of adaptive modulation is easier to implement with FHSS
than with DSSS.
Chirp modulation can be seen as a form of frequency-hopping that simply scans through
the available frequencies in consecutive order.
Penjelasan :
GSM
Learn more about using Wikipedia for research

For other uses, see GSM (disambiguation).
Mobile phone and data

standards
GSM / UMTS Family
Global System for Mobile communications

(GSM: originally from Groupe Spcial Mobile) is
the most popular standard for mobile phones in
the world. Its promoter, the GSM Association,
estimates that the GSM service is used by over 2
billion people across more than 212 countries and
territories.[1][2] Its ubiquity makes international
roaming very common between mobile phone
operators, enabling subscribers to use their
phones in many parts of the world. GSM differs
significantly from its predecessors in that both
signaling and speech channels are digital call
quality, and so is considered a second generation
(2G) mobile phone system. This has also meant
that data communication were built into the
system using the 3rd Generation Partnership
Project (3GPP).
2G
GSM
GPRS
HSCSD
EDGE (EGPRS)
W-CDMA
o UMTS (3GSM)
o FOMA
UMTS-TDD
o TD-CDMA
o TD-SCDMA
HSPA
o HSDPA
o HSUPA
3G
HSPA+
Pre-4G
The GSM logo is used to identify compatible

handsets and equipment
The key advantage of GSM systems to consumers
has been higher digital voice quality and low cost
alternatives to making calls, such as the Short
message service (SMS, also called "text
messaging"). The advantage for network
operators has been the ease of deploying
equipment from any vendors that implement the
standard.[3] Like other cellular standards, GSM
allows network operators to offer roaming
services so that subscribers can use their phones
on GSM networks all over the world.
Newer versions of the standard were backwardcompatible with the original GSM phones. For
example, Release '97 of the standard added packet
data capabilities, by means of General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS). Release '99 introduced
higher speed data transmission using Enhanced
Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).
UMTS Revision 8
o LTE
o
HSOPA (Super 3G)
cdmaOne / CDMA2000 Family

2G
cdmaOne
CDMA2000
EV-DO
3G
Pre-4G
UMB
Other Technologies
0G
Contents
PTT
MTS
IMTS
AMTS
OLT
MTD
Autotel / PALM
ARP
NMT
AMPS / TACS / ETACS
1G
[hide]
1 History of GSM
2 Technical details
o 2.1 Interference with audio devices
o 2.2 Network structure
o 2.3 Subscriber identity module
o 2.4 GSM security
3 See also
4 References
5 Literature
6 External links
[edit] History of GSM

The growth of cellular telephone systems started in the early 1980s, particularly in
Europe. The lack of technological standardization prompted the European Conference of
Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) to create the Groupe Spcial
Mobile (GSM) in 1982 with the objective of developing a standard for a mobile
telephone system that could be used across Europe.[4]
In 1989, GSM responsibility was transferred to the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI) and phase I of the GSM specifications were published in 1990.
The first GSM network was launched in 1991 by Radiolinja in Finland with joint
technical infrastructure maintenance from Ericsson.[5] By the end of 1993, over a million
subscribers were using GSM phone networks being operated by 70 carriers across 48
countries.[6]
[edit] Technical details

GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by searching
for cells in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate in four different frequency
ranges. Most GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Some
countries in the Americas (including Canada and the United States) use the 850 MHz and
1900 MHz bands because the 900 and 1800 MHz frequency bands were already
allocated.
The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries, notably
Scandinavia, where these frequencies were previously used for first-generation systems.
In the 900 MHz band the uplink frequency band is 890915 MHz, and the downlink
frequency band is 935960 MHz. This 25 MHz bandwidth is subdivided into 124 carrier
frequency channels, each spaced 200 kHz apart. Time division multiplexing is used to
allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio frequency channel.
There are eight radio timeslots (giving eight burst periods) grouped into what is called a
TDMA frame. Half rate channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel
data rate is 270.833 kbit/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.
The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in
GSM850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900.
GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 5.6 and
13 kbit/s. Originally, two codecs, named after the types of data channel they were
allocated, were used, called Half Rate (5.6 kbit/s) and Full Rate (13 kbit/s). These used a
system based upon linear predictive coding (LPC). In addition to being efficient with
bitrates, these codecs also made it easier to identify more important parts of the audio,
allowing the air interface layer to prioritize and better protect these parts of the signal.
GSM was further enhanced in 1997[7] with the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) codec, a
12.2 kbit/s codec that uses a full rate channel. Finally, with the development of UMTS,
EFR was refactored into a variable-rate codec called AMR-Narrowband, which is high
quality and robust against interference when used on full rate channels, and less robust
but still relatively high quality when used in good radio conditions on half-rate channels.
There are four different cell sizes in a GSM networkmacro, micro, pico and umbrella
cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation environment.
Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast
or a building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is
under average roof top level; they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small
cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; they are mainly used indoors.
Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in
coverage between those cells.
Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain and propagation
conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometers. The longest
distance the GSM specification supports in practical use is 35 kilometres (22 mi). There
are also several implementations of the concept of an extended cell, where the cell radius
could be double or even more, depending on the antenna system, the type of terrain and
the timing advance.
Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor
picocell base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed through
power splitters, to deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors to the separate
indoor distributed antenna system. These are typically deployed when a lot of call
capacity is needed indoors, for example in shopping centers or airports. However, this is
not a prerequisite, since indoor coverage is also provided by in-building penetration of
the radio signals from nearby cells.
The modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a kind of

continuous-phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated onto the
carrier is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed to a frequency
modulator, which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring channels (adjacent
channel interference).
[edit] Interference with audio devices

This is a form of RFI, and could be mitigated or eliminated by use of additional shielding
and/or bypass capacitors in these audio devices.[citation needed] However, the increased cost of
doing so is difficult for a designer to justify.
It is a common occurence for a nearby GSM handset to induce a "dit, dit di-dit, dit di-dit,
dit di-dit" output on PA's, wireless microphones, home stereo systems, televisions,
computers, and personal music devices. When these audio devices are in the near field of
the GSM handset, the radio signal is strong enough that the solid state amplifiers in the
audio chain function act as a detector. The clicking noise itself represents the power
bursts that carry the TDMA signal. These signals have been known to interfere with other
electronic devices, such as car stereos and portable audio players.
[edit] Network structure
The structure of a GSM network

The network behind the GSM system seen by the customer is large and complicated in
order to provide all of the services which are required. It is divided into a number of
sections and these are each covered in separate articles.
the Base Station Subsystem (the base stations and their controllers).
the Network and Switching Subsystem (the part of the network most similar to a
fixed network). This is sometimes also just called the core network.
the GPRS Core Network (the optional part which allows packet based Internet
connections).
all of the elements in the system combine to produce many GSM services such as
voice calls and SMS.
[edit] Subscriber identity module

Main article: Subscriber Identity Module
A SIM for Bell Mobility (Canada)

One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), commonly
known as a SIM card. The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the user's
subscription information and phonebook. This allows the user to retain his or her
information after switching handsets. Alternatively, the user can also change operators
while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some operators will block this
by allowing the phone to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them; this
practice is known as SIM locking, and is illegal in some countries.
In Australia, Canada, Europe and the United States many operators lock the mobiles they
sell. This is done because the price of the mobile phone is typically subsidised with
revenue from subscriptions, and operators want to try to avoid subsidising competitor's
mobiles. A subscriber can usually contact the provider to remove the lock for a fee, utilize
private services to remove the lock, or make use of ample software and websites
available on the Internet to unlock the handset themselves. While most web sites offer the
unlocking for a fee, some do it for free. The locking applies to the handset, identified by
its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number, not to the account (which is
identified by the SIM card). It is always possible to switch to another (non-locked)
handset if such a handset is available.
Some providers will unlock the phone for free if the customer has held an account for a
certain time period. Third party unlocking services exist that are often quicker and lower
cost than that of the operator. In most countries, removing the lock is legal. at&t and TMobile provide free unlocking services to their customers after 3 months of subscription.
[citation needed]
In countries like Belgium, India, Indonesia and Pakistan, etc., all phones are sold
unlocked. However, in Belgium, it is unlawful for operators there to offer any form of
subsidy on the phone's price. This was also the case in Finland until April 1, 2006, when
selling subsidized combinations of handsets and accounts became legal, though operators
have to unlock phones free of charge after a certain period (at most 24 months).
[edit] GSM security

GSM was designed with a moderate level of security. The system was designed to
authenticate the subscriber using a pre-shared key and challenge-response.
Communications between the subscriber and the base station can be encrypted. The
development of UMTS introduces an optional USIM, that uses a longer authentication
key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user whereas GSM only authenticated the user to the network (and not vice versa). The
security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited
authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation.
GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1 and A5/2 stream
ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed first and is a
stronger algorithm used within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in
other countries. A large security advantage of GSM over earlier systems is that the Key,
the crypto variable stored on the SIM card that is the key to any GSM ciphering
algorithm, is never sent over the air interface. Serious weaknesses have been found in
both algorithms, and it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time in a ciphertext-only attack.
The system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that cipher with a
stronger one.
Penjelasan :
TDMA

TDMA may refer to:
Tridiagonal matrix algorithm - a mathematical system

Time division multiple access - a system used for radios and cell phones
the initials TDMA (from the initialism for "time division multiple access") are also
used in the United States as a name for the mobile phone standard more properly
referred to as IS-136 or D-AMPS
This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal
link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended
article.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TDMA"

Category: Disambiguation
Penjelasan :
Broadcasting

This article is about mass communication. For the agricultural term, see Sowing. For the
routing mode in computer networking, see Broadcasting (computing).
Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and/or video signals which transmit programs
to an audience. The audience may be the general public or a relatively large sub-audience,
such as children or young adults.
There are wide variety of broadcasting systems, all of which have different capabilities.
The largest broadcasting systems are institutional public address systems, which transmit
nonverbal messages and music within a school or hospital, and low-powered
broadcasting systems which transmit radio stations or television stations to a small area.
National radio and television broadcasters have nationwide coverage, using retransmitter
towers, satellite systems, and cable distribution. Satellite radio and television
broadcasters can cover even wider areas, such as entire continents, and Internet channels
can distribute text or streamed music worldwide.
The sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule. As with all technological
endeavors, a number of technical terms and slang have developed. A list of these terms
can be found at list of broadcasting terms. Television and radio programs are distributed
through radio broadcasting or cable, often both simultaneously. By coding signals and
having decoding equipment in homes, the latter also enables subscription-based channels
and pay-per-view services.
The term "broadcast" was coined by early radio engineers from the midwestern United
States. Broadcasting forms a very large segment of the mass media. Broadcasting to a
very narrow range of audience is called narrowcasting.
Economically there are a few ways in which stations are able to continually broadcast.
Each differs in the method by which stations are funded:
in-kind donations of time and skills by volunteers (common with community

broadcasters)
direct government payments or operation of public broadcasters
indirect government payments, such as radio and television licenses
grants from foundations or business entities
selling advertising or sponsorships
public subscription or membership
fees charged to all owners of TV sets or radios, regardless of whether they intend
to receive that program or not (an approach used in the UK)
Broadcasters may rely on a combination of these business models. For example, National
Public Radio, a non-commercial network within the United States, receives grants from
the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (which in turn receives funding from the U.S.
government), by public membership, and by selling "extended credits" to corporations.
Contents
[hide]
1 Recorded broadcasts and live broadcasts

2 Distribution methods
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
6 Further reading
[edit] Recorded broadcasts and live broadcasts

One can distinguish between recorded and live broadcasts. The former allows correcting
errors, and removing superfluous or undesired material, rearranging it, applying slowmotion and repetitions, and other techniques to enhance the program. However some live
events like sports telecasts can include some of the aspects including slow motion clips of
important goals/hits etc in between the live telecast.
American radio network broadcasters habitually forbade prerecorded broadcasts in the
1930s and 1940s, requiring radio programs played for the Eastern and Central time zones
to be repeated three hours later for the Pacific time zone. This restriction was dropped for
special occasions, as in the case of the German dirigible airship Hindenburg at Lakehurst,
New Jersey in 1937. During World War II, prerecorded broadcasts from war
correspondents were allowed on U.S. radio. In addition, American radio programs were
recorded for playback by Armed Forces Radio stations around the world.
A disadvantage of recording first is that the public may know the outcome of an event
from another source, which may be a spoiler. In addition, prerecording prevents live
announcers from deviating from an officially-approved script, as occurred with

propaganda broadcasts from Germany in the 1940s and with Radio Moscow in the 1980s.
Many events are advertised as being live, although they are often "recorded live"
(sometimes this is referred to as "live-to-tape"). This is particularly true of performances
of musical artists on radio when they visit for an in-studio concert performance. This
intentional blurring of the distinction between live and recorded media is viewed with
chagrin among many music lovers. Similar situations have sometimes appeared in
television ("The Cosby Show is recorded in front of a live studio audience").
[edit] Distribution methods

[hide]
vde
Audio broadcasting
Terrestrial radio modulation AM FM COFDM

Frequency allocations LW MW (MF) SW (HF) VHF
Hidden signals AMSS DirectBand PAD RDS/RBDS SCA
Codecs AAC Musicam
Terrestrial digital audio broadcasting systems DAB/DAB+ DRM/DRM (+) HD Radio FMeXtra CA
Earth Orbital digital audio broadcasting systems Sirius WorldSpace XM (SDR DVB-SH DAB-S D
Related topics Digital radio Audio processing History of radio
A broadcast may be distributed through several physical means. If coming directly from
the studio at a single radio or tv station, it is simply sent through the air chain to the
transmitter and thence from the antenna on the tower out to the world. Programming may
also come through a communications satellite, played either live or recorded for later
transmission. Networks of stations may simulcast the same programming at the same
time, originally via microwave link, and now mostly by satellite.
Distribution to stations or networks may also be through physical media, such as
analogue or digital videotape, CD, DVD, and sometimes other formats. Usually these are
included in another broadcast, such as when electronic news gathering returns a story to
the station for inclusion on a news programme.
The final leg of broadcast distribution is how the signal gets to the listener or viewer. It
may come over the air as with a radio station or TV station to an antenna and receiver, or
may come through cable TV [1] or cable radio (or "wireless cable") via the station or
directly from a network. The Internet may also bring either radio or TV to the recipient,
especially with multicasting allowing the signal and bandwidth to be shared.
The term "broadcast network" is often used to distinguish networks that broadcast an
over-the-air television signal that can be received using a television antenna from so-
called networks that are broadcast only via cable or satellite television. The term
"broadcast television" can refer to the programming of such networks.
Penjelasan :
Directional antenna
Log-periodic dipole array

A directional antenna is an antenna which radiates greater power in one or more
directions allowing for increased performance on transmit and receive and reduced
interference from unwanted sources. Directional antennas like yagi antennas provide
increased performance over dipole antennas when a greater concentration of radiation in
a certain direction is desired.
All practical antennas are at least somewhat directional, although usually only the
direction in the plane parallel to the earth is considered, and practical antennas can easily
be omnidirectional in one plane.
The most common types are the yagi antenna, the log-periodic antenna, and the corner
reflector, which are frequently combined and commercially sold as residential TV
antennas. Cellular repeaters often make use of external directional antennas to give a far
greater signal than can be obtained on a standard cell phone.
For long and medium wavelength frequencies, tower arrays are used in most cases as
directional antennas.
[edit] See also

Penjelasan :
Interference

For other uses, see Interference (disambiguation).
Interference of two circular waves - Wavelength (decreasing bottom to top) and Wave
centers distance (increasing to the right). Absolute value snapshots of the (real-valued,
scalar) wave field. As time progresses, the wave fronts would move outwards from the
two centers, but the dark regions (destructive interference) stay fixed.
Interference is the addition (superposition) of two or more waves that results in a new
wave pattern.
As most commonly used, the term interference usually refers to the interaction of waves
which are correlated or coherent with each other, either because they come from the same
source or because they have the same or nearly the same frequency.
Two non-monochromatic waves are only fully coherent with each other if they both have
exactly the same range of wavelengths and the same phase differences at each of the
constituent wavelengths.
The total phase difference is derived from the sum of both the path difference and the
initial phase difference (if the waves are generated from 2 or more different sources). It
can then be concluded whether the waves reaching a point are in phase(constructive
interference) or out of phase (destructive interference).
Contents
[hide]
1 Theory
2 Experiments
3 Interference patterns
4 Constructive and destructive interference
5 General Quantum Interference
6 Examples
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
[edit] Theory
The principle of superposition of waves states that the resultant displacement at a point is
equal to the sum of the displacements of different waves at that point. If a crest of a wave
meets a crest of another wave at the same point then the crests interfere constructively
and the resultant wave amplitude is greater. If a crest of a wave meets a trough of another
wave then they interfere destructively, and the overall amplitude is decreased.
This form of interference can occur whenever a wave can propagate from a source to a
destination by two or more paths of different length. Two or more sources can only be
used to produce interference when there is a fixed phase relation between them, but in
this case the interference generated is the same as with a single source; see Huygens'
principle.
[edit] Experiments
Thomas Young's double-slit experiment showed interference phenomena where two
beams of light which are coherent interfere to produce a pattern.
The beams of light both have the same wavelength range and at the center of the
interference pattern. They have the same phases at each wavelength, as they both come
from the same source.
[edit] Interference patterns

For two coherent sources, the spacial separation between sources is half the wavelength
times the number of nodal lines
Light from any source can be used to obtain interference patterns, for example, Newton's
rings can be produced with sunlight. However, in general white light is less suited for
producing clear interference patterns, as it is a mix of a full spectrum of colours, that each
have different spacing of the interference fringes. Sodium light is close to monochromatic
and is thus more suitable for producing interference patterns. The most suitable is laser
light because it is almost perfectly monochromatic.
[edit] Constructive and destructive interference
Interference pattern produced with a Michelson interferometer. Bright bands are the
result of constructive interference while the dark bands are the result of destructive
interference.
Consider two waves that are in phase,with amplitudes A1 and A2. Their troughs and peaks
line up and the resultant wave will have amplitude A = A1 + A2. This is known as
constructive interference.
If the two waves are pi radians, or 180, out of phase, then one wave's crests will coincide
with another wave's troughs and so will tend to cancel out. The resultant amplitude is A =
| A1 A2 | . If A1 = A2, the resultant amplitude will be zero. This is known as destructive
interference.
When two sinusoidal waves superimpose, the resulting waveform depends on the
frequency (or wavelength) amplitude and relative phase of the two waves. If the two
waves have the same amplitude A and wavelength the resultant waveform will have an
amplitude between 0 and 2A depending on whether the two waves are in phase or out of
phase.
combined
waveform
wave 1
wave 2
Two waves in phase
Two waves 180 out
of phase
[edit] General Quantum Interference
Two point interference in a ripple tank.

If a system is in state its wavefunction is described in Dirac or bra-ket notation as:
where the s specify the different quantum "alternatives" available (technically, they
form an eigenvector basis) and the i are the probability amplitude coefficients, which are
complex numbers.
The probability of observing the system making a transition or quantum leap from state
to a new state is the square of the modulus of the scalar or inner product of the two
states:
where
(as defined above) and similarly
the final state of the system. * is the complex conjugate so that
are the coefficients of

etc.
Now let's consider the situation classically and imagine that the system transited from
to
via an intermediate state . Then we would classically expect the probability of
the two-step transition to be the sum of all the possible intermediate steps. So we would
have
The classical and quantum derivations for the transition probability differ by the
presence, in the quantum case, of the extra terms
; these extra
quantum terms represent interference between the different
intermediate
"alternatives". These are consequently known as the quantum interference terms, or cross
terms. This is a purely quantum effect and is a consequence of the non-additivity of the
probabilities of quantum alternatives.
The interference terms vanish, via the mechanism of quantum decoherence, if the
intermediate state is measured or coupled with the environment[1][2].
[edit] Examples
A conceptually simple case of interference is a small (compared to wavelength) source say, a small array of regularly spaced small sources (see diffraction grating).
Consider the case of a flat boundary (say, between two media with different or simply a
flat mirror, onto which the plane wave is incident at some angle. In this case of
continuous distribution of sources, constructive interference will only be in specular
direction - the direction at which angle with the normal is exactly the same as the angle of
incidence. Thus, this results in the law of reflection which is simply the result of
constructive interference of a plane wave on a plane surface.
Penjelasan :
Wavelength
Find out more about navigating Wikipedia and finding information

For other uses, see Wavelength (disambiguation).
In physics, wavelength is the distance between repeating units of a propagating wave of
a given frequency. It is commonly designated by the Greek letter lambda (). Examples
of wave-like phenonomena are light, water waves, and sound waves.
Wavelength of a sine wave.

In a wave, a property varies with the position. For example, this property can be the air
pressure for a sound wave, or the magnitude of the electric or the magnetic field for light.
The wavelengths of frequencies audible to the human ear (20 Hz 20 kHz) are between
approximately 17 m and 17 mm, respectively. Visible light ranges from deep red, roughly
700 nm to violet, roughly 400 nm (430--750 THz). For other examples, see
electromagnetic spectrum.
Contents
[hide]
1 Relationship with frequency

o 1.1 In non-vacuum media
2 De Broglie wavelength of particles
3 See also
4 External links
[edit] Relationship with frequency

Wavelength is inverse proportional with the frequency (Greek "nu"), the number of
wave periods per time unit passing a given point, as in
where vw is the propagation velocity of the wave. In the case of electromagnetic radiation,
such as light, in a vacuum, this speed is the speed of light, 299,792,458 m/s or about 109
km/h. For sound waves in air, this is the speed of sound, 344 m/s (1238 km/h) in air at
room temperature. Usually, SI units are used, where the wavelength is expressed in
meters, the frequency in Hz, and the propagation velocity in meters per second.
[edit] In non-vacuum media

The speed of light in most media is lower than in vacuum, which means that the same
frequency will correspond to a shorter wavelength in the medium than in vacuum. The
wavelength in the medium is
where n is the refractive index of the medium. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation

are usually quoted in terms of the vacuum wavelength, unless specifically indicated as the
"wavelength in the medium".
[edit] De Broglie wavelength of particles

Louis de Broglie postulated that all particles with momentum have a wavelength
where h is Planck's constant, and p is the momentum of the particle. This hypothesis was
at the basis of quantum mechanics. Nowadays, this wavelength is called the de Broglie
wavelength. For example, the electrons in a CRT display have a De Broglie wavelength
of about 10-13 m.
Penjelasan :
Fading
Interested in contributing to Wikipedia?

This is about the phenomenon of loss of signal in telecommunications. For the
book, see Fading (Book)
Selective fading causes a cloudy pattern to appear on an FFT display.

Fading refers to the distortion that a carrier-modulated telecommunication signal
experiences over certain propagation media. A fading channel is a communication
channel that experiences fading. In wireless systems, fading is due to multipath
propagation and is sometimes referred to as multipath induced fading.
Contents
[hide]
1 Key Concepts
2 Slow vs. Fast Fading
3 Flat vs. Frequency-selective Fading
4 Fading Models
5 Mitigation
6 See also
7 Literature
8 External links
[edit] Key Concepts

In wireless communications, the presence of reflectors in the environment surrounding a
transmitter and receiver create multiple paths that a transmitted signal can traverse. As a
result, the receiver sees the superposition of multiple copies of the transmitted signal,
each traversing a different path. Each signal copy will experienced differences in
attenuation, delay and phase shift while travelling from the source to the receiver. This
can result in either constructive or destructive interference, amplifying or attenuating the
signal power seen at the receiver. Strong destructive interference is frequently referred to
as a deep fade and may result in temporary failure of communication due to a severe
drop in the channel signal-to-noise ratio.
A common example of multipath fading is the experience of stopping at a traffic light and
hearing an FM broadcast degenerate into static, while the signal is re-acquired if the
vehicle moves only a fraction of a meter. The loss of the broadcast is caused by the
vehicle stopping at a point where the signal experienced severe destructive interference.
Cellular phones can also exhibit similar momentary fades.
Fading channel models are often used to model the effects of electromagnetic
transmission of information over the air in cellular networks and broadcast
communication. Fading channel models are also used in underwater acoustic
communications to model the distortion caused by the water. Mathematically, fading is
usually modeled as a time-varying random change in the amplitude and phase of the
transmitted signal.
[edit] Slow vs. Fast Fading

The terms slow and fast fading refer to the rate at which the magnitude and phase change
imposed by the channel on the signal changes. The coherence time is a measure of the
minimum time required for the magnitude change of the channel to become decorrelated
from its previous value.
Slow fading arises when the coherence time of the channel is large relative to the
delay constraint of the channel. In this regime, the amplitude and phase change
imposed by the channel can be considered roughly constant over the period of
use. Slow fading can be caused by events such as shadowing, where a large
obstruction such as a hill or large building obscures the main signal path between
the transmitter and the receiver. The amplitude change caused by shadowing is
often modeled using a log-normal distribution with a standard deviation according
to the Log Distance Path Loss Model.
Fast Fading occurs when the coherence time of the channel is small relative to
the delay constraint of the channel. In this regime, the amplitude and phase
change imposed by the channel varies considerably over the period of use.
In a fast-fading channel, the transmitter may take advantage of the variations in the
channel conditions using time diversity to help increase robustness of the communication
to a temporary deep fade. Although a deep fade may temporarily erase some of the
information transmitted, use of an error-correcting code coupled with successfully
transmitted bits during other time instances can allow for the erased bits to be recovered.
In a slow-fading channel, it is not possible to use time diversity because the transmitter
sees only a single realization of the channel within its delay constraint. A deep fade
therefore lasts the entire duration of transmission and cannot be mitigated using coding.
The coherence time of the channel is related to a quantity known as the Doppler spread
of the channel. When a user (or reflectors in its environment) is moving, the user's
velocity causes a shift in the frequency of the signal transmitted along each signal path.
This phenomenon is known as the Doppler shift. Signals travelling along different paths
can have different Doppler shifts, corresponding to different rates of change in phase. The
difference in Doppler shifts between different signal components contributing to a single
fading channel tap is known as the Doppler spread. Channels with a large Doppler spread
have signal components that are each changing independently in phase over time. Since
fading depends on whether signal components add constructively or destructively, such
channels have a very short coherence time.
In general, coherence time is inversely related to Doppler spread, typically expressed as:
where Tc is the coherence time, Ds is the Doppler spread, and k is a constant taking on
values in the range of 0.25 to 0.5.
[edit] Flat vs. Frequency-selective Fading

As the carrier frequency of a signal is varied, the magnitude of the change in amplitude
will vary. The coherence bandwidth measures the minimum separation in frequency after
which two signals will experience uncorrelated fading.
In flat fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is larger than the
bandwidth of the signal. Therefore, all frequency components of the signal will
experience the same magnitude of fading.
In frequency-selective fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is smaller

than the bandwidth of the signal. Different frequency components of the signal
therefore experience decorrelated fading.
In a frequency-selective fading channel, since different frequency components of the

signal are affected independently, it is highly unlikely that all parts of the signal will be
simultaneously affected by a deep fade. Certain modulation schemes such as OFDM and
CDMA are well-suited to employing frequency diversity to provide robustness to fading.
OFDM divides the wideband signal into many slowly modulated narrowband subcarriers,
each exposed to flat fading rather than frequency selective fading. This can be combated
by means of error coding. and sometimes simple equalization and adaptive bit loading.
Inter-symbol interference is avoided by introducing a guard interval between the
symbols. CDMA uses the Rake receiver to deal with each echo separately.
Frequency-selective fading channels are also dispersive, in that the signal energy
associated with each symbol is spread out in time. This causes transmitted symbols that
are adjacent in time to interfere with each other. Equalizers are often deployed in such
channels to compensate for the effects of the intersymbol interference.
[edit] Fading Models
Examples of fading models for the distribution of the attenuation are:
Nakagami fading
Weibull fading
Rayleigh fading
Rician fading
Dispersive fading models, with several echoes, each exposed to different delay,
gain and phase shift, often constant.This results in frequency selective fading and
inter-symbol interference. The gains may be Rayleigh or Rician distributed.The
echoes may also be exposed to doppler-shift, resulting in a time varying channel
model.
Log-normal shadow fading
[edit] Mitigation
Fundamentally, fading causes poor performance in traditional communication systems
because the quality of the communications link depends on a single path or channel, and
due to fading there is a significant probability that the channel will experience a deep
fade. The probability of experiencing a fade (and associated bit errors as the signal-tonoise ratio drops) on the channel becomes the limiting factor in the link's performance.
The effects of fading can be combated by using diversity to transmit the signal over
multiple channels that experience independent fading and coherently combining them at
the receiver. The probability of experiencing a fade in this composite channel is then
proportional to the probability that all the component channels simultaneously experience
a fade, a much more unlikely event.
Diversity can be achieved in time, frequency, or space. Common techniques used to
overcome signal fading include:
Diversity reception and transmission

OFDM
Rake receivers
Spacetime codes
MIMO
Penjelasan :
Network Switching Subsystem

(Redirected from Network and Switching Subsystem)


standards
GSM / UMTS Family

Network Switching Subsystem, or NSS, is the
component of a GSM system that carries out
switching functions and manages the
communications between mobile phones and the
Public Switched Telephone Network. It is owned
and deployed by mobile phone operators and
allows mobile phones to communicate with each
other and telephones in the wider
telecommunications network. The architecture
closely resembles a telephone exchange, but there
are additional functions which are needed because
the phones are not fixed in one location. Each of
these functions handle different aspects of
mobility management and are described in more
detail below.
The Network Switching Subsystem, also referred
to as the GSM core network, usually refers to the
circuit-switched core network, used for traditional
GSM services such as voice calls, SMS, and
Circuit Switched Data calls.
2G
GSM
GPRS
HSCSD
EDGE (EGPRS)
W-CDMA
o UMTS (3GSM)
o FOMA
UMTS-TDD
o TD-CDMA
o TD-SCDMA
HSPA
o HSDPA
o HSUPA
3G
HSPA+
Pre-4G
UMTS Revision 8
o LTE
o
There is also an overlay architecture on the GSM

core network to provide packet-switched data
services and is known as the GPRS core network.
This allows mobile phones to have access to
services such as WAP, MMS, and Internet access.
All mobile phones manufactured today have both
circuit and packet based services, so most
operators have a GPRS network in addition to the
standard GSM core network.
Contents
HSOPA (Super 3G)

2G
cdmaOne
CDMA2000
EV-DO
3G
Pre-4G
UMB
Other Technologies
[hide]
1 Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)

o 1.1 Description
2 Mobile Switching Centre Server (MSCS)
o 2.1 Description
o 2.2 Other GSM Core Network
Elements connected to the MSC
o 2.3 Procedures implemented
0G
PTT
MTS
IMTS
AMTS
OLT
MTD
Autotel / PALM
ARP
NMT
AMPS / TACS / ETACS
1G
3 Home Location Register (HLR)

o 3.1 Description
o 3.2 Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the HLR
4 Authentication Centre (AUC)
o 4.1 Description
o 4.2 Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the AUC
5 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
o 5.1 Description
o 5.2 Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the VLR
6 EIR
7 Other support functions
o 7.1 BC
o 7.2 SMSC
o 7.3 MMSC
o 7.4 VMS
o 7.5 Lawful interception functions
8 See also
9 External links
[edit] Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)

[edit] Description
The Mobile Switching Centre or MSC is a sophisticated telephone exchange which
provides circuit-switched calling, mobility management, and GSM services to the mobile
phones roaming within the area that it serves. This means voice, data and fax services, as
well as SMS and call divert.
In the GSM mobile phone system, in contrast with earlier analogue services, fax and data
information is sent directly digitally encoded to the MSC. Only at the MSC is this recoded into an "analogue" signal (although actually this will almost certainly mean sound
encoded digitally as PCM signal in a 64-kbit/s timeslot, known as a DS0 in America).
There are various different names for MSCs in different contexts which reflects their
complex role in the network, all of these terms though could refer to the same MSC, but
doing different things at different times.
A Gateway MSC is the MSC that determines which visited MSC the subscriber who is
being called is currently located. It also interfaces with the Public Switched Telephone
Network. All mobile to mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are routed through a
GMSC. The term is only valid in the context of one call since any MSC may provide both
the gateway function and the Visited MSC function, however, some manufacturers design
dedicated high capacity MSCs which do not have any BSSes connected to them. These
MSCs will then be the Gateway MSC for many of the calls they handle.
The Visited MSC is the MSC where a customer is currently located. The VLR associated
with this MSC will have the subscriber's data in it.
The Anchor MSC is the MSC from which a handover has been initiated. The Target
MSC is the MSC toward which a Handover should take place. An MSC Server is a part
of the redesigned MSC concept starting from 3GPP Release 5.
[edit] Mobile Switching Centre Server (MSC-S)

[edit] Description
The Mobile Switching Centre Server or MSC Server is a soft switch variant of Mobile
Switching Centre, which provides circuit-switched calling, mobility management, and
GSM services to the mobile phones roaming within the area that it serves. MSC Server
functionality enables split between control (signalling) and user plane (bearer in network
element called as Media Gateway), which guarantees more optimal placement of network
elements within the network.
MSC Server and MGW Media Gateway makes it possible to cross-connect circuit
switched calls switched by using IP, ATM AAL2 as well as TDM.
More information is available in 3GPP TS 23.205.
[edit] Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the MSC

The MSC connects to the following elements:
The HLR for obtaining data about the SIM and MSISDN
the Base Station Subsystem which handles the radio communication with 2G and
2.5G mobile phones.
the UTRAN which handles the radio communication with 3G mobile phones.
the VLR for determining where other mobile subscribers are located.
other MSCs for procedures such as handover.
[edit] Procedures implemented

Tasks of the MSC include
delivering calls to subscribers as they arrive based on information from the VLR
connecting outgoing calls to other mobile subscribers or the PSTN.
delivering SMSs from subscribers to the SMSC and vice versa
arranging handovers from BSC to BSC

carrying out handovers from this MSC to another
supporting supplementary services such as conference calls or call hold.
generating billing information.
[edit] Home Location Register (HLR)

[edit] Description
The Home Location Register or HLR is a central database that contains details of each
mobile phone subscriber that is authorized to use the GSM core network.
There is one HLR in one Public Land Mobile Network. HLR is a single database but can
be maintained as separate databases when the data to be stored is more than the capacity.
More precisely, the HLR stores details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone
operator. Each SIM has a unique identifier called an IMSI which is one of the primary
keys to each HLR record.
The next important items of data associated with the SIM are the telephone numbers used
to make and receive calls to the mobile phone, known as MSISDNs. The main MSISDN
is the number used for making and receiving voice calls and SMS, but it is possible for a
SIM to have other secondary MSISDNs associated with it for fax and data calls. Each
MSISDN is also a primary key to the HLR record.
Examples of other data stored in the HLR in a SIM record is:
GSM services that the subscriber has requested or been given

GPRS settings to allow the subscriber to access packet services
Current Location of subscriber (VLR and SGSN)
Call divert settings applicable for each associated MSISDN.
The HLR data is stored for as long as a subscriber remains with the mobile phone
operator.
At first glance, the HLR seems to be just a database which is merely accessed by other
network elements which do the actual processing for mobile phone services. In fact the
HLR is a system which directly receives and processes MAP transactions and messages.
If the HLR fails, then the mobile network is effectively disabled as it is the HLR which
manages the Location Updates as mobile phones roam around.
As the number of mobile subscribers has grown in mobile phone operators the HLR has
become a more powerful computer server rather than the traditional telephone exchange
hardware in the early days of GSM.
[edit] Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the HLR

The HLR connects to the following elements:
the Gateway MSC (G-MSC) for handling incoming calls

The VLR for handling requests from mobile phones to attach to the network
The SMSC for handling incoming SMS
The voice mail system for delivering notifications to the mobile phone that a
message is waiting

The main function of the HLR is to manage the fact that SIMs and phones move around a
lot. The following procedures are implemented to deal with this:
Manage the mobility of subscribers by means of updating their position in

administrative areas called 'location areas', which are identified with a LAC. The
action of a user of moving from one LA to another is followed by the HLR with a
Location area update while retrieving information from BSS as BSIC (cell
identifier).
Send the subscriber data to a VLR or SGSN when a subscriber first roams there.
Broker between the GMSC or SMSC and the subscriber's current VLR in order to
allow incoming calls or text messages to be delivered.
Remove subscriber data from the previous VLR when a subscriber has roamed
away from it.
[edit] Authentication Centre (AUC)

[edit] Description
The Authentication Centre or AUC is a function to authenticate each SIM card that
attempts to connect to the GSM core network (typically when the phone is powered on).
Once the authentication is successful, the HLR is allowed to manage the SIM and
services described above. An encryption key is also generated that is subsequently used to
encrypt all wireless communications (voice, SMS, etc.) between the mobile phone and
the GSM core network.
If the authentication fails, then no services are possible from that particular combination
of SIM card and mobile phone operator attempted. There is an additional form of
identification check performed on the serial number of the mobile phone described in the
EIR section below, but this is not relevant to the AUC processing.
Proper implementation of security in and around the AUC is a key part of an operator's
strategy to avoid SIM cloning.
The AUC does not engage directly in the authentication process, but instead generates
data known as triplets for the MSC to use during the procedure. The security of the
process depends upon a shared secret between the AUC and the SIM called the Ki. The
Ki is securely burned into the SIM during manufacture and is also securely replicated
onto the AUC. This Ki is never transmitted between the AUC and SIM, but is combined
with the IMSI to produce a challenge/response for identification purposes and an
encryption key called Kc for use in over the air communications.
[edit] Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the AUC

The AUC connects to the following elements:
the MSC which requests a new batch of triplet data for an IMSI after the previous
data have been used. This ensures that same keys and challenge responses are not
used twice for a particular mobile.

The AUC stores the following data for each IMSI:
the Ki
Algorithm id (the standard algorithms are called A3 or A8, but an operator may
choose a proprietary one).
When the MSC asks the AUC for a new set of triplets for a particular IMSI, the AUC first
generates a random number known as RAND. This RAND is then combined with the Ki
to produce two numbers as follows:
The Ki and RAND are fed into the A3 algorithm and a number known as Signed
RESponse or SRES is calculated.
The Ki and RAND are fed into the A8 algorithm and a session key called Kc is
calculated.
The numbers (RAND, SRES, KC) form the triplet sent back to the MSC. When a
particular IMSI requests access to the GSM core network, the MSC sends the RAND part
of the triplet to the SIM. The SIM then feeds this number and the Ki (which is burned
onto the SIM) into the A3 algorithm as appropriate and an SRES is calculated and sent
back to the MSC. If this SRES matches with the SRES in the triplet (which it should if it
is a valid SIM), then the mobile is allowed to attach and proceed with GSM services.
After successful authentication, the MSC sends the encryption key Kc to the Base Station
Controller (BSC) so that all communications can be encrypted and decrypted. Of course,
the mobile phone can generate the Kc itself by feeding the same RAND supplied during
authentication and the Ki into the A8 algorithm.
The AUC is usually collocated with the HLR, although this is not necessary. Whilst the
procedure is secure for most everyday use, it is by no means crack proof. Therefore a new
set of security methods was designed for 3G phones.
[edit] Visitor Location Register (VLR)

[edit] Description
The Visitor Location Register or VLR is a temporary database of the subscribers who
have roamed into the particular area which it serves. Each Base Station in the network is
served by exactly one VLR, hence a subscriber cannot be present in more than one VLR
at a time.
The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the HLR, or collected from the
MS. In practice, for performance reasons, most vendors integrate the VLR directly to the
V-MSC and, where this is not done, the VLR is very tightly linked with the MSC via a
proprietary interface.
Data stored includes:
IMSI (the subscriber's identity number)

authentication data
MSISDN (the subscriber's phone number)
GSM services that the subscriber is allowed to access
Access Point (GPRS) subscribed
the HLR address of the subscriber
[edit] Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the VLR

The VLR connects to the following elements:
the Visited MSC (V-MSC) to pass data needed by the V-MSC during its
procedures, e.g. authentication or call setup.
The HLR to request data for mobile phones attached to its serving area.
Other VLRs to transfer temporary data concerning the mobile when they roam
into new VLR areas (for example TMSI which is an ephemeral temporary IMSI
used in communication).

The primary functions of the VLR are:
to inform the HLR that a subscriber has arrived in the particular area covered by
the VLR
to track where the subscriber is within the VLR area (location area) when no call
is ongoing
to allow or disallow which services the subscriber may use
to allocate roaming numbers during the processing of incoming calls
to purge the subscriber record if a subscriber becomes inactive whilst in the area
of a VLR. The VLR deletes the subscriber's data after a fixed time period of
inactivity and informs the HLR (e.g. when the phone has been switched off and
left off or when the subscriber has moved to an area with no coverage for a long
time).
to delete the subscriber record when a subscriber explicitly moves to another, as
instructed by the HLR
[edit] EIR
The EIR (Equipment Identity Register) is often integrated to the HLR. The EIR keeps a
list of mobile phones (identified by their IMEI) which are to be banned from the network
or monitored. This is designed to allow tracking of stolen mobile phones. In theory all
data about all stolen mobile phones should be distributed to all EIRs in the world through
a Central EIR. It is clear, however, that there are some countries where this is not in
operation. The EIR data does not have to change in real time, which means that this
function can be less distributed than the function of the HLR.
[edit] Other support functions

Connected more or less directly to the GSM core network are many other functions.
[edit] BC
The Billing Centre is responsible for processing the toll tickets generated by the VLRs
and HLRs and generating a bill for each subscriber. it is also responsible for to generate
billing data of roaming subscriber.
[edit] SMSC
The Short Message Service Centre supports the sending and reception of text
messages.
[edit] MMSC
The Multimedia Messaging System Centre supports the sending of multimedia
messages (e.g. Images, Audio, Video and their combinations) to (or from) MMS-enabled
Handsets.
[edit] VMS
The Voicemail System records and stores voicemails.
[edit] Lawful interception functions

According to U.S. law, which has also been copied into many other countries, especially
in Europe, all telecommunications equipment must provide facilities for monitoring the
calls of selected users. There must be some level of support for this built into any of the
different elements. The concept of lawful interception is also known, following the
relevant U.S. law, as CALEA. Generally Lawful Interception implementation is similar to
the implementation of conference call.While A and B is talking with each other, C can
join the call and listens silently.
Penjelasan :
Concentrator

In telecommunication, the term concentrator has the following meanings:
1. In data transmission, a functional unit that permits a common path to handle more
data sources than there are channels currently available within the path. A
concentrator usually provides communication capability between many lowspeed, usually asynchronous channels and one or more high-speed, usually
synchronous channels. Usually different speeds, codes, and protocols can be
accommodated on the low-speed side. The low-speed channels usually operate in
contention and require buffering.
2. A device that connects a number of circuits, which are not all used at once, to a
smaller group of circuits for economy.
ISP usually use concentrators to enable modem dialing, this kind of concentrator is
sometimes called a modem concentrator or a remote access concentrator.
Source: Federal Standard 1037C in support of MIL-STD-188
Penjelasan :
Network Switching Subsystem

standards
GSM / UMTS Family
2G
Find out more about navigating Wikipedia and finding

information

Network Switching Subsystem, or NSS, is the
component of a GSM system that carries out
switching functions and manages the
communications between mobile phones and the
Public Switched Telephone Network. It is owned
and deployed by mobile phone operators and
allows mobile phones to communicate with each
other and telephones in the wider
telecommunications network. The architecture
closely resembles a telephone exchange, but there
are additional functions which are needed because
the phones are not fixed in one location. Each of
these functions handle different aspects of
mobility management and are described in more
detail below.
The Network Switching Subsystem, also referred
to as the GSM core network, usually refers to the
circuit-switched core network, used for traditional
GSM services such as voice calls, SMS, and
Circuit Switched Data calls.
There is also an overlay architecture on the GSM
core network to provide packet-switched data
services and is known as the GPRS core network.
This allows mobile phones to have access to
services such as WAP, MMS, and Internet access.
GSM
GPRS
HSCSD
EDGE (EGPRS)
W-CDMA
o UMTS (3GSM)
o FOMA
UMTS-TDD
o TD-CDMA
o TD-SCDMA
HSPA
o HSDPA
o HSUPA
3G
Pre-4G
HSOPA (Super 3G)

2G
cdmaOne
CDMA2000
EV-DO
3G
Pre-4G
Contents
0G
UMB
Other Technologies
[hide]
UMTS Revision 8
o LTE
o
All mobile phones manufactured today have both

circuit and packet based services, so most
operators have a GPRS network in addition to the
standard GSM core network.
HSPA+
1 Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)

o 1.1 Description
2 Mobile Switching Centre Server (MSCS)
PTT
MTS
IMTS
AMTS
OLT
MTD
Autotel / PALM
ARP
NMT
AMPS / TACS / ETACS
1G
2.1 Description
2.2 Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the MSC
2.3 Procedures implemented
3 Home Location Register (HLR)
o 3.1 Description
o 3.2 Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the HLR
4 Authentication Centre (AUC)
o 4.1 Description
o 4.2 Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the AUC
5 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
o 5.1 Description
o 5.2 Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the VLR
6 EIR
7 Other support functions
o 7.1 BC
o 7.2 SMSC
o 7.3 MMSC
o 7.4 VMS
o 7.5 Lawful interception functions
8 See also
9 External links
o
o
o
[edit] Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)

[edit] Description
The Mobile Switching Centre or MSC is a sophisticated telephone exchange which
provides circuit-switched calling, mobility management, and GSM services to the mobile
phones roaming within the area that it serves. This means voice, data and fax services, as
well as SMS and call divert.
In the GSM mobile phone system, in contrast with earlier analogue services, fax and data
information is sent directly digitally encoded to the MSC. Only at the MSC is this recoded into an "analogue" signal (although actually this will almost certainly mean sound
encoded digitally as PCM signal in a 64-kbit/s timeslot, known as a DS0 in America).
There are various different names for MSCs in different contexts which reflects their
complex role in the network, all of these terms though could refer to the same MSC, but
doing different things at different times.
A Gateway MSC is the MSC that determines which visited MSC the subscriber who is
being called is currently located. It also interfaces with the Public Switched Telephone
Network. All mobile to mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are routed through a
GMSC. The term is only valid in the context of one call since any MSC may provide both
the gateway function and the Visited MSC function, however, some manufacturers design
dedicated high capacity MSCs which do not have any BSSes connected to them. These
MSCs will then be the Gateway MSC for many of the calls they handle.
The Visited MSC is the MSC where a customer is currently located. The VLR associated
with this MSC will have the subscriber's data in it.
The Anchor MSC is the MSC from which a handover has been initiated. The Target
MSC is the MSC toward which a Handover should take place. An MSC Server is a part
of the redesigned MSC concept starting from 3GPP Release 5.
[edit] Mobile Switching Centre Server (MSC-S)

[edit] Description
The Mobile Switching Centre Server or MSC Server is a soft switch variant of Mobile
Switching Centre, which provides circuit-switched calling, mobility management, and
GSM services to the mobile phones roaming within the area that it serves. MSC Server
functionality enables split between control (signalling) and user plane (bearer in network
element called as Media Gateway), which guarantees more optimal placement of network
elements within the network.
MSC Server and MGW Media Gateway makes it possible to cross-connect circuit
switched calls switched by using IP, ATM AAL2 as well as TDM.
More information is available in 3GPP TS 23.205.
[edit] Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the MSC

The MSC connects to the following elements:
The HLR for obtaining data about the SIM and MSISDN
the Base Station Subsystem which handles the radio communication with 2G and
2.5G mobile phones.
the UTRAN which handles the radio communication with 3G mobile phones.
the VLR for determining where other mobile subscribers are located.
other MSCs for procedures such as handover.

Tasks of the MSC include
delivering calls to subscribers as they arrive based on information from the VLR
connecting outgoing calls to other mobile subscribers or the PSTN.
delivering SMSs from subscribers to the SMSC and vice versa
arranging handovers from BSC to BSC
carrying out handovers from this MSC to another
supporting supplementary services such as conference calls or call hold.
generating billing information.
[edit] Home Location Register (HLR)

[edit] Description
The Home Location Register or HLR is a central database that contains details of each
mobile phone subscriber that is authorized to use the GSM core network.
There is one HLR in one Public Land Mobile Network. HLR is a single database but can
be maintained as separate databases when the data to be stored is more than the capacity.
More precisely, the HLR stores details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone
operator. Each SIM has a unique identifier called an IMSI which is one of the primary
keys to each HLR record.
The next important items of data associated with the SIM are the telephone numbers used
to make and receive calls to the mobile phone, known as MSISDNs. The main MSISDN
is the number used for making and receiving voice calls and SMS, but it is possible for a
SIM to have other secondary MSISDNs associated with it for fax and data calls. Each
MSISDN is also a primary key to the HLR record.
Examples of other data stored in the HLR in a SIM record is:
GSM services that the subscriber has requested or been given

GPRS settings to allow the subscriber to access packet services
Current Location of subscriber (VLR and SGSN)
Call divert settings applicable for each associated MSISDN.
The HLR data is stored for as long as a subscriber remains with the mobile phone
operator.
At first glance, the HLR seems to be just a database which is merely accessed by other
network elements which do the actual processing for mobile phone services. In fact the
HLR is a system which directly receives and processes MAP transactions and messages.
If the HLR fails, then the mobile network is effectively disabled as it is the HLR which
manages the Location Updates as mobile phones roam around.
As the number of mobile subscribers has grown in mobile phone operators the HLR has
become a more powerful computer server rather than the traditional telephone exchange
hardware in the early days of GSM.
[edit] Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the HLR

The HLR connects to the following elements:
the Gateway MSC (G-MSC) for handling incoming calls

The VLR for handling requests from mobile phones to attach to the network
The SMSC for handling incoming SMS
The voice mail system for delivering notifications to the mobile phone that a
message is waiting

The main function of the HLR is to manage the fact that SIMs and phones move around a
lot. The following procedures are implemented to deal with this:
Manage the mobility of subscribers by means of updating their position in

administrative areas called 'location areas', which are identified with a LAC. The
action of a user of moving from one LA to another is followed by the HLR with a
Location area update while retrieving information from BSS as BSIC (cell
identifier).
Send the subscriber data to a VLR or SGSN when a subscriber first roams there.
Broker between the GMSC or SMSC and the subscriber's current VLR in order to
allow incoming calls or text messages to be delivered.
Remove subscriber data from the previous VLR when a subscriber has roamed
away from it.
[edit] Authentication Centre (AUC)

[edit] Description
The Authentication Centre or AUC is a function to authenticate each SIM card that
attempts to connect to the GSM core network (typically when the phone is powered on).
Once the authentication is successful, the HLR is allowed to manage the SIM and
services described above. An encryption key is also generated that is subsequently used to
encrypt all wireless communications (voice, SMS, etc.) between the mobile phone and
the GSM core network.
If the authentication fails, then no services are possible from that particular combination
of SIM card and mobile phone operator attempted. There is an additional form of
identification check performed on the serial number of the mobile phone described in the
EIR section below, but this is not relevant to the AUC processing.
Proper implementation of security in and around the AUC is a key part of an operator's
strategy to avoid SIM cloning.
The AUC does not engage directly in the authentication process, but instead generates
data known as triplets for the MSC to use during the procedure. The security of the
process depends upon a shared secret between the AUC and the SIM called the Ki. The
Ki is securely burned into the SIM during manufacture and is also securely replicated
onto the AUC. This Ki is never transmitted between the AUC and SIM, but is combined
with the IMSI to produce a challenge/response for identification purposes and an
encryption key called Kc for use in over the air communications.
[edit] Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the AUC

The AUC connects to the following elements:
the MSC which requests a new batch of triplet data for an IMSI after the previous
data have been used. This ensures that same keys and challenge responses are not
used twice for a particular mobile.

The AUC stores the following data for each IMSI:
the Ki
Algorithm id (the standard algorithms are called A3 or A8, but an operator may
choose a proprietary one).
When the MSC asks the AUC for a new set of triplets for a particular IMSI, the AUC first
generates a random number known as RAND. This RAND is then combined with the Ki
to produce two numbers as follows:
The Ki and RAND are fed into the A3 algorithm and a number known as Signed
RESponse or SRES is calculated.
The Ki and RAND are fed into the A8 algorithm and a session key called Kc is
calculated.
The numbers (RAND, SRES, KC) form the triplet sent back to the MSC. When a
particular IMSI requests access to the GSM core network, the MSC sends the RAND part
of the triplet to the SIM. The SIM then feeds this number and the Ki (which is burned
onto the SIM) into the A3 algorithm as appropriate and an SRES is calculated and sent
back to the MSC. If this SRES matches with the SRES in the triplet (which it should if it
is a valid SIM), then the mobile is allowed to attach and proceed with GSM services.
After successful authentication, the MSC sends the encryption key Kc to the Base Station
Controller (BSC) so that all communications can be encrypted and decrypted. Of course,
the mobile phone can generate the Kc itself by feeding the same RAND supplied during
authentication and the Ki into the A8 algorithm.
The AUC is usually collocated with the HLR, although this is not necessary. Whilst the
procedure is secure for most everyday use, it is by no means crack proof. Therefore a new
set of security methods was designed for 3G phones.
[edit] Visitor Location Register (VLR)

[edit] Description
The Visitor Location Register or VLR is a temporary database of the subscribers who
have roamed into the particular area which it serves. Each Base Station in the network is
served by exactly one VLR, hence a subscriber cannot be present in more than one VLR
at a time.
The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the HLR, or collected from the
MS. In practice, for performance reasons, most vendors integrate the VLR directly to the
V-MSC and, where this is not done, the VLR is very tightly linked with the MSC via a
proprietary interface.
Data stored includes:
IMSI (the subscriber's identity number)

authentication data
MSISDN (the subscriber's phone number)
GSM services that the subscriber is allowed to access
Access Point (GPRS) subscribed
the HLR address of the subscriber
[edit] Other GSM Core Network Elements connected to the VLR

The VLR connects to the following elements:
the Visited MSC (V-MSC) to pass data needed by the V-MSC during its
procedures, e.g. authentication or call setup.
The HLR to request data for mobile phones attached to its serving area.
Other VLRs to transfer temporary data concerning the mobile when they roam
into new VLR areas (for example TMSI which is an ephemeral temporary IMSI
used in communication).

The primary functions of the VLR are:
to inform the HLR that a subscriber has arrived in the particular area covered by
the VLR
to track where the subscriber is within the VLR area (location area) when no call
is ongoing
to allow or disallow which services the subscriber may use
to allocate roaming numbers during the processing of incoming calls
to purge the subscriber record if a subscriber becomes inactive whilst in the area
of a VLR. The VLR deletes the subscriber's data after a fixed time period of
inactivity and informs the HLR (e.g. when the phone has been switched off and
left off or when the subscriber has moved to an area with no coverage for a long
time).
to delete the subscriber record when a subscriber explicitly moves to another, as
instructed by the HLR
[edit] EIR
The EIR (Equipment Identity Register) is often integrated to the HLR. The EIR keeps a
list of mobile phones (identified by their IMEI) which are to be banned from the network
or monitored. This is designed to allow tracking of stolen mobile phones. In theory all
data about all stolen mobile phones should be distributed to all EIRs in the world through
a Central EIR. It is clear, however, that there are some countries where this is not in
operation. The EIR data does not have to change in real time, which means that this
function can be less distributed than the function of the HLR.
[edit] Other support functions

Connected more or less directly to the GSM core network are many other functions.
[edit] BC
The Billing Centre is responsible for processing the toll tickets generated by the VLRs
and HLRs and generating a bill for each subscriber. it is also responsible for to generate
billing data of roaming subscriber.
[edit] SMSC
The Short Message Service Centre supports the sending and reception of text
messages.
[edit] MMSC
The Multimedia Messaging System Centre supports the sending of multimedia
messages (e.g. Images, Audio, Video and their combinations) to (or from) MMS-enabled
Handsets.
[edit] VMS
The Voicemail System records and stores voicemails.
[edit] Lawful interception functions

According to U.S. law, which has also been copied into many other countries, especially
in Europe, all telecommunications equipment must provide facilities for monitoring the
calls of selected users. There must be some level of support for this built into any of the
different elements. The concept of lawful interception is also known, following the
relevant U.S. law, as CALEA. Generally Lawful Interception implementation is similar to
the implementation of conference call.While A and B is talking with each other, C can
join the call and listens silently.
Penjelasan :
GPRS Core Network

(Redirected from SGSN)


The GPRS system is used by GSM Mobile phones, the most common mobile phone
system in the world (as of 2004), for transmitting IP packets. The GPRS Core Network
is the centralised part of the GPRS system and also provides support for WCDMA based
3G networks. The GPRS core network is an integrated part of the GSM core network.
Contents
[hide]
1 GPRS Core Network in General

2 GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP)
3 GPRS Support Nodes (GSN)
o 3.1 GGSN - Gateway GPRS Support Node
o 3.2 SGSN - Serving GPRS Support Node
o 3.3 Common SGSN Functions
o 3.4 GSM/EDGE Specific SGSN functions
o 3.5 WCDMA Specific SGSN functions
4 Access Point
5 PDP Context
6 Reference Points and Interfaces
6.1 Interfaces in the GPRS network
7 External links
[edit] GPRS Core Network in General

main article Packet Data_Protocol#GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP)
GPRS Core Network Structure

The GPRS Core Network (GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Services) provides
mobility management, session management and transport for Internet Protocol packet
services in GSM and WCDMA networks. The core network also provides support for
other additional functions such as charging and lawful interception. It was also proposed,
at one stage, to support packet radio services in the US TDMA system, however, in
practice, most of these networks are being converted to GSM so this option is becoming
largely irrelevant.
Like GSM in general, GPRS is an open standards driven system and the standardisation
body is the 3GPP.
[edit] GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP)

main article GPRS Tunnelling Protocol
GPRS Tunnelling Protocol is the defining IP protocol of the GPRS core network.
Primarily it is the protocol which allows end users of a GSM or WCDMA network to
move from place to place whilst continuing to connect to the internet as if from one
location at the Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN). It does this by carrying the
subscriber's data from the subscriber's current Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) to
the GGSN which is handling the subscriber's session. Three forms of GTP are used by the
GPRS core network.
GTP-U: for transfer of user data in separated tunnels for each PDP context
GTP-C: for control reasons including:

o setup and deletion of PDP contexts
o verification of GSN reachability
o updates, e.g. as subscribers move from one SGSN to another.
GTP' : for transfer of charging data from GSNs to the charging function.
GGSNs and SGSNs (collectively known as GSNs) listen for GTP-C messages on UDP
port 2123 and for GTP-U messages on port 2152. This communication happens within a
single network or may, in the case of international roaming, happen internationally,
probably across a GPRS Roaming Exchange (GRX).
The "Charging Gateway Function" (CGF) listens to GTP' messages sent from the GSNs
on UDP port 3386. The core network sends charging information to the CGF, typically
including PDP context activation times and the quantity of data which the end user has
transferred. However, this communication which occurs within one network is less
standardised and may, depending on the vendor and configuration options, use
proprietary encoding or even an entirely proprietary system.
[edit] GPRS Support Nodes (GSN)

A GSN is a network node which supports the use of GPRS in the GSM core network. All
GSNs should have a Gn interface and support the GPRS tunnelling protocol. There are
two key variants of the GSN; the GGSN and the SGSN defined below.
[edit] GGSN - Gateway GPRS Support Node

A gateway GPRS support node (GGSN) acts as an interface between the GPRS backbone
network and the external packet data networks (radio network and the IP network). It
converts the GPRS packets coming from the SGSN into the appropriate packet data
protocol (PDP) format (e.g. IP or X.25) and sends them out on the corresponding packet
data network. In the other direction, PDP addresses of incoming data packets are
converted to the GSM address of the destination user. The readdressed packets are sent to
the responsible SGSN. For this purpose, the GGSN stores the current SGSN address of
the user and his or her profile in its location register. The GGSN is responsible for IP
address assignment and is the default router for the connected UE (User Equipment).The
GGSN also performs authentication and charging functions
[edit] SGSN - Serving GPRS Support Node

A Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) is responsible for the delivery of data packets
from and to the mobile stations within its geographical service area. Its tasks include
packet routing and transfer, mobility management (attach/detach and location
management), logical link management, and authentication and charging functions. The
location register of the SGSN stores location information (e.g., current cell, current VLR)
and user profiles (e.g., IMSI, address(es) used in the packet data network) of all GPRS
users registered with this SGSN.
[edit] Common SGSN Functions
Detunnel GTP packets from the GGSN (downlink)

Tunnel IP packets toward the GGSN (uplink)
Carry out mobility management as Standby mode mobile moves from Routing
Area to Routing Area.
Billing user data
[edit] GSM/EDGE Specific SGSN functions
Carry up to about 60 kbit/s (150 kbit/s for Edge) traffic per subscriber
Connect via frame relay or IP to the PCU using the Gb protocol stack
Accept uplink data to form IP packets
Encrypt downlink data, decrypt uplink data
Carry out mobility management to the level of a cell for connected mode mobiles;
[edit] WCDMA Specific SGSN functions
Carry up to about 300 kbit/s traffic per subscriber

Tunnel/detunnel downlink/uplink packets toward the RNC
Carry out mobility management to the level of an RNC for connected mode
mobiles.
These differences in functionality have led some manufacturers to create specialist

SGSNs for each of WCDMA and GSM which do not support the other networks, whilst
other manufacturers have succeeded in creating both together, but with a performance
cost due to the compromises required.
[edit] Access Point

Main article Access Point Name
An access point is:
An IP network to which a mobile can be connected

A set of settings which are used for that connection
A particular option in a set of settings in a mobile phone
When a GPRS mobile phone sets up a PDP context, the access point is selected. At this
point an Access Point Name (APN) is determined
Example: flextronics.mnc012.mcc345.gprs.
Example: internet
Example: mywap.
This access point is then used in a DNS query to a private DNS network. This process
(called APN resolution) finally gives the IP address of the GGSN which should serve the
access point. At this point a PDP context can be activated..
[edit] PDP Context

The PDP(Packet Data Protocol, e.g. IP, X.25, FrameRelay) context is a data structure
present on both the SGSN and the GGSN which contains the subscriber's session
information when the subscriber has an active session. When a mobile wants to use
GPRS, it must first attach and then activate a PDP context. This allocates a PDP context
data structure in the SGSN that the subscriber is currently visiting and the GGSN serving
the subscribers access point. The data recorded includes.
Subscriber's IP address
Subscriber's IMSI
Subscriber's
o Tunnel ID (TEID) at the GGSN
o Tunnel ID (TEID) at the SGSN
The tunnel ID (TEID) is a number allocated by the GSN which identifies the tunnelled
data related to a particular PDP context.
There are two kinds of PDP contexts.
Primary PDP Context

o Has a unique IP address associated with it
Secondary PDP Context
o Shares an IP address with another PDP context
o Is created based on an existing PDP context (to share the IP address)
o Secondary PDP contexts may have different Quality Of Service settings
A total of 11 PDP contexts (with any combination of Primary and Secondary) can coexist.
[edit] Reference Points and Interfaces

Within the GPRS core network standards there are a number of interfaces and reference
points (logical points of connection which probably share a common physical connection
with other reference points). Some of these names can be seen in the network structure
diagram on this page.
[edit] Interfaces in the GPRS network
Gb - Interface between the Base Station Subsystem and the SGSN the
transmission protocol could be Frame Relay or IP.
Gn - IP Based interface between SGSN and other SGSNs and (internal) GGSNs.
DNS also shares this interface. Uses the GTP Protocol.
Gp - IP Based interface between internal SGSN and external GGSNs. Between
the SGSN and the external GGSN, there is the Border Gateway (which is
essentially a firewall). Also uses the GTP Protocol.
Ga - The interface servers the CDRs (Accounting records) which are written in
the GSN and sent to the CG (Charging Gateway). This interface uses an GTP
Protocol, with extensions that supports CDRs (Called GTP' or GTP prime).
Gr - Interface between the SGSN and the HLR. Messages going through this
interface uses the MAP3 Protocol.
Gd - Interface between the SGSN and the SMS Gateway. Can use MAP1, MAP2
or MAP3.
Gs - Interface between the SGSN and the MSC (VLR). Uses the BSSAP+
Protocol. This interface allows paging and station availability when it performs
data transfer. When the station is attached to the GPRS network, the SGSN keeps
track of which RA (Routing Area) the station is attached to. An RA is a part of a
larger LA (Location Area). When a station is paged this information is used to
conserve network resources. When the station performs a PDP Context, the SGSN
has the exact BTS the station is using.
Gi - The interface between the GGSN and a PDN (Public Data Network) either
directly to the Internet or through a WAP gateway. Uses the IP protocol.
Ge - The interface between the SGSN and the SCP (Service Control Point). Uses
the CAP Protocol.
Gx - The on-line policy interface between the GGSN and the CRF (Charging
Rules Function). It is used for provisioning service data flow based charging
rules. Uses the Diameter Protocol.
Gy - The on-line charging interface between the GGSN and the OCS (Online
Charging System). Uses the Diameter Protocol (DCCA application).
Gz - The off-line charging interface between the GSN and the CG (Charging
Gateway). Uses the CDRs (Accounting records).
jhuu
Penjelasan :
General Packet Radio Service


standards
GSM / UMTS Family
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a

Mobile Data Service available to users of Global
System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and
IS-136 mobile phones. GPRS data transfer is
typically charged per megabyte of transferred
data, while data communication via traditional
circuit switching is billed per minute of
connection time, independent of whether the user
has actually transferred data or has been in an idle
state. GPRS can be used for services such as
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) access,
Short Message Service (SMS), Multimedia
Messaging Service (MMS), and for Internet
communication services such as email and World
Wide Web access.
2G cellular systems combined with GPRS is often
described as "2.5G", that is, a technology between
the second (2G) and third (3G) generations of
mobile telephony. It provides moderate speed data
transfer, by using unused Time division multiple
access (TDMA) channels in for example the GSM
system. Originally there was some thought to
extend GPRS to cover other standards, but instead
those networks are being converted to use the
GSM standard, so that GSM is the only kind of
network where GPRS is in use. GPRS is
integrated into GSM Release 97 and newer
releases. It was originally standardized by
European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI), but now by the 3rd Generation
Partnership Project (3GPP).
Contents
1 Basics
o 1.1 Capability classes
1.1.1 Multislot classes
o 1.2 Coding scheme
2 Services and hardware
o 2.1 USB GPRS modem
3 Availability
4 See also
5 External links
GSM
GPRS
HSCSD
EDGE (EGPRS)
W-CDMA
o UMTS (3GSM)
o FOMA
UMTS-TDD
o TD-CDMA
o TD-SCDMA
HSPA
o HSDPA
o HSUPA
3G
HSPA+
Pre-4G
UMTS Revision 8
o LTE
o
HSOPA (Super 3G)

2G
cdmaOne
CDMA2000
EV-DO
3G
Pre-4G
[hide]
2G
UMB
Other Technologies
0G
PTT
MTS
IMTS
AMTS
OLT
MTD
Autotel / PALM
ARP
NMT
AMPS / TACS / ETACS
1G
[edit] Basics
GPRS is packet-switched, which means that multiple users share the same transmission
channel, only transmitting when they have data to send. Thus the total available
bandwidth can be immediately dedicated to those users who are actually sending at any
given moment, providing higher use where users only send or receive data intermittently.
Web browsing, receiving e-mails as they arrive and instant messaging are examples of
uses that require intermittent data transfers, which benefit from sharing the available
bandwidth. By contrast, in the older Circuit Switched Data (CSD) standard included in
GSM standards, a connection establishes a circuit, and reserves the full bandwidth of that
circuit during the lifetime of the connection.
Usually, GPRS data are billed per kilobyte of information transceived, while circuitswitched data connections are billed per second. The latter is because even when no data
are being transferred, the bandwidth is unavailable to other potential users.
The multiple access methods used in GSM with GPRS are based on frequency division
duplex (FDD) and FDMA. During a session, a user is assigned to one pair of up-link and
down-link frequency channels. This is combined with time domain statistical
multiplexing, i.e. packet mode communication, which makes it possible for several users
to share the same frequency channel. The packets have constant length, corresponding to
a GSM time slot. The down-link uses first-come first-served packet scheduling, while the
up-link uses a scheme very similar to reservation ALOHA. This means that slotted Aloha
(S-ALOHA) is used for reservation inquiries during a contention phase, and then the
actual data is transferred using dynamic TDMA with first-come first-served scheduling.
GPRS originally supported (in theory) Internet Protocol (IP), Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) and X.25 connections. The last has been typically used for applications like
wireless payment terminals, although it has been removed from the standard. X.25 can
still be supported over PPP, or even over IP, but doing this requires either a router to
perform encapsulation or intelligence built in to the end-device/terminal e.g. UE(User
Equipment). In practice, when the mobile built-in browser is used, IPv4 is being utilized.
In this mode PPP is often not supported by the mobile phone operator, while IPv6 is not
yet popular. But if the mobile is used as a modem to the connected computer, PPP is used
to tunnel IP to the phone. This allows DHCP to assign an IP Address and then the use of
IPv4 since IP addresses used by mobile equipment tend to be dynamic.
[edit] Capability classes

Class A
Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), using both at
the same time. Such devices are known to be available today.
Class B
Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), but using only
one or the other at a given time. During GSM service (voice call or SMS), GPRS
service is suspended, and then resumed automatically after the GSM service
(voice call or SMS) has concluded. Most GPRS mobile devices are Class B.
Class C
Are connected to either GPRS service or GSM service (voice, SMS). Must be
switched manually between one or the other service.
A true Class A device may be required to transmit on two different frequencies at the
same time, and thus will need two radios. To get around this expensive requirement, a
GPRS mobile may implement the dual transfer mode (DTM) feature. A DTM-capable
mobile may use simultaneous voice and packet data, with the network coordinating to
ensure that it is not required to transmit on two different frequencies at the same time.
Such mobiles are considered pseudo-Class A. Some networks are expected to support
DTM in 2007.
[edit] Multislot classes

The five-layer TCP/IP model
5. Application layer
DHCP DNS FTP Gopher HTTP IMAP4 IRC
NNTP XMPP POP3 SIP SMTP SNMP
SSH TELNET RPC RTP RTCP RTSP
TLS/SSL SDP SOAP BGP PPTP L2TP GTP
STUN NTP ...
4. Transport layer
TCP UDP DCCP SCTP RSVP ...
3. Network/Internet Layer
IP (IPv4 IPv6) IGMP ICMP OSPF ISIS
IPsec ARP RARP RIP ...
2. Data link layer
802.11 ATM DTM Token Ring Ethernet
FDDI Frame Relay GPRS EVDO HSPA
HDLC PPP ...
1. Physical layer
Ethernet physical layer ISDN Modems PLC
SONET/SDH G.709 Optical Fiber WiFi
WiMAX Coaxial Cable Twisted Pair ...
This box: view talk edit
GPRS speed is a direct function of the number of TDMA time slots assigned, which is the
lesser of (a) what the particular cell supports and (b) the maximum capability of the
mobile device expressed as a GPRS Multislot Class.
Multislot Class
Downlink Slots
Uplink Slots
Active Slots
10
11
12
32
The most common GPRS multislot classes are:

Class 2
Minimal GPRS implementation
Class 4
Modest GPRS implementation, 50% faster download than Class 2
Class 6
Modest implementation, but with better uploading than Class 4
Class 8
Better implementation, 33% faster download than Classes 4 & 6
Class 10
Better implementation, and with better uploading than Class 8, seen in better cell
phones and PC Cards
Class 12
Best implementation, with maximum upload performance, typically seen only in
high-end PC Cards
[edit] Coding scheme

Transfer speed depends also on the channel encoding used. The least
robust, but fastest, coding scheme (CS-4) is available near a base
Coding Speed
scheme (kbit/s)
CS-1
8.0
CS-2
12.0
CS-3
14.4
CS-4
20.0
transceiver station (BTS), while the most robust coding scheme (CS-1) is used when the
mobile station (MS) is further away from a BTS.
Using the CS-4 it is possible to achieve a user speed of 20.0 kbit/s per time slot.
However, using this scheme the cell coverage is 25% of normal. CS-1 can achieve a user
speed of only 8.0 kbit/s per time slot, but has 98% of normal coverage. Newer network
Technology
Download
(kbit/s)
Upload (kbit/s)
Configuration
CSD
9.6
9.6
1+1
HSCSD
28.8
14.4
2+1
HSCSD
43.2
14.4
3+1
GPRS
80.0
20.0 (Class 8 & 10 and CS4)
4+1
GPRS
60.0
40.0 (Class 10 and CS-4)
3+2
EGPRS
(EDGE)
236.8
59.2 (Class 8, 10 and MCS9)
4+1
EGPRS
(EDGE)
177.6
118.4 (Class 10 and MCS9)
3+2
equipment can adapt the transfer speed automatically depending on the mobile location.
Like CSD, HSCSD establishes a circuit and is usually billed per minute. For an
application such as downloading, HSCSD may be preferred, since circuit-switched data
are usually given priority over packet-switched data on a mobile network, and there are
relatively few seconds when no data are being transferred.
GPRS is packet based. When TCP/IP is used, each phone can have one or more IP
addresses allocated. GPRS will store and forward the IP packets to the phone during cell
handover (when you move from one cell to another). A radio noise induced pause can be
interpreted by TCP as packet loss, and cause a temporary throttling in transmission speed.
[edit] Services and hardware

GPRS upgrades GSM data services providing:
Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS)

Push to talk over Cellular PoC / PTT
Instant Messaging and Presence -- Wireless Village
Internet Applications for Smart Devices through Wireless Application Protocol
(WAP)
Point-to-point (PTP) service: internetworking with the Internet (IP protocols)
Short Message Service (SMS)

Future enhancements: flexible to add new functions, such as more capacity, more
users, new accesses, new protocols, new radio networks.
[edit] USB GPRS modem

USB GPRS modems use a terminal-like interface USB 2.0 and later, data formats
V.42bis, and RFC 1144 and external antennas. Modems can be add in cards (for laptop)
or external USB devices which are similar in shape and size to a computer mouse.
[edit] Availability
In many areas, such as France, telephone operators have priced GPRS relatively cheaply
(compared to older GSM data transfer, CSD and HSCSD). Some mobile phone operators
offer flat rate access to the Internet, while others charge based on data transferred, usually
rounded up to 100 kilobytes.
During the heyday of GPRS in the developed countries, the mid 2000s, typical prices
varied from EUR 0,24 per megabyte to over 20 per megabyte. In developing countries,
prices vary widely, and change. Some operators gave free access while they decided
pricing, for example in Togocel.tg in Togo, West Africa, others were over-priced, such as
Tigo of Ghana at one US dollar per megabyte or Indonesia at $3 per megabyte. Mero
Mobile of Nepal charges users up to a set amount and then has unlimited Internet access.
Pre-Paid SIM Cards allow travelers to buy short term internet access. The mean price in
developing nations is US$1 per hour [citation needed].
The maximum speed of a GPRS connection offered in 2003 was similar to a modem
connection in an analog wire telephone network, about 32 to 40 kbit/s, depending on the
phone used. Latency is very high; a round-trip ping is typically about 600 to 700 ms and
often reaches 1s. GPRS is typically prioritized lower than speech, and thus the quality of
connection varies greatly.
In order to set up a GPRS connection for a wireless modem, a user must specify an access
point name (APN), optionally a user name and password, and very rarely an IP address,
all provided by the network operator.
Devices with latency/RTT improvements (via e.g. the extended UL TBF mode feature)
are widely available. Also, network upgrades of features are available with certain
operators. With these enhancements the active round-trip time can be reduced, resulting
in significant increase in application-level throughput speeds.
[edit] See also
CDMA
EDGE
UMTS
GPRS Core Network
SNDCP
IP Multimedia Subsystem
HSDPA
Multiplayer Mobile games
List of device bandwidths
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Base Station Subsystem

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

A typical GSM Base Station

1 Base Transceiver Station

[edit] Base Transceiver Station

Base Transceiver Station Antenna in Paris

[edit] Base Station Controller

Two GSM base station antennas disguised as trees in Dublin, Ireland.

[edit] Packet Control Unit

[edit] BSS interfaces

[edit] General characteristics

[edit] Broadcast messages and paging

[edit] Frequency reuse

Example of frequency reuse factor or pattern 1/4

[edit] Movement from cell to cell and handover

[edit] Cellular telephony

Jump to: navigation, search

Several mobile phones of the "candy bar" variety (non-folding)

Various cell phones from the past 1015 years.

2. Nokia 2110 series (1994)

This Railfone found on some Amtrak trains uses cellular technology.

[edit] Culture and customs

The use of a mobile phone is prohibited in some train company carriages

phone in an examination can result in immediate disqualification from that subject or

[edit] Use in disaster response

[edit] Use by drivers

One phone in each hand

[edit] Forensics and evidence

[edit] Human health impacts

[edit] Environmental impacts

Mobile phone tower

Cell Phone tower located in Lynnwood, WA.

(Redirected from Telecommunications)

Base Transceiver Station

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

[edit] BTS in Mobile Communication

[edit] Important terms regarding a Mobile BTS

Antenna positioning to implement horizontal space diversity

[edit] General Architecture

- Quite widely referred to as DRX (Driver Receiver)

- Amplifies the signal from DRX for transmission through antenna

- For separating sending and receiving signals to/from antenna

- Antenna also considered as not a part of BTS

Alarm Extension System

- Does the control of BTS

[edit] Computer networks

[edit] Radio technology

By whether they work on blocks of symbols usually of a fixed size (block

[edit] Etymology of Cipher

Encoding often involved numbers.

[edit] Ciphers versus codes

[edit] Types of Cipher

[edit] Key Size and Vulnerability

Mathematical advances that allow new attacks or weaknesses to be discovered

Helen Fouch Gaines, Cryptanalysis, 1939, Dover. ISBN 0-486-20097-3

Ten things you didn't know about Wikipedia

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Jump to: navigation, search

An alternative method to calculate frequency is to measure the time between two

[edit] Frequency of waves

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum

(Redirected from Frequency hopping)