10 - Section-5 Gas Compression

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Gas Compression
SECTION 5
GAS COMPRESSION
Gas Compression
1.1
Theory of Compression
1.2
Gas Compressor Types
Centrifugal Compressors
Compressor Selection
3.1
Centrifugal Compressor Operating Curves
3.2
Surge Control
Components of the Centrifugal Compressor

4.1
The Casing
4.2
The Impeller
4.3
The Rotor and Shaft
4.4
The Balancing Drum
4.5
Diaphragms
4.6
Guide Vanes
4.7
Thrust Bearings
4.8
Main (Journal) Bearings
4.9
Seals
4.10
Labyrinth Seal
Gas Compressor Lubrication
The Seal Oil System
Interstage Cooling
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Table
5.1
Approximate Number of Impellers, Temperature Rise and Power

Consumption by Centrifugal Type Compressors
Figures
5.1
Gas Compression Metering and Export Overview
5.2
Calculating Absolute Pressure
5.3
Simple Single-stage Centrifugal Compressor
5.4
Compressor and System Characteristics
5.5
Operating Temperature
5.6
Compressor Operating Curves
5.7
Antisurge Control System
5.8
Horizontally Split Casing Design
5.9
Vertically Split Compressor with Rotor Bundle Partially Removed
5.10
Typical Rotor
5.11
Thrust Direction
5.12
Diaphragm Arrangement
5.13
Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing
5.14
Tilting Pad Journal Bearing
5.15
Labyrinth Seal
5.16
Lube Oil System
5.17
Typical Seal Oil System
5.18
Elements of a Typical Reciprocating Compressor
5.19
Reciprocating Compressor Horsepower and Temperature Rise
5.20
Interstage Cooling
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GAS COMPRESSION
In order to meet export pipeline specification the produced gas is treated
by raising its pressure and by drying it. Drying the gas is discussed in the
following section of this manual Gas Dehydration.
Produced gas or off-gas from the separators will vary in pressure depending
upon the pressure at which the associated separator is operating.
A typical gas compression train can be seen in Figure 5.1 in which the gas
undergoes various stages of compression.
First, gas from the final separator is raised in pressure by routing the gas
through a low pressure compressor, then through a medium pressure
compressor so that the pressure is the same as that in the combined inlet
and test separator gas discharge manifold.
The next stage is to raise the pressure of the combined gases to that at
which the dehydration plant operates. This is achieved by passing the gas
through the high pressure gas compressors.
Once the gas has been dried to the required specification, it is normal to
use some of it for fuel gas and purge gas prior to routing the remainder to
the export gas compression train, where its pressure is finally raised to
meet export gas pipeline requirements.
Before the gas leaves the installation it is routed through the gas metering
system in order to accurately register the amount of gas being exported.
1.1
Theory of Compression
A compressor is a device that raises the pressure of a compressible fluid,
such as air or gas.
Compressors create a pressure differential in order to move or compress a
vapour or a gas, consuming power in the process.
They may be broadly classified as positive displacement or non-positive
displacement machines according to whether or not they incorporate in the
compressor a mechanism functioning in the manner of a check valve to
separate the high pressure discharge from the low pressure suction.
Non-positive displacement compressors have no mechanism to perform this
function.
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1.1.1 Pressure and Volume - Relationship

In any compressor, a predictable pressure, volume, temperature and power
change occurs. A working knowledge of how each relates to the other is
necessary to understand compressor operations.
The following general statements apply to a gas being compressed:
Pressure rises
Volume decreases
Temperature rises
Power is required
Let us study the relationship between pressure and volume.

Pressure is usually measured by a gauge that registers the difference
between the pressure inside the equipment and the pressure of the
atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure can be measured in psi or kPa (14.7psi or
101kPa) and reflects the pressure at sea level. Gauge pressure does not
indicate the true pressure in absolute terms, which can be obtained by
adding atmospheric pressure to the gauge reading.
In compressor calculations, absolute pressure terms should always be used.
Refer to Figure 5.2
Reading on pressure gauge
Atmospheric pressure
Absolute pressure reading
NB
0psig
14.7psig
14.7psia
14.7psig
14.7psig
29.4psia
Compressing gas to half its original volume, doubles its absolute pressure.
Applying the principles given above to a compressor situation we can see
the basis of our original statement that a relationship exists between
pressure and volume. The three pistons illustrated in Figure 5.2
demonstrate this fact.
The piston on the left has a reading of 0psig within it. In absolute terms this
is read as 14.7psia. If we push the piston down, as in the right-hand drawing
the internal pressure will read 14.7psig, or, in absolute terms 29.4psia.
We have effectively doubled the absolute pressure by halving the volume
occupied by the gas. Increasing the pressure still further would decrease the
volume in direct proportion. If the pressure (in absolute terms) was doubled
once again, the new volume would be one-fourth the original volume. This
assumes that the temperature remained constant.
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For rough calculations of absolute pressure and volume reduction it is

acceptable to round off atmospheric pressure to 15.0psi or in metric terms,
1 bar.
Example of Pressure/Volume Relationship
Original gauge reading
Atmospheric pressure
Absolute pressure
= 100psig
= l5psig
= 115psia
Final gauge reading = 330psig

Atmospheric pressure = l5psig
Absolute pressure
= 345psia
RATIO = 345 divided by 115 = 3

Compression Ratio is a function of absolute discharge pressure (psia) and
absolute suction pressure (psia). Never use psig for calculating ratio.
1.2
Gas Compressor Types

Compressors are basically used to raise the operating pressure of gases.
They are used in a very wide range of applications, from small machines
used in compressing air, say for paint spraying, right through to the very
large machines used on gas processing duties on offshore installations and
refineries etc.
The range of power demand can be anything from a fraction of a
horsepower right through to 100Mw (130,000hp) or thereabout.
Discharge pressures can range from 1 to 2barg up to 400barg required for
gas reinjection duties.
Offshore gas compressors can be driven by electric motors or by turbine.
In general, if small volumes with high discharge pressures are required then
a reciprocating compressor is more suitable. When large volume flowrates
of gas are required to be handled with modest discharge pressures the axial
type of compressor is most suitable.
For intermediate and fairly high volume flowrates the centrifugal type of
machine is more suitable. These machines may be designed to operate at
pressures in the region of 350bar, and are the type normally used on the gas
compression trains offshore.
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CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
A centrifugal compressor adds energy to a gas stream by accelerating the
gas across an impeller and by decelerating the gas in a diffuser. This is
shown in Figure 5.3 for a single-stage centrifugal compressor.
The velocity of the gas is increased across the impeller, in other words, the
gas has picked up kinetic energy from the rotor. The gas enters at the
centre or eye of the impeller, the vanes on the impeller force the gas to
the outside rim then throw it away from the rim at high velocity. The gas
leaves the tip of the impeller at its highest velocity, and then enters the
diffuser.
The size of the flow passage in the diffuser is much larger than in the
impeller, so the gas slows down.
When the gas slows down, its kinetic energy decreases. Some of this kinetic
energy is lost to friction along the walls of the diffuser, but most of it is
converted to other forms of energy.
The compressor head is the amount of energy transferred to the gas by
the compressor. So this energy head is directly related to the kinetic energy
provided at the rotor. Furthermore, the amount of kinetic energy provided
at the rotor is directly related to the velocity of the gas leaving the tip of
the impeller.
A simple analogy can be used when considering the impeller action on the
molecules. Imagine what happens when an object such as a stone is
attached to a piece of string held in the hand and rotated. A force, which is
termed centrifugal tries to pull the string from the hand. In the case of
the rotating impeller, it is this force which accelerates the molecules and,
from Newton's Second Law, the acceleration, or velocity increase, is
proportional to the force.
Using the same analogy, replace the object with another which has twice
the mass; rotate it at the same speed as in the first case and it will be
observed that the force is greater. If this force could be measured it would
be found that its magnitude had doubled leading to the conclusion that the
centrifugal force is proportional to the mass.
Relating this to the centrifugal compressor, it can be stated that the
centrifugal force, and hence the pressure developed, is approximately
proportional to the mass of the molecules ie the molecular weight of the
gas.
Finally from the rotating mass analogy, if the same mass was used but at
double the rate of rotation, a further increase in centrifugal force would be
observed. In this case, its magnitude would be four times as large,
indicating a relationship in which the centrifugal force is proportional to the
square of the rotational speed. This leads to the conclusion that the
pressure developed by the centrifugal compressor is approximately
proportional to the square of the rotational speed.
Clearly the velocity is at a maximum as it leaves the outer rim of the
impeller and it is the purpose of the diffuser and volute to convert part of
this velocity into pressure.
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COMPRESSOR SELECTION
It is necessary to know the required compression ratio, the volumetric
flowrate, and the pressure/flow characteristic of the system in which the
compressor will operate. Once these quantities are established they can be
matched with the compressor curve. The point at which the compressor
curve intersects the system will be the normal operating condition, or duty
point for the compressor. For example, a compressor represented by curve
C in Figure 5.4 operating in a system represented by A will produce capacity
and head represented by Point 1.
Allowance must also be provided for changes in the system; for example,
the partial closure of a valve might change the system characteristic from
that of A to that of B. In such a case the operating conditions will change to
those represented by Point 2, and, as will be discussed later the change
must now allow the compressor to reach an unstable operating condition.
It must be stressed that this analysis has been applied to a fixed speed
compressor and ignores the flexibility of operating conditions which a
variable speed machine provides.
The increase of kinetic energy produced by an impeller is dependent on its
rotational speed and diameter. The greater the diameter and speed of the
impeller the greater the pressure increase. However there is a constraint
and that is the strength of the impeller which is subjected to the same
centrifugal force as the process gas. When the force is too great it can
cause the impeller to break. Therefore, the material of construction of the
impeller is the limiting factor in gas pressure increase per stage. When
pressures greater than that which can be attained by the use of one
impeller are required it is usual to resort to multi-impeller or multistage
compressors. In practice it is rare to find more than 10 impellers in a
compressor since there is also a design limit to the shaft length, which, if
exceeded, will permit excess motion normal to the axial plane, causing
damage to the labyrinth seals. If a further pressure increase is needed then
another compressor will be used in series with the first unit.
It has already been stated that the pressure developed is approximately
proportional to the molecular weight of the gas being compressed. A result
of this is that a particular impeller will develop a lower compression ratio
for a light gas than for a heavier one. For example, more stages of
compression will be required to achieve the same compression ratio for
methane (molecular weight = 16) than propane (molecular weight = 44).
Refer to Table 5.1. The table shows the relationship between the number of
impellers, compression ratio, temperature rise and power consumption.
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EXAMPLE
A three-stage compressor is operating at the conditions shown in Figure 5.5.

Calculate if the drive unit is overloaded and if the discharge temperature is
correct.
Firstly, calculate the compression ratio (Rc) of the unit.
Rc
Absolute Discharge Pressure

Absolute Suction Pressure
Substitute known values:Rc
21 + 1.013
9 + 1.013
22.013
10.013
2.2
From Table 5.1 the following data can be derived:

At a compression rate of 2.2:
Power requirement
Temperature rise
=
=
1.32kW/1000m3/d
78C
To compress 1.2 million m3/d then power requirements are:

1,200,000
1,000
1.32kW
1584 kW
Therefore, the motor drive unit is not overloaded since it is rated at

1800kW and the power required for compression is 1584kW.
From Table 5.1 the temperature rise across the machine was found to be
78C. Since the suction temperature is 27C, the calculated discharge
temperature is 105C (ie 78 + 27). The actual operating discharge
temperature for this type of configuration (refer to Figure 5.5) is 108C
which equates with the calculated value.
3.1
Centrifugal Compressor Operating Curves

Operating curves are produced for all centrifugal compressors. In Figure 5.6,
the graphs of various speeds (expressed as a percentage of the design
speed) are plotted against compression ratio and capacity.
Note in Figure 5.6 that the operating curves are bounded on each side by a
line. On the left-hand side this line is referred to as the surge condition and
on the right-hand side the line is known as the stonewall condition.
Surge occurs at some minimum compressor capacity at a particular speed.
At this minimum capacity the compressor does not provide sufficient
discharge pressure and as a result flow reversals occur. That is to say, the
compressor discharges gas to a system but the system then returns it.
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Stonewall limits a compressor's capacity. This arises from a limiting gas

flowrate through the impeller eye. This flowrate is always higher than
design flowrate and usually occurs above 108% to 120% of design capacity.
Dealing with those curves that lie between the surge and stonewall
conditions, consider the case where 75% of the design flowrate enters the
compressor. From Figure 5.6 it can be determined that at 75% of compressor
capacity and at 100% speed the compression ratio has a value of 109% of its
design value. At the above stated conditions the compression ratio has
increased. If the compression ratio is higher it means that any of the
following may occur:
The discharge pressure increases

The suction pressure decreases
The discharge pressure increases and the suction pressure decreases
The only way that the compressor can operate at its original compression
ratio is by slowing the unit down to about 97% speed (refer to Figure 5.6).
Therefore, some form of speed control is required on the unit to give
operational flexibility. Speed control is determined by drive type. Some of
the most frequently used methods are listed below:
When the compressor is driven by an engine, the compressor speed

may be changed by changing the engine speed
If the compressor is driven by a direct current electric motor,

compressor speed may be changed by varying the voltage
In the case of alternating current electric motors, compressor speed

can be changed by altering the alternating current frequency
With a single shaft, variable speed turbine coupled directly to a

compressor, compressor speed is changed by altering turbine speed
A compressor driven by a split shaft gas turbine permits the speed of

the compressor to be changed but independent of turbine speed
For fixed speed compressors control is obtained using a recycle gas

system. Such a system may also be fitted to a variable speed
compressor
The following points arising out of Figure 5.6 are also worthy of note:
(1)
If at 100% speed the gas flowrate to the compressor is less than 58% of
design flowrate, then some discharge gas will have to be recycled to
suction to prevent surging.
(2)
The compressor will not develop 100% compression ratio at a speed

less than 95% of design speed. Also if the machine runs at a speed
greater than 100% of design speed then it will always create a
compression ratio greater than the design ratio.
The above data relates to the specific compressor exemplified in Figure 5.6,
however, similar comments can be made about any set of compressor
curves.
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3.2
Surge Control
Surge is an undesirable operating condition, which will occur in centrifugal
compressors if the capacity is reduced such that the machine is trying to
operate in the unstable area. This area lies on, and to the left of, the surge
line (refer to Figure 5.7).
Surge can begin in any one of the impellers in the compressor but then
affects the whole compressor.
The reduction in capacity can be caused by an upset or restriction of flow in
the suction or discharge side of the machine. In either case the effect is the
same; as the surge point is approached, turbulence begins to occur adjacent
to the impeller cover near the eye of the impeller causing the flow to start
breaking down. At the instant the flow breaks down completely all
downstream impellers are affected and the machine is said to be in surge.
The downstream pressure is now higher than at the impeller exit and,
because of this pressure gradient, backflow occurs until suction and
discharge pressures are such that the machine can again achieve
compression. This cycle occurs extremely rapidly causing axial and radial
vibration due to the rapidly changing pressures within the machine.
There are a number of theories which attempt to explain surge - which of
them is correct is immaterial. Without protection the cycling will continue,
sometimes violently, putting tremendous stress on the drive unit, rotor,
bearings, impellers and seals.
The excessive axial displacement can very quickly damage internal and end
labyrinth seals. If surge is allowed to continue the violent cycling can reach
an intensity which can tear external piping, shatter impellers and bend
rotors.
It is therefore extremely important that surge is not allowed to occur, and
therefore the machine must be kept within its stable operating range.
However, for the fixed speed machine both the performance curve and
surge line move with changing gas density, molecular weight and/or suction
temperature of the gas.
It is the job of a surge controller to maintain sufficient flow through the
compressor to keep away from the surge point. This is done by means of a
recycle loop (refer to Figure 5.7); the control valve opening to recycle
discharge gas to the suction of the compressor as the surge point is
approached.
However, the main task of the machine is to compress all the gas made
available to it, so the surge control must be set up so that under normal
conditions recycling does not take place unnecessarily.
One method of controlling surge is by measuring two variables; (a)
differential pressure across the compressor and (b) suction flow to the
compressor. (a) is used to generate a setpoint to control (b). By using this
method some compensation for the effect of gas density is achieved, ie P
varies with density at constant volumetric flow.
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The differential pressure across the compressor (which is proportional to

flow) is measured and transmitted to the bias controller where a bias
(always positive) is added to it. The output of this controller (input + bias) is
fed to the surge controller where it is multiplied by a ratio ranging from 1 to
0; this new value becomes the setpoint for the surge controller. The
measured value signal, generated by an orifice plate and differential
pressure cell in the suction line of the compressor, is compared with the
setpoint. The surge controller allows flows to exist in excess of the setpoint
but when the flow falls to the setpoint the recycle valve begins to open to
maintain the flow.
Thus a setpoint is generated which is equivalent to a flow on the
performance curve to the right of the surge point. Should the P rise due to
falling flow or rising density the setpoint will rise ensuring that the surge
point is never reached.
COMPONENTS OF THE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

Reiterating the theory behind centrifugal compression; the centrifugal
machine achieves the compression process with the aid of a rotating
impeller possessing several blades or vanes. The impeller is mounted on a
shaft and is rotated by an external drive unit. The impeller/shaft assembly
is located inside a casing which confines the gas to be compressed.
Gas enters the casing and, with the aid of the impeller, is forced at high
velocity to the walls of the casing. Here the conversion of energy takes
place. That is to say, velocity energy is converted to pressure energy. An
examination of the compressor components in greater detail is contained in
the following paragraphs.
4.1
The Casing
This is the name given to the part of the compressor which contains the
other principal components of the centrifugal compressor. In the simplest of
examples the casing contains a single, shaft-mounted impeller as shown in
Figure 5.3.
This type of unit is found in low-pressure-raising applications (eg discharge
pressure about 1barg with a suction pressure of 0.3barg) since a single
impeller is a limiting factor in pressure increase.
When greater discharge pressures are required several impellers are usually
placed in series on the same shaft, each taking suction from the discharge
of the previous impeller. Such an arrangement is called a multistage
compressor as opposed to the single impeller or single-stage unit.
Many compressor manufacturers employ the horizontally split casing design
for the pressure range 1.7 to 50bar.
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Figure 5.8 depicts such a unit in which the top half of the casing can be
lifted off easily in order to gain access to the internals. The casing divides
at the horizontal centre line, the two halves being located by dowel pins
and held together by bolts.
The casings may be constructed in several different ways according to user
requirements. For example a particular user may need the suction discharge
and any sideload connections in a specific orientation. A sideload
connection is a facility which can be included in the compressor design to
permit gas take-off at some intermediate pressure between inlet and
discharge conditions. For example, it may be used for fuel gas
requirements.
Note that, if required, the drive shaft can be extended from one compressor
to another thereby permitting one drive unit to drive two (or more)
compressors.
The choice of materials of construction of the casing depends on such
factors as corrosivity, temperature and pressure of the gas and the induced
stresses of the compression process. In the temperature range of 30C to
200C grey cast iron or cast steels are some typical examples. However,
when temperatures lower than these are expected, or if stresses are
unusually high, then alloys are used. Corrosion is taken into account either
by making a corrosion allowance when determining casing thickness or by
using corrosion resistant alloys (eg stainless steel).
In addition to the horizontally-split casing there is also the vertically split
type casing which is usually employed in higher pressure service. The end
plate is fixed to the casing by a series of bolts which, when viewed from the
side, form a vertical line. Figure 5.9 shows an example of this type.
When the end plate is unbolted and removed, internals consisting of the
shaft and impellers etc can be removed as a complete unit. The cylindrical
design of this type of casing provides high structural integrity. By virtue of
the symmetry, stresses (induced as a result of temperature increases) are
equally distributed thereby minimising distortional effects which may often
be prevalent in other forms of compressor casing. The vertically split type
casing is sometimes found with an end plate at each end of the unit.
4.2
The Impeller
Refer to Figure 5.3
The impeller is the part in a compressor which rotates and increases gas
pressure. (It is also referred to as a wheel.) It is mounted on the compressor
shaft. The impeller can comprise three main components, the blades, the
disc (or hub) and the cover.
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4.3
The Rotor and Shaft

Refer to Figure 5.10
A compressor which is equipped with two or more impellers (ie a multistage
unit) has its shaft/impeller assembly and other associated equipment
referred to as the rotor.
The shaft has to be fabricated from a high quality metal which can be
engineered to fine tolerances. These requirements would lead to the
construction of a costly assembly and therefore to minimise the costs
incurred the shaft is usually fabricated from mild steel and later coated
with a hardened metal such as stainless steel or chromium.
Certain points on the shaft surface are subjected to more wear than others.
This is particularly the case at sealing arrangements and therefore at these
points the shaft is often equipped with a removable sleeve fabricated from
hardened alloys. This sleeve may be renewed when the degree of wear has
become excessive.
The shaft is engineered to permit the following:
Location of sealing surfaces
Acceptance of oil slinger rings
Acceptance of a balancing drum
Coupling facilities to be installed at one end of the shaft
Acceptance of shrink fitted impellers along the shaft
Location of journal and thrust bearing surfaces
The impellers may be fixed in position on the shaft in a number of ways.

The most common method is the combination of shrink fit and keys. On
some compressors, particularly units of low speed, impellers are fastened to
shafts with keys only. Some designs use a heavy shrink fit without keys.
However, in some instances this has created a maintenance problem during
disassembly and subsequent reassembly.
During construction, the rotor is carefully balanced to minimise vibration
during operation. However, despite careful balancing the rotor will still
vibrate at two or three different speeds. These speeds, known as critical
speeds, can be predicted and as such the normal operating speed of the unit
is set to avoid them.
4.4
The Balancing Drum

Thrust force is always developed in the impeller with a resultant force in
the direction of the inlet. This is illustrated in Figure 5.11 in the case of a
single impeller unit.
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One can imagine that in a multistage compressor very high thrusts are trying
to force the rotor to the compressor suction end. These thrust forces must
be minimised and there are a number of ways of achieving this goal. One
method is to mount the impellers back to back on the shaft as illustrated in
Figure 5.11.
In this way the thrust of each impeller cancels out the other. However, the
most popular way of reducing the induced thrust forces is with the aid of a
device called the balancing drum or balancing piston. As can be seen in
Figure 5.12 the balance drum is fitted to the shaft at a point behind the last
impeller. One side of the drum experiences the compressor discharge
pressure whilst the other side is connected to compressor suction by the
pressure balance line. By judicious sizing of the drum the magnitude and
direction of the resultant thrust can be controlled.
4.4
Diaphragms
The diaphragm is the device which separates the stages in a compressor. It
is important to note that vertically split and horizontally split casings
possess horizontally split diaphragms to permit easier maintenance.
The process of compression generates heat and the result of this is that in
some large, horizontally split compressors the heat can cause unwanted
expansion of the diaphragms. This effect can be prevented by supplying
cooling water to the diaphragms.
The diaphragms may be fabricated from a variety of metals including cast
iron, cast bronze, cast steel and alloys.
Diaphragms made from cast iron cannot be subjected to high differential
pressure without failure occurring. In addition, thermal shock, as
experienced by compressors in refrigeration processes, must similarly be
avoided where there are cast iron diaphragms. High differential pressures
usually occur during shutdowns of the compressor.
4.6
Guide Vanes
Compressor performance is affected by two factors. These are:
The direction that the process gas enters the impeller eye
The velocity of the process gas approach to the impeller eye
If the process gas can be made to enter the impeller in the same direction
as the impeller rotation then the efficiency of the compressor will be
increased. However, if the process gas enters in the opposite direction to
impeller rotation, the capacity and gas pressure rise of the unit can be
increased slightly.
The purpose of guide vanes is to control the flowrate of the gas in the
compressor. In some multistage compressors the inlet guide vane positions
are controllable thereby permitting some flexibility in operation.
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4.7
Thrust Bearings
Thrust bearings are those bearings which are used to locate the rotor axially
and at the same time absorb any axial rotor imbalance. In actual practice,
this imbalance force may vary from zero to several thousand pounds
depending on how the compressor is designed.
A tapered roller bearing is often utilised in machines where the thrust
forces are small. However, larger machines usually employ a more
sophisticated device for heavy-duty purposes. This is referred to as the
tilting pad bearing. The bearing consists of a metal disc or collar which is
fitted onto, and rotates with, the shaft (refer to Figure 5.13). A number of
metal pads or shoes (usually four to eight) are machined to locate in sockets
enabling them to tilt in any direction. These shoes do not rotate. The thrust
collar rotates against the shoes and wear is minimised by surfacing the
shoes with babbitt metal and maintaining adequate oil film lubrication. By
permitting the shoes to tilt in any direction the shaft movements in an axial
direction is limited.
4.8
Main (Journal) Bearings

The main or journal bearings are utilised to maintain the rotor assembly in
its correct position especially when load or speed parameters change. There
are a number of types available which include the self-aligning sleeve and
roller type. Sometimes, in low pressure compressors, these bearings are
located on the outside of the case of the compressor. This enables
maintenance to be simplified.
On larger compressors the radial type bearing is employed. The surface of
the bearing which makes contact with the compressor shaft is usually
fabricated from a soft metal. By using this form of construction the bearing
surface is likely to wear out in preference to the expensive shaft assembly.
Worthy of note at this point is the operating phenomenon referred to as oil
whip which can occur in high speed compressors. The bearing lubricating
oil tends to congregate at a point on the shaft not subject to great loading,
resulting in premature bearing wear and rough operation. This problem can
be alleviated by machining grooves in the compressor shaft, or the bearing
liner, to make dams which route the lubricating oil to the required
places. Alternatively, an antiwhip bearing may be employed which consists
of a series of tilting pads which stop the lubricating oil building up and
ensure even distribution on the surface of the bearing. Refer to Figure 5.14.
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Gas Compression
4.9
Seals
There are a number of different seal systems that can be fitted to
centrifugal compressors, the most common being:
Labyrinth
Restrictive carbon rings
Mechanical
Liquid film
Dry gas seals
Selection of which seal to use in a particular compressor will depend upon

the service required of that compressor.
4.10
Labyrinth Seal
The labyrinth seal is the simplest seal in use. It consists of a series of teeth
machined on the inside of a circular liner, fitted to very close tolerances
around the rotor shaft. A soft metal pad is sometimes used if the teeth have
been machined directly into the metal of the rotor shaft. The pad, being
soft metal and in close contact with the teeth, takes care of any wear and
can, during periods of overhaul, be changed rapidly.
Dependent upon the pressure differential across the seal the number of
teeth may vary. In low pressure machines as few as three to six teeth may
be sufficient, whereas in high pressure machines, as many as 20 teeth may
be required.
Some leakage from the high pressure side to the low pressure side is
allowed, but if the design is correct the leakage pressure would not exceed
the pressure of the low side to any great degree.
If the compressor is in sour gas service, a clean or sweet gas may be
injected between two labyrinth seals to prevent leakage of the sour gas to
the atmosphere. This system is often referred to as a buffer gas system.
Labyrinth seals are used as interstage sealing between impeller staging to
prevent leakage and loss of pressure between stages.
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Gas Compression
5
GAS COMPRESSOR LUBRICATION

All rotating machinery has a lubrication system of one kind or another, and
gas compressors are no exception.
Lubricants perform many functions, among them:
Separate rubbing parts
Remove heat of friction
Reduce metal wear
Remove metal wear, dirt and debris
Provide a degree of sealing action
Protect the metal surfaces from corrosion
Oil supplied to bearings for lubrication and cooling purposes is recycled

through the lube oil system, which incorporates cooling, re-pressurisation
and filtration equipment.
A simple lubrication system is shown in Figure 5.16.
6
THE SEAL OIL SYSTEM

A seal oil system is necessary to prevent the escape of gas from the
compressor to the atmosphere and also to provide lubrication to the seal
moving parts. A typical seal oil system is shown in Figure 5.17.
Gas enters a compressor at a lower pressure than it exits. It would seem
necessary therefore that two seal oil pressure systems are required. The
first to prevent gas escape at the suction end of the compressor and the
other to prevent gas escape at the discharge end. However, this can be
simplified by locating a special labyrinth seal arrangement at the discharge
end. This device enables the discharge pressure at the seal to be reduced to
about suction pressure. Gas leakage through the seal is routed to the
suction end chamber and in addition pressurises the seal oil head tank (refer
to Figure 5.17). By use of such an arrangement the gas pressure at the ends
of the compressor are equalised at a pressure just above suction pressure.
This pressure is called balance, reference or equalisation pressure.
The overall effect of this system is to eliminate the need for separate seal
oil systems at each end of the compressor. To ensure that the seal oil
pressure is above reference pressure, the seal oil head tank is positioned
above the compressor as shown in Figure 5.17.
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Gas Compression
Consider the oil flow through a typical seal oil system as shown in Figure
5.17. The main oil pump pumps oil out of the seal oil tank to a seal oil
cooler. The seal oil cooler removes the heat accumulated by the oil through
the system. The oil flows out of the seal oil cooler and into a filter unit
where any entrained debris in the oil is removed. The oil then flows to the
sealing arrangements on each end of the compressor unit. The majority of
oil entering the seal leaves through the primary seal outlet line and is
returned to the seal oil tank. However some of the oil passes right through
the sealing arrangement. That which flows through the outer seal is
returned to the seal oil tank but the oil which flows through the inner seal
may be contaminated with process gas. This gas has left the compressor
through the unoiled labyrinth seal. It is usually degassed in a drainpot with
the gas ultimately being burnt off or used for fuel, and the oil disposed of or
if possible reclaimed. If the process gas is pure then, after degassing, the oil
can be returned to the seal oil tank.
Of crucial importance to the operation of this system is the seal oil head
tank. Liquid level in the tank is maintained by a level controller which
controls the seal oil flowrate from the compressor to the seal oil tank. A
change in the normal operating level in the seal oil tank has the following
effects. Note that the tank is pressurised.
If the level rises, the level controller will open the level control valve
thereby permitting oil to flow out of the head tank and into the seal oil
tank.
Should the level fall, the level controller will close the level control valve
thereby reducing the oil flowrate back to the seal oil tank and allowing the
oil level in the head tank to be reinstated.
Several other points in the system in Figure 5.17 are worthy of note as
follows:
There are two seal pumps; one for standby duty
There are two oil coolers; one for standby duty
There are two oil filters; one for standby duty
When a tandem compressor unit is operating at different pressures, the seal

oil pressure for each compressor will be different. It is possible to utilise
the same oil pumps, coolers and filters for the tandem unit but it will be
necessary to separate the seal oil systems thereafter. Each compressor will
therefore have a separate seal oil head tank and pressure system. Pressure
reduction in the seal oil system devoted to the lower-operating-pressure
compressor is achieved by use of pressure regulating valves.
Where seal and lube oil systems are operated with the sumps and/or head
tanks venting to atmosphere, then consideration may be given to the use of
antistatic additives to ensure that any risk of sparks being generated is
removed.
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Gas Compression
7
INTERSTAGE COOLING
The principles of interstage cooling, apply to both centrifugal and
reciprocating compressors. In both types of compressor it is necessary to
split the staging to gain the necessary compression ratio without exceeding
the limits of discharge temperature.
By staging the flow of gas through a number of compressor units, we can, at
will, divert that gas flow through a cooling section to rid ourselves of that
unwanted heat.
There are additional advantages to be gained from interstage cooling,
namely a reduction in gas volume, which, in turn reduces the amount of
horsepower required.
By reference to the compression ratio chart shown in Figure 5.20
horsepower requirements are determined by ratio and the amount of gas
being compressed. If, by cooling the gas, we reduced its volume, then less
HP will be needed.
One factor that we have not yet touched upon in the interstage cooling
details is condensate recovery.
Compression and cooling is a recognised method of gas dehydration and
liquid condensate recovery. Almost all natural gas, as we have seen during
this presentation, consists of a number of components, many of them of
value as liquids. These, in the main, are the heavy fractions, and it is these
that will condense during the interstage cooling process and thus be
recovered.
A sketch of interstage cooling is shown in Figure 5.21.
The drawing shows the layout of a simple compression system that is fitted
with interstage cooling. We can see that it has two stages of compression,
each with a ratio of 3.0. The suction temperature at the first stage is shown
as 80F. Discharge pressure is 30psia and temperature is 199F.
Our chart on temperature rise shows this to be correct, with the expected
temperature rise of 119 + 80F, suction temperature, gives the total of
199F.
The second stage of compression is preceded by interstage cooling, which
lowers the gas temperature to its original level of 80F. Once again, the
second stage of compression, being 3.0 ratio, raises the temperature to
199F, which is an acceptable working temperature. Obviously, if we were
to further process this gas or deliver to a pipeline, we would need to pass it
through a final cooler.
The question arises, what would have been the final temperature if there
had been no interstage cooling?
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Gas Compression
Overall compression ratio = 3 x 3 = 9.
Overall temperature rise = way above the maximum shown on your charts.
Interstage cooling therefore, has a number of advantages:
Reduction in horsepower requirements
Recovery of heavy hydrocarbon condensate
Volume reduction
Protection of machinery
The above calculations are based on the temperature rise chart for
reciprocating compressors. The centrifugal machines also have a similar
chart, but the expected temperature rises are much greater.
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Page 20 of 21
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Gas Compression
Table 5.1
Approximate Number of Impellers, Temperature Rise, and

Power Consumption by Centrifugal Type Compressors
Compression
Ratio
Number of
Impellers
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1-2
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4.0
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
5.0
5.2
5.4
5.6
5.8
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
Training Services
Temperature
Rise
C
39
46
52
58
63
Power
Consumption in
kW/1000m3/d
0.71
0.82
0.90
1.00
1.08
2-3
68
73
78
83
88
1.16
1.24
1.32
1.40
1.47
3-4
92
97
102
106
109
1.54
1.61
1.68
1.75
1.82
4-5
113
121
128
134
141
1.91
2.04
2.16
2.28
2.37
5-6
148
154
160
166
171
2.47
2.56
2.66
2.75
2.84
6-7
176
181
186
191
196
2.94
3.03
3.11
3.19
3.27
8-9
201
211
222
231
240
3.35
3.53
3.70
3.86
4.01
Page 21 of 21
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Training Services
Petrofac 2010
SECTION 5
GAS COMPRESSION
5.1 Gas Compression metering and Export overview
5.2 Calculating Absolute Pressure
5.3 Simple single stage Centrifugal Compressor
5.4 Compressor and System characteristics
5.5 Operating Temperature
5.6 Compressor Operating Curves
5.7 Anti-surge Control system
5.8 Horizontally split casing design
5.9 Vertically split Compressor with rotor bundle partially removed
5.10 Typical Rotor
5.11 Thrust Direction
5.12 Diaphragm arrangement
5.13 Tilting pad thrust bearing
5.14 Tilting pad journal bearing
5.15 Labyrinth Seal
5.16 Lube Oil System
5.17 Typical Seal Oil System
5.18 Elements of a typical Reciprocating Compressor
5.19 Reciprocating Compressor horsepower and Temperature rise
5.20 Interstage Cooling
Petrofac Training Services / June 2010
5.1
Gas Compression Metering and Export Overview
5.2
5.3 Cutaway view of a Simple Single-stage Centrifugal Compressor
Figure 5.5 Compressor Operating Temperatures
5.6
Compressor Operating Curves
5.7
Anti surge Control System
5.8
Horizontally Split Casing Design
5.9
Vertically Split Compressor with Rotor Bundle Partially Removed
5.10 Typical Rotor
Fig 5.11
Thrust Direction
5.12a
Balance Piston
5.12 Diaphragm Arrangement
5.13 Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing
5.14 Tilting Pad Journal Bearing
5.15a Labyrinth Seal
Fig 5.15b Dry Gas Seal
5.15 b
Dry Gas Seals
5.16 Lube Oil System
5.17 Typical Seal Oil System
5.18 Elements of a Typical Reciprocating Compressor
5.19a Cutaway Section of a Reciprocating Compressor
5.19b Single Acting Reciprocating Compressor
5.19b Single Acting Reciprocating Compressor
5.19c Double Acting Reciprocating Compressor
5.19c Double Acting Reciprocating Compressor
5.20 Reciprocating Compressor Horsepower and Temperature Rise

10 - Section-5 Gas Compression

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Petrofac

Gas Compressor Types

Centrifugal Compressor Operating Curves

Components of the Centrifugal Compressor

The Rotor and Shaft

The Balancing Drum

Main (Journal) Bearings

Gas Compressor Lubrication

The Seal Oil System

Approximate Number of Impellers, Temperature Rise and Power

Gas Compression Metering and Export Overview

Calculating Absolute Pressure

Simple Single-stage Centrifugal Compressor

Compressor and System Characteristics

Compressor Operating Curves

Antisurge Control System

Horizontally Split Casing Design

Vertically Split Compressor with Rotor Bundle Partially Removed

Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing

Tilting Pad Journal Bearing

Lube Oil System

Typical Seal Oil System

Elements of a Typical Reciprocating Compressor

Reciprocating Compressor Horsepower and Temperature Rise

1.1.1 Pressure and Volume - Relationship

Let us study the relationship between pressure and volume.

For rough calculations of absolute pressure and volume reduction it is

Final gauge reading = 330psig

RATIO = 345 divided by 115 = 3

Gas Compressor Types

A three-stage compressor is operating at the conditions shown in Figure 5.5.

Absolute Discharge Pressure

Substitute known values:Rc

From Table 5.1 the following data can be derived:

To compress 1.2 million m3/d then power requirements are:

Therefore, the motor drive unit is not overloaded since it is rated at

Centrifugal Compressor Operating Curves

Stonewall limits a compressor's capacity. This arises from a limiting gas

The discharge pressure increases

When the compressor is driven by an engine, the compressor speed

If the compressor is driven by a direct current electric motor,

In the case of alternating current electric motors, compressor speed

With a single shaft, variable speed turbine coupled directly to a

A compressor driven by a split shaft gas turbine permits the speed of

For fixed speed compressors control is obtained using a recycle gas

The compressor will not develop 100% compression ratio at a speed

The differential pressure across the compressor (which is proportional to

COMPONENTS OF THE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

The Rotor and Shaft

Location of sealing surfaces

Acceptance of oil slinger rings

Acceptance of a balancing drum

Coupling facilities to be installed at one end of the shaft

Acceptance of shrink fitted impellers along the shaft

Location of journal and thrust bearing surfaces

The impellers may be fixed in position on the shaft in a number of ways.

The Balancing Drum

The velocity of the process gas approach to the impeller eye

Main (Journal) Bearings

Restrictive carbon rings

Dry gas seals

Selection of which seal to use in a particular compressor will depend upon

GAS COMPRESSOR LUBRICATION

Separate rubbing parts