PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: CONCEPTS AND

PRACTICE

IV. CURRENT ISSUES IN PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION

Graduate School of Asia and Pacific Studies

University of Waseda, Tokyo-JAPAN
2008

CONTENTS
1.
2
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7
7.
8.
9.

INTERDICIPLINARY INTERFACE OF PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION
PUBLIC POLICY
PUBLIC CHOICE
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW
BUREAUCRATIC POWER
ACCOUNTABILITY AND ETHICS
BUREAUCRACY AND POLITICS
DECENTRALIZATION
DIGITAL (E) GOVERNANCE

www.ginandjar.com

INTERDICIPLINARY INTERFACE OF
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW

LAW

POLITICS

PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION

DISCRETIONARY
POWERS

BUSINESS

MANAGEMENT
PUBLIC POLICY

ECONOMICS
PUBLIC CHOICE

www.ginandjar.com

PUBLIC POLICY

THE STUDY OF PUBLIC POLICY AND POLICY ANALYSIS IS

NOW A WELL ESTABLISHED PART OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.
PUBLIC POLICY IS A COURSE OF ACTION ADOPTED AND
PURSUED BY GOVERNMENT (HENRY
(HENRY, 2004)
2004).
PUBLIC POLICY REFERS TO THE DECISIONS MADE BY
GOVERNMENT, TO A PURPOSIVE COURSE OF ACTION
TAKEN BY GOVERNMENTAL ACTORS IN PURSUING
SOLUTIONS TO PERCEIVED PROBLEMS (LEMAY, 2002).
PUBLIC POLICY CAN BEST BE VIEWED AS A PROCESS,, A
SET OR SERIES OF STAGES THROUGH WHICH POLICY IS
ESTABLISHED AND IMPLEMENTED. THE POLICY PROCESS
CONSISTS OF A SUCCESSION OF ANALYTICAL STAGES
(LEMAY, 2002)
www.ginandjar.com

PUBLIC POLICY

FOR MANY YEARS, PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS WERE SEEN

AS NEUTRAL IMPLEMENTORS OF PUBLIC POLICIES SHAPED
AND DESIGNED ELSEWHERE IN THE DEMOCRATIC PROCESS.
SINCE THE 1960s, WITH THE GROWTH OF PUBLIC POLICY
ANALYSIS,, BOTH THE POLICY PROCESS ITSELF AND THE
ROLE OF PUBLIC A RATION IN IT HAVE BEEN REEVALUATED.
PROCEEDING FROM THE PREMISE THAT POLITICS IS MESSY
AND IMPRECISE
IMPRECISE, PROPONENTS OF PUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS
ARGUE THAT THE INTRODUCTION OF RIGOROUS
ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGIES AND DECISION TOOLS WILL
DRAMATICALLY IMPROVE BOTH THE DEFINITION OF PUBLIC
PROBLEMS AND THE IDENTIFICATION OF ALTERNATIVE
SOLUTIONS TO THEM.
www.ginandjar.com

PUBLIC POLICY

FURTHER, IT IS ARGUED THAT MORE RATIONAL

DECISION PROCESSES WILL NOT ONLY BE MORE
EFFICIENT BUT ALSO MORE RESPONSIVE TO CITIZEN
EFFICIENT,
NEEDS AND PREFERENCES. THIS VERSION OF PUBLIC
POLICY ANALYSIS VALUES OBJECTIVITY AND
NEUTRALITY; IT IS BASED ON AN ABIDING BELIEF IN
TECHNICAL ANALYSIS AND ABILITIES.

www.ginandjar.com

PUBLIC POLICY

IT MAKES USE OF TECHNIQUES DEVELOPED IN THE FIELDS OF

ECONOMICS, MATHEMATICS, STATISTICS, OPERATIONS
RESEARCH, AND SYSTEMS DYNAMICS, AMONG OTHERS, TO
PROVIDE DECISION MAKERS WITH ADVICE IN THE
FORMULATION OF PUBLIC POLICY.
IN APPLYING THOSE TECHNIQUES, THE ANALYST MAY ALSO
DRAW ON KNOWLEDGE FROM FIELDS SUCH AS SOCIOLOGY,
POLITICAL SCIENCE, WELFARE ECONOMICS, LAW,
ORGANIZATION - THEORY,, THE PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCES, AND ELSEWHERE. POLICY ANALYSIS MUST TAKE
THE ANALYST WHEREVER THE POLICY ISSUE LEADS, MAKING
ANALYSIS THE MULTI DISIPLINARY ACTIVITY PAR
EXCELLENCE.

www.ginandjar.com

PUBLIC POLICY

POLICY ANALYSIS INCLUDES:

1)
2)
3)
4))
5)
6)

IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM TO BE RESOLVED,

SPECIFYING THE GOAL(S) TO BE SOUGHT THROUGH PUBLIC POLICY,
IDENTIFYING OR INVENTING THE AVAILABLE POLICY ALTERNATIVES,
ESTIMATING THE EFFECTS OF EACH OF THE ALTERNATIVES,, BOTH
FAVORABLE AND UNFAVORABLE,
IMPUTING VALUES IN A SINGLE, COMMENSURABLE MATRIX TO THOSE
EFFECTS, AND
CHOOSING THE BEST POLICY ALTERNATIVE ACCORDING TO AN
EXPLICIT DECISION RULE.

www.ginandjar.com

PUBLIC CHOICE

IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE LAST CENTURY, THE

DISCIPLINE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DEVELOPED
WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK SET BY WILSON. THE ENDS
OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION WERE SEEN AS THE
"MANAGEMENT OF MEN AND MATERIAL IN THE
ACCOMPLISHMENT OF THE PURPOSES OF THE STATE."

www.ginandjar.com

PUBLIC CHOICE

IN HIS BOOK: ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOR (1945),

HERBERT SIMON, SUSTAINED A DEVASTATING CRITIQUE
OF THE THEORY IMPLICIT IN THE TRADITIONAL STUDY
OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. SIMON ELUCIDATED SOME
OF THE ACCEPTED ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPLES AND
DEMONSTRATED THE LACK OF LOGICAL COHERENCE
AMONG THEM.

www.ginandjar.com

10

PUBLIC CHOICE

DURING THE PERIOD FOLLOWING SIMON

SIMON'S
S CHALLENGE
CHALLENGE,
ANOTHER COMMUNITY OF SCHOLARS HAS GRAPPLED
WITH MANY OF THESE SAME INTELLECTUAL ISSUES.
THIS COMMUNITY OF SCHOLARS COMPOSED
PREDOMINANTLY OF POLITICAL ECONOMISTS HAVE
BEEN CONCERNED WITH PUBLIC INVESTMENT AND
PUBLIC EXPENDITURE DECISIONS.
ONE FACET OF THIS WORK HAS BEEN MANIFEST IN
BENEFIT-COST ANALYSIS AND THE DEVELOP-MENT OF
THE PLANNING
PLANNING, PROGRAMMING AND BUDGETING (PPB)
SYSTEM.
www.ginandjar.com

11

PUBLIC CHOICE

ONE OF SIMON'S
SIMON S CENTRAL CONCERNS WAS TO
ESTABLISH THE CRITERION OF EFFICIENCY AS A NORM
FOR EVALUATING ALTERNATIVE ADMINISTRATIVE
ACTIONS. SIMON ARGUED THAT THE "CRITERION OF
EFFICIENCY DICTATES THAT CHOICE OF ALTERNATIVES
WHICH PRODUCE THE LARGEST RESULT FOR THE GIVEN
APPLICATION OF RESOURCES."
IN ORDER TO UTILIZE THE CRITERION OF EFFICIENCY,
EFFICIENCY
THE RESULTS OF ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIONS MUST BE
DEFINED AND MEASURED
MEASURED. CLEAR CONCEPTUAL
DEFINITIONS OF OUTPUT ARE NECESSARY BEFORE
MEASURES CAN BE DEVELOPED.
www.ginandjar.com

12

PUBLIC CHOICE

PUBLIC CHOICE REPRESENTS ANOTHER FACET OF WORK

IN POLITICAL ECONOMY WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR THE
THEORY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. MOST POLITICAL
ECONOMISTS IN THE PUBLIC CHOICE TRADITION BEGIN
WITH THE INDIVIDUAL AS THE BASIC UNIT OF
ANALYSIS. THE TRADITIONAL "ECONOMIC MAN" IS THEN
REPLACED BY "MAN:
MAN: THE DECISION MAKER.
MAKER "

www.ginandjar.com

13

PUBLIC CHOICE

THE SECOND CONCERN IN THE PUBLIC CHOICE

TRADITION IS WITH THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
PUBLIC GOODS AS THE TYPE OF EVENT ASSOCIATED
WITH THE OUTPUT OF PUBLIC AGENCIES.
PUBLIC CHOICE THEORY IS ALSO CONCERNED WITH THE
EFFECT THAT DIFFERENT DECISION RULES OR
DECISION-MAKING ARRANGEMENTS WILL HAVE UPON
THE PRODUCTION OF THOSE EVENTS CONCEPTUALIZED
AS PUBLIC GOODS AND SERVICES
SERVICES.

www.ginandjar.com

14

PUBLIC CHOICE

FOUR BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT INDIVIDUAL

BEHAVIOR ARE NORMALLY MADE:
FIRST, INDIVIDUALS ARE ASSUMED TO BE SELF-

INTERESTED (NOT EQUIVALENT TO SELFISH). THE

ASSUMPTION OF SELF-INTEREST IMPLIES PRIMARILY THAT
INDIVIDUALS EACH HAVE THEIR OWN PREFERENCES
WHICH AFFECT THE DECISIONS THEY MAKE, AND THAT
THOSE PREFERENCES MAY DIFFER FROM INDIVIDUAL TO
INDIVIDUAL.

www.ginandjar.com

15

PUBLIC CHOICE

SECONDLY, INDIVIDUALS ARE ASSUMED TO BE RATIONAL.

RATIONALITY IS DEFINED AS THE ABILITY TO RANK ALL KNOWN

ALTERNATIVES AVAILABLE TO THE INDIVIDUAL IN A TRANSITIVE
MANNER.
THIRD, INDIVIDUALS ARE ASSUMED TO ADOPT MAXIMIZING
STRATEGIES MAXIMIZATION AS A STRATEGY IMPLIES THE
STRATEGIES.
CONSISTENT CHOICE OF THOSE ALTERNATIVES WHICH AN
INDIVIDUAL THINKS WILL PROVIDE THE HIGHEST NET BENEFIT
AS WEIGHED BY HIS OWN PREFERENCES.
PREFERENCES AT TIMES THE
ASSUMPTION OF MAXIMIZATION IS RELATED TO THAT OF
SATISFYING, DEPENDING UPON ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE
INFORMATION AVAILABLE TO AN INDIVIDUAL IN A DECISIONMAKING SITUATION.
www.ginandjar.com

16

PUBLIC CHOICE

FOURTH, AN EXPLICIT ASSUMPTION NEEDS TO BE

STATED CONCERNING THE LEVEL OF INFORMATION
POSSESSED BY A REPRESENTATIVE INDIVIDUAL.
THREE LEVELS HAVE BEEN ANALYTICALLY DEFINED AS
INVOLVING CERTAINTY, RISK, AND
UNCERTAINTY.

www.ginandjar.com

17

PUBLIC CHOICE
THE

CONDITION OF CERTAINTY IS DEFINED TO

EXIST WHEN:
1) AN

INDIVIDUAL KNOWS ALL AVAILABLE STRATEGIES;

2) EACH

STRATEGY IS KNOWN TO LEAD INVARIABLY TO

ONLY ONE SPECIFIC OUTCOME,
OUTCOME AND;
AND

3) THE

INDIVIDUAL KNOWS HIS OWN PREFERENCES FOR

EACH OUTCOME. GIVEN THIS LEVEL OF INFORMATION,
THE DECISION OF A MAXIMIZING INDIVIDUAL IS
COMPLETELY DETERMINED.

www.ginandjar.com

18

PUBLIC CHOICE

UNDER CONDITIONS OF RISK, THE INDIVIDUAL IS

STILL ASSUMED TO KNOW ALL AVAILABLE
STRATEGIES. ANY PARTICULAR STRATEGY MAY LEAD
TO A NUMBER OF POTENTIAL OUTCOMES, AND THE
INDIVIDUAL IS ASSUMED TO KNOW THE PROBABILITY
OF EACH OUTCOME. THUS, DECISION MAKING
BECOMES WEIGHTING PROCESS WHEREBY HIS
PREFERENCES FOR DIFFERENT OUTCOMES ARE
COMBINED WITH THE PROBABILITY OF THEIR
OCURRENCE PRIOR TO A SELECTION OF A STRATEGY.

www.ginandjar.com

19

PUBLIC CHOICE

DECISION MAKING UNDER UNCERTAINTY IS

ASSUMED TO OCCUR EITHER WHERE (1) AN
INDIVIDUAL HAS A KNOWLEDGE OF ALL STRATEGIES
AND OUTCOMES, BUT LACKS KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE
PROBABILITIES WITH WHICH A STRATEGY MAY LEAD
TO AN OUTCOME, OR (2) AN INDIVIDUAL MAY NOT
KNOW ALL STRATEGIES OR ALL OUTCOMES WHICH
ACTUALLY EXIST.

www.ginandjar.com

20

PUBLIC CHOICE

UNDER CONDITIONS OF UNCERTAINTY, THE

DETERMINATENESS OF SOLUTIONS IS REPLACED BY
CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE RANGE OF POSSIBLE
SOLUTIONS."
"SOLUTIONS
ESTIMATIONS ARE MADE ABOUT THE
CONSEQUENCES OF STRATEGIES.

(VINCENT OSBORNE & ELEANOR OSBORN,

OSBORN 1971)

www.ginandjar.com

21

PUBLIC CHOICE

PUBLIC CHOICE IS ONE OF A NUMBER OF MODELS

OF DECISION-MAKING IN ADMINISTRATION.
OTHER MODELS INCLUDE
INCLUDE:

RATIONAL COMPREHENSIVE MODEL;

BARGAINING MODEL;
INCREMENTAL MODEL;
PARTICIPATIVE MODEL.
(LEMAY, 2002)

www.ginandjar.com

22

ADMINISTRATIVE LAW

ADMINISTRATIVE LAW REFERS TO THOSE LAWS AND

REGULATIONS THAT ARE CREATED BY THE ACTIVITIES
OF GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES THAT MAKE RULES AND
ADJUDICATE CASES CONCERNING PRIVATE RIGHTS AND
OBLIGATIONS AND THE LIMITS NEEDED TO CONTROL
SUCH AGENCIES.
INCLUDED IN THE BODY OF LAWS (OR RULES AND
REGULATIONS) OF ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES THAT
COLLECTIVELY MAKE UP ADMINISTRATIVE LAW ARE
INTERPRETATIVE RULESTHOSE
RULES THOSE RULES THAT SPECIFY
AN AGENCY'S VIEWS OF THE MEANING OF ITS
REGULATIONS OR OF THE STATUTES IT ADMINISTERS.
www.ginandjar.com

23

ADMINISTRATIVE LAW IS RESTRICTED TO AGENCY

ACTIONS THAT COVER THE RIGHTS OF PRIVATE PARTIES.
IT EXCLUDES THE LEGAL RELATIONSHIPS AMONG
GOVERNMENT OFFICERS AND DEPARTMENTS OR THE
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT (MATTERS COVERED
IN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW). ADMINISTRATIVE LAW
CONCERNS THE QUASI-LEGISLATIVE AND QUASI-JUDICIAL
ACTIONS OF ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES. THE
ADMINISTRATORS OF SUCH AGENCIES ARE POLICY
MAKERSBUT WITH A LIMITED RANGE OF AUTHORITY
WHEN MAKING RULES.

www.ginandjar.com

24

ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES'' FORMAL POWERS

INCLUDE:
1)
2)
3))
4)

INVESTIGATING COMPLAINTS;
ORDERING THE ELIMINATION OF CERTAIN PRACTICES;
SETTING STANDARDS;;
PROSECUTING FLAGRANT VIOLATIONS OF LAWS AND
STANDARDS, INCLUDING ISSUING CEASE-AND-DESIST
ORDERS AND IMPOSING FINES;

www.ginandjar.com

25

5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)

SETTING FORTH RULES AND REGULATIONS;

HOLDING HEARINGS BEFORE ISSUING RULES AND
REGULATIONS;
HOLDING ADJUDICATION HEARINGS;
ISSUING, WITHHOLDING, AND REVOKING LICENSES;
PROVIDING FOR APPEAL PROCEDURES;
ORDERING TEMPORARY CESSATIONS OF ACTIVITIES;
AND
SEIZING PROPERTY AND IMPOSING FINES AND
PENALTIES.

www.ginandjar.com

26

LIMITATIONS OVER REGULATORY AGENCY DISCRETION

ARE BUILT INTO THE RIGHTS AND PROCEDURAL RULE
SAFEGUARDS DESIGNED INTO AN ADMINISTRATIVE
AGENCY'S ORGANIZATION, PROCEDURES, OR PRACTICES AS
WELL AS THROUGH JUDICIAL REVIEW.
OTHER CONTROL DEVICES ALSO LIMIT AGENCY
DISCRETION. ONE SUCH DEVICE IS MEDIA SCRUTINY.
INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING AND THE ABILITY OF MEDIA
MEMBERS TO HOLD AGENCIES UP TO PUBLIC RIDICULE
DOES SERVE AS SOMETHING OF A CHECK ON AGENCY
ABUSE OF POWER.
www.ginandjar.com

27

ANOTHER DEVICE IS THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN

OMBUDSMAN, OR AN OFFICIAL WHO IS CHARGED WITH
PROCESSING AND EXAMINING COMPLAINTS AGAINST
THE BUREAUCRACY. OMBUDSMEN TYPICALLY REPORT TO
THE LEGISLATURES OR OTHER OFFICE THAT HOLDS
AUTORITY.
CITIZEN ACTION GROUPS SUCH AS COMMON CAUSE
ALSO CAN SERVE AS INFORMAL WATCHDOGS OF
ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES.

www.ginandjar.com

28

TYPICALLY, AN ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCY WITH REGULATORY

TYPICALLY
POWERS IS ESTABLISHED BY STATUTORY AUTHORITY. THE
STATUTE CREATES THE AGENCY, DESCRIBES ITS PRIMARY
MISSION OR GOALS (OFTEN IN QUITE BROAD AND GENERAL
TERMS), AND LAYS OUT ITS JURISDICTIONAL
RESPONSIBILITIES-AND, IN SO DOING, SOMETHING OF ITS
LIMITATIONS AS WELL.
WELL
THE LEGISLATURE AT THE SAME TIME MIGHT PASS A
GENERAL REGULATORY STATUTE STATING THE BROAD
OUTLINES OF THE LAW; THE AGENCY THEN DEVELOPS
APPROPRIATE RULES, REGULATIONS, STANDARDS, OR
GUIDELINES
GU
S THAT IT INTENDS
S TO
O US
USE TO
O IMPLEMENT OR
O
MODIFY THE LAW OR TO MEET NEW SITUATIONS.

www.ginandjar.com

29

ALTHOUGH ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES ENJOY WIDE

DISCRETION IN DEVELOPING THE MASSIVE BODY OF
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW, RULES OR REGULATIONS, THEIR
DISCRETION HAS ITS LIMITS. THESE LIMITS MAY BE
IMPOSED BY THE LEGISLATURE WHEN IT ESTABLISHES
AN AGENCY OR WHEN IT ENACTS AMENDING LAWS
REGARDING AN AGENCY'S
AGENCY S JURISDICTION, AS WELL AS BY
THE COURTS THROUGH THEIR JUDICIAL REVIEW OF
AGENCY ACTIONS AND RULINGS.
(LEMAY 2004)
(LEMAY,

www.ginandjar.com

30

BUREAUCRATIC POWER

AS SOCIETY BECAME MORE COMPLEX AND

ORGANIZATIONS GREW LARGER, ORGANIZATIONS
(BOTH PRIVATE AND PUBLIC) INCREASED THEIR
DIVISION OF LABOR INTO MORE AND SMALLER
SPECIALIZED UNITS.
LARGER INSTITUTIONS BEGAN TO DEFER TO THE
JUDGMENTS OF THESE UNITS, WHICH SHOWS THAT A
MAJOR FOUNDATION OF BUREAUCRATIC POWER IS
EXPERTISE, OR SPECIALIZED KNOWLEDGE.

www.ginandjar.com

31

AS SOCIETY BECAME MORE COMPLEX AND

SPECIALIZED, DECISION MAKERS RELIED ON
EXPERT ADVICE
ADVICE. SOME BUREAUCRATIC AGENCIES,
AGENCIES
THEN, DEVELOPED A NEAR MONOPOLY ON THE
TECHNICAL DATA OR CRITERIA USED TO DECIDE
POLICY.
DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF POLICY THEY
IMPLEMENT, BUREAUCRACY HAVE
DISCRETIONARY POWER, EITHER MORE OR LESS.

www.ginandjar.com

32

IN THE MINDS OF MOST OBSERVERS

OBSERVERS, THE ISSUE IS NOT
WHETHER BUREAUCRACIES HAVE POWER BUT THE
MAGNITUDE AND OMINOUS NATURE OF THAT POWER
POWER.
BUREAUCRACIES ARE SEEN AS TOO INFLUENTIAL, TOO
UNCHALLENGED,, AND SUBSEQUENTLY
Q
DANGEROUS.
BURCAUCRATS ARC THOUGHT OF AS ASSUMING A
PREMINENT, EVEN UNCHECKED ROLE IN THE
FORMATION AND EXECUTION OF PUBLIC POLICY.
POLICY
THE DEDUCTIVE CASE FOR WHY BUREAUCRACIES ARE
TOO POWERFUL CAN BE MADE ON AT LEAST FOUR
GROUNDS.
www.ginandjar.com

33

FIRST, THE WEBERIAN ORGANIZATIONAL FROM SEEMS TO BE

AN INHERENTLY POWERFUL INSTRUMENT BECAUSE OF ITS
PROPERTIES: ITS UNIFIED HIERARCHY CONCENTRATES
CONTROL ITS HIGH DEGREE OF SPECIALIZATION PROVIDES
CONTROL,
GREAT EXPERTISE, ITS PERMANENT RECORDS ACCUMULATE
VAST QUANTITIES OF INFRMATION AND OFFICIALLY
INTERPRET THE PAST
PAST, AND ITS TENURED WORKFORCE
CANNOT BE REMOVED AND HENCE IS NOT ACCOUNTABLE.
SECOND THE PRINCIPAL FUNCTION OF PUBLIC
SECOND,
ADMINISTRATION, THE IMPLEMENTATION OF LAW AND
POLICY, PUTS BUREAUCRACY IN THE POSITION OF
REPRESENTING THE SOVEREIGN STATE TO CITIZENS IN
CONCRETE, EVERYDAY TERMS. TO THEM, THE STATE IS
BUREAUCRACY
BUREAUCRACY.
www.ginandjar.com

34

THIRD, THE TECHNICAL NATURE OF MODERN

ADMINISTRATION MEANS THAT LEGISLATORS AND OTHER
ELECTED OFFICIALS MUST DELEGATE DISCRETIONARY
AUTHORITY OR EVEN RULE-MAKING POWER TO THE
BUREAUCRATS, WHO THUS ARE "LEGISLATORS" OF
SORTS.
FOURTH FROM THE STANDPOINT OF PRINCIPAL-AGENT
FOURTH,
THEORY, INFORMATION ASYMMETRY FAVORING THE
AGENTS GIVES THEM THE ABILITY TO OUTMANEUVER
THEIR PRINCIPALS AND PURSUE THEIR OWN OBJECTIVES.

www.ginandjar.com

35

TO SUM UP, BUREAUCRACIES ARE CHECKED BUT NOT

CHAINED. THEY ARE RESPONSIVE TO EXTERNAL
POLITICAL CONTROL BUT NOT POLITICALLY SUPINE.
THEY REACT NOT MERELY TO STATIC INSTRUCTIONS
BUT TO CHANGED CIRCUMSTANCES
CIRCUMSTANCES. THEY NOT ONLY
IMPLEMENT POLICY BUT SHAPE AND ADVOCATE IT.

www.ginandjar.com

36

ACCOUNTABILITY AND ETHICS

CORRUPTION

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS BOTH PROFESION AND SCIENTIFIC

STUDY FROM THE BEGINNING HAS BEEN VERY MUCH
CONCERNED WITH THE PROBLEMS OF CORRUPTION OR ABUSE
OF POWER.
A CORRUPTED BUREAUCRACY,, BY DEFITION,, IS ONE THAT,, DOES
NOT DO WHAT IT IS SUPPPOSED TO, SINCE ILLEGAL PAYMENTS
TO OFFICIALS ARE PRESSUMABLY NOT MADE UNLESS THOSE
WHO RECEIVE PAYMENT CAN AND DO CONTRAVENE THE INTENT
OF THE LAWS THEY ARE SUPPOSED TO APPLY. ALTHOUG
FORMALLY SALARIED, BUREAUCRATS IN SUCH QUASI-SALARY
SYSTEMS INDULGE IN SELF
SELF-ENRICHMENT
ENRICHMENT ON A LARGE SCALE
(RIGGS,1995).
www.ginandjar.com

37

THE PROBLEM OF CORRUPTION IS ENDEMIC TO POLITICS AND

TO GOVERNMENT SIMPLY BECAUSE ITS DECISIONS INVOLVE
SO MUCH POWER AND WEALTH.
WEALTH
IT BECOMES COMMON PLACE AT ALL LEVELS OF
GOVERNMENT--IN THE WAYS CONTRACTS ARE AWARDED,
JOBS ARE CREATED AND FILLED,
FILLED PEOPLE ARE HIRED
HIRED, OFFICES
ARE SOLD, FAVORED POLITICAL ALLIES ARE REWARDED,
POWER IS EXERTED, AND THE NEEDS OR PLIGHT OF OTHERS
ARE IGNORED.
THE DEMAND FOR GOVERNMENT'S REWARDS FREQUENTLY
EXCEEDS THE SUPPLY, AND ROUTINE DECISION-MAKING
DECISION MAKING
PROCESSES ARE LENGTHY, COSTLY, AND UNCERTAIN IN
THEIR OUTCOME.
www.ginandjar.com

38

FOR THESE REASONS

REASONS, LEGALLY SANCTIONED DECISION
DECISION-MAKING
MAKING
PROCESSES CONSTITUTE A "BOTTLENECK" BETWEEN WHAT PEOPLE
WANT AND WHAT THEY GET.
THE TEMPTATION TO GET AROUND THE BOTTLENECK
BOTTLENECKTO
TO SPEED
THINGS UP AND MAKE FAVORABLE DECISIONS MORE PROBABLEIS
BUILT INTO THIS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GOVERNMENT AND
SOCIETY.
SOCIETY
TO GET AROUND THE BOTTLENECK, ONE MUST USE POLITICAL
INFLUENCEAND CORRUPTION, WHICH BY DEFINITION CUTS
ACROSS ESTABLISHED AND LEGITIMATE PROCESSES, IS A MOST
EFFECTIVE FORM OF INFLUENCE.
((MICHAEL JOHNSTON,, 1982))

www.ginandjar.com

39

CORRUPTION, IS A FORM OF PRIVELEDGE IDULGED

IN BY THOSE IN POWER
POWER. IT CONCENTRATES POWER
IN THE HANDS OF A FEW WHO CAN MAKE DECISIONS
BASED NOT ON THE GOOD OF THE WHOLE BUT ON
THE INTERESTS OF THE FEW.
POWER TENDS TO CORRUPT, AND ABSOLUTE POWER
CORRUPTS ABSOLUTELY.

www.ginandjar.com

40

ACCOUNTABILITY

ACCOUNTABILITY IS THE DEGREE TO WHICH A PERSON MUST

ANSWER TO SOME HIGHER AUTHORITY FOR ACTIONS IN THE
LARGER SOCIETY OR IN THE AGENCY.
AGENCY
ELECTED PUBLIC OFFICIALS ARE ACCOUNTABLE TO VOTERS.
PUBLIC AGENCY MANAGERS ARE ACCOUNTABLE TO ELECTED
EXECUTIVES AND LEGISLATURES.
AGENCY LEADERS ARE HELD ACCOUNTABLE TO THE
POLITICAL CULTURE OF SOCIETY,
SOCIETY WHICH HOLDS GENERAL
VALUES AND IDEAS OF DEMOCRACY AND PUBLIC MORALITY.

www.ginandjar.com

41

ACCOUNTABILITY IS DETERMINED BOTH EXTERNALLY (BY CODES

OF ETHICS, LEGAL MANDATES CONTAINED IN A CONSTITUTION AND
AUTHORIZATION LAWS, AND PROFESSIONAL CODES OR
STANDARDS) AND INTERNALLY (BY AGENCY RULES AND
REGULATIONS OR PERSONALLY INTERNALIZED NORMS OF
BEHAVIOR AND MORAL ETHICS).
DEMOCRACY REQUIRES A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTABILITY: CHECKS
AND BALANCES ON GOVERNMENT STRUCTURES, THE SECURITY OF
REGULAR AUDITS, AND THE INQUISITIVE EYE OF COMMUNITY AND
MEDIA WATCHDOGS.
(ROOSENBLOOM, KRAVCHUCK, 2005)

www.ginandjar.com

42

ETHICS

ETHICS CONCERN WITH WHAT IS RIGHT AND WHAT

IS WRONG.

(FREDERICKSON 1994)
(FREDERICKSON,

ETHICS CAN BE CONSIDERED A FORM OF SELFSELF

ACCOUNTABILITY, OR AN INNER CHECK ON PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATORS CONDUCT.
(ROOSENBLOOM, KRAVCHUCK, 2005)

www.ginandjar.com

43

ETHICS ARE IMBEDDED IN THE VALUES AND NORMS

OF SOCIETY, AND IN AN ORGANIZATION IN ITS
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE.
VALUES ARE ANY OBJECT OR QUALITIES DESIRABLE
AS MEANS OR ENDS THEMSELVES, SUCH AS LIFE,
JUSTICE EQUALITY,
JUSTICE,
EQUALITY HONESTY,
HONESTY EFFICIENCY,
EFFICIENCY
FREEDOM. VALUES ARE BLIEFS, POINTS OF VIEW,
ATTITUDES.
ATTITUDES

www.ginandjar.com

44

STANDARDS AND NORMS

STANDARDS AND NORMS ARE DEFINED AS PRINCIPLES OF

RIGHT ACTION BINDING UPON THE MEMBERS OF A

GROUP AND SERVING TO GUIDE, CONTROL, OR REGULATE
PROPER AND ACCEPTABLE BEHAVIOR.
BEHAVIOR
STANDARDS AND NORMS ARE THE CODIFICATION OF
GROUP ORGANIZATIONAL
GROUP,
ORGANIZATIONAL, COMMUNITY,
COMMUNITY OR
GOVERNMENTAL VALUES. LAWS, REGULATIONS, CODES
OF ETHICS.
RULES ARE TYPICAL OF STANDARDS AND NORMS.
(FREDERICKSON, 1994)
www.ginandjar.com

45

ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS

ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS INVOLVES THE

APPLICATION OF MORAL PRINCIPLES TO THE
CONDUCT OF OFFICIALS IN ORGANIZATIONS.
ORGANIZATIONS
BROADLY SPEAKING, MORAL PRINCIPLES SPECIFY
1)

2)

THE RIGHTS AND DUTIES THAT INDIVIDUALS SHOULD RESPECT

WHEN THEY ACT IN WAYS THAT SERIOUSLY AFFECT THE WELLBEING OF OTHER INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY; AND
THE CONDITIONS THAT COLLECTIVE PRACTICES AND POLICIES
SHOULD SATISFY WHEN THEY SIMILARLY AFFECT THE WELLBEING OF INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY.
(DENNIS THOMPSON, 1985)
www.ginandjar.com

46

THE CONVENTIONAL THEORY AND PRACTICE OF

ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS HOLDS THAT
ADMINISTRATORS SHOULD CARRY OUT THE ORDERS OF
THEIR SUPERIORS AND THE POLICIES OF THE AGENCY
AND THE GOVERNMENT THEY SERVE.

www.ginandjar.com

47

THE ETHIC OF NEUTRALITY DOES NOT DENY THAT

ADMINISTRATORS OFTEN MUST USE THEIR OWN
JUDGMENT IN THE FORMULATION OF POLICY. BUT THEIR
AIM SHOULD ALWAYS BE TO DISCOVER WHAT POLICY
THEIR SUPERIORS
S
O S (ELECTED
(
C
OFFICIALS)
O C S) INTEND OR
O
WOULD INTEND; OR IN A DEMOCRACY IN THE CASE OF
CONFLICTING DIRECTIVES TO INTERPRET LEGALLY OR
CONSTITUTIONALLY WHO HAS THE AUTHORITY TO
DETERMINE POLICY.

www.ginandjar.com

48

ON THIS VIEW, ADMINISTRATORS MAY PUT FORWARD

THEIR OWN VIEWS
VIEWS, ARGUE WITH THEIR SUPERIORS
SUPERIORS,
AND CONTEST PROPOSALS IN THE PROCESS OF
FORMULATING POLICY. BUT ONCE THE DECISION OR
POLICY IS FINAL, ALL ADMINISTRATORS FALL INTO
LINE, AND FAITHFULLY CARRY OUT THE POLICY.
FURTHERMORE, THE DISAGREEMENT MUST TAKE
PLACE WITHIN THE AGENCY AND ACCORDING TO THE
AGENCY'S RULES OF PROCEDURE.
PROCEDURE

www.ginandjar.com

49

THE ETHIC OF NEUTRALITY PORTRAYS THE IDEAL

ADMINISTRATOR AS A COMPLETELY RELIABLE
INSTRUMENT OF THE GOALS OF THE ORGANIZATION,
NEVER INJECTING PERSONAL VALUES INTO THE
PROCESS OF FURTHERING THESE GOALS. THE ETHIC
THUS REINFORCES THE GREAT VIRTUE OF
ORGANIZATION ITS CAPACITY TO SERVE ANY SOCIAL
ORGANIZATION-ITS
END IRRESPECTIVE OF THE ENDS THAT INDIVIDUALS
WITHIN IT FAVOR
FAVOR.

www.ginandjar.com

50

FOUR LEVELS OF ETHICS

IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION THERE IS A HIERARCHY

OF LEVELS OF ETHICS,, EACH OF WHICH HAS ITS OWN
SET OF RESPONSIBILITIES.
1)

PERSONAL MORALITYTHE BASIC SENSE OF RIGHT AND

WRONG. THIS IS A FUNCTION OF OUR PAST AND IS
DEPENDENT ON FACTORS SUCH AS PARENTAL
INFLUENCES RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
INFLUENCES,
BELIEFS, CULTURAL AND SOCIAL
MORES, AND ONE'S OWN PERSONAL EXPERIENCES.

www.ginandjar.com

51

2)

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS

INCREASINGLY RECOGNIZE A SET OF PROFESSIONAL
NORMS AND RULES THAT OBLIGATE THEM TO ACT IN
CERTAIN "PROFESSIONAL" WAYS. OCCUPATIONS
SUCH AS LAW AND MEDICINE, WHILE OPERATING
WITHIN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, ALSO HAVE THEIR
OWN INDEPENDENT PROFESSIONAL CODES.
CODES

www.ginandjar.com

52

3)

ORGANIZATIONAL ETHICS. EVERY ORGANIZATION HAS

AN ENVIRONMENT OR CULTURE THAT INCLUDES BOTH
FORMAL AND INFORMAL RULES OF ETHICAL CONDUCT.
PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS TYPICALLY HAVE MANY SUCH
RULES PUBLIC LAWS,
RULES.
LAWS EXECUTIVE ORDERS,
ORDERS AND
AGENCY RULES AND REGULATIONS ALL CAN BE TAKEN
AS FORMAL ORGANIZATIONAL NORMS FOR ETHICAL
BEHAVIOR.

www.ginandjar.com

53

 AN ORGANIZATION'S CULTURE IS COMPOSED OF THE ". . .

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND BELIEFS THAT ARE SHARED BY
MEMBERS OF THE ORGANIZATION
ORGANIZATION, THAT OPERATE
UNCONSCIOUSLY, AND THAT DEFINE IN A BASIC TAKENFOR-GRANTED' FASHION AN ORGANIZATION'S VIEW OF
ITSELF AND ITS ENVIRONMENT"
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE IS A SOCIAL FORCE THAT

CONTROLS PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR BY

SHAPING MEMBERS' COGNITIONS AND PERCEPTIONS OF
MEANINGS AND REALITIES, PROVIDING EFECTIVE ENERGY
FOR MOBILIZATION AND IDENTIFYING WHO BELONGS AND
WHO DOES NOT.

www.ginandjar.com

54

 ETHICS IS NOT ONLY THE HEART OF

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
CULTURE, IT IS ALSO THE
FULCRUM FOR PRODUCING CHANGE. SINCE
ETHICS IS THE FULCRUM FOR CHANGING
CULTURE, CHANGING CULTURE WITHOUT ETHICS
IS AKIN TO CHANGING A TIRE WITHOUT A JACK.
(PASTIN, 1986)

www.ginandjar.com

55

4)

SOCIAL ETHICS. THE REQUIREMENTS OF SOCIAL

ETHICS OBLIGE MEMBERS OF A GIVEN SOCIETY TO
ACT IN WAYS THAT BOTH PROTECT INDIVIDUALS AND
FURTHER THE PROGRESS OF THE GROUP AS A WHOLE.
SOCIAL ETHICS ARE FORMAL TO THE EXTENT THAT
THEY CAN BE FOUND IN THE LAWS OF A GIVEN
SOCIETY, INFORMAL TO THE EXTENT THAT THEY ARE
PART OF AN INDIVIDUAL'S SOCIAL CONSCIENCE.
(SHAFRITZ, RUSSEL, CHRISTOPHER, 2007)

www.ginandjar.com

56

THE ETHICAL DIMENSIONS OF DECISION

MAKING

WHEN MAKING DECISIONS, PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS

INEVITABLY PURSUE CERTAIN GOALS,, WHETHER
PERSONAL, ORGANIZATIONAL, OR SOME MIXTURE OF
BOTH. THE PURSUIT OF GOALS INVOLVES STRATEGIC AND
TACTICAL CHOICES TO ACHIEVE THEM (MEANS AND ENDS).
ENDS)
SUCH DECISIONS RAISE QUESTIONS ABOUT THE
PROPRIETY OF THE MEANS USED IN IMPLEMENTING A
COURSE OF ACTION TO DEAL WITH A PUBLIC PROBLEM.

www.ginandjar.com

57

INSTITUTIONAL ETHICS

WHEN AN INSTITUTION OF GOVERNMENT PURSUES

ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS AND SETS ON A COURSE OF ACTION
TOWARD REACHING THOSE GOALS,
GOALS THE END ITSELF MAY BE
SEEN AS SO COMPELLING AS TO SEEMINGLY JUSTIFY ANY
MEANS.
ORGANIZATIONS HAVE OFTEN STRIVEN TO CLARIFY SUCH
DILEMMAS IN DECISION MAKING BY ARTICULATING CODES OF
ETHICS TO GUIDE THE BEHAVIOR OF THEIR MEMBERS.
MEMBERS

www.ginandjar.com

58

PERSONAL ETHICS

OFTEN AT ISSUE IN DECISION MAKING ARE PERSONAL

ETHICS.
ETHICS
THE TEMPTATION TO DIVERT SOME OF PUBLIC FUNDS OR
RESOURCES TO PERSONAL USE CAN BE GREAT AND THE RISK
OF EXPOSURE OFTEN SMALL.
THE MAIN REASON FOR THE WORLDWIDE PRESENCE OF
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIVE CORRUPTION IS THAT PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATORS HAVE SOMETHING TO ALLOCATE THAT
OTHER PEOPLE WANT.
WANT

www.ginandjar.com

59

ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT AND PERSISTING CHALLENGES

O MODERN
OF
O
GOVERNMENT
GO
IS
S HOW
O TO
O RECONCILE
CO C
THE
DEMANDS OF DEMOCRACY WITH THE IMPERATIVES OF
BUREANCRACY.
BUREAUCRACIES ARE HIERARCHICAL INSTITUTIONS THAT
CAN PROVIDE THE CAPACITY AND EXPERTISE TO ACCOMPLISH
COMPLEX SOCIAL TASKS,
TASKS BUT THEY ARE FREQUENTLY
CHARACTERIZED AS UNDEMOCRATIC AND EVEN
THREATENING TO DEMOCRACY.
DEMOCRACIES ARE SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT THAT ARE
BASED, DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY, ON THE PRINCIPLE OF
POPULAR CONTROL.
CONTROL THEY ATTEND IN DIFFERING MEASURES
TO PRINCIPLES OF MAJORITY RULE AND DEFERENCE TO THE
PERSPECTIVES OF INTENSE INTERESTS AMONG THE PUBLIC.
www.ginandjar.com

60

BUT AS SUCH,
SUCH THEY NEED NOT NECESSARILY SHOW KEEN
ATTENTION TO THE VALUES OF EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS,
OR SPECIALIZED
O
S C
EXPERTISE.
S BUREAUCRACY
U
UC C MAY BE
THOUGHT OF AS GOVERNMENT'S TOOL TO EXERCISE
COERCION AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR PRODUCTIVE ACTION. AS
INSTITUTIONAL FORMS DESIGNED TO EMPHASIZE DIFFERENT
VALUES, BUREAUCRACY AND DEMOCRACY SIT IN AN UNEASY
RELATIONSHIP WITH EACH OTHER.

www.ginandjar.com

61

BUREAUCRACY AND POLITICS

ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT AND PERSISTING

CHALLENGES OF MODERN GOVERNMENT IS HOW TO
RECONCILE THE DEMANDS OF DEMOCRACY WITH THE
IMPERATIVES OF BUREAUCRACY
BUREAUCRACY.
BUREAUCRACIES ARE HIERARCHICAL INSTITUTIONS
THAT CAN PROVIDE THE CAPACITY AND EXPERTISE TO
ACCOMPLISH COMPLEX SOCIAL TASKS, BUT THEY ARE
FREQUENTLY CHARACTERIZED
AS UNDEMOCRATIC AND EVEN THREATENING TO
DEMOCRACY.
DEMOCRACIES ARE SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT THAT
ARE BASED, DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY, ON THE
PRINCIPLE OF POPULAR CONTROL.
www.ginandjar.com

62

THEY ATTEND IN DIFFERING MEASURES TO PRINCIPLES

OF MAJORITY RULE AND DEFERENCE TO THE
PERSPECTIVES OF INTENSE INTERESTS AMONG THE
PUBLIC BUT AS SUCH
PUBLIC.
SUCH, THEY NEED NOT NECESSARILY
SHOW KEEN ATTENTION TO THE VALUES OF EFFICIENCY,
EFFECTIVENESS OR SPECIALIZED EXPERTISE.
EFFECTIVENESS,
EXPERTISE
BUREAUCRACY MAY BE THOUGHT OF AS GOVERNMENT'S
TOOL TO EXERCISE COERCION AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR
PRODUCTIVE ACTION. AS INSTITUTIONAL FORMS
DESIGNED TO EMPHASIZE DIFFERENT VALUES,
BUREAUCRACY AND DEMOCRACY SIT IN AN UNEASY
RELATIONSHIP WITH EACH OTHER.
www.ginandjar.com

63

Regime bureaucracy
b ea c ac interactions
inte actions
Power Distribution
in Society

Power Distribution
in Government
Executive ascendant
1

Democ ac
Democracy

Authoritarianism

Democratic political
regime controls
bureaucracy

Executive sublated
2
Bureaucracy
dominates democratic
political regime

Bureaucracy
subordination to
authoritarian political
regime

Authoritarian political
regime shares power
with Bureaucracy

Sources: modified from Cario, L.V. (1992) Bureaucracy for Democracy (Quezon City: University of Philippines
Press).

(TURNER AND HULME

HULME, 1997)

www.ginandjar.com

64

ONE BASIC APPROACH TO THE BUREAUCRACYDEMOCRACY PROBLEM IS TO CONCEIVE OF THE

DEMOCRATIC IMPULSE AS ESSENTIALLY EMANATING
FROM "ABOVE."
THE "TOP"
TOP OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM,
SYSTEM IN THIS VIEW
VIEW,
CONSISTS OF THE CENTRAL OR MOST FORMALLY
AUTHORITATIVE' POSITIONS AND ORGANS OF THE
AUTHORITATIVE
GOVERNING SYSTEM: THOSE DIRECTLY CHOSEN BY THE
ELECTORATE AND THOSE ENTAILING THE BROADEST
AND MOST ENCOMPASSING JURISDICTION.

www.ginandjar.com

65

BECAUSE OF THE DIRECT LINK TO THE PUBLIC VIA

PERIODIC COMPETITIVE ELECTIONS, BODIES LIKE
PARLIAMENTS AND ELECTED CHIEF EXECUTIVES HAVE A
SPECIAL CLAIM TO REPRESENT THE AGENDA OF THE
PEOPLE.
PEOPLE
ONE CHALLENGE FACING THESE POLITICAL LEADERS,
THEN IS TO MONITOR AND CONTROL THE
THEN,
BUREAUCRACY SO THAT THE AGENTS DO NOT REPLACE
THE DEMOCRATICALLY CHOSEN PRINCIPALS AS THE KEY
DECISION MAKERS.

www.ginandjar.com

66

THE OTHER BROAD NOTION OF DEMOCRATIC

GOVERNANCE IS WHAT MIGHT BE CALLED BOTTOM-UP
DEMOCRACY.
THE LOGIC IS THAT POPULAR CONTROL IS MOST
EFFECTIVELY ACHIEVED THROUGH CHANNELS OTHER
THAN THE POLITICAL "TOP.

www.ginandjar.com

67

IN OTHER WORDS,
WORDS THE BUREAUCRACY AS A POLITICAL
INSTITUTION MIGHT BEST BE CHECKED BY DIRECT POPULAR
OVERSIGHT (CITIZENS REVIEW BOARDS MONITORING
POLICE DEPARTMENTS, CLIENTS CONTROLLING SOME
ASPECTS OF AGENCY DECISIONS) OR BY INSTITUTIONAL
ARRANGEMENTS THAT DEVIATE FROM A STANDARD
MONOCRATIC AUTHORITY STRUCTURE AND INSTEAD
INCORPORATE INCENTIVES FOR BUREAUCRATIC ACTORS TO
BE DIRECTLY ATTUNED TO POPULAR PREFERENCES.
PREFERENCES
ONE WAY THAT THESE OPERATE IS VIA OPENNESS OF THE
BUREAUCRACY ITSELF TO PRESSURE AND CONTROL BY
ORGANIZED INTERESTS THAT MAY CARE GREATLY ABOUT
THE ACTIONS OF ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS.
www.ginandjar.com

68

NEITHER LINE OF REASONING ABOUT DEMOCRACY AND

BUREAUCRACY OFFERS A FULLY SATISFACTORY PICTURE
THE TOP-DOWN ARGUMENTS FRAMED IN THE LOGIC OF
POLITICAL CONTROL OFFER AN IMPORTANT PIECE OF
THE PUZZLE, BUT AN INCOMPLETE ONE.
BOTTOM-UP ANALYSTS ALERT AS TO CRUCIAL MODES
AND CHANNELS OF POPULAR INFLUENCE BUT LIKEWISE
OMIT ELEMENTS THAT MUST BE INCLUDED. ANY VALID
PERSPECTIVE MUST NECESSARILY BE GROUNDED IN THE
EMPIRICAL FEATURES OF ACTUAL GOVERNING SYSTEMS.

www.ginandjar.com

69

A GOVERNANCE APPROACH SEEKS TO INTEGRATE

POLITICAL AND BUREAUCRATIC FORCES AT MULTIPLE
LEVELS TO INDICATE HOW PROGRAMS ARE DESIGNED,
DESIGNED
ADOPTED, IMPLEMENTED, AND EVALUATED IN TERMS OF
BOTH EFFECTIVENESS AND DEMOCRACY.
SUCH A POINT OF VIEW CLEARLY RECOGNIZES THAT ONLY
WITH EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTING INSTITUTIONS CAN
SOCIETIES GENERATE THE FAIRNESS AND SLACK
RESOURCES THAT PERMIT DEMOCRACIES WITH THEIR
LARGE TRANSACTION COSTS TO EXIST AND PROSPER.

www.ginandjar.com

70

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN A
DEMOCRACY
CHIEF EXECUTIVE

EXECUTIVE STAFF
AGENCIES

SOCIOCULTURAL
NORMS
OUTSIDE
AUDITORS

LEGISLATURE
PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATORS:

MEDIA

LEGISLATIVE
STAFF AGENCIES

DEPARTMENT AND
AGENCY HEAD

INTEREST
GROUPS
POLITICAL PARTIES

COURTS

OTHER AGENCIES,
SAME LEVEL

OTHER AGENCIES,
AGENCIES
DIFFERENT
LEVELS

(ROSENBLOOM KRAVCHUCK,
(ROSENBLOOM,
KRAVCHUCK 2005)
www.ginandjar.com

71

ABOVE FIGURE PRESENTS A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK THAT

SEES PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION TAKING THE CENTRAL ROLE
OR STAGE IN A BROADER POLITICAL SYSTEM (THE
CONVERSION PROCESS IN THE SYSTEMS MODEL).
)
THE MODEL EMPHASIZES THE INTERRELATED NATURE OF THE
PARTS AND HOW CHANGE IN AN EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
(CULTURAL ECONOMIC,
(CULTURAL,
ECONOMIC POLITICAL,
POLITICAL SOCIAL) CAUSES CHANGE
IN THE STRUCTURES AND INTERNAL PROCESSES OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION.
THESE CHANGES, IN TURN, INFLUENCE THE OUTPUTS OF THE
BUREAUCRACY; THAT IS, WHAT GOODS, SERVICES, POLICY
PROGRAMS RULES,
PROGRAMS,
RULES AND REGULATIONS ARE IMPLEMENTED BY
BUREAUCRACY.

www.ginandjar.com

72

AS IN ANY SYSTEM, A FEEDBACK LOOP DEVELOPS IN

WHICH THE OUTPUTS AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT,,
WHICH CAUSES FURTHER CHANGE AND OFTEN NEW
DEMANDS FROM THE ENVIRONMENT TO CONTINUE,
INCREASE OR DECREASE,
DECREASE MODIFY
MODIFY, OR OCCASIONALLY
EVEN CEASE A PUBLIC POLICY OR PROGRAM.

www.ginandjar.com

73

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN A DEMOCRATIC

POLITICAL SYSTEM: THE CONVERSION PROCESS
ENVIRONMENT
CULTURAL CHANGES
AND EVENTS
ECONOMIC CHANGES
AND EVENTS
POLITICAL CHANGES
AND EVENTS
SOCIETAL CHANGES
AND EVENTS

INPUTS

DEMANDS FOR
PROGRAMS AND
SERVICES

SUPPORT

MONEY

STAF

ADMINISTRATIVE
LINE AGENCIES
WITHIN-PUTS
RULES
PROCEDURES
GOALS

ROLES PLAYED BY

PARTY

INTEREST GROUP

STAFF AGENCIES

STRUCTURE

OUTPUTS
GOODS
SERVICE
POLICIES
PROGRAMME
INFORMATION

PERSONAL
EXPERIENCE

LEAD TO

(ROSENBLOOM KRAVCHUCK,
(ROSENBLOOM,
KRAVCHUCK 2005)
www.ginandjar.com

74

DECENTRALIZATION

ALL SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT INVOLVE A COMBINATION

OF CENTRALIZED AND DECENTRALIZED AUTHORITY.
HOWEVER, FINDING A COMBINATION OF CENTRAL
CONTROL AND LOCAL AUTONOMY THAT SATISFIES REGIME
NEEDS AND POPULAR DEMANDS IS A PERSISTENT DILEMMA
FOR GOVERNMENTS.
CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION ARE NOT
ATTRIBUTES THAT CAN BE DICHOTOMIZED; RATHER THEY
REPRESENT HYPOTHETICAL POLES ON A CONTINUUM THAT
CAN BE CALIBRATED BY MANY DIFFERENT INDICES
INDICES.

www.ginandjar.com

75

MOST AUTHORS ARE AGREED THAT DECENTRALIZATION

WITHIN THE STATE INVOLVES A TRANSFER OF AUTHORITY TO
PERFORM SOME SERVICE TO THE PUBLIC FROM AN
INDIVIDUAL OR AN AGENCY IN CENTRAL GOVERNMENT TO
SOME OTHER INDIVIDUAL OR AGENCY WHICH IS 'CLOSER'
CLOSER TO
THE PUBLIC TO BE SERVED.
THE BASIS FOR SUCH TRANSFERS IS MOST OFTEN
TERRITORIAL, THAT IS GROUNDED IN THE DESIRE TO PLACE
AUTHORITY AT A LOWER LEVEL IN A TERRITORIAL
HIERARCHY AND THUS GEOGRAPHICALLY CLOSER TO SERVICE
PROVIDERS AND CLIENTS.

www.ginandjar.com

76

HOWEVER,, TRANSFERS CAN ALSO BE MADE FUNCTIONALLY,, THAT IS

BY TRANSFERRING AUTHORITY TO AN AGENCY THAT IS
FUNCTIONALLY SPECIALIZED. SUCH TRANSFERS OF AUTHORITY ARE
OF THREE MAIN TYPES.
THE FIRST IS WHEN THE DELEGATION IS WITHIN FORMAL
POLITICAL STRUCTURES (FOR EXAMPLE WHEN THE CENTRAL
GOVERNMENT DELEGATES ADDITIONAL AUTHORITY TO LOCAL
GOVERNMENT).
THE SECOND IS TRANSFER WITHIN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIVE OR
PARASTATAL STRUCTURES (FOR EXAMPLE FROM THE
HEADQUARTERS OF A MINISTRY TO ITS DISTRICT OFFICES).
THE THIRD IS WHEN THE TRANSFER IS FROM AN INSTITUTION OF
THE STATE TO A NON-STATE AGENCY (FOR EXAMPLE WHEN A
PARASTATAL NATIONAL AIRLINE IS SOLD OFF TO PRIVATE
SHAREHOLDERS)
SHAREHOLDERS).
www.ginandjar.com

77

SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

DECENTRALIZATION IS THE TRANSFER OF

AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY FOR PUBLIC
FUNCTIONS FROM THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT TO
SUBORDINATE OR QUASI-INDEPENDENT
Q
GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND/OR THE
PRIVATE SECTOR
(WORLD BANK, 2001)

www.ginandjar.com

78

DECENTRALIZATION IS THE EXPANSION OF LOCAL

AUTONOMY THROUGH THE TRANSFER OF POWERS
AND RESPONSIBILITIES AWAY FROM NATIONAL
BODY
(HEYWOOD, 2002)

www.ginandjar.com

79

LOCAL GOVERNMENT CAN BE SAID TO BE

AUTONOMOUS IF THEY ENJOY A SUBSTANTIAL
DEGREE OF INDEPENDENCE,, ALTHOUGH AUTONOMY
IN THIS CONNECTION IS SOMETIMES TAKEN TO
IMPLY A HIGH MEASURE OF SELF-GOVERNMENT,
RATHER THAN SOVEREIGN INDEPENDENCE
(ADAPTED FROM HEYWOOD
HEYWOOD, 2002)

www.ginandjar.com

80

WHY DECENTRALIZE?

A MAJOR OBSTACLE TO THE EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE OF

PUBLIC BUREAUCRACIES IN MOST DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
IS THE EXCESSIVE CONCENTRATION OR DECISION-MAKING
AND AUTHORITY WITHIN CENTRAL GOVERNMENT.
GOVERNMENT
PUBLIC SECTOR INSTITUTIONS ARE COMMONLY PERCEIVED
TO BE GEOGRAPHICALLY AND SOCIALLY REMOTE FROM
'THE PEOPLE' AND TO TAKE DECISIONS WITHOUT
KNOWLEDGE OR CONCERN ABOUT ACTUAL PROBLEMS AND
PREFERENCES.

www.ginandjar.com

81

THE POPULAR REMEDY FOR SUCH CENTRALIZATION

IS DECENTRALIZATION, A TERM WHICH IS IMBUED
WITH POSITIVE CONNOTATIONS-PROXIMITY,
RELEVANCE, AUTONOMY, PARTICIPATION,
ACCOUNTABILITY AND EVEN DEMOCRACY
DEMOCRACY.
SO GREAT IS THE APPEAL OF DECENTRALIZATION
THAT IT IS DIFFICULT TO LOCATE A GOVERNMENT
THAT HAS NOT CLAIMED TO PURSUE A POLICY OF
DECENTRALIZATION IN RECENT YEARS.

www.ginandjar.com

82

THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

FRAMEWORKS ARGUE THAT DECENTRALIZATION WILL
LEAD TO BETTER DECISION
DECISION-MAKING
MAKING AND HENCE
GREATER EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS ON THE
FOLLOWING GROUNDS.
GROUNDS

www.ginandjar.com

83

LOCALLY SPECIFIC PLANS CAN BE TAILOR-MADE FOR LOCAL AREAS

USING DETAILED AND UP-TO-DATE INFORMATION THAT IS ONLY

LOCALLY AVAILABLE.
INTER-ORGANIZATIONAL COORDINATION CAN BE ACHIEVED AT THE
LOCAL LEVEL.
EXPERIMENTATION AND INNOVATION, FOSTERED BY
DECENTRALIZATION INCREASES THE CHANCES OF MORE EFFECTIVE
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES BEING GENERATED, AND
SUBSEQUENTLY DIFFUSED.
MOTIVATION OF FIELD
FIELD-LEVEL
LEVEL PERSONNEL IS ENHANCED WHEN
THEY HAVE GREATER RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE PROGRAMMES THEY
MANAGE.
WORKLOAD REDUCTION AT AGENCIES AT THE CENTRE OF
GOVERNMENT WILL RELIEVE THEM FROM ROUTINE DECISIONMAKING AND GIVE THEM MORE TIME TO CONSIDER STRATEGIC
SSU S SO THAT THE' QUALITY
QU
OF
O POLICY
O C SHOULD
S OU IMPROVE.
O
ISSUES
www.ginandjar.com

84

TYPES OF DECENTRALIZATION
1. POLITICAL
2. ADMINISTRATIVE
3. FISCAL
4. MARKET

www.ginandjar.com

85

POLITICAL DECENTRALIZATION
POLITICAL DECENTRALIZATION AIMS TO GIVE
CITIZENS OR THEIR ELECTED REPRESENTATIVES MORE
POWER IN PUBLIC DECISION-MAKING

(WORLD BANK, 2001)

www.ginandjar.com

86

FISCAL DECENTRALIZATION

FISCAL DECENTRALIZATION INVOLVES SHIFTING SOME

RESPONSIBILITIES FOR EXPENDITURES AND/OR
REVENUES TO LOWER LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT

THE EXTENT TO WHICH LOCAL ENTITIES ARE GIVEN

AUTONOMY TO DETERMINE THE ALLOCATION OF THEIR
EXPENDITURE
(WORLD BANK, 2001)4

www.ginandjar.com

87

LOCAL FINANCE IN INDONESIA

SOURCES

LOCAL REVENUES

EQUITY FUND

OTHERS

LOCAL TAXES

SHARING REVENUES

GIFT

RETRIBUTIONS

GENERAL
ALLOCATED FUND

EMERGENCY FUND

REVENUES FROM
LOCAL ASSETS
OTHERS

LOAN

SPECIAL ALLOCATED
FUND

www.ginandjar.com

88

ADMINISTRATIVE DECENTRALIZATION
ADMINISTRATIVE DECENTRALIZATION SEEKS TO
REDISTRIBUTE AUTHORITY
AUTHORITY, RESPONSIBILITY AND FINANCIAL
RESOURCES FOR PROVIDING PUBLIC SERVICES AMONG
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT
(WORLD BANK, 2001)

www.ginandjar.com

89

ECONOMIC OR MARKET DECENTRALIZATION

ECONOMIC
CO O C OR
O MARKET DECENTRALIZATION
C
O WILL
INCLUDE PRIVATIZATION AND DEREGULATION. THEY
SHIFT RESPONSIBILITY FOR FUNCTIONS FROM THE
PUBLIC TO THE PRIVATE SECTOR
(WORLD BANK, 2001)

www.ginandjar.com

90

FORMS OF DECENTRALIZATION
FORMS OF DECENTRALIZATION INCLUDE:
1.
2.
3.
4.

DECONCENTRATION
DELEGATION TO SEMI-AUTONOMOUS AGENCIES
DEVOLUTION TO LOCAL GOVERNMENT
TRANSFER OF FUNCTIONS FROM PUBLIC TO
NONGOVERNMENT INSTITUITION
(CHEEMA & RONDINELLI, 1984)

www.ginandjar.com

91

DECONCENTRATION
DECONCENTRATION INVOLVES THE
REDISTRIBUTION OF ADMINISTRATIVE
RESPONSIBILITIES ONLY WITHIN THE CENTRAL
GOVERNMENT
(CHEEMA & RONDINELLI,
RONDINELLI 1984)

www.ginandjar.com

92

DELEGATION TO SEMI-AUTONOMOUS
AGENCIES
ANOTHER FORM OF DECENTRALIZATION IS THE
DELEGATION OF DECISION-MAKING AND
MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY FOR SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS
TO ORGANIZATIONS THAT ARE NOT UNDER THE
DIRECT CONTROL OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
MINISTRIES
(CHEEMA & RONDINELLI, 1984)

www.ginandjar.com

93

DEVOLUTION TO LOCAL GOVERNMENT

ANOTHER FORM OF DECENTRALIZATION SEEKS TO
CREATE OR STRENGTHEN INDEPENDENT LEVELS OR
UNITS OF GOVERNMENT THROUGH DEVOLUTION OF
FUNCTION AND AUTHORITY.
AUTHORITY
(CHEEMA & RONDINELLI, 1984)

www.ginandjar.com

94

TRANSFER OF FUNCTIONS FROM PUBLIC TO

NON-GOVERNMENT INSTITUITION
DECENTRALIZATION TAKES PLACE IN MANY
COUNTRIES THROUGH THE TRANSFER OF SOME
PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSIBILITY,
OR OF PUBLIC FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS, FROM GOVERNMENT TO
VOLUNTARY, PRIVATE, OR NON-GOVERNMENT
INSTITUTIONS.
(CHEEMA & RONDINELLI, 1984)

www.ginandjar.com

95

Forms of decentralization
Nature of Delegation

Basic for Delegation

Territorial

Functional

Within formal political structures

Devolution (political
decentralization, local
government,, democratic
g
decentralization

Interest group
representation

Within public administrative or

parastatal structures

Deconcentration
(administrative
decentralization, field
administration

Establisment of parastatals
and quangos

From state sector to private sector

Privatization of developed
function (deregulation,
contracting out, voucher
schemes)

Privatization of national
functions (devestiture,
deregulation, economic
liberalization)

www.ginandjar.com

(TURNER AND HULME, 1997)

96

IMPORTANT OBJECTIVES OF
DECENTRALIZATION:
1.
2.
3
3.
4.

BETTER MATCH BETWEEN SERVICE PROVISION AND

VOTER PREFERENCES
BETTER ACCOUNTABILITY THROUGH CLOSER
LINKAGES OF BENEFITS WITH COSTS
INCREASED MOBILIZATION OF LOCAL REVENUES
BETTER PARTICIPATION OF CLIENTS IN SELECTION
OF OUTPUT MIX
(GERVAIS, 1999)

www.ginandjar.com

97

IT MUST BE NOTE THAT THE DECENTRALIZATION DOES

NOT IMPLY THAT ALL AUTHORITY SHOULD BE DELEGATED.
THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT MUST RETAIN A CORE OF
FUNCTIONS OVER ESSENTIAL NATIONAL MATTERS AND
ULTIMATELY HAS THE AUTHORITV TO REDESIGN THE
SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT AND TO DISCIPLINE OR
SUSPEND DECENTRALIZED UNITS THAT ARE NOT
PERFORMING EFFECTIVELY.
HOW EXTENSIVE THIS CORE OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
FUNCTIONS SHOULD BE REMAINS A MAJOR IDEOLOGICAL
AND INTELLECTUAL DEBATE OF THE LATE TWENTIETH
CENTURY.
CENTURY

www.ginandjar.com

98

DECENTRALIZATION AND GOVERNANCE

DECENTRALIZATION IN SOME COUNTRIES HAS BEEN

SEEN AS POLITICALLY EXPEDIENT FOR DEALING WITH
REBELLIOUS REGIONS.
IT HAS HOWEVER
HOWEVER, MORE BASIC VALUE TO DEMOCRACY
AND DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION. MANY SCHOLARS
HAVE PRESENTED THE ARGUMENT THAT
DECENTRALIZATION ENHANCES THE LEGITIMACY
LEGITIMACY, AND
HENCE, STABILITY OF DEMOCRACY.

www.ginandjar.com

99

DIAMOND (1999) RAISES FIVE BROAD POINTS ABOUT HOW

AUTONOMOUS LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNDER A
DECENTRALIZATION SCHEME CAN IMPROVE AND
STRENGTHEN DEMOCRACY.
1)
2)
3)

4)
5)

GREATER AUTONOMY TO THE REGIONS HELPS DEVELOP

DEMOCRATIC VALUES AND SKILLS AMONG CITIZENS.
DECENTRALIZATION INCREASES ACCOUNTABILITY AND
RESPONSIVENESS TO LOCAL INTERESTS AND CONCERNS.
IT OPENS UP ACCESS TO POWER OF TRADITIONALLY
MARGINALIZED GROUPS AND THUS IMPROVES THE
REPRESENTATIONAL ASPECTS OF DEMOCRACY.
IT STRENGTHENS CHECKS AND BALANCES VIZ-A-VIZ POWER AT
THE CENTER.
IT PROVIDES OPPORTUNITIES FOR PARTIES AND POLITICAL
GROUPS IN OPPOSITION IN THE CENTER TO EXERCISE SOME
MEASURE OF POLITICAL POWER.
www.ginandjar.com

100

FROM THE ARGUMENTS ABOVE IT CAN BE CONCLUDED

THAT DECENTRALIZATION ENHANCES THE EFFICACY,
QUALITY AND LEGITIMACY OF DEMOCRACY; HENCE
DECENTRALIZATION IS A NECESSITY FOR DEMOCRACY.
IT IS EVEN MORE SO FOR LARGEAND
LARGE AND PARTICULARLY
MULTIETHNIC AND MULTICULTURALCOUNTRIES SUCH
AS INDONESIA AND CHINA, AS DECENTRALIZATION WILL
CLOSE THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE CITIZENS, THE
STAKEHOLDER, AND THE POWER AND THE PROCESS OF
POLICY MAKING.
MAKING

www.ginandjar.com

101

DECENTRALIZATION IS NOT JUST A POLITICAL

NECESSITY FOR KEEPING THE COUNTRY FROM FALLING
APART OR FOR FOSTERING DEMOCRACY.
IF MANAGED WELL,
WELL DECENTRALIZATION CAN BRING
IMPORTANT BENEFITS TO THE COMMUNITIES AND THE
ECONOMY AS A WHOLE.
HOWEVER, IF MANAGED BADLY, IT COULD HARM THE
PEOPLE AND SQUANDER RESOURCES AND BRING
INSTABILITY INSTEAD
INSTEAD.

www.ginandjar.com

102

RICH REGIONS ARE DOING FINE, IN FACT THEY MAY HAVE MORE
MONEY THAT THEY CAN SPEND
SPEND, WHICH CAN POSE A THREAT TO
NATIONAL SOLIDARITY BECAUSE OF SOCIAL-JEALOUSY THERE ARE
ALREADY SOME INDICATIONS THAT REVENUES NOT BEING USED
EFFECTIVELY AND EFFICIENTLY, ON THE OTHER HAND, POOR
REGIONS ARE CHAFING UNDER
UNDER.
THE RISKS OF AN INCREASE IN CORRUPTION FOLLOWING
DECENTRALIZATION ARE HIGH. IT HAS BEEN WIDELY OBSERVED
THAT SO FAR NOT ONLY POWER AND REVENUE THAT HAVE BEEN
DECENTRALIZED BUT ALSO CORRUPTION.
SOME ANALYSTS COMMENT THAT DECENTRALIZATION HAS
STRENGTHENED THE POSITION OF THE LOCAL ELITES AND THEIR
CLIENTELISTIC NETWORKS IN SOME LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES

(HUBER, RUESCHEMEYER AND STEPHENS, 1999).

www.ginandjar.com

103

TRANSFERS OF REVENUE TO THE AUTONOMOUS DISTRICTS MUST

BE ACCOMPANIED BY TRANSFERS OF EXPENDITURE
RESPONSIBILITY AND ITS ASSOCIATED FUNCTIONS. THEY ARE
IMPORTANT TO PREVENT THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FISCAL
DEFICIT TO INCREASE UNABATEDLY CAUSING SEVERE FINANCING
AND DEBT PROBLEMS FOE THE COUNTRY IN THE FUTURE.

THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ALSO NEED TO HAVE THE APPROPRIATE

CAPACITY AND SKILLS TO TAKE ON THE RESPONSIBILITY THAT
COMES WITH AUTONOMY. BUDGETARY CONTROL AND
SUPERVISION SHOULD BE STRENGTHENED TO PREVENT
CORRUPTION AND WASTAGE OF RESOURCES.

IN SHORT
SHORT, EFFECTIVE DECENTRALIZATION WILL ENHANCE
DEMOCRACY BUT IT REQUIRES ALSO GOOD GOVERNANCE, I.E.
CLEAN, TRANSPARENT AND COMPETENT GOVERNANCE AT THE
LOCAL LEVEL.
LEVEL
www.ginandjar.com

104

GOVERNMENTSYSTEMOFINDONESIA

Peoples
Consultative
Assembly

HOUSE OF
REPRESENTATIVES

DECONCENTRATION

HOUSE OF
REGIONAL
REPRESENTATIVES

THE PRESIDENT
CABINET

DECENTRALIZATION

GOVERNORS
AUTONOMOUS
REGIONS

SUPREME
AUDIT
BOARD

SUPREME
COURT

ASSISTANCE TASKS

REGIONAL
ADMINISTRATION
RURAL
ADMINISTRATION

www.ginandjar.com

CONSTITUTIONAL
COURT

JUDICIAL
COMMISSION
CENTRAL BANK

DELEGATION

(FUNCTIONAL DECENTRALIZATION)

STATE-OWNED
ENTERPRISES
ADMINISTRATOR,
ETC.
105

DECENTRALIZATION IN INDONESIA
DECONCENTRATION

ADMINISTRATIVE
GOVERNMENT /REGIONAL
GOVERNMENT

REGIONAL REPRESENTATIVES
REGIONAL GOVERNMENT
CHIEFS
ETC.

PRIVATIZATION

CENTRAL
GOVERNMENT

PRIVATE CORPORATION
BOT
ETC.

DELEGATION

SPECIAL AUTHORITY

DECENTRALIZATION

www.ginandjar.com

AUTONOMOUS REGION

PROVINCE
DISTRICT
CITY

106

DECENTRALIZATION PRINCIPLES IN INDONESIA

Central
Government

Six tasks (Absolute)

1. Foreign Policy
2. Defense
3. Security
4. Religion
5. Justice
6. National Fiscal and Monetary Affairs

Partly by the central

government;
Partly
P tl based
b
d on
deconcentration principles;
Partly based on assistance
principle

Outside the six tasks:

Administrative
Tasks

Partly
Concurrent

Regional
Governments

Mandatory Tasks (Province, District, City)

1. Planning and control of development
2. Planning, use, and control of space;
3. Public security;
4. Facilities and infrastructure;
5 Health;
5.
6. Education and potential human resources;
7. Solution to social problems;
8. Manpower (incl. interregional mobility);
9. Cooperatives and SMEs;
10. Environment;
11. Land administration;
12. Civil administration;
13. General government administration;
14. Investment;
15. Other basic services (not yet implemented);
16. Other tasks.
Elective (Province, District, City)
Based on the potentials and characteristics of each region (mining,
fishery, agriculture, plantation, forestry, tourism)

www.ginandjar.com

Partly based on
decentralization principles

107

DIGITAL (E)-GOVERNANCE
( )

INFORMATION IS A CENTRAL RESOURCE FOR ALL

ACTIVITIES.
IN PURSUING THE DEMOCRATIC/POLITICAL PROCESSES,
IN MANAGING RESOURCES, EXECUTING FUNCTIONS,
MEASURING PERFORMANCE AND IN SERVICE DELIVERY,
INFORMATION IS THE BASIC INGREDIENT' (ISAACHENRY 1997: I 32)
32).

www.ginandjar.com

108

INFORMATION IS NO LONGER WALLED

WALLED IN
IN, NO LONGER
CONSTRAINED BY TIME AND SPACE. INFORMATION IS
WIDELY AVAILABLE TO PEOPLE REGARDLESS OF STATUS,,
POSITION, WEALTH, LOCATION, RACE, ETHNIC OR
CULTURE.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY GIVES A NEW IMPETUS TO
DEMOCRACY AS IT OPENS UP AND WIDENS THE WAY
AND MEANS FOR POPULAR PARTICIPATION IN PUBLIC
DECISSION MAKING PROCESSES.

www.ginandjar.com

109

THE MAJOR STEPS HAVE INCLUDED:

USING COMPUTER NETWORKS AS A NEW CHANNEL

FOR SERVICE DELIVERY,
DELIVERY
BEGINNING TO REENGINEER SERVICES AND CREATE
OPPORTUNITIES FOR SELFSERVICE,
EXPANDING RELIANCE ON SERVICES OUTSOURCED
TO OTHER AGENCIES AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR,
SHOWING ANXIETYBUT NOT MUCH ACTION YET
ABOUT SOCIAL EQUITY AND COHESION, AND
BEGINNING TO CONTEMPLATE THE CONSEQUENCES
OF NEW FORMS OF ELECTRONIC MONEY.

www.ginandjar.com

110

IN THESE FIRST YEARS OF THE TWENTY-FIRST

TWENTY FIRST CENTURY
CENTURY,
GOVERNMENTS AROUND THE WORLD ARE PREPARING
FOR E
E-GOVERNMENT
GOVERNMENT.
WEBSITES HAVE BEEN CREATED FOR MANY
GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS, AND THE PUSH IS ON FOR
BROADER AND MORE EASILY NAVIGATED PORTALS.
TRANSACTIONS ARE BEING OFFERED OVER THE
INTERNET.
POLITICIANS AND THE PRESS ARE BEGINNING TO TALK
ABOUT "DIGITAL DEMOCRACY."

www.ginandjar.com

111

THE INFORMATION AGE IS CREATING NEW

CHALLENGES FOR GOVERNANCE BY ENCOURAGING A
MORE COMPLEX DIVISION OF LABOR AND A FLOOD OF
NEW THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES.
MODERN COMMUNICATIONS ARE REDUCING THE
POWER OF GEOGRAPHIC PROXIMITY IN SHAPING OUR
SENSE OF COMMUNITY AND DETERMINING WHO HAS
THE LEGITIMACY NEEDED TO GOVERN.

www.ginandjar.com

112

IN THE LONGER TERM, COMPUTER-BASED

COMMUNICATIONS COULD SIGNIFICANTLY
RESTRUCTURE POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE AS WELL
AS ECONOMICS.
COMPUTER NETWORKS,
NETWORKS ARE MAKING IT MORE
CONVENIENT TO PARTICIPATE IN CONVERSATIONS
THAT WERE FORMERLY HARD TO JOIN. THIS MAY
WELL LEAD TO
O NEW PATTERNS
S OF
O POLITICAL
O
C
COMMUNICATION AND PARTICIPATION.

www.ginandjar.com

113

THE E-GOVERNMENT PROMISES A NEW HORISON IN

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS IT WILL CUT COSTS AND
IMPROVE EFFICIENCY; MEET CITIZEN EXPECTATIONS;
IMPROVE CITIZEN RELATIONSHIP; ENHANCE CITIZEN
PARTICIPATION IN ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESSES;;
INCREASE EFFECTIVENESS OF PUBLIC CONTROL;
FACILITATE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.

www.ginandjar.com

114

THE START OF SOMETHING BIG?

OVER THE NEXT TEN TO FIFTEEN YEARS, THE

EXPANSION OF NETWORK-BASED
COMMUNICATIONS SHOULD EXERT A STRONG
INFLUENCE ON HOW COMMUNITIES ARE FORMED
AND GOVERNED.
GOVERNED

www.ginandjar.com

115

GOVERNMENTS ARE BUILDING HUGE AND

INTERCONNECTED COMPUTER NETWORKS, BUT WE
HAVE A LONG WAY TO GO BEFORE THESE BECOME
UBIQUITOUSLY AVAILABLE TO ALL WORKERS AND
CITIZENS. THE MOMENTUM IS CLEARLY ESTABLISHED,
HOWEVER, AND NOTHING IS LIKELY TO STOP IT.
OUTSOURCING WILL CONTINUE TO EXPAND. IN
ADDITION, MORE GOVERNMENTS WILL BEGIN TO
WORK WITH THE PRIVATE SECTOR TO REFORM
ENTIRE INDUSTRIES AND ECONOMIC
INFRASTRUCTURES.

www.ginandjar.com

116

PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS ARE RAPIDLY BECOMING

NETWORKED, AND THEY ARE USING THESE NETWORKS TO
PRODUCE AND DELIVER SERVICES. THIS WILL ULTIMATELY
LEAD TO EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS, MUCH AS HAS
HAPPENED IN THE PRIVATE SECTORY.
GOVERNMENT BUREAUCRACIES WILL GRADUALLY BECOME
FLATTER, FASTER, AND MORE CUSTOMER FRIENDLY.
SERVICES WILL BECOME BETTER INTEGRATED AND
CUSTOMIZED, WITH RICH SELF-SERVICE OPTIONS. FEES
RATHER THAN TAXES WILL BE USED MORE EXTENSIVELY
TO RAISE REVENUES AND COORDINATE PRODUCTION AND
CONSUMPTION.

www.ginandjar.com

117

AS WE PROCEED MORE DEEPLY INTO THE INFORMATION

AGE, THE NEW CORE VALUE AND CHALLENGE FOR
GOVERNANCE-AT BOTH ORGANIZATIONAL AND SOCIETAL
LEVELS WILL BE TO LEARN HOW TO ADAPT TO NEW
CONDITIONS AND NEEDS.
TO GOVERN SUCCESSFULLY,, WE MUST FIGURE OUT HOW
TO PROTECT PUBLIC SAFETY AND PREVENT ABUSES OF
POWER WHILE WE SIMULTANEOUSLY PROMOTE
GOVERNMENTAL FLEXIBILITY AND LEARNING.
WE HAVE MADE SOME PROGRESS ON THIS PROBLEM, BUT
OUR STATUS AS WE ENTER THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
MIGHT BEST BE DESCRIBED AS "JUST AT THE START OF
SOMETHING BIG.

(KAMARACK AND NYE JR., 2002)

www.ginandjar.com

118

THE ROLE OF THE INTERNET

THE INTERNET IS A NETWORK OF NETWORKS OF

ONE-TO-ONE, ONE-TO-MANY, MANY-TO-MANY, AND
MANY-TO-ONE, LOCAL, NATIONAL, AND GLOBAL
INFORMATIO. AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
WITH RELATIVELY OPEN STANDARDS AND
PROTOCOLS AND COMPARATIVELY LOW BARRIERS
TO ENTRY.

www.ginandjar.com

119

Estimated Global Internet Users in 2002 and 2004

Survey
y

Global Users 2002

Global Users 2004

ITU

627 million

676 million

CIA World Factbook

604 million

Not updated

NUA

606 million
ll

Not updated
d d

Internet World Stats

587 million

798 million

p
Industryy Almanac
Computer

665 million

945 million

Mean

618 million

806 million

Sources: Analysis of data from ITU, 2004a; U.S. Central Intelligent Agency (CIA), 2003; Computer Industry
Almanac, 2004; NUA, 2004
Note: * Based on 2003 projections.

(CHADWICK, 2006)

www.ginandjar.com

120

ALL OF THIS HAS IMPLICATIONS FOR THE KINDS OF

AUTHORITY AND CONTROL THAT MAY BE EXERCISED OVER
THE INTERNET AND THE LEVELS OF RESISTANCE THAT MAY
BE ACHIEVED BY LESSPOWERFUL GROUPS, WHOSE VOICES
MAY BE ABSENT FROM MAINSTREAM CHANNELS LIKE THE
PRESS AND TELEVISION.
ORDINARY CITIZENS AND THE POLITICALLY MARGINALIZED
ARE NO LONGER WHOLLY DEPENDENT UPON THE WAYS IN
WHICH THE TRADITIONALLY DOMINANT BROADCAST MEDIA
CONSTRUCT THEIR IDENTITIES OR SELECTIVELY FRAME
POLITICAL GRIEVANCES.

www.ginandjar.com

121

POLITICAL COMMUNICATION ON THE INTERNET BECOMES,

BECOMES IN
THE WORDS OF DOUGLAS KELLNER (1999), "MORE
DECENTERED
C
AND VARIED IN ITS
S ORIGINS,
O G S, SCOPE
SCO AND
EFFECTS".
THE RELATIVE SPEED AND FLUIDITY OF CYBERSPACE
SOMETIMES ALLOWS MARGINAL GROUPS TO THRUST THEIR
AGENDA INTO THE POLITICAL MAINSTREAM (MITRA, 2001).
THE AUTHORITATIVE STATUS OF POWERFUL INSTITUTIONAL
PLAYERS, BE THEY GOVERNMENTS, CORPORATIONS, OR
MAINSTREAM MEDIA, HAS BEEN LOOSENED.

www.ginandjar.com

122

POLITICAL ACTORS ARE INCREASINGLY ATTEMPTING TO

USE THE INTERNET TO ENHANCE THEIR PRESENCE AND
LEGITIMIZE THEIR ACTIVITIES IN WAYS THAT ARE
GENUINELY NEW
NEW.
STATES ARE INCREASINGLY REQUIRED TO REGULATE
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL BEHAVIOR ONLINE AND ARE
MONITORING THE USE OF THE INTERNET for ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR (SUCH AS PORNOGRAPHY), GROUPS
AND MOVEMENTS CONSIDERED TO BE A THREAT TO
POLITICAL STABILITY AND SECURITY (SUCH AS
TERRORISM).

www.ginandjar.com

123

A WEB PAGE MAY APPEAR AT FIRST GLANCE TO BE A

SIMPLE ONE-TO-MANY DEVICE, BUT OFTEN WEB
PAGES ARE COMPOSED OF INFORMATION,
INFORMATION SUCH AS
NEWS FEEDS, FROM MANY DIFFERENT SOURCES THAT
HAVE BEEN BROUGHT TOGETHER BY AUTOMATED
SCRIPTS THAT DYNAMICALLY UPDATE CONTENT
WITHOUT HUMAN INTERVENTION. WEB PAGES MAY
ALSO CONTAIN DISCUSSION FORUMS ALONGSIDE
MORE TRADITIONAL FORMS OF CONTENT.

www.ginandjar.com

124

DIGITAL DIVIDE

www.ginandjar.com

125

Internet penetration by region, 2002. Sources: Analysis and adaptation of data from ITU, 2004b. The
CIA World Factbook 2004 was used to feel a small number of gaps in the 2002 data.

(CHADWICK 2006)
(CHADWICK,
www.ginandjar.com

126